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diff --git a/18595-h/18595-h.htm b/18595-h/18595-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..47b0fd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/18595-h/18595-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11883 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Life of George Washington, vol. 5, by John Marshall. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + body{margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + .blockquot{margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .sidenote { position: absolute; + left: 87%; margin-left: .5em; + font-size: smaller; + font-weight: bold; + text-align: left; + } + + .sidenotey { /* boxed sidenote with normal sized font */ + padding-bottom: .2em; padding-top: .2em; + padding-left: .2em; padding-right: .2em; + position: absolute; right: 91%; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .lgsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .footnotes {border: none 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {font-weight: bold; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of George Washington, Vol. 5 (of 5), by +John Marshall + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Life of George Washington, Vol. 5 (of 5) + Commander in Chief of the American Forces During the War + which Established the Independence of his Country and First + President of the United States + +Author: John Marshall + +Release Date: June 15, 2006 [EBook #18595] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON *** + + + + +Produced by Linda Cantoni and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<h3><a href="#CONTENTS">Table of Contents</a></h3> +<h3><a href="#ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a></h3> + + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/spines.jpg" width="727" height="633" alt="spines" /></p> + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a name="image01"> +<img src="images/frontispiece5.jpg" width="343" height="532" alt="President Washington" /></a></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b>President Washington</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p style="text-align: center"><i>From the portrait by John Vanderlyn, in the Capitol at Washington</i></p> + +<p><i>This full-length portrait of our First President is the work of an +artist to whom Napoleon I awarded a gold medal for his "Marius Among +the Ruins of Carthage," and another of whose masterpieces, "Ariadne in +Naxos," is pronounced one of the finest nudes in the history of +American art. For Vanderlyn sat many other notable public men, +including Monroe, Madison, Calhoun, Clinton, Zachary Taylor and Aaron +Burr, who was his patron and whose portrait by Vanderlyn hangs in the +New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. Nevertheless, Vanderlyn failed in +achieving the success his genius merited, and he once declared +bitterly that "no one but a professional quack can live in America." +Poverty paralyzed his energies, and in 1852, old and discouraged he +retired to his native town of Kingston, New York, so poor that he had +to borrow twenty-five cents to pay the expressage of his trunk. +Obtaining a bed at the local hotel, he was found dead in it the next +morning, in his seventy-seventh year.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h3>THE</h3> + +<h1>LIFE</h1> + +<h3>OF</h3> + +<h1>GEORGE WASHINGTON,</h1> + +<h3>COMMANDER IN CHIEF</h3> + +<h3>OF THE</h3> + +<h2>AMERICAN FORCES,</h2> + +<h3>DURING THE WAR WHICH ESTABLISHED THE INDEPENDENCE OF HIS COUNTRY,</h3> + +<h3>AND</h3> + +<h2>FIRST PRESIDENT</h2> + +<h3>OF THE</h3> + +<h2>UNITED STATES.</h2> + +<h3>COMPILED UNDER THE INSPECTION OF</h3> + +<h3>THE HONOURABLE BUSHROD WASHINGTON,</h3> + +<h3>FROM</h3> + +<h3><i>ORIGINAL PAPERS</i></h3> + +<h3>BEQUEATHED TO HIM BY HIS DECEASED RELATIVE, AND NOW IN POSSESSION OF +THE AUTHOR.</h3> + +<h3>TO WHICH IS PREFIXED,</h3> + +<h2>AN INTRODUCTION,</h2> + +<h3>CONTAINING A COMPENDIOUS VIEW OF THE COLONIES PLANTED BY THE ENGLISH +ON THE</h3> + +<h3>CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA,</h3> + +<h3>FROM THEIR SETTLEMENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THAT WAR WHICH TERMINATED +IN THEIR</h3> + +<h2>INDEPENDENCE.</h2> + + +<h2>BY JOHN MARSHALL.</h2> + + +<h3>VOL. V.</h3> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +THE CITIZENS' GUILD<br /> +OF WASHINGTON'S BOYHOOD HOME<br /> +FREDERICKSBURG, VA.<br /> +</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">1926</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">Printed in the U.S.A.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/titlepage5.jpg" width="440" height="670" alt="title page" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/subscription.jpg" width="508" height="803" alt="subscription" /></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + + +<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></h3> + +<p>G. Washington again unanimously elected President.... War between +Great Britain and France.... Queries of the President respecting the +conduct to be adopted by the American government.... Proclamation of +neutrality.... Arrival of Mr. Genet as minister from France.... His +conduct.... Illegal proceedings of the French cruisers.... Opinions of +the cabinet.... State of parties.... Democratic societies.... Genet +calculates upon the partialities of the American people for France, +and openly insults their government.... Rules laid down by the +executive to be observed in the ports of the United States in relation +to the powers at war.... The President requests the recall of +Genet.... British order of 8th of June, 1793.... Decree of the +national convention relative to neutral commerce.</p> + + +<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></h3> + +<p>Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... His message on the +foreign relations of the United States.... Report of the Secretary of +State on the commerce of the United States.... He resigns.... Is +succeeded by Mr. Randolph.... Mr. Madison's resolutions founded on the +above report.... Debate thereon.... Debates on the subject of a +navy.... An embargo law.... Mission of Mr. Jay to Great Britain.... +Inquiry into the conduct of the Secretary of the Treasury, terminates +honourably to him.... Internal taxes.... Congress adjourns.</p> + + +<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></h3> + +<p>Genet recalled.... Is succeeded by Mr. Fauchet.... Gouverneur Morris +recalled, and is succeeded by Mr. Monroe.... Kentucky remonstrance.... +Intemperate resolutions of the people of that state.... General Wayne +defeats the Indians on the Miamis.... Insurrection in the western +parts of Pennsylvania.... Quelled by the prompt and vigorous measures +of the government.... Meeting of Congress.... President's speech.... +Democratic societies.... Resignation of Colonel Hamilton.... Is +succeeded by Mr. Wolcott.... Resignation of General Knox.... Is +succeeded by Colonel Pickering.... Treaty between the United States +and Great Britain.... Conditionally ratified by the President.... The +treaty unpopular.... Mr. Randolph resigns.... Is succeeded by Colonel +Pickering.... Colonel M'Henry appointed secretary at war.... Charge +against the President rejected..... Treaty with the Indians north-west +of the Ohio.... With Algiers.... With Spain.... Meeting of +congress.... President's speech.... Mr. Adet succeeds Mr. Fauchet..... +The house of representatives call upon the President for papers +relating to the treaty with Great Britain.... He declines sending +them.... Debates upon the treaty making power.... Upon the bill for +making appropriations to carry into execution the treaty with Great +Britain.... Congress adjourns.... The President endeavours to procure +the liberation of Lafayette.</p> + + +<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></h3> + +<p>Letters from General Washington to Mr. Jefferson.... Hostile measures +of France against the United States.... Mr. Monroe recalled and +General Pinckney appointed to succeed him.... General Washington's +valedictory address to the people of the United States.... The +Minister of France endeavours to influence the approaching +election.... The President's speech to congress.... He denies the +authenticity of certain spurious letters published in 1776.... John +Adams elected President, and Thomas Jefferson Vice President.... +General Washington retires to Mount Vernon.... Political situation of +the United States at this period.... The French government refuses to +receive General Pinckney as Minister.... Congress is convened.... +President's speech.... Three envoys extraordinary deputed to +France.... Their treatment.... Measures of hostility adopted by the +American government against France.... General Washington appointed +Commander-in-chief of the American army.... His death.... And +character.</p> + +<h3><a href="#NOTES">NOTES.</a></h3> + +<h3><a href="#FOOTNOTES">Footnotes.</a></h3> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</a></h2> + +<h3><a href="#image01">President Washington</a></h3> + + +<h3><a href="#image02">Martha Washington</a></h3> + + +<h3><a href="#image03">George Washington</a></h3> + + +<h3><a href="#image04">George Washington's Bedroom at Mount Vernon</a></h3> + + +<h3><a href="#image05"> George Washington</a></h3> + + +<h3><a href="#image06">Martha Washington's Bedroom at Mount Vernon</a></h3> + + +<h3><a href="#image07">Mount Vernon</a></h3> + + +<h3><a href="#image08"> Resting-Place of George and Martha Washington at Mount Vernon</a></h3> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>THE LIFE</h2> + +<h3>OF</h3> + +<h2>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><b>G. Washington again unanimously elected President.... War +between Great Britain and France.... Queries of the +President respecting the conduct to be adopted by the +American government.... Proclamation of neutrality.... +Arrival of Mr. Genet as minister from France.... His +conduct.... Illegal proceedings of the French cruisers.... +Opinions of the cabinet.... State of parties.... Democratic +societies.... Genet calculates upon the partialities of the +American people for France, and openly insults their +government.... Rules laid down by the executive to be +observed in the ports of the United States in relation to +the powers at war.... The President requests the recall of +Genet.... British order of 8th of June, 1793.... Decree of +the national convention relative to neutral commerce.</b></p></div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="sidenotey">1793</div> + +<p><span class="lgsmcap">The</span> term for which the President and Vice President had been elected +being about to expire on the third of March, the attention of the +public had been directed to the choice of persons who should fill +those high offices for the ensuing four years. Respecting the +President, but one opinion prevailed. From various motives, all +parties concurred in desiring that the present chief magistrate should +continue to afford his services to his country. Yielding to the weight +of the representations made to him from various quarters, General +Washington had been prevailed upon to withhold a declaration, he had +at one time purposed to make, of his determination to retire from +political life.</p> + +<p>Respecting the person who should fill the office of Vice President, +the public was divided. The profound statesman who had been called to +the duties of that station, had drawn upon himself a great degree of +obloquy, by some political tracts, in which he had laboured to +maintain the proposition that a balance in government was essential to +the preservation of liberty. In these disquisitions, he was supposed +by his opponents to have discovered sentiments in favour of distinct +orders in society; and, although he had spoken highly of the +constitution of the United States, it was imagined that his balance +could be maintained only by hereditary classes. He was also understood +to be friendly to the system of finance which had been adopted; and +was believed to be among the few who questioned the durability of the +French republic. His great services, and acknowledged virtues, were +therefore disregarded; and a competitor was sought for among those who +had distinguished themselves in the opposition. The choice was +directed from Mr. Jefferson by a constitutional restriction on the +power of the electors, which would necessarily deprive him of the vote +to be given by Virginia. It being necessary to designate some other +opponent to Mr. Adams, George Clinton, the governor of New York, was +selected for this purpose.</p> + +<p>Throughout the war of the revolution, this gentleman had filled the +office of chief magistrate of his native state; and, under +circumstances of real difficulty, had discharged its duties with a +courage, and an energy, which secured the esteem of the +Commander-in-chief, and gave him a fair claim to the favour of his +country. Embracing afterwards with ardour the system of state +supremacy, he had contributed greatly to the rejection of the +resolutions for investing congress with the power of collecting an +impost on imported goods, and had been conspicuous for his determined +hostility to the constitution of the United States. His sentiments +respecting the measures of the government were known to concur with +those of the minority in congress.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">George Washington again unanimously elected president.</div> + +<p>Both parties seemed confident in their strength; and both made the +utmost exertions to insure success. On opening the ballots in the +senate chamber, it appeared that the unanimous suffrage of his country +had been once more conferred on General Washington, and that Mr. Adams +had received a plurality of the votes.</p> + +<p>The unceasing endeavours of the executive to terminate the Indian war +by a treaty, had at length succeeded with the savages of the Wabash; +and, through the intervention of the Six Nations, those of the Miamis +had also been induced to consent to a conference to be held in the +course of the ensuing spring. Though probability was against the +success of this attempt to restore peace, all offensive operations, on +the part of the United States, were still farther suspended. The +Indians did not entirely abstain from hostilities; and the discontents +of the western people were in no small degree increased by this +temporary prohibition of all incursions into the country of their +enemy. In Georgia, where a desire to commence hostilities against the +southern Indians had been unequivocally manifested, this restraint +increased the irritation against the administration.</p> + +<p>The Indian war was becoming an object of secondary magnitude. The +critical and irritable state of things in France began so materially +to affect the United States, as to require an exertion of all the +prudence, and all the firmness, of the government. The 10th<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> of +August, 1792, was succeeded in that nation by such a state of anarchy, +and by scenes of so much blood and horror; the nation was understood +to be so divided with respect to its future course; and the republican +party was threatened by such a formidable external force; that there +was much reason to doubt whether the fallen monarch would be finally +deposed, or reinstated with a greater degree of splendour and power +than the constitution just laid in ruins, had assigned to him. That, +in the latter event, any partialities which might be manifested +towards the intermediate possessors of authority, would be recollected +with indignation, could not be questioned by an attentive observer of +the vindictive spirit of parties;—a spirit which the deeply tragic +scenes lately exhibited, could not fail to work up to its highest +possible pitch. The American minister at Paris, finding himself in a +situation not expected by his government, sought to pursue a +circumspect line of conduct, which should in no respect compromise the +United States. The executive council of France, disappointed at the +coldness which that system required, communicated their +dissatisfaction to their minister at Philadelphia. At the same time, +Mr. Morris made full representations of every transaction to his +government, and requested explicit instructions for the regulation of +his future conduct.</p> + +<p>The administration entertained no doubt of the propriety of +recognizing the existing authority of France, whatever form it might +assume. That every nation possessed a right to govern itself according +to its own will, to change its institutions at discretion, and to +transact its business through whatever agents it might think proper, +were stated to Mr. Morris to be principles on which the American +government itself was founded, and the application of which could be +denied to no other people. The payment of the debt, so far as it was +to be made in Europe, might be suspended only until the national +convention should authorize some power to sign acquittances for the +monies received; and the sums required for St. Domingo would be +immediately furnished. These payments would exceed the instalments +which had fallen due; and the utmost punctuality would be observed in +future. These instructions were accompanied with assurances that the +government would omit no opportunity of convincing the French people +of its cordial wish to serve them; and with a declaration that all +circumstances seemed to destine the two nations for the most intimate +connexion with each other. It was also pressed upon Mr. Morris to +seize every occasion of conciliating the affections of France to the +United States, and of placing the commerce between the two countries +on the best possible footing.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>The feelings of the President were in perfect unison with the +sentiments expressed in this letter. His attachment to the French +nation was as strong, as consistent with a due regard to the interests +of his own; and his wishes for its happiness were as ardent, as was +compatible with the duties of a chief magistrate to the state over +which he presided. Devoted to the principles of real liberty, and +approving unequivocally the republican form of government, he hoped +for a favourable result from the efforts which were making to +establish that form, by the great ally of the United States; but was +not so transported by those efforts, as to involve his country in +their issue; or totally to forget that those aids which constituted +the basis of these partial feelings, were furnished by the family +whose fall was the source of triumph to a large portion of his fellow +citizens.</p> + +<p>He therefore still preserved the fixed purpose of maintaining the +neutrality of the United States, however general the war might be in +Europe; and his zeal for the revolution did not assume so ferocious a +character as to silence the dictates of humanity, or of friendship.</p> + +<p>Not much time elapsed before the firmness of this resolution was put +to the test.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War between Great Britain and France.</div> + +<p>Early in April, the declaration of war made by France against Great +Britain and Holland reached the United States. This event restored +full vivacity to a flame, which a peace of ten years had not been able +to extinguish. A great majority of the American people deemed it +criminal to remain unconcerned spectators of a conflict between their +ancient enemy and republican France. The feeling upon this occasion +was almost universal. Men of all parties partook of it. Disregarding +totally the circumstances which led to the rupture, except the order +which had been given to the French minister to leave London, and +disregarding equally the fact that actual hostilities were first +commenced by France, the war was confidently and generally pronounced +a war of aggression on the part of Great Britain, undertaken with the +sole purpose of imposing a monarchical government on the French +people. The few who did not embrace these opinions, and they were +certainly very few, were held up as objects of public detestation; and +were calumniated as the tools of Britain, and the satellites of +despotism.</p> + +<p>Yet the disposition to engage in the war, was far from being general. +The inclination of the public led to a full indulgence of the most +extravagant partiality; but not many were willing to encounter the +consequences which that indulgence would infallibly produce. The +situation of America was precisely that, in which the wisdom and +foresight of a prudent and enlightened government, was indispensably +necessary to prevent the nation from inconsiderately precipitating +itself into calamities, which its reflecting judgment would avoid.</p> + +<p>As soon as intelligence of the rupture between France and Britain was +received in the United States, indications were given in some of the +seaports, of a disposition to engage in the unlawful business of +privateering on the commerce of the belligerent powers. The President +was firmly determined to suppress these practices, and immediately +requested the attention of the heads of departments to this +interesting subject.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Queries put by the president to his cabinet in relation to +the conduct proper to be adopted by the American government in +consequence of this event.</div> + +<p><a name="p9">As</a> the new and difficult situation in which the United States were +placed suggested many delicate inquiries, he addressed a circular +letter to the cabinet ministers, inclosing for their consideration a +well digested series of questions, the answers to which would form a +complete system by which to regulate the conduct of the executive in +the arduous situations which were approaching.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>These queries, with some of the answers of them, though submitted only +to the cabinet, found their way to the leading members of the +opposition; and were among the unacknowledged but operating pieces of +testimony, on which the charge against the administration, of +cherishing dispositions unfriendly to the French republic, was +founded. In taking a view of the whole ground, points certainly +occurred, and were submitted to the consideration of the cabinet, on +which neither the chief magistrate nor his ministers felt any doubt. +But the introduction of questions relative to these points, among +others with which they were intimately connected, would present a more +full view of the subject, and was incapable of producing any +mischievous effect, while they were confined to those for whom alone +they were intended.</p> + +<p>In the meeting of the heads of departments and the attorney general, +which was held in consequence of this letter, it was unanimously +agreed, that a proclamation ought to issue, forbidding the citizens of +the United States to take part in any hostilities on the seas, with, +or against, any of the belligerent powers; warning them against +carrying to any of those powers articles deemed contraband according +to the modern usages of nations; and enjoining them from all acts +inconsistent with the duties of a friendly nation towards those at +war.</p> + +<p>With the same unanimity, the President was advised to receive a +minister from the republic of France; but, on the question respecting +a qualification to his reception, a division was perceived. The +secretary of state and the attorney general were of opinion, that no +cause existed for departing in the present instance from the usual +mode of acting on such occasions. The revolution in France, they +conceived, had produced no change in the relations between the two +nations; nor was there any thing in the alteration of government, or +in the character of the war, which would impair the right of France to +demand, or weaken the duty of the United States faithfully to comply +with the engagements which had been solemnly formed.</p> + +<p>The secretaries of the treasury, and of war, held a different opinion. +Admitting in its fullest latitude the right of a nation to change its +political institutions according to its own will, they denied its +right to involve other nations, <i>absolutely and unconditionally</i>, in +the consequences of the changes which it may think proper to make. +They maintained the right of a nation to absolve itself from the +obligations even of real treaties, when such a change of circumstances +takes place in the internal situation of the other contracting party, +as so essentially to alter the existing state of things, that it may +with good faith be pronounced to render a continuance of the connexion +which results from them, disadvantageous or dangerous.</p> + +<p>They reviewed the most prominent of those transactions which had +recently taken place in France, and noticed the turbulence, the fury, +and the injustice with which they were marked. The Jacobin club at +Paris, whose influence was well understood, had even gone so far, +previous to the meeting of the convention, as to enter into measures +with the avowed object of purging that body of those persons, +favourers of royalty, who might have escaped the attention of the +primary assemblies. This review was taken, to show that the course of +the revolution had been attended with circumstances which militate +against a full conviction of its having been brought to its present +stage, by such a free, regular, and deliberate act of the nation, as +ought to silence all scruples about the validity of what had been +done. They appeared to doubt whether the present possessors of power +ought to be considered as having acquired it with the real consent of +France, or as having seized it by violence;—whether the existing +system could be considered as permanent, or merely temporary.</p> + +<p>They were therefore of opinion, not that the treaties should be +annulled or absolutely suspended, but that the United States should +reserve, for future consideration and discussion, the question whether +the operation of those treaties ought not to be deemed temporarily and +provisionally suspended. Should this be the decision of the +government, they thought it due to a spirit of friendly and candid +procedure, in the most conciliating terms, to apprize the expected +minister of this determination.</p> + +<p>On the questions relative to the application of the clause of +guarantee to the existing war, some diversity of sentiment also +prevailed. The secretary of state and the attorney general conceived, +that no necessity for deciding thereon existed, while the secretaries +of the treasury, and of war, were of opinion that the treaty of +alliance was plainly defensive, and that the clause of guarantee did +not apply to a war which, having been commenced by France, must be +considered as offensive on the part of that power.</p> + +<p>Against convening congress, the opinion appears to have been +unanimous.</p> + +<p>The cabinet being thus divided on an important part of the system +which, in the present critical posture of affairs, ought to be adopted +by the executive, the President signified his desire that the +ministers would respectively state to him in writing the opinions they +had formed, together with the reasoning and authorities by which those +opinions were supported.</p> + +<p>The written arguments which were presented on this occasion, while +they attest the labour, and reflect honour on the talents of those by +whom they were formed, and evince the equal sincerity and zeal with +which the opinions on each side were advanced, demonstrate an +opposition of sentiment respecting the French revolution, which +threatened to shed its influence on all measures connected with that +event, and to increase the discord which already existed in the +cabinet.</p> + +<p>So far as respected the reception of a minister from the French +republic without qualifying that act by any explanations, and the +continuing obligation of the treaties, the President appears to have +decided in favour of the opinions given by the secretary of state and +the attorney general.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Proclamation of neutrality.</div> + +<p>The proclamation of neutrality which was prepared by the attorney +general, in conformity with the principles which had been adopted, was +laid before the cabinet; and, being approved, was signed by the +President, and ordered to be published.</p> + +<p>This measure derives importance from the consideration, that it was +the commencement of that system to which the American government +afterwards inflexibly adhered, and to which much of the national +prosperity is to be ascribed. It is not less important in another +view. Being at variance with the prejudices, the feelings, and the +passions of a large portion of the society, and being founded on no +previous proceedings of the legislature, it presented the first +occasion, which was thought a fit one, for openly assaulting a +character, around which the affections of the people had thrown an +armour theretofore deemed sacred, and for directly criminating the +conduct of the President himself. It was only by opposing passions to +passions, by bringing the feeling in favour of France, into conflict +with those in favour of the chief magistrate, that the enemies of the +administration could hope to obtain the victory.</p> + +<p>For a short time, the opponents of this measure treated it with some +degree of delicacy. The opposition prints occasionally glanced at the +executive; considered all governments, including that of the United +States, as naturally hostile to the liberty of the people; and +ascribed to this disposition, the combination of European governments +against France, and the apathy with which this combination was +contemplated by the executive. At the same time, the most vehement +declamations were published, for the purpose of inflaming the +resentments of the people against Britain; of enhancing the +obligations of America to France; of confirming the opinions, that the +coalition of European monarchs was directed, not less against the +United States, than against that power to which its hostility was +avowed, and that those who did not avow this sentiment were the +friends of that coalition, and equally the enemies of America and +France.</p> + +<p>These publications, in the first instance, sufficiently bitter, +quickly assumed a highly increased degree of acrimony.</p> + +<p><a name="p15">As</a> soon as the commotions which succeeded the deposition of Louis XVI. +had, in some degree, subsided, the attention of the French government +was directed to the United States, and the resolution was taken to +recall the minister who had been appointed by the king; and to replace +him with one who might be expected to enter, with more enthusiasm, +into the views of the republic.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>The citizen Genet, a gentleman of considerable talents, and of an +ardent temper, was selected for this purpose.</p> + +<p>The letters he brought to the executive of the United States, and his +instructions, which he occasionally communicated, were, in a high +degree, flattering to the nation, and decently respectful to its +government. But Mr. Genet was also furnished with private +instructions, which the course of subsequent events tempted him to +publish. These indicate that, if the American executive should not be +found sufficiently compliant with the views of France, the resolution +had been taken to employ with the people of the United States the same +policy which was so successfully used with those of Europe; and thus +to affect an object which legitimate negotiations might fail to +accomplish.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arrival of Mr. Genet as minister from France.<br />His conduct.</div> + +<p>Mr. Genet possessed many qualities which were peculiarly adapted to +the objects of his mission; but he seems to have been betrayed by the +flattering reception which was given him, and by the universal fervour +expressed for his republic, into a too speedy disclosure of his +intentions.</p> + +<p>On the eighth of April he arrived, not at Philadelphia, but at +Charleston, in South Carolina, a port whose contiguity to the West +Indies would give it peculiar convenience as a resort for privateers. +He was received by the governor of that state, and by its citizens, +with an enthusiasm well calculated to dissipate every doubt he might +previously have entertained, concerning the dispositions on which he +was to operate. At this place he continued for several days, receiving +extravagant marks of public attachment, during which time, he +undertook to authorize the fitting and arming of vessels in that port, +enlisting men, and giving commissions to cruise and commit hostilities +on nations with whom the United States were at peace. The captures +made by these cruisers were brought into port, and the consuls of +France were assuming, under the authority of Mr. Genet, to hold courts +of admiralty on them, to try, condemn, and authorize their sale.</p> + +<p>From Charleston, Mr. Genet proceeded by land to Philadelphia, +receiving on his journey, at the different towns through which he +passed, such marks of enthusiastic attachment as had never before been +lavished on a foreign minister. On the 16th of May, he arrived at the +seat of government, preceded by the intelligence of his transactions +in South Carolina. This information did not diminish the extravagant +transports of joy with which he was welcomed by the great body of the +inhabitants. Means had been taken to render his entry pompous and +triumphal; and the opposition papers exultingly stated that he was met +at Gray's ferry by "crowds who flocked from every avenue of the city, +to meet the republican ambassador of an allied nation."</p> + +<p>The day succeeding his arrival, he received addresses of +congratulation from particular societies, and from the citizens of +Philadelphia, who waited on him in a body, in which they expressed +their fervent gratitude for the "zealous and disinterested aids," +which the French people had furnished to America, unbounded exultation +at the success with which their arms had been crowned, and a positive +conviction that the safety of the United States depended on the +establishment of the republic. The answers to these addresses were +well calculated to preserve the idea of a complete fraternity between +the two nations; and that their interests were identified.</p> + +<p>The day after being thus accredited by the citizens of Philadelphia, +he was presented to the President, by whom he was received with +frankness, and with expressions of a sincere and cordial regard for +his nation. In the conversation which took place on this occasion, Mr. +Genet gave the most explicit assurances that, in consequence of the +distance of the United States from the theatre of action, and of other +circumstances, France did not wish to engage them in the war, but +would willingly leave them to pursue their happiness and prosperity in +peace. The more ready faith was given to these declarations, because +it was believed that France might derive advantages from the +neutrality of America, which would be a full equivalent for any +services which she could render as a belligerent.</p> + +<p>Before the ambassador of the republic had reached the seat of +government, a long catalogue of complaints, partly founded on his +proceedings in Charleston, had been made by the British minister to +the American executive.</p> + +<p>This catalogue was composed of the assumptions of sovereignty already +mentioned;—assumptions calculated to render America an instrument of +hostility to be wielded by France against those powers with which she +might be at war.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Illegal proceedings of the French cruisers.</div> + +<p>These were still further aggravated by the commission of actual +hostilities within the territories of the United States. The ship +Grange, a British vessel which had been cleared out from Philadelphia, +was captured by the French frigate L'Ambuscade within the capes of the +Delaware, while on her way to the ocean.</p> + +<p>The prizes thus unwarrantly made, being brought within the power of +the American government, Mr. Hammond, among other things, demanded a +restitution of them.</p> + +<p>On many of the points suggested by the conduct of Mr. Genet, and by +the memorials of the British minister, it would seem impossible that +any difference of opinion could exist among intelligent men, not under +the dominion of a blind infatuation. Accordingly it was agreed in the +cabinet, without a dissenting voice, that the jurisdiction of every +independent nation, within the limits of its own territory, being of a +nature to exclude the exercise of any authority therein by a foreign +power, the proceedings complained of, not being warranted by any +treaty, were usurpations of national sovereignty, and violations of +neutral rights, a repetition of which it was the duty of the +government to prevent.</p> + +<p>It was also agreed that the efficacy of the laws should be tried +against those citizens of the United States who had joined in +perpetrating the offence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Opinions of the Cabinet in relation thereto.</div> + +<p>The question of restitution, except as to the Grange, was more +dubious. The secretary of state and the attorney general contended +that, if the commissions granted by Mr. Genet were invalid, the +captures were totally void, and the courts would adjudge the property +to remain in the former owners. In this point of view, therefore, +there being a regular remedy at law, it would be irregular for the +government to interpose.</p> + +<p>If, on the contrary, the commissions were good, then, the captures +having been made on the high seas, under a valid commission from a +power at war with Great Britain, the original right of the British +owner was, by the laws of war, transferred to the captor.</p> + +<p>The legal right being in the captor, it could only be taken from him +by an act of force, that is to say, of reprisal for the offence +committed against the United States in the port of Charleston. +Reprisal is a very serious thing, ought always to be preceded by a +demand and refusal of satisfaction, is generally considered as an act +of war, and never yet failed to produce it in the case of a nation +able to make war.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a name="image02"> +<img src="images/020.jpg" width="366" height="442" alt="Martha Washington" /></a></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b>Martha Washington</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p style="text-align: center"><i>From the portrait by James Sharples</i></p> + +<p><i>This is one of the three Sharples portraits of the Washington family +and the only good profile of Martha Washington that was painted from +life. Martha, who was a few months younger than her husband, is +described as having been "amiable in character and lovely in person." +By the courtesy of the period she was called Lady Washington, and +whether in her own home or at the "federal court," she presided with +marked dignity and grace. She died at Mount Vernon, May 22, 1802, +having survived her husband two and a half years.</i></p> + +<p>Courtesy Herbert L. Pratt</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Admitting the case to be of sufficient importance to require reprisal, +and to be ripe for that step, the power of taking it was vested by the +constitution in congress, not in the executive department of the +government.</p> + +<p>Of the reparation for the offence committed against the United States, +they were themselves the judges, and could not be required by a +foreign nation, to demand more than was satisfactory to themselves. By +disavowing the act, by taking measures to prevent its repetition, by +prosecuting the American citizens who were engaged in it, the United +States ought to stand justified with Great Britain; and a demand of +further reparation by that power would be a wrong on her part.</p> + +<p>The circumstances under which these equipments had been made, in the +first moments of the war, before the government could have time to +take precautions against them, and its immediate disapprobation of +those equipments, must rescue it from every imputation of being +accessory to them, and had placed it with the offended, not the +offending party.</p> + +<p>Those gentlemen were therefore of opinion, that the vessels which had +been captured on the high seas, and brought into the United States, by +privateers fitted out and commissioned in their ports, ought not to be +restored.</p> + +<p>The secretaries of the treasury, and of war, were of different +opinion. They urged that a neutral, permitting itself to be made an +instrument of hostility by one belligerent against another, became +thereby an associate in the war. If land or naval armaments might be +formed by France within the United States, for the purpose of carrying +on expeditions against her enemy, and might return with the spoils +they had taken, and prepare new enterprises, it was apparent that a +state of war would exist between America and those enemies, of the +worst kind for them: since, while the resources of the country were +employed in annoying them, the instruments of this annoyance would be +occasionally protected from pursuit, by the privileges of an +ostensible neutrality. It was easy to see that such a state of things +could not be tolerated longer than until it should be perceived.</p> + +<p>It being confessedly contrary to the duty of the United States, as a +neutral nation, to suffer privateers to be fitted in their ports to +annoy the British trade, it seemed to follow that it would comport +with their duty, to remedy the injury which may have been sustained, +when it is in their power so to do.</p> + +<p>That the fact had been committed before the government could provide +against it might be an excuse, but not a justification. Every +government is responsible for the conduct of all parts of the +community over which it presides, and is supposed to possess, at all +times, the means of preventing infractions of its duty to foreign +nations. In the present instance, the magistracy of the place ought to +have prevented them. However valid this excuse might have been, had +the privateers expedited from Charleston been sent to the French +dominions, there to operate out of the reach of the United States, it +could be of no avail when their prizes were brought into the American +ports, and the government, thereby, completely enabled to administer a +specific remedy for the injury.</p> + +<p>Although the commissions, and the captures made under them, were valid +as between the parties at war, they were not so as to the United +States. For the violation of their rights, they had a claim to +reparation, and might reasonably demand, as the reparation to which +they were entitled, restitution of the property taken, with or without +an apology for the infringement of their sovereignty. This they had a +right to demand as a species of reparation consonant with the nature +of the injury, and enabling them to do justice to the party in +injuring whom they had been made instrumental. It could be no just +cause of complaint on the part of the captors that they were required +to surrender a property, the means of acquiring which took their +origin in a violation of the rights of the United States.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, there was a claim on the American government to +arrest the effects of the injury or annoyance to which it had been +made accessory. To insist therefore on the restitution of the property +taken, would be to enforce a right, in order to the performance of a +duty.</p> + +<p>These commissions, though void as to the United States, being valid as +between the parties, the case was not proper for the decision of the +courts of justice. The whole was an affair between the governments of +the parties concerned, to be settled by reasons of state, not rules of +law. It was the case of an infringement of national sovereignty to the +prejudice of a third party, in which the government was to demand a +reparation, with the double view of vindicating its own rights, and of +doing justice to the suffering party.</p> + +<p>They, therefore, were of opinion that, in the case stated for their +consideration, restitution ought to be made.</p> + +<p>On the point respecting which his cabinet was divided, the President +took time to deliberate. Those principles on which a concurrence of +sentiment had been manifested being considered as settled, the +secretary of state was desired to communicate them to the ministers of +France and Britain; and circular letters were addressed to the +executives of the several states, requiring their co-operation, with +force if necessary, in the execution of the rules which were +established.</p> + +<p>The citizen Genet was much dissatisfied with these decisions of the +American government. He thought them contrary to natural right, and +subversive of the treaties by which the two nations were connected. In +his exposition of these treaties, he claimed, for his own country, all +that the two nations were restricted from conceding to others, thereby +converting negative limitations into an affirmative grant of +privileges to France.</p> + +<p>Without noticing a want of decorum in some of the expressions which +Mr. Genet had employed, he was informed that the subjects on which his +letter treated had, from respect to him, been reconsidered by the +executive; but that no cause was perceived for changing the system +which had been adopted. He was further informed that, in the opinion +of the President, the United States owed it to themselves, and to the +nations in their friendship, to expect, as a reparation for the +offence of infringing their sovereignty, that the vessels, thus +illegally equipped, would depart from their ports.</p> + +<p>Mr. Genet was not disposed to acquiesce in these decisions. Adhering +to his own construction of the existing treaty, he affected to +consider the measures of the American government as infractions of it, +which no power in the nation had a right to make, unless the United +States in congress assembled should determine that their solemn +engagements should no longer be performed. Intoxicated with the +sentiments expressed by a great portion of the people, and +unacquainted with the firm character of the executive, he seems to +have expected that the popularity of his nation would enable him to +overthrow that department, or to render it subservient to his views. +It is difficult otherwise to account for his persisting to disregard +its decisions, and for passages with which his letters abound, such as +the following:</p> + +<p>"Every obstruction by the government of the United States to the +arming of French vessels must be an attempt on the rights of man, upon +which repose the independence and laws of the United States; a +violation of the ties which unite the people of France and America; +and even a manifest contradiction of the system of neutrality of the +President; for, in fact, if our merchant vessels,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> or others, are +not allowed to arm themselves, when the French alone are resisting the +league of all the tyrants against the liberty of the people, they will +be exposed to inevitable ruin in going out of the ports of the United +States, which is certainly not the intention of the people of America. +Their fraternal voice has resounded from every quarter around me, and +their accents are not equivocal. They are pure as the hearts of those +by whom they are expressed, and the more they have touched my +sensibility, the more they must interest in the happiness of America +the nation I represent;—the more I wish, sir, that the federal +government should observe, as far as in their power, the public +engagements contracted by both nations; and that, by this generous and +prudent conduct, they will give at least to the world, the example of +a true neutrality, which does not consist in the cowardly abandonment +of their friends in the moment when danger menaces them, but in +adhering strictly, if they can do no better, to the obligations they +have contracted with them. It is by such proceedings that they will +render themselves respectable to all the powers; that they will +preserve their friends and deserve to augment their numbers."</p> + +<p>A few days previous to the reception of the letter from which the +above is an extract, two citizens of the United States, who had been +engaged by Mr. Genet in Charleston to cruise in the service of France, +were arrested by the civil magistrate, in pursuance of the +determination formed by the executive for the prosecution of persons +having thus offended against the laws. Mr. Genet demanded their +release in the following extraordinary terms:</p> + +<p>"I have this moment been informed that two officers in the service of +the republic of France, citizen Gideon Henfield and John Singletary, +have been arrested on board the privateer of the French republic, the +Citizen Genet, and conducted to prison. The crime laid to their +charge—the crime which my mind can not conceive, and which my pen +almost refuses to state,—is the serving of France, and defending with +her children the common glorious cause of liberty.</p> + +<p>"Being ignorant of any positive law or treaty which deprives Americans +of this privilege, and authorizes officers of police arbitrarily to +take mariners in the service of France from on board their vessels, I +call upon your intervention, sir, and that of the President of the +United States, in order to obtain the immediate releasement of the +above mentioned officers, who have acquired, by the sentiments +animating them, and by the act of their engagement, anterior to every +act to the contrary, the right of French citizens, if they have lost +that of American citizens."</p> + +<p>This lofty offensive style could not fail to make a deep impression on +a mind penetrated with a just sense of those obligations by which the +chief magistrate is bound to guard the dignity of his government, and +to take care that his nation be not degraded in his person. Yet, in no +single instance, did the administration, in its communications with +Mr. Genet, permit itself to be betrayed into the use of one +intemperate expression. The firmness with which the extravagant +pretensions of that gentleman were resisted, proceeding entirely from +a sense of duty and conviction of right, was unaccompanied with any +marks of that resentment which his language and his conduct were alike +calculated to inspire.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">State of parties.</div> + +<p>Mr. Genet appears to have been prevented from acquiescing in a line of +conduct thus deliberately adopted and prudently pursued, by a belief +that the sentiments of the people were in direct opposition to the +measures of their government. So excessive, and so general, were the +demonstrations of enthusiastic devotion to France; so open were their +expressions of outrage and hostility towards all the powers at war +with that republic; so thin was the veil which covered the chief +magistrate from that stream of malignant opprobrium directed against +every measure which thwarted the views of Mr. Genet; that a person +less sanguine than that minister might have cherished the hope of +being able ultimately to triumph over the opposition to his designs. +Civic festivals, and other public assemblages of people, at which the +ensigns of France were displayed in union with those of America; at +which the red cap, as a symbol of French liberty and fraternity, +triumphantly passed from head to head; at which toasts were given +expressive of a desire to identify the people of America with those of +France; and, under the imposing guise of adhering to principles not to +men, containing allusions to the influence of the President which +could not be mistaken; appeared to Mr. Genet to indicate a temper +extremely favourable to his hopes, and very different from that which +would be required for the preservation of an honest neutrality. +Through the medium of the press, these sentiments were communicated to +the public, and were represented as flowing from the hearts of the +great body of the people. In various other modes, that important +engine contributed its powerful aid to the extension of opinions, +calculated, essentially, to vary the situation of the United States. +The proclamation of neutrality which was treated as a royal edict, was +not only considered as assuming powers not belonging to the executive, +and, as evidencing the monarchical tendencies of that department, but +as demonstrating the disposition of the government to break its +connexions with France, and to dissolve the friendship which united +the people of the two republics. The declaration that "the duty and +interest of the United States required that they should with sincerity +and good faith adopt and pursue a conduct friendly and impartial +towards the belligerent powers," gave peculiar umbrage. The scenes of +the revolutionary war were brought into review; the object and effect +of British hostility were painted in glowing colours; and the +important aids afforded by France were drawn with a pencil not less +animated. That the conduct of Britain, since the treaty of peace had +furnished unequivocal testimony of enmity to the United States, was +strongly pressed. With this continuing enmity was contrasted the +amicable dispositions professed by the French republic; and it was +asked with indignation, whether the interests of the United States +required that they should pursue "a line of conduct entirely impartial +between these two powers? That the services of the one as well as the +injuries of the other, should be forgotten? that a friend and an enemy +should be treated with equal favour? and that neither gratitude nor +resentment should constitute a feature of the American character?" The +supposed freedom of the French was opposed to the imagined slavery of +the English; and it was demanded whether "the people of America were +alike friendly to republicanism and to monarchy? to liberty and to +despotism?"</p> + +<p>With infectious enthusiasm it was contended, that there was a natural +and inveterate hostility between monarchies and republics; that the +present combination against France was a combination against liberty +in every part of the world; and that the destinies of America were +inseparably linked with those of the French republic.</p> + +<p>On the various points of controversy which had arisen between the +executive and Mr. Genet, this active and powerful party openly and +decidedly embraced the principles for which that minister contended. +It was assumed that his demands were sanctioned by subsisting +treaties, and that his exposition of those instruments was perfectly +correct. The conduct of the executive in withholding privileges to +which France was said to be entitled by the most solemn engagements, +was reprobated with extreme acrimony; was considered as indicative of +a desire to join the coalesced despots in their crusade against +liberty; and as furnishing to the French republic such just motives +for war, that it required all her moderation and forbearance to +restrain her from declaring it against the United States.</p> + +<p>Mr. Genet was exhorted not to relax in his endeavours to maintain the +just rights of his country; and was assured that, in the affections of +the people, he would find a firm and certain support.</p> + +<p>These principles and opinions derived considerable aid from the +labours and intrigues of certain societies, who had constituted +themselves the guardians of American liberty.</p> + +<p>The manner in which that attention of the conduct of those invested +with the power which is essential in balanced governments, may safely +be employed, had been so misconceived, that temporary and detached +clubs of citizens had occasionally been formed in different parts of +the United States, for the avowed purpose of watching the conduct of +their rulers. After the adoption of the constitution, some slight use +was made, by its enemies, of this weapon; and, in the German +Republican Society particularly, many of the most strenuous opponents +of the administration were collected.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Democratic societies formed.</div> + +<p>The force and power of these institutions had been fully developed, +and their efficacy in prostrating existing establishments clearly +ascertained by the revolution in France. The increased influence which +they derived from corresponding with each other, had been +unequivocally demonstrated; and soon after the arrival of Mr. Genet, a +democratic society was formed in Philadelphia on the model of the +Jacobin club in Paris. An anxious solicitude for the preservation of +freedom, the very existence of which was menaced by a "European +confederacy transcendent in power and unparalleled in iniquity;" which +was endangered also by "the pride of wealth and arrogance of power," +displayed within the United States; was the motive assigned for the +association. "A constant circulation of useful information, and a +liberal communication of republican sentiments, were thought to be the +best antidotes to any political poison with which the vital principle +of civil liberty might be attacked:" and to give the more extensive +operation to their labours, a corresponding committee was appointed, +through whom they would communicate with other societies, which might +be established on similar principles, throughout the United States.</p> + +<p>Faithful to their founder, and true to the real objects of their +association, these societies continued, during the term of their +existence, to be the resolute champions of all the encroachments +attempted by the agents of the French republic on the government of +the United States, and the steady defamers of the views and measures +of the American executive.</p> + +<p>Thus strongly supported, Mr. Genet persisted in his construction of +the treaties between the two nations; and, in defiance of the positive +determination of the government, continued to act according to that +construction.</p> + +<p>The President was called to Mount Vernon by urgent business, which +detained him less than three weeks; and, in his absence, the heads of +departments superintended the execution of those rules which had been +previously established.</p> + +<p>In this short interval, a circumstance occurred, strongly marking the +rashness of the minister of France, and his disrespect to the +executive of the United States.</p> + +<p>The Little Sarah, an English merchantman, had been captured by a +French frigate, and brought into the port of Philadelphia, where she +was completely equipped as a privateer, and was just about to sail on +a cruise under the name of <i>le petit Democrat</i>, when the secretary of +the treasury communicated her situation to the secretaries of state +and of war; in consequence of which, Governor Mifflin was desired to +cause an examination of the fact. The warden of the port was directed +to institute the proper inquiries; and late in the evening of the +sixth of July, he reported her situation, and that she was to sail the +next day.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Genet calculates upon the partialities of the American +people for France and openly insults their government.</div> + +<p>In pursuance of the instructions which had been given by the +President, the governor immediately sent Mr. Secretary Dallas for the +purpose of prevailing on Mr. Genet to relieve him from the employment +of force, by detaining the vessel in port until the arrival of the +President, who was then on his way from Mount Vernon. Mr. Dallas +communicated this message to the French minister in terms as +conciliatory as its nature would permit. On receiving it, he gave a +loose to the most extravagant passion. After exclaiming with vehemence +against the measure, he complained, in strong terms, and with many +angry epithets, of the ill treatment which he had received from some +of the officers of the general government, which he contrasted with +the cordial attachment that was expressed by the people at large for +his nation. He ascribed the conduct of those officers to principles +inimical to the cause of France, and of liberty. He insinuated that, +by their influence, the President had been misled; and observed with +considerable emphasis, that the President was not the sovereign of +this country. The powers of peace and war being vested in congress, it +belonged to that body to decide those questions growing out of +treaties which might involve peace or war; and the President, +therefore, ought to have assembled the national legislature before he +ventured to issue his proclamation of neutrality, or to prohibit, by +his instructions to the state governors, the enjoyment of the +particular rights which France claimed under the express stipulations +of the treaty of commerce. The executive construction of that treaty +was neither just nor obligatory; and he would make no engagement which +might be construed into a relinquishment of rights which his +constituents deemed indispensable. In the course of this vehement and +angry declamation, he spoke of publishing his correspondence with the +officers of government, together with a narrative of his proceedings; +and said that, although the existing causes would warrant an abrupt +departure, his regard for the people of America would induce him to +remain here, amidst the insults and disgusts that he daily suffered in +his official character from the public officers, until the meeting of +congress; and if that body should agree in the opinions and support +the measures of the President, he would certainly withdraw, and leave +the dispute to be adjusted between the two nations themselves. His +attention being again called by Mr. Dallas to the particular subject, +he peremptorily refused to enter into any arrangements for suspending +the departure of the privateer, and cautioned him against any attempt +to seize her, as she belonged to the republic; and, in defence of the +honour of her flag, would unquestionably repel force by force.</p> + +<p>On receiving the report of Mr. Dallas, Governor Mifflin ordered out +one hundred and twenty militia, for the purpose of taking possession +of the privateer; and communicated the case, with all its +circumstances, to the officers of the executive government. On the +succeeding day, Mr. Jefferson waited on Mr. Genet, in the hope of +prevailing on him to pledge his word that the privateer should not +leave the port until the arrival of the President. The minister was +not less intemperate with Mr. Jefferson than he had been with Mr. +Dallas. He indulged himself, in a repetition of nearly the same +passionate language, and again spoke, with extreme harshness, of the +conduct of the executive. He persisted in refusing to make any +engagements for the detention of the vessel; and, after his rage had +in some degree spent itself, he entreated that no attempt might be +made to take possession of her, as her crew was on board, and force +would be repelled by force.</p> + +<p>He then also said that she was not ready to sail immediately. She +would change her position, and fall down the river a small distance on +that day; but was not yet ready to sail.</p> + +<p>In communicating this conversation to Governor Mifflin, Mr. Jefferson +stated his conviction that the privateer would remain in the river +until the President should decide on her case; in consequence of +which, the governor dismissed the militia, and requested the advice of +the heads of departments on the course which it would be proper for +him to pursue. Both the governor and Mr. Jefferson stated, that in +reporting the conversation between Mr. Genet and himself, Mr. Dallas +had said that Mr. Genet threatened, in express terms, "to appeal from +the President to the people."</p> + +<p>Thus braved and insulted in the very heart of the American empire, the +secretaries of the treasury, and of war, were of opinion that it was +expedient to take immediate provisional measures for establishing a +battery on Mud Island, under cover of a party of militia, with +directions, that if the vessel should attempt to depart before the +pleasure of the President should be known concerning her, military +coercion should be employed to arrest her progress.</p> + +<p>The secretary of state dissenting from this opinion, the measure was +not adopted. The vessel fell down to Chester before the arrival of the +President, and sailed on her cruise before the power of the government +could be interposed.</p> + +<p>On the 11th of July the President reached Philadelphia, and requested +that his cabinet ministers would convene at his house the next day at +nine in the morning.</p> + +<p>Among the papers placed in his hands by the secretary of state, which +required immediate attention, were those which related to the Little +Democrat. On reading them, a messenger was immediately despatched for +the secretary, but he had retired, indisposed, to his seat in the +country. Upon hearing this, the President instantly addressed a letter +to him, of which the following is an extract. "What is to be done in +the case of the Little Sarah, now at Chester? Is the minister of the +French republic to set the acts of this government at defiance <i>with +impunity</i>—and then threaten the executive with an appeal to the +people? What must the world think of such conduct? and of the +government of the United States in submitting to it?</p> + +<p>"These are serious questions—circumstances press for decision;—and +as you have had time to consider them, (upon me they come +unexpectedly,) I wish to know your opinion upon them even before +to-morrow—for the vessel may then be gone."</p> + +<p>In answer to this letter, the secretary stated the assurances which +had on that day been given to him by Mr. Genet, that the vessel would +not sail before the President's decision respecting her should be +made. In consequence of this information, immediate coercive measures +were suspended; and in the council of the succeeding day it was +determined to retain in port all<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> privateers which had been equipped +by any of the belligerent powers within the United States. This +determination was immediately communicated to Mr. Genet; but, in +contempt of it, the Little Democrat proceeded on her cruise.</p> + +<p><a name="p40">In</a> this, as in every effort made by the executive to maintain the +neutrality of the United States, that great party which denominated +itself "THE PEOPLE," could perceive only a settled hostility to France +and to liberty, a tame subserviency to British policy, and a desire, +by provoking France, to engage America in the war, for the purpose of +extirpating republican principles.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p>The administration received strong additional evidence of the +difficulty that would attend an adherence to the system which had been +commenced, in the acquittal of Gideon Henfield.</p> + +<p>A prosecution had been instituted against this person who had enlisted +in Charleston on board a French privateer equipped in that port, which +had brought her prizes into the port of Philadelphia. This prosecution +had been directed under the advice of the attorney general, who was of +opinion, that persons of this description were punishable for having +violated subsisting treaties, which, by the constitution, are the +supreme law of the land; and that they were also indictable at common +law, for disturbing the peace of the United States.</p> + +<p>It could not be expected that the democratic party would be +inattentive to an act so susceptible of misrepresentation. Their +papers sounded the alarm; and it was universally asked, "what law had +been offended, and under what statute was the indictment supported? +Were the American people already prepared to give to a proclamation +the force of a legislative act, and to subject themselves to the will +of the executive? But if they were already sunk to such a state of +degradation, were they to be punished for violating a proclamation +which had not been published when the offence was committed, if indeed +it could be termed an offence to engage with France, combating for +liberty against the combined despots of Europe?"</p> + +<p>As the trial approached, a great degree of sensibility was displayed; +and the verdict in favour of Henfield was celebrated with extravagant +marks of joy and exultation. It bereaved the executive of the strength +to be derived from an opinion, that punishment might be legally +inflicted on those who should openly violate the rules prescribed for +the preservation of neutrality; and exposed that department to the +obloquy of having attempted a measure which the laws would not +justify.</p> + +<p>About this time, a question growing out of the war between France and +Britain, the decision of which would materially affect the situation +of the United States, was presented to the consideration of the +executive.</p> + +<p>It will be recollected that during the war which separated America +from Britain, the celebrated compact termed the <i>armed neutrality</i> was +formed in the north of Europe, and announced to the belligerent +powers. A willingness to acquiesce in the principles it asserted, one +of which was that free bottoms should make free goods, was expressed +by the governments engaged in the war, with the single exception of +Great Britain. But, however favourably the United States, as a +belligerent, might view a principle which would promote the interests +of inferior maritime powers, they were not willing, after the +termination of hostilities, to enter into engagements for its support +which might endanger their future peace; and, in this spirit, +instructions were given to their ministers in Europe.</p> + +<p>This principle was ingrafted into the treaty of commerce with France; +but no stipulation on the subject had been made with England. It +followed, that, with France, the character of the bottom was imparted +to the cargo; but with Britain, the law of nations was the rule by +which the respective rights of the belligerent and neutral were to be +decided.</p> + +<p>Construing this rule to give security to the goods of a friend in the +bottoms of an enemy, and to subject the goods of an enemy to capture +in the bottoms of a friend, the British cruisers took French property +out of American vessels, and their courts condemned it as lawful +prize.</p> + +<p>Mr. Genet had remonstrated against the acquiescence of the American +executive in this exposition of the law of nations, in such terms as +he was accustomed to employ; and on the 9th of July, in the moment of +the contest respecting the Little Democrat, he had written a letter +demanding an immediate and positive answer to the question, what +measures the President had taken, or would take, to cause the American +flag to be respected? He observed, that "as the English would continue +to carry off, with impunity, French citizens, and French property +found on board of American vessels, without embarrassing themselves +with the philosophical principles proclaimed by the President of the +United States," and as the embarrassing engagements of France deprived +her of the privileges of making reprisals at every point, it was +necessary for the interests of both nations, quickly to agree on +taking other measures.</p> + +<p>Not receiving an immediate answer, Mr. Genet, towards the close of +July, again addressed the secretary of state on the subject. In this +extraordinary letter, after complaining of the insults offered to the +American flag by seizing the property of Frenchmen confided to its +protection, he added, "your political rights are counted for nothing. +In vain do the principles of neutrality establish, that friendly +vessels make friendly goods; in vain, sir, does the President of the +United States endeavour, by his proclamation, to reclaim the +observation of this maxim; in vain does the desire of preserving peace +lead to sacrifice the interests of France to that of the moment; in +vain does the thirst of riches preponderate over honour in the +political balance of America: all this management, all this +condescension, all this humility, end in nothing; our enemies laugh at +it; and the French, too confident, are punished for having believed +that the American nation had a flag, that they had some respect for +their laws, some conviction of their strength, and entertained some +sentiment of their dignity. It is not possible for me, sir, to paint +to you all my sensibility at this scandal which tends to the +diminution of your commerce, to the oppression of ours, and to the +debasement and vilification of republics. It is for Americans to make +known their generous indignation at this outrage; and I must confine +myself to demand of you a second time, to inform me of the measures +which you have taken, in order to obtain restitution of the property +plundered from my fellow citizens, under the protection of your flag. +It is from our government they have learnt that the Americans were our +allies, that the American nation was sovereign, and that they knew how +to make themselves respected. It is then under the very same sanction +of the French nation, that they have confided their property and +persons to the safeguard of the American flag; and on her, they submit +the care of causing those rights to be respected. But if our fellow +citizens have been deceived, if you are not in a condition to maintain +the sovereignty of your people, speak; we have guaranteed it when +slaves, we shall be able to render it formidable, having become +freemen."</p> + +<p>On the day preceding the date of this offensive letter, the secretary +of state had answered that of the 9th of July; and, without noticing +the unbecoming style in which the decision of the executive was +demanded, had avowed and defended the opinion, that "by the general +law of nations, the goods of an enemy found in the vessels of a friend +are lawful prize." This fresh insult might therefore be passed over in +silence.</p> + +<p>While a hope remained that the temperate forbearance of the executive, +and the unceasing manifestations of its friendly dispositions towards +the French republic, might induce the minister of that nation to +respect the rights of the United States, and to abstain from +violations of their sovereignty, an anxious solicitude not to impair +the harmony which he wished to maintain between the two republics, had +restrained the President from adopting those measures respecting Mr. +Genet, which the conduct of that gentleman required. He had seen a +foreign minister usurp within the territories of the United States +some of the most important rights of sovereignty, and persist, after +the prohibition of the government, in the exercise of those rights. In +asserting this extravagant claim, so incompatible with national +independence, the spirit in which it originated had been pursued, and +the haughty style of a superior had been substituted for the +respectful language of diplomacy. He had seen the same minister +undertake to direct the civil government; and to pronounce, in +opposition to the decisions of the executive, in what departments of +the constitution of the United States had placed certain great +national powers. To render this state of things more peculiarly +critical and embarrassing, the person most instrumental in producing +it, had, from his arrival, thrown himself into the arms of the people, +stretched out to receive him; and was emboldened by their favour, to +indulge the hope of succeeding in his endeavours, either to overthrow +their government, or to bend it to his will. But the full experiment +had now been made; and the result was a conviction not to be resisted, +that moderation would only invite additional injuries, and that the +present insufferable state of things could be terminated only by +procuring the removal of the French minister, or by submitting to +become, in his hands, the servile instrument of hostility against the +enemies of his nation. Information was continually received from every +quarter, of fresh aggressions on the principles established by the +government; and, while the executive was thus openly disregarded and +contemned, the members of the administration were reproached in all +the papers of an active and restless opposition, as the violators of +the national faith, the partisans of monarchy, and the enemies of +liberty and of France.</p> + +<p><a name="p47">The</a> unwearied efforts of that department to preserve that station in +which the various treaties in existence had placed the nation, were +incessantly calumniated<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> as infractions of those treaties, and +ungrateful attempts to force the United States into the war against +France.</p> + +<p>The judgment of the President was never hastily formed; but, once made +up, it was seldom to be shaken. Before the last letter of Mr. Genet +was communicated to him, he seems to have determined to take decisive +measures respecting that minister.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rules laid down by the executive in relation to the powers +at war within the ports of the United States.<br />The president requests the recall of Genet.</div> + +<p><a name="p48">That</a> the course to be pursued might be well considered, the secretary +of state was requested to collect all the correspondence with him, to +be laid before a cabinet council about to be held for the purpose of +adjusting a complete system of rules to be observed by the +belligerents in the ports of the United States. These rules were +discussed at several meetings, and finally, on the third of August, +received the unanimous approbation of the cabinet. They<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> evidence +the settled purpose of the executive, faithfully to observe all the +national engagements, and honestly to perform the duties of that +neutrality in which the war found them, and in which those engagements +left them free to remain.</p> + +<p>In the case of the minister of the French republic, it was unanimously +agreed that a letter should be written to Mr. Morris, the minister of +the United States at Paris, stating the conduct of Mr. Genet, resuming +the points of difference which had arisen between the government and +that gentleman, assigning the reasons for the opinion of the former, +desiring the recall of the latter, and directing that this letter, +with those which had passed between Mr. Genet and the secretary of +state, should be laid before the executive of the French government.</p> + +<p>To a full view of the transactions of the executive with Mr. Genet, +and an ample justification of its measures, this able diplomatic +performance adds assurances of unvarying attachment to France, +expressed in such terms of unaffected sensibility, as to render +it impossible to suspect the sincerity of the concluding +sentiment—"that, after independence and self-government, there was +nothing America more sincerely wished than perpetual friendship with +them."</p> + +<p>An adequate idea of the passion it excited in Mr. Genet, who received +the communication in September, at New York, can be produced only by a +perusal of his letter addressed, on that occasion, to the secretary of +state. The asperity of his language was not confined to the President, +whom he still set at defiance, whom he charged with transcending the +limits prescribed by the constitution, and of whose accusation before +congress he spoke as an act of justice "which the American people, +which the French people, which all free people were interested to +reclaim:" nor to those "gentlemen who had been painted to him so often +as aristocrats, partisans of monarchy, partisans of England, and +consequently enemies of the principles which all good Frenchmen had +embraced with a religious enthusiasm." Its bitterness was also +extended to the secretary of state himself, whom he had been induced +to consider as his personal friend, and who had, he said, "initiated +him into mysteries which had inflamed his hatred against all those who +aspire to an absolute power."</p> + +<p>During these deliberations, Mr. Genet was received in New York with +the same remarks of partiality to his nation, and of flattering regard +to himself, which had been exhibited in the more southern states. At +this place too, he manifested the same desire to encourage discontent +at the conduct of the government, and to embark America in the +quarrel, by impressing an opinion that the existence of liberty +depended on the success of the French republic, which he had uniformly +avowed. In answer to an address from the republican citizens of New +York, who had spoken of the proclamation of neutrality as relating +only to acts of open hostility, not to the feelings of the heart; and +who had declared that they would "exultingly sacrifice a liberal +portion of their dearest interests could there result, on behalf of +the French republic, an adequate advantage;" he said—"in this respect +I can not but interpret as you have done the declaration of your +government. They must know that the strict performance of treaties is +the best and safest policy; they must know that good faith alone can +inspire respectability to a nation; that a pusillanimous conduct +provokes insult, and brings upon a country those very dangers which it +weakly means to avert.</p> + +<p>"There is indeed too much reason to fear that you are involved in the +general conspiracy of tyrants against liberty. They never will, they +never can forgive you for having been the first to proclaim the rights +of man. But you will force them to respect you by pursuing with +firmness the only path which is consistent with your national honour +and dignity.</p> + +<p>"The cause of France is the cause of all mankind, and no nation is +more deeply interested than you are in its success. Whatever fate +awaits her, you are ultimately to share. But the cause of liberty is +great and it shall prevail.</p> + +<p>"And if France, under a despotic yoke, has been able so successfully +to assert your rights, they can never again be endangered while she is +at liberty to exert, in your support, that powerful arm which now +defies the combined efforts of a whole world."</p> + +<p>While these exertions were successfully making to give increased +force, and a wider extent, to opinions which might subvert the system +adopted by the executive, Mr. Jay, the chief justice of the United +States, and Mr. King, a senator representing the state, arrived in New +York from Philadelphia. They had been preceded by a report, which was +whispered in private circles, that the French minister had avowed a +determination to appeal from the President to the people. The +confidential intercourse subsisting between these gentlemen and a part +of the administration rendering it probable that this declaration, if +made, had been communicated to them, they were asked, whether the +report was true; having received the information through a channel<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> +which was entitled to the most implicit faith, they answered that it +was.</p> + +<p>Their having said so was controverted; and they were repeatedly +required, in the public papers, to admit or deny that they had made +such an assertion. Thus called upon, they published a certificate +avowing that they had made the declaration imputed to them.</p> + +<p>On reflecting men this communication made a serious impression. The +recent events in Poland, whose dismemberment and partition were easily +traced to the admission of foreign influence, gave additional +solemnity to the occurrence, and led to a more intent consideration of +the awful causes which would embolden a foreign minister to utter such +a threat.</p> + +<p>That party, which in the commencement of the contests respecting the +constitution was denominated federal, had generally supported the +measures of the administration.</p> + +<p>That which was denominated anti-federal, had generally opposed those +measures. South of the Potomac especially, there was certainly many +important exceptions to this arrangement of parties; yet as a general +arrangement, it was unquestionably correct.</p> + +<p>In the common partialities for France, in the common hope that the +revolution in that country would be crowned with success, and would +produce important benefits to the human race, they had equally +participated; but in the course to be pursued by the United States, +the line of separation between the two parties was clear and distinct. +The federalists were universally of opinion that, in the existing war, +America ought to preserve a neutrality as impartial as was compatible +with her treaties; and that those treaties had been fairly and justly +construed by the executive. Seduced however by their wishes, and by +their affections, they at first yielded implicit faith to the +assurances given by Mr. Genet of the disinclination of the French +republic to draw them from this eligible position; and from this +belief, they receded slowly and reluctantly.</p> + +<p>They were inclined to ascribe the bitter invectives which were +pronounced against the executive to an inveterate hostility to the +government, and to those who administered it; and, when at length they +were compelled to perceive that the whole influence of Mr. Genet was +employed in stimulating and pointing these invectives, they fondly +indulged the hope that his nation would not countenance his conduct. +Adding to their undiminished attachment to the chief magistrate, a +keen sense of the disgrace, the humiliation, and the danger of +permitting the American government to be forced into any system of +measures by the machinations of a foreign minister with the people, +they had occasionally endeavoured, through the medium of the press, to +keep the public mind correct; and, when it was announced that an +appeal to themselves was threatened, they felt impelled by the +strongest sentiments of patriotism and regard for national honour, to +declare the indignation which the threat had inspired. In every +quarter of the union, the people assembled in their districts, and the +strength of parties was fully tried. The contest was warm and +strenuous. But public opinion appeared to preponderate greatly in +favour of neutrality, and of the proclamation by which its observance +was directed. It was apparent too, that the American bosom still +glowed with ardent affection for their chief magistrate; and that, +however successful might have been the shafts directed against some of +those who shared his confidence, the arrows aimed at himself had +missed their mark.</p> + +<p>Yet it was not to be concealed that the indiscreet arrogance of Mr. +Genet, the direct insults to the President, and the attachment which +many, who were in opposition to the general measures of the +administration, still retained for the person of that approved +patriot, contributed essentially to the prevalence of the sentiment +which was called forth by the occasion.</p> + +<p>In the resolutions expressing the strongest approbation of the +measures which had been adopted, and the greatest abhorrence of +foreign influence, a decided partiality for France was frequently +manifested; while in those of a contrary description, respect for the +past services of the President, and a willingness to support the +executive in the exercises of its constitutional functions, seemed, +when introduced, to be reluctantly placed among the more agreeable +declarations of detestation for those who sought to dissolve the union +between America and France, and of the devotion with which the French +revolution ought to be espoused by all the friends of liberty.</p> + +<p>The effect which the certificate of Mr. Jay and Mr. King might +possibly produce was foreseen; and Mr. Genet sought to avoid its +influence by questioning its veracity. Not only had it never been +alleged that the exceptionable expressions were used to the President +personally, but it was certain that they had not been uttered in his +presence. Affecting not to have adverted to this obvious circumstance, +the minister, on the 13th of August, addressed a letter to the chief +magistrate, which, being designed for publication, was itself the act +he had threatened, in which he subjoined to a detail of his +accusations against the executive, the demand of an explicit +declaration that he had never intimated to him an intention to appeal +to the people.</p> + +<p>On the 16th this letter was answered by the secretary of state, who, +after acknowledging its receipt by the President, added, "I am desired +to observe to you that it is not the established course for the +diplomatic characters residing here to have any direct correspondence +with him. The secretary of state is the organ through which their +communications should pass.</p> + +<p>"The President does not conceive it to be within the line of propriety +or duty, for him to bear evidence against a declaration, which, +whether made to him or others, is perhaps immaterial; he therefore +declines interfering in the case."</p> + +<p>Seldom has more conclusive testimony been offered of the ascendency +which, in the conflicts of party, the passions maintain over reason, +than was exhibited, on this occasion, by the zealous partisans of the +French minister. It might have been expected that, content with +questioning the fact, or with diverting the obloquy attending it from +the French nation, no American would have been found hardy enough to +justify it; and but few, to condemn those gentlemen by whose means it +had reached the public ear. Nothing could be farther removed from this +expectation, than the conduct that was actually observed. The censure +merited by the expressions themselves fell, not upon the person who +had used them, but upon those who had communicated them to the public. +Writers of considerable political eminence, charged them as being +members of a powerful faction who were desirous of separating America +from France, and connecting her with England, for the purpose of +introducing the British constitution.</p> + +<p>As if no sin could equal the crime of disclosing to the people a truth +which, by inducing reflection, might check the flood of that passion +for France which was deemed the surest test of patriotism, the darkest +motives were assigned for the disclosure, and the reputation of those +who made it has scarcely been rescued by a lapse of years, and by a +change of the subjects of controversy, from the peculiar party odium +with which they were at the time overwhelmed.</p> + +<p>Sentiments of a still more extraordinary nature were openly avowed. In +a republican country, it was said, the people alone were the basis of +government. All powers being derived from them, might, by them, be +withdrawn at pleasure. They alone were the authors of the law, and to +them alone, must the ultimate decision on the interpretation belong. +From these delicate and popular truths, it was inferred, that the +doctrine that the sovereignty of the nation resided in the departments +of government was incompatible with the principles of liberty; and +that, if Mr. Genet dissented from the interpretation given by the +President to existing treaties, he might rightfully appeal to the real +sovereign whose agent the President was, and to whom he was +responsible for his conduct. Is the President, it was asked, a +<i>consecrated</i> character, that an appeal from his decisions must be +considered criminal? or are the people in such a state of monarchical +degradation, that to speak of consulting them is an offence as great, +as if America groaned under a dominion equally tyrannical with the old +monarchy of France?</p> + +<p>It was soon ascertained that Mr. Dallas, to whom this threat of +appealing to the people had been delivered, did not admit that the +precise words had been used. Mr. Genet then, in the coarsest terms, +averred the falsehood of the certificate which had been published, and +demanded from the attorney general, and from the government, that Mr. +Jay and Mr. King should be indicted for a libel upon himself and his +nation. That officer accompanied his refusal to institute this +information with the declaration that any other gentleman of the +profession, who might approve and advise the attempt, could be at no +loss to point out a mode which would not require his intervention.</p> + +<p>While the minister of the French republic thus loudly complained of +the unparalleled injury he received from being charged with employing +a particular exceptionable phrase, he seized every fair occasion to +carry into full execution the threat which he denied having made. His +letters, written for the purpose of publication, and actually +published by himself, accused the executive, before the tribunal of +the people, on those specific points, from its decisions respecting +which he was said to have threatened the appeal. As if the offence +lay, not in perpetrating the act, but in avowing an intention to +perpetrate it, this demonstration of his designs did not render his +advocates the less vehement in his support, nor the less acrimonious +in reproaching the administration, as well as Mr. Jay and Mr. King.</p> + +<p>Whilst insult was thus added to insult, the utmost vigilance of the +executive officers was scarcely sufficient to maintain an observance +of the rules which had been established for preserving neutrality in +the American ports. Mr. Genet persisted in refusing to acquiesce in +those rules; and fresh instances of attempts to violate them were +continually recurring. Among these, was an outrage committed in +Boston, too flagrant to be overlooked.</p> + +<p>A schooner, brought as a prize into the port of Boston by a French +privateer, was claimed by the British owner; who instituted +proceedings at law against her, for the purpose of obtaining a +decision on the validity of her capture. She was rescued from the +possession of the marshal, by an armed force acting under the +authority of Mr. Duplaine, the French consul, which was detached from +a frigate then lying in port. Until the frigate sailed, she was +guarded by a part of the crew; and, notwithstanding the determination +of the American government that the consular courts should not +exercise a prize jurisdiction within the territories of the United +States, Mr. Duplaine declared his purpose to take cognizance of the +case.</p> + +<p>To this act of open defiance, it was impossible for the President to +submit. The facts being well attested, the exequatur which had been +granted to Mr. Duplaine was revoked, and he was forbidden further to +exercise the consular functions. It will excite surprise that even +this necessary measure could not escape censure. The self-proclaimed +champions of liberty discovered in it a violation of the constitution, +and a new indignity to France.</p> + +<p>Mr. Genet did not confine his attempts to employ the force of America +against the enemies of his country to maritime enterprises. On his +first arrival, he is understood to have planned an expedition against +the Floridas, to be carried on from Georgia; and another against +Louisiana, to be carried on from the western parts of the United +States. Intelligence was received that the principal officers were +engaged; and the temper of the people inhabiting the western country +was such as to furnish some ground for the apprehension, that the +restraints which the executive was capable of imposing, would be found +too feeble to prevent the execution of this plan. The remonstrances of +the Spanish commissioners on this subject, however, were answered with +explicit assurances that the government would effectually interpose to +defeat any expedition from the territories of the United States +against those of Spain; and the governor of Kentucky was requested to +co-operate in frustrating this improper application of the military +resources of his state.</p> + +<p>It was not by the machinations of the French minister alone that the +neutrality of the United States was endangered. The party which, under +different pretexts, urged measures the inevitable tendency of which +was war, derived considerable aid, in their exertions to influence the +passions of the people, from the conduct of others of the belligerent +powers. The course pursued both by Britain and Spain rendered the task +of the executive still more arduous, by furnishing weapons to the +enemies of neutrality, capable of being wielded with great effect.</p> + +<p>The resentment excited by the rigour with which the maritime powers of +Europe retained the monopoly of their colonial commerce, had, without +the aid of those powerful causes which had lately been brought into +operation, been directed peculiarly against Great Britain. These +resentments had been greatly increased. That nation had not mitigated +the vexations and inconveniences which war necessarily inflicts on +neutral trade, by any relaxations in her colonial policy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Decree of the national convention relative to neutral +commerce.</div> + +<p>To this rigid and repulsive system, that of France presented a perfect +contrast. Either influenced by the politics of the moment, or +suspecting that, in a contest with the great maritime nations of +Europe, her commerce must search for security in other bottoms than +her own, she opened the ports of her colonies to every neutral flag, +and offered to the United States a new treaty, in which it was +understood that every mercantile distinction between Americans and +Frenchmen should be totally abolished.</p> + +<p>With that hasty credulity which, obedient to the wishes, can not await +the sober and deliberate decisions of the judgment, the Americans +ascribed this change, and these propositions, to the liberal genius of +freedom; and expected the new commercial and political systems to be +equally durable. As if, in the term <span class="smcap">republic</span>, the avaricious spirit of +commercial monopoly would lose its influence over men; as if the +passions were to withdraw from the management of human affairs, and +leave the helm to the guidance of reason, and of disinterested +philanthropy; a vast proportion of the American people believed this +novel system to be the genuine offspring of new-born liberty; and +consequently expected that, from the success of the republican arms, a +flood of untried good was to rush upon the world.</p> + +<p>The avidity with which the neutral merchants pressed forward to reap +the rich and tempting harvest offered to them by the regulations and +the wants of France, presented a harvest not less rich and tempting to +the cruisers of her enemies. Captures to a great extent were made, +some with, others without, justifiable cause; and the irritations +inseparable from disappointment in gathering the fruits of a gainful +traffic, were extensively communicated to the agricultural part of +society.</p> + +<p>The vexations on the ocean to which neutrals are commonly exposed +during war, were aggravated by a measure of the British cabinet, which +war was not admitted to justify.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British order of 1793.</div> + +<p>The vast military exertions of the French republic had carried many +hands from their usual occupations, to the field; and the measures of +government, added to the internal commotions, had discouraged labour +by rendering its profits insecure. These causes, aided perhaps by +unfavourable seasons, had produced a scarcity which threatened famine. +This state of things suggested to their enemies the policy of +increasing the internal distress, by cutting off the external supply. +In execution of this plan, the British cruisers were instructed "to +stop all vessels loaded wholly or in part with corn, flour, or meal, +bound to any port in France, or any port occupied by the armies of +France, and to send them to such ports as shall be most convenient, in +order that such corn, meal, or flour, may be purchased on behalf of +his majesty's government, and the ships be relieved after such +purchase, and after a due allowance for freight; or that the masters +of such ships on giving due security, to be approved by the court of +admiralty, be permitted to proceed to dispose of their cargoes of +corn, meal, or flour, in the ports of any country in amity with his +majesty."</p> + +<p><a name="p64">In</a> the particular character of the war, and in the general expressions +of some approved modern writers on the law of nations, the British +government sought a justification of this strong measure. But by +neutrals generally, it was deemed an unwarrantable invasion of their +rights; and the remonstrances made against it by the American +government in particular, were serious and earnest. This attempt to +make a principle, which was understood to be applicable only to +blockaded places, subservient to the impracticable plan of starving an +immense agricultural nation, was resisted with great strength of +reasoning by the administration; and added, not inconsiderably, to the +resentment felt by the body of the people.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> + +<p>Hostilities on the ocean disclosed still another source of irritation, +which added its copious stream to the impetuous torrent which +threatened to sweep America into the war that desolated Europe.</p> + +<p>The British government had long been accustomed to resort to the +practice of manning their fleet by impressment. The exercise of this +prerogative had not been confined to the land. Merchantmen in their +ports, and even at sea, were visited, and mariners were taken out of +them, to be employed in the royal navy. The profits of trade enabling +neutral merchants to give high wages, British sailors were tempted, in +great numbers, to enter their service; but the neutral ship furnished +no protection. Disregarding the bottom in which they sailed, the +officers of the navy impressed them wherever found, often leaving +scarcely hands enough to navigate the vessel into port.</p> + +<p>The Americans were peculiarly exposed to the abuse to which such +usages are liable. Descended from the same ancestors and speaking the +same language, the distinction between them and the English, though in +general sufficiently marked, was not always so visible as to prevent +unintentional error; nor were the captains of ships of war, at all +times, very solicitous to avoid mistake. Native Americans, therefore, +were frequently impressed, and compelled to serve against the French +republic.</p> + +<p>The British cabinet disclaimed all pretensions to the impressment of +real American citizens, and declared officially a willingness to +discharge them, on the establishment of their citizenship. But time +was necessary to procure the requisite testimonials; and those +officers who had notoriously offended in this respect, were not so +discountenanced by their government as to be deterred from a +repetition of the offence. There was too, one class of citizens, +concerning whose rights a difference of opinion prevailed, which has +not even yet been adjusted. These were British subjects who had +migrated to, and been adopted by, the United States.</p> + +<p>The continuance of the Indian war added still another item to this +catalogue of discontents.</p> + +<p>The efforts of the United States to make a treaty with the savages of +the Miamis had proved abortive. The Indians insisted on the Ohio as +the boundary between them and the whites; and, although the American +commissioners expressed a willingness to relinquish some of the lands +purchased at the treaty of fort Harmar, and pressed them to propose +some line between the boundary established by that treaty and the +Ohio, they adhered inflexibly to their original demand.</p> + +<p>It was extensively believed in America, and information collected from +the Indians countenanced the opinion, that they were encouraged by the +government of Canada to persevere in this claim, and that the treaty +was defeated by British influence. The conviction was universal that +this influence would continue so long as the posts south of the lakes +should be occupied by British troops; and the uneasiness which the +detention of those posts created, daily acquired strength. +Unfortunately, the original pretext for detaining them was not yet +removed. The courts of the United States had not yet declared that +British debts contracted before the war, were recoverable. In one of +the circuits, a decision had been recently made, partly favourable, +and partly unfavourable, to the claim of the creditor. To this +decision writs of error had been brought, and the case was pending +before the supreme court. The motives therefore originally assigned +for holding the posts on the lakes still remained; and, as it was a +maxim with the executive "to place an adversary clearly in the wrong," +and it was expected that the existing impediments to the fulfilment of +the treaty on the part of the United States would soon be done away, +it was thought unadviseable, had the military force of the union been +equal to the object, to seize those posts, until their surrender could +be required in consequence of a complete execution of the treaty. In +the mean time, the British minister was earnestly pressed upon the +subject.</p> + +<p>This prudent conduct was far from being satisfactory to the people. +Estimating at nothing, infractions made by themselves, and rating +highly those committed by the opposite party, they would, in any state +of things, have complained loudly of this act of the British +government. But, agitated as they were by the various causes which +were perpetually acting on their passions, it is not wonderful that an +increased influence was given to this measure; that it should be +considered as conclusive testimony of British hostility, and should +add to the bitterness with which the government was reproached for +attempting a system "alike friendly and impartial to the belligerent +powers."</p> + +<p>The causes of discontent which were furnished by Spain, though less +the theme of public declamation, continued to be considerable.</p> + +<p>The American ministers at Madrid could make no progress in their +negotiation. The question of limits remained unsettled, and the +Mississippi was still closed against the Americans. In addition to +these subjects of disquiet, the southern states were threatened with +war from the Creeks and Cherokees, who were, with good reason, +believed to be excited to hostility by the Spanish government. Of +these irritating differences, that which related to the Mississippi +was far the most operative, and embarrassing. The imagination, +especially when warmed by discontent, bestows on a good which is +withheld, advantages much greater than the reality will justify; and +the people of the western country were easily persuaded to believe +that the navigation of the Mississippi was a mine of wealth which +would at once enrich them. That jealousy which men so readily +entertain of the views of those with whom they do not associate, had +favoured the efforts made by the enemies of the administration, to +circulate the opinion that an opposition of interests existed between +the eastern and the western people, and that the endeavours of the +executive to open their great river were feeble and insincere. At a +meeting of the Democratic Society in Lexington, in Kentucky, this +sentiment was unanimously avowed in terms of peculiar disrespect to +the government; and a committee was appointed to open a correspondence +with the inhabitants of the whole western country, for the purpose of +uniting them on this all important subject, and of preparing on it a +remonstrance to the President and congress of the United States, to be +expressed "in the bold, decent and determined language, proper to be +used by injured freemen when they address the servants of the people." +They claimed much merit for their moderation in having thus long, out +of regard to their government, and affection for their fellow citizens +on the Atlantic, abstained from the use of those means which they +possessed for the assertion of what they termed a natural and +unalienable right; and seemed to indicate the opinion that this +forbearance could not be long continued. Without regarding the +determination of Spain in the case or the poverty of the means placed +in the hands of the executive for inducing a change in this +determination, they demanded from the government the free use of the +Mississippi, as if only an act of the will was necessary to insure it +to them. Not even the probability that the public and intemperate +expression of these dangerous dispositions would perpetuate the evil, +could moderate them. This restless uneasy temper gave additional +importance to the project of an expedition against Louisiana, which +had been formed by Mr. Genet.</p> + +<p>These public causes for apprehending hostilities<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> with Spain, were +strengthened by private communications. The government had received +intelligence from their ministers in Europe that propositions had been +made by the cabinet of Madrid to that of London, the object of which +was the United States. The precise nature of these propositions was +not ascertained, but it was understood generally, that their tendency +was hostile.</p> + +<p>Thus unfavourable to the pacific views of the executive were the +circumstances under which congress was to assemble.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... His message +on the foreign relations of the United States.... Report of +the Secretary of State on the commerce of the United +States.... He resigns.... Is succeeded by Mr. Randolph.... +Mr. Madison's resolutions founded on the above report.... +Debate thereon.... Debates on the subject of a navy.... An +embargo law.... Mission of Mr. Jay to Great Britain.... +Inquiry into the conduct of the Secretary of the Treasury, +terminates honourably to him.... Internal taxes.... Congress +adjourns.</b></p></div> + +<p> </p> + + +<div class="sidenotey">1793</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Meeting of Congress.</div> + +<p><span class="lgsmcap">A malignant</span> fever, believed to be infectious, had, through part of the +summer and autumn, severely afflicted the city of Philadelphia, and +dispersed the officers of the executive government. Although the fear +of contagion was not entirely dispelled when the time for the meeting +of congress arrived, yet, such was the active zeal of parties, and +such the universal expectation that important executive communications +would be made, and that legislative measures not less important would +be founded on them, that both houses were full on the first day, and a +joint committee waited on the President with the usual information +that they were ready to receive his communications.</p> + +<p>On the fourth of December, at twelve, the President met both houses in +the senate chamber. His speech was moderate, firm, dignified, and +interesting. It commenced with his own re-election, his feelings at +which were thus expressed—</p> + +<div class="sidenote">President's speech.</div> + +<p>"Since the commencement of the term for which I have been again called +into office, no fit occasion has arisen for expressing to my +fellow-citizens at large, the deep and respectful sense which I feel +of the renewed testimony of public approbation. While on the one hand, +it awakened my gratitude for all those instances of affectionate +partiality with which I have been honoured by my country; on the +other, it could not prevent an earnest wish for that retirement, from +which no private consideration could ever have torn me. But, +influenced by the belief that my conduct would be estimated according +to its real motives, and that the people, and the authorities derived +from them, would support exertions having nothing personal for their +object, I have obeyed the suffrage which commanded me to resume the +executive power; and I humbly implore that Being on whose will the +fate of nations depends, to crown with success our mutual endeavours +for the general happiness."</p> + +<p>Passing to those measures which had been adopted by the executive for +the regulation of its conduct towards the belligerent nations, he +observed, "as soon as the war in Europe had embraced those powers with +whom the United States have the most extensive relations, there was +reason to apprehend that our intercourse with them might be +interrupted, and our disposition for peace drawn into question by +suspicions too often entertained by belligerent nations. It seemed +therefore to be my duty to admonish our citizens of the consequence of +a contraband trade, and of hostile acts to any of the parties; and to +obtain, by a declaration of the existing state of things, an easier +admission of our rights to the immunities belonging to our situation. +Under these impressions the proclamation which will be laid before you +was issued.</p> + +<p>"In this posture of affairs, both new and delicate, I resolved to +adopt general rules which should conform to the treaties, and assert +the privileges of the United States. These were reduced into a system, +which shall be communicated to you."</p> + +<p>After suggesting those legislative provisions on this subject, the +necessity of which had been pointed out by experience, he proceeded to +say,</p> + +<p>"I can not recommend to your notice measures for the fulfilment of +<i>our</i> duties to the rest of the world, without again pressing upon you +the necessity of placing ourselves in a condition of complete defence, +and of exacting from <i>them</i> the fulfilment of their duties towards us. +The United States ought not to indulge a persuasion that, contrary to +the order of human events, they will forever keep at a distance those +painful appeals to arms with which the history of every nation +abounds. There is a rank due to the United States among nations which +will be withheld, if not absolutely lost, by the reputation of +weakness. If we desire to avoid insult, we must be able to repel it; +if we desire to secure peace—one of the most powerful instruments of +our prosperity—it must be known that we are, at all times, ready for +war."</p> + +<p>These observations were followed by a recommendation to augment the +supply of arms and ammunition in the magazines, and to improve the +militia establishment.</p> + +<p>After referring to a communication to be subsequently made for +occurrences relative to the connexion of the United States with +Europe, which had, he said, become extremely interesting; and after +reviewing Indian affairs, he particularly addressed the house of +representatives. Having presented to them in detail some subjects of +which it was proper they should be informed, he added;—"no pecuniary +consideration is more urgent than the regular redemption and discharge +of the public debt; on none can delay be more injurious, or an economy +of time more valuable.</p> + +<p>"The productiveness of the public revenues hitherto has continued to +be equal to the anticipations which were formed of it; but it is not +expected to prove commensurate with all the objects which have been +suggested. Some auxiliary provisions will therefore, it is presumed, +be requisite; and it is hoped that these may be made consistently with +a due regard to the convenience of our citizens, who can not but be +sensible of the true wisdom of encountering a small present addition +to their contributions, to obviate a future accumulation of burdens."</p> + +<p>The speech was concluded with the following impressive exhortation:</p> + +<p>"The several subjects to which I have now referred, open a wide range +to your deliberations, and involve some of the choicest interests of +our common country. Permit me to bring to your remembrance the +magnitude of your task. Without an unprejudiced coolness, the welfare +of the government may be hazarded; without harmony, as far as consists +with freedom of sentiment, its dignity may be lost. But, as the +legislative proceedings of the United States will never, I trust, be +reproached for the want of temper, or of candour, so shall not the +public happiness languish from the want of my strenuous and warmest +co-operation."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">His message on the subject of the foreign relations of the +United States.</div> + +<p>The day succeeding that on which this speech was delivered, a special +message was sent to both houses, containing some of the promised +communications relative to the connexion of the United States with +foreign powers.</p> + +<p>After suggesting as a motive for this communication that it not only +disclosed "matter of interesting inquiry to the legislature," but, +"might indeed give rise to deliberations to which they alone were +competent;" the President added—"the representative and executive +bodies of France have manifested generally a friendly attachment to +this country; have given advantages to our commerce and navigation; +and have made overtures for placing these advantages on permanent +ground. A decree, however, of the national assembly, subjecting +vessels laden with provisions to be carried into their ports, and +making enemy goods lawful prize in the vessel of a friend, contrary to +our treaty, though revoked at one time as to the United States, has +been since extended to their vessels also, as has been recently stated +to us. Representations on the subject will be immediately given in +charge to our minister there, and the result shall be communicated to +the legislature.</p> + +<p>"It is with extreme concern I have to inform you that the person whom +they have unfortunately appointed their minister plenipotentiary here, +has breathed nothing of the friendly spirit of the nation which sent +him. Their tendency on the contrary has been to involve us in a war +abroad and discord and anarchy at home. So far as his acts, or those +of his agents, have threatened an immediate commitment in the war, or +flagrant insult to the authority of the laws, their effect has been +counteracted by the ordinary cognizance of the laws, and by an +exertion of the powers confided to me. Where their danger was not +imminent, they have been borne with, from sentiments of regard to his +nation, from a sense of their friendship towards us, from a conviction +that they would not suffer us to remain long exposed to the actions of +a person who has so little respected our mutual dispositions, and, I +will add, from a reliance on the firmness of my fellow-citizens in +their principles of peace and order. In the mean time I have respected +and pursued the stipulations of our treaties, according to what I +judged their true sense; and have withheld no act of friendship which +their affairs have called for from us, and which justice to others +left us free to perform. I have gone further. Rather than employ force +for the restitution of certain vessels which I deemed the United +States bound to restore, I thought it more adviseable to satisfy the +parties by avowing it to be my opinion, that, if restitution were not +made, it would be incumbent on the United States to make +compensation."</p> + +<p>The message next proceeded to state that inquiries had been instituted +respecting the vexations and spoliations committed on the commerce of +the United States, the result of which when received would be +communicated.</p> + +<p>The order issued by the British government on the 8th of June, and the +measures taken by the executive of the United States in consequence +thereof, were briefly noticed; and the discussions which had taken +place in relation to the non-execution of the treaty of peace were +also mentioned. The message was then concluded with a reference to the +negotiations with Spain. "The public good," it was said, "requiring +that the present state of these should be made known to the +legislature in confidence only, they would be the subject of a +separate and subsequent communication."</p> + +<p>This message was accompanied with copies of the correspondence between +the secretary of state and the French minister, on the points of +difference which subsisted between the two governments, together with +several documents necessary for the establishment of particular facts; +and with the letter written by Mr. Jefferson to Mr. Morris, which +justified the conduct of the United States by arguments too clear to +be misunderstood, and too strong ever to be encountered.</p> + +<p>The extensive discussions which had taken place relative to the +non-execution of the treaty of peace, and the correspondence produced +by the objectionable measures which had been adopted by the British +government during the existing war, were also laid before the +legislature.</p> + +<p>In a popular government, the representatives of the people may +generally be considered as a mirror, reflecting truly the passions and +feelings which govern their constituents. In the late elections, the +strength of parties had been tried; and the opposition had derived so +much aid from associating the cause of France with its own principles, +as to furnish much reason to suspect that, in one branch of the +legislature at least, it had become the majority. The first act of the +house of representatives served to strengthen this suspicion. By each +party a candidate for the chair was brought forward; and Mr. +Muhlenberg, who was supported by the opposition, was elected by a +majority of ten votes, against Mr. Sedgewick, whom the federalists +supported.</p> + +<p>The answer, however, to the speech of the President, wore no tinge of +that malignant and furious spirit which had infused itself into the +publications of the day. Breathing the same affectionate attachment to +his person and character which had been professed in other times, and +being approved by every part of the house, it indicated that the +leaders, at least, still venerated their chief magistrate, and that no +general intention as yet existed, to involve him in the obloquy +directed against his measures.</p> + +<p>Noticing that unanimous suffrage by which he had been again called to +his present station, "it was," they said, "with equal sincerity and +promptitude they embraced the occasion for expressing to him their +congratulations on so distinguished a testimony of public approbation, +and their entire confidence in the purity and patriotism of the +motives which had produced this obedience to the voice of his country. +It is," proceeded the address, "to virtues which have commanded long +and universal reverence, and services from which have flowed great and +lasting benefits that the tribute of praise may be paid without the +reproach of flattery; and it is from the same sources that the fairest +anticipations may be derived in favour of the public happiness."</p> + +<p>The proclamation of neutrality was approved in guarded terms, and the +topics of the speech were noticed in a manner which indicated +dispositions cordially to co-operate with the executive.</p> + +<p>On the part of the senate also, the answer to the speech was +unfeignedly affectionate. In warm terms they expressed the pleasure +which the re-election of the President gave them. "In the unanimity," +they added, "which a second time marks this important national act, we +trace with particular satisfaction, besides the distinguished tribute +paid to the virtues and abilities which it recognizes, another proof +of that discernment, and constancy of sentiments and views, which have +hitherto characterized the citizens of the United States." Speaking of +the proclamation, they declared it to be "a measure well timed and +wise, manifesting a watchful solicitude for the welfare of the nation, +and calculated to promote it."</p> + +<p>In a few days, a confidential message was delivered, communicating the +critical situation of affairs with Spain. The negotiations attempted +with that power in regard to the interesting objects of boundary, +navigation, and commerce, had been exposed to much delay and +embarrassment, in consequence of the changes which the French +revolution had effected in the political state of Europe. Meanwhile, +the neighborhood of the Spanish colonies to the United States had +given rise to various other subjects of discussion, one of which had +assumed a very serious aspect.</p> + +<p>Having the best reason to suppose that the hostility of the southern +Indians was excited by the agents of Spain, the President had directed +the American commissioners at Madrid to make the proper +representations on the subject, and to propose that each nation +should, with good faith, promote the peace of the other with their +savage neighbours.</p> + +<p>About the same time, the Spanish government entertained, or affected +to entertain, corresponding suspicions of like hostile excitements by +the agents of the United States, to disturb their peace with the same +nations. The representations which were induced by these real or +affected suspicions, were accompanied with pretensions, and made in a +style, to which the American executive could not be inattentive. His +Catholic Majesty asserted these claims as a patron and protector of +those Indians. He assumed a right to mediate between them and the +United States, and to interfere in the establishment of their +boundaries. At length, in the very moment when those savages were +committing daily inroads on the American frontier, at the instigation +of Spain, as was believed, the representatives of that power, +complaining of the aggressions of American citizens on the Indians, +declared "that the continuation of the peace, good harmony, and +perfect friendship of the two nations, was very problematical for the +future, unless the United States should take more convenient measures, +and of greater energy than those adopted for a long time past."</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the zeal and enthusiasm with which the pretensions of +the French republic, as asserted by their minister, continued to be +supported out of doors, they found no open advocate in either branch +of the legislature. That this circumstance is, in a great measure, to +be ascribed to the temperate conduct of the executive, and to the +convincing arguments with which its decisions were supported, ought +not to be doubted. But when it is recollected that the odium which +these decisions excited, sustained no diminution; that the accusation +of hostility to France and to liberty, which originated in them, was +not retracted; that, when afterwards many of the controverted claims +were renewed by France, her former advocates still adhered to her; it +is not unreasonable to suppose that other considerations mingled +themselves with the conviction which the correspondence laid before +the legislature was calculated to produce.</p> + +<p>An attack on the administration could be placed on no ground more +disadvantageous than on its controversy with Mr. Genet. The conduct +and language of that minister were offensive to reflecting men of all +parties. The President had himself taken so decisive a part in favour +of the measures which had been adopted, that they must be ascribed to +him, not to his cabinet; and, of consequence, the whole weight of his +personal character must be directly encountered, in an attempt to +censure those measures. From this censure it would have been difficult +to extricate the person who was contemplated by the party in +opposition as its chief; for the secretary of state had urged the +arguments of the administration with a degree of ability and +earnestness, which ought to have silenced the suspicion that he might +not feel their force.</p> + +<p>The expression of a legislative opinion, in favour of the points +insisted on by the French minister, would probably have involved the +nation in a calamitous war, the whole responsibility for which would +rest on them.</p> + +<p>To these considerations was added another which could not be +disregarded. The party in France, to which Mr. Genet owed his +appointment, had lost its power; and his fall was the inevitable +consequence of the fall of his patrons. That he would probably be +recalled was known in America; and that his conduct had been +disapproved by his government was generally believed. The future +system of the French republic, with regard to the United States, could +not be foreseen; and it would be committing something to hazard, not +to wait its development.</p> + +<p>These objections did not exist to an indulgence of the partialities +and prejudices of the nation towards the belligerent powers, in +measures suggested by its resentment against Great Britain. But, +independent of these considerations, it is scarcely possible to doubt +that congress really approved the conduct of the executive with regard +to France, and was also convinced that a course of hostility had been +pursued by Great Britain, which the national interest and the national +honour required them to repel. In the irritable state of the public +temper, it was not difficult to produce this opinion.</p> + +<p>In addition to the causes of dissatisfaction with Great Britain which +have already been suggested, others soon occurred. Under her auspices, +a truce for one year had been lately negotiated between Portugal and +the Regency of Algiers, which, by withdrawing a small squadron +stationed during the war, by the former power, in the Streights, +opened a passage into the Atlantic to the cruisers of the latter. The +capture of American merchantmen, which was the immediate consequence +of this measure, was believed, in the United States, to have been its +motive. Not admitting the possibility that a desire to extricate +Portugal from a war unproductive of any advantages, and to leave her +maritime force free to act elsewhere, could have induced this +interposition of England, the Americans ascribed it, exclusively, to +that enmity to their commerce, and to that jealousy of its prosperity, +which had, as they conceived, long marked the conduct of those who +administered the affairs of that nation.</p> + +<p>This transaction was afterwards explained by England, and was ascribed +to her desire to serve an ally, and to enable that ally to act more +efficaciously in a common cause.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a name="image03"> +<img src="images/084.jpg" width="370" height="586" alt="George Washington" /></a></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b>George Washington</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p style="text-align: center"><i>From the painting by Charles Willson Peale.</i></p> + +<p><i>In June, 1783, Washington spent some time in Princeton, New Jersey, +whither the Continental Congress had adjourned from Philadelphia in +consequence of a mutiny among the unpaid troops stationed there. On +leaving Princeton the American Commander-in-Chief donated 50 guineas +to the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University. The trustees +spent the money on this portrait and had it put in the frame formerly +occupied by a picture of King George III, which was destroyed by a +cannon ball in the Battle of Princeton. This canvas still hangs in the +Princeton Faculty room.</i></p> + +<p>By Courtesy of Princeton University</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>From governments accustomed to trust rather to artifice, than to force +or to reason, and influenced by vindictive passions which they have +not strength or courage to gratify, hostility may be expected to exert +itself in a cruel insidious policy, which unfeelingly dooms +individuals to chains, and involves them in ruin, without having a +tendency to effect any national object. But the British character +rather wounds by its pride, and offends by its haughtiness, and open +violence, than injures by the secret indulgence of a malignant, but a +paltry and unprofitable revenge: and, certainly, such unworthy motives +ought not lightly to be imputed to a great and magnanimous nation, +which dares to encounter a world, and risk its existence, for the +preservation of its station in the scale of empires, of its real +independence, and of its liberty.</p> + +<p>But, in believing the views of the British cabinet to be unfriendly to +the United States, America was perhaps not entirely mistaken. Indeed, +dispositions of a different nature could not reasonably have been +expected. It may be denied, but can not be disguised, that the +sentiments openly expressed by a great majority of the American +people, warranted the opinion that, notwithstanding the exertions of +the administration, they were about to arrange themselves, in the war, +on the side of France. In a government like that of the United States, +no firmness on the part of the chief magistrate can long resist the +current of popular opinion; and that opinion, without professing it, +unquestionably led to war.</p> + +<p>If the character of the British minister at Philadelphia is to be +collected from his intercourse with the executive of the country to +which he was deputed, there is reason to suppose that his +communications to his own government did not diminish the impression +which the evidence furnished on this subject, by the American people +themselves, was calculated to make. It is therefore not improbable, +whatever may be the permanent views of England respecting the +commercial prosperity of the United States, that the measures of the +British cabinet, about this time, were taken in the belief that war +between the two nations was a probable event.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Report of the secretary of state in relation to the +commerce of the United States.</div> + +<p>Early in the session a report was made by the secretary of state, in +pursuance of a resolution of the house of representatives passed on +the 23d of February, 1791, requiring him "to report to congress the +nature and extent of the privileges and restrictions of the commercial +intercourse of the United States with foreign nations, and the +measures which he should think proper to be adopted for the +improvement of the commerce and navigation of the same."</p> + +<p>This report stated the exports of the United States in articles of +their own produce and manufacture at nineteen millions, five hundred +and eighty-seven thousand, and fifty-five dollars; and the imports at +nineteen millions, eight hundred and twenty-three thousand, and sixty +dollars.</p> + +<p>Of the exports, nearly one-half was carried to the kingdom of Great +Britain and its dominions; of the imports, about four-fifths were +brought from the same countries. The American shipping amounted to two +hundred and seventy-seven thousand, five hundred and nineteen tons, of +which not quite one-sixth was employed in the trade with Great Britain +and its dominions.</p> + +<p>In all the nations of Europe, most of the articles produced in the +United States were subjected to heavy duties, and some of them were +prohibited. In England, the trade of the United States was in the +general on as good a footing as the trade of other countries; and +several articles were more favoured than the same articles of the +growth of other countries.</p> + +<p>The statements and arguments of this report tended to enforce the +policy of making discriminations which might favour the commerce of +the United States with France, and discourage that with England; and +which might promote the increase of American navigation as a branch of +industry, and a resource of defence.</p> + +<p>This was the last official act of the secretary of state. Early in the +preceding summer, he had signified to the President his intention to +retire in September from the public service; and had, with some +reluctance, consented to postpone the execution of this intention to +the close of the year. Retaining his purpose, he resigned his office +on the last day of December.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">He resigns.</div> + +<p>This gentleman withdrew from political station at a moment when he +stood particularly high in the esteem of his countrymen. His +determined opposition to the financial schemes which had been proposed +by the secretary of the treasury, and approved by the legislative and +executive departments of the government; his ardent and undisguised +attachment to the revolutionary party in France; the dispositions +which he was declared to possess in regard to Great Britain; and the +popularity of his opinions respecting the constitution of the United +States; had devoted to him that immense party whose sentiments were +supposed to comport with his, on most, or all of these interesting +subjects. To the opposite party he had, of course, become particularly +unacceptable. But the publication of his correspondence with Mr. Genet +dissipated much of the prejudice which had been excited against him. +He had, in that correspondence, maintained with great ability the +opinions embraced by the federalists on those points of difference +which had arisen between the two republics; and which, having become +universally the subjects of discussion, had in some measure displaced +those topics on which parties were previously divided. The partiality +for France that was conspicuous through the whole of it, detracted +nothing from its merit in the opinion of the friends of the +administration, because, however decided their determination to +support their own government in a controversy with any nation +whatever, they felt all the partialities for that republic which the +correspondence expressed. The hostility of his enemies therefore was, +for a time, considerably lessened, without a corresponding diminution +of the attachment of his friends. It would have been impracticable, in +office, long to preserve these dispositions. And it would have been +difficult to maintain that ascendency which he held over the minds of +those who had supported, and probably would continue to support, every +pretension of the French republic, without departing from principles +and measures which he had openly and ably defended.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Is succeeded by Mr. Randolph.</div> + +<p>He was immediately succeeded by Mr. Edmund Randolph; and the office of +attorney general was filled by Mr. William Bradford, a gentleman of +considerable eminence in Pennsylvania.</p> + +<div class="sidenotey">1794</div> + +<p><a name="p90">On</a> the fourth of January, the house resolved itself into a committee +of the whole, on the report of the secretary of state, relative to the +privileges and restrictions of the commerce of the United States; when +Mr. Madison, after some prefatory observations, laid on the table a +series of resolutions<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> for the consideration of the members.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mr. Madison's resolutions founded on the above report.</div> + +<p>These memorable resolutions embraced almost completely the idea of the +report. They imposed an additional duty on the manufactures, and on +the tonnage of vessels, of nations having no commercial treaty with +the United States; while they reduced the duties already imposed by +law, on the tonnage of vessels belonging to nations having such +commercial treaty: and they reciprocated the restrictions which were +imposed on American navigation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Debate thereon.</div> + +<p>On the 13th of January they were taken into consideration, when the +debate was opened by Mr. Smith of South Carolina.</p> + +<p>After noticing the importance of the subject to the best interests of +the United States, he observed that, being purely commercial in its +nature, he would exclude from the view he should take of it, those +political considerations which some might think connected with it. He +imagined it would be right to dismiss, for the present, all questions +respecting the Indians, Algerines, and western posts. There would be a +time for these questions; and then he should give his opinion upon +them with firmness, and according to what he conceived to be the true +interests of his country. The regulation of commerce gave of itself +sufficient scope for argument, without mixing it with extraneous +matter.</p> + +<p>After some general observations on the delicacy of the crisis, and on +the claims of the resolutions to dispassionate investigation, he +proceeded to consider the report on which they were founded.</p> + +<p>The great object of that report being to establish a contrast between +France and Britain, he would request the attention of the committee to +an accurate statement of facts, which, being compared with the report, +would enable them to decide on the justness of its inferences.</p> + +<p>In the opinion that any late relaxations of the French republic were +produced by interests too momentary and fluctuating to be taken as the +basis of calculations for a permanent system, he should present a +comparative view of the commerce of the United States to those +countries, as it stood anterior to the revolution of France. For this +purpose, he produced a table which had been formed by a person whose +commercial information was highly respectable, from which he said it +would appear, notwithstanding the plaudits so generally bestowed on +the justice and liberality of the one nation, and the reproaches +uttered against the other, that, with the exception of the trifling +article of fish oil, the commerce of the United States was not more +favoured in France than in Great Britain, and was, in many important +articles, more favoured by the latter power, than that of other +nations.</p> + +<p>Mr. Smith then reviewed, in detail, the advantages and disadvantages +attending the sale of the great products of America in the ports of +each nation, which, he conceived, were more encouraged by the British +than by the French market.</p> + +<p>A comparative statement, he added, of the value of the exports of the +two countries, would assist in confirming this opinion.</p> + +<p>The value of the exports to Great Britain, at the close of the year +ending with September, 1789, was nearly double those made to France in +the same period: and even the average of the years 1790, 1791 and +1792, gave an annual excess to the exports to Great Britain of three +millions, seven hundred and fifty-two thousand, seven hundred and +sixty dollars.</p> + +<p>The great amount of merchandise imported from Britain, instead of +being a grievance, demonstrated, in the opinion of Mr. Smith, the +utility of the trade with that country. For the extent of the +intercourse between the two nations, several obvious reasons might be +assigned. Britain was the first manufacturing country in the world, +and was more able, than any other, to supply an assortment of those +articles which were required in the United States. She entitled +herself, too, to the preference which was given her, by the extensive +credit she afforded. To a young country wanting capital, credit was of +immense advantage. It enabled them to flourish by the aid of foreign +capital, the use of which had, more than any other circumstance, +nourished the industry of America.</p> + +<p>By the advocates for forcing a trade with France, it was asserted that +she could supply the wants of America on better terms than Great +Britain. To do this, she must not only sell cheaper, but give credit, +which, it was known her merchants either could not, or would not give.</p> + +<p>The very necessity of laying a duty on British manufactures, in order +to find a sale for those of other countries, was a proof that the +first could be purchased on better terms, or were better adapted to +the market.</p> + +<p>If the object of the resolutions were the encouragement of domestic +manufactures, there might be some semblance of argument in their +favour. But this is not contemplated. Their avowed object is to turn +the course of trade from one nation to another, by means which would +subject the citizens of the United States to great inconvenience.</p> + +<p>Mr. Smith next proceeded to consider the subject with a view to +navigation.</p> + +<p>The trade of the United States to Great Britain, for the +transportation of their own produce, was as free in American as in +British bottoms, a few trifling port charges excepted. In France, they +enjoyed the advantages granted to the most favoured nation. Thus far +the comparison was in favour of Great Britain. In the West Indies, he +admitted the existence of a different state of things. All American +bottoms were excluded from the British islands, with the exception of +Turks island. In the French islands, vessels under sixty tons were +admitted, but this advantage was common to all other nations.</p> + +<p>The effect of the difference in the regulations of the two rival +nations in respect of navigation, was not so considerable as the +secretary of state had supposed. He had stated the tonnage employed in +the intercourse with France and her colonies, at 116,410 tons; and +that employed in the commerce with Great Britain at 43,580 tons. The +secretary was led into this miscalculation by taking for his guide, +the actual entries of American bottoms from the dominions of each +country in the year. As four voyages are made to the West Indies, +while only two are made to Europe, the vessels employed in the former +traffic will be counted four times in the year, and those employed in +the latter will be counted only twice in the same period. The +deceptiveness of the calculations made from these data had induced a +call on the secretary of the treasury for an account of the actual +tonnage employed in trade with foreign nations for one year. This +account shows that France employs 82,510 tons, and Great Britain +66,582 tons, of American shipping; leaving in favour of France, an +excess of 15,928, instead of 72,830 tons, as reported by the secretary +of state.</p> + +<p>From this comparative view taken of the regulations of the two +nations, Mr. Smith conceived himself justified in saying, that the +commercial system of Great Britain towards the United States, far from +being hostile, was friendly; and that she made many discriminations in +their favour. France, on the contrary, placed them on a better +situation than her rival, only in one solitary instance, the +unimportant article of fish oil.</p> + +<p>If this be a true picture of the existing state of things, and he +could not perceive in what it was defective, was it not time, he +asked, that the deceptions practised on the people by the eulogists of +France and the revilers of Great Britain, should be removed?</p> + +<p>The resolutions were supported by Mr. Madison, Mr. Findley, Mr. +Nicholas, Mr. Clarke, Mr. Smiley, Mr. Moore, and Mr. Giles.</p> + +<p>They admitted the subject before the committee to be of a commercial +nature, but conceived it to be impracticable to do justice to the +interests of the United States, without some allusions to politics. +The question was in some measure general. They were to inquire how far +it was the interest of this country by commercial regulations to vary +the state of commerce now existing. They were of opinion that most of +the injuries proceeding from Great Britain were inflicted for the +promotion of her commercial objects, and were to be remedied by +commercial resistance. The Indian war, and the Algerine attack, +originated both in commercial views, or Great Britain must stand +without excuse for instigating the most horrid cruelties. The +propositions before the committee were the strongest weapon America +possessed, and would, more probably than any other, restore her to all +her political and commercial rights. They professed themselves the +friends of free trade, and declared the opinion that it would be to +the general advantage, if all commerce was free. But this rule was not +without its exceptions. The navigation act of Great Britain was a +proof of the effect of one exception on the prosperity of national +commerce. The effect produced by that act was equally rapid and +extensive.</p> + +<p>There is another exception to the advantages of a free trade, where +the situation of a country is such with respect to another, that by +duties on the commodities of that other, it shall not only invigorate +its own means of rivalship, but draw from that other the hands +employed in the production of those commodities. When such an effect +can be produced, it is so much clear gain, and is consistent with the +general theory of national rights.</p> + +<p>The effect of leaving commerce to regulate itself is to submit it to +the regulation of other nations. If the United States had a commercial +intercourse with one nation only, and should permit a free trade, +while that nation proceeded on a monopolizing system, would not the +carrying trade be transferred to that nation, and with it, the +maritime strength it confers be heaped upon a rival? Then, in the same +proportion to the freedom granted to the vessels of other nations in +the United States, and to the burdens other nations impose on American +vessels, will be the transfer of those maritime resources.</p> + +<p>The propositions before the committee should be examined as they +concern navigation, manufactures, and the just principles of +discrimination that ought to prevail in their policy to nations having +treaties with them.</p> + +<p>With respect to navigation, it was conceded that they were not placed +upon the same footing by the two nations with whom they had the +greatest commercial intercourse. British vessels could bring the +produce of all countries into any port of the United States; while +American vessels could carry to the ports of Britain only their own +commodities, and those only to a part of her dominions. From her ports +in the West Indies they were entirely excluded.</p> + +<p>To exhibit at a glance the effect of the British navigation act, it +was sufficient to compare the quantity of American and British tonnage +employed in their intercourse with each other. The former in 1790 +amounted to 43,000 tons, and the latter to 240,000 tons. The effect of +British policy would be further shown by showing the proportion of +domestic tonnage employed at the same time in the intercourse with +other European nations. With Spain the American was to the Spanish as +five to one, with Portugal six to one, Netherlands fifteen to one, +Denmark twelve to one, France five to one, Great Britain one to five. +This ratio had by particular circumstances been somewhat changed. From +calculations founded on the documents last introduced into the house, +it appeared that, at present, the proportion of American to foreign +tonnage employed in the American trade was, with Spain as sixteen to +one, Portugal seventeen to one, Netherlands twenty-six to one, Denmark +fifteen to one, Russia fourteen to one, France between four and five +to one, and Great Britain one to three.</p> + +<p>The situation of American commerce was the more mortifying when the +nature and amount of their exports came to be considered. They were +not only necessaries of life, or necessaries for manufactures, and +therefore of life to the manufacturer, but their bulkiness gave them +an advantage over the exports of every other country. If America, to +increase her maritime strength, should secure to herself the +transportation of her own commodities, leaving to other nations the +transportation of theirs, it would greatly augment the proportion of +her shipping and of her sailors.</p> + +<p>In relation to manufactures, the regulations existing between the +United States and Great Britain were not more equal. Out of the whole +amount of manufactured articles imported into this country, which was +stated in round numbers at fifteen millions, two hundred and ninety +thousand dollars, Great Britain furnished thirteen millions, nine +hundred and sixty thousand. In the same period, in the year 1789-90, +the articles which the United States received from France, a country +which actually consumed more of their produce, amounted only to one +hundred and fifty-five thousand dollars. The balance of trade, at the +same epoch, was greatly in favour of the United States with every +other nation, and greatly against them with Britain. Although it might +happen in some cases, that other advantages might be derived from an +intercourse with a particular nation, which might compensate for an +unfavourable balance of trade, it was impossible that this could +happen in the intercourse with Great Britain. Other nations, however, +viewed a balance of trade against them as a real evil; and Great +Britain, in particular, was careful to prevent it. What then must be +the feelings of a nation, between whom and the United States the most +friendly relations existed, when she saw, not only the balance of +trade against her, but that what was thus obtained from her, flowed in +the same manner into the coffers of one of her most jealous rivals, +and inveterate enemies?</p> + +<p>The propriety of discriminating between nations having treaties with +the United States, and those having none, was admitted in some states +before the establishment of the present government, and was sanctioned +by that house during their sittings in New York. It was the practice +of nations to make such a discrimination. It was necessary to give +value to treaties.</p> + +<p>The disadvantages of depending on a single nation for articles of +necessary consumption was strongly pressed; and it was added as an +evil of most serious magnitude, more truly alarming than any other of +its features, that this commercial dependence produced an influence in +their councils which enabled it, the more inconvenient it became by +its constant growth, to throw the more obstacles in the way of a +necessary remedy.</p> + +<p>They entertained no apprehensions of injurious consequences from +adopting the proposed resolutions. The interests of Great Britain +would not suffer her to retaliate: and the intercourse between the two +countries would not be interrupted further than was required by the +convenience and the interests of the United States. But if Great +Britain should retaliate, the effects of a commercial conflict would +be felt by her, much more sensibly, than by the United States. Its +effects would be felt in the shipping business, by the merchants, and +above all by the manufacturer.</p> + +<p>Calculations were offered, by comparing the total amount of British +exports with those to the United States, to prove, that three hundred +thousand British manufacturers would be suddenly thrown out of +employment, by withdrawing the trade carried on between America and +that country. In the complication of distress to which such a measure +would reduce them, they would consider the United States as a natural +asylum from wretchedness. But whether they remained in discontent at +home, or sought their fortune abroad, the evil would be considered and +felt by the British government as equally great, and they would surely +beware of taking any step that might provoke it.</p> + +<p>On the advantages of America in such a contest with a populous and +manufacturing country, they dwelt with peculiar earnestness. She +produced all the necessaries of life within herself, and could +dispense with the articles received from others. But Great Britain, +not producing them in sufficient abundance, was dependent on the +United States for the supply of her most essential wants. Again, the +manufacturer of that country was dependent on this for the sale of his +merchandise which was to purchase his bread. Thus was produced a +double dependence of Great Britain on the United States. She was also +dependent on them for the raw materials which formed the basis of her +manufactures. Her West Indies were almost completely dependent. This +country furnished the best market for their productions, and was +almost the only one which could supply them with the necessaries of +life. The regulation excluding the provisions of other foreign +countries was entitled to no consideration. It was of ancient date, +and had remained untouched because there was no other foreign country +by which provisions could be supplied.</p> + +<p>That the commercial regulations of Great Britain were as favourable to +the United States as to other nations, ought not to satisfy America. +If other nations were willing to bear impositions, or were unable to +retaliate, their examples were not worthy of imitation. America was in +a condition to insist, and ought to insist, on perfect commercial +equality.</p> + +<p>It was denied that any real advantage was derived from the extensive +credit given by the merchants of Great Britain. On the contrary, the +use made of British capital was pronounced a great political evil. It +increased the unfavourable balance of trade, discouraged domestic +manufactures, and promoted luxury. But its greatest mischief was, that +it favoured a system of British influence, which was dangerous to +their political security.</p> + +<p>As the debate advanced, the expressions of exasperation against +Britain became stronger; and occasionally allusions were made to those +party questions which had long agitated the public mind, with a +bitterness which marked their intimate connexion with the conduct of +the United States to foreign countries.</p> + +<p>It was said to be proper in deciding the question under debate, to +take into view political, as well as commercial considerations. Ill +will and jealousy had at all times been the predominant features of +the conduct of England to the United States. That government had +grossly violated the treaty of peace, had declined a commercial +treaty, had instigated the Indians to raise the tomahawk and scalping +knife against American citizens, had let loose the Algerines upon +their unprotected commerce, and had insulted their flag, and pillaged +their trade in every quarter of the world. These facts being +notorious, it was astonishing to hear gentlemen ask how had Britain +injured their commerce?</p> + +<p>The conduct of France, on the contrary, had been warm and friendly. +That nation respected American rights, and had offered to enter into +commercial arrangements on the liberal basis of perfect reciprocity.</p> + +<p>The period which Mr. Smith had taken as that at which the systems of +the two nations should be compared with each other, was reprobated +with peculiar severity. It was insinuated to proceed from a wish that +the United States should directly countenance the restoration of +despotism; and much regret was expressed that a distrust of the +permanency of the French revolution should be avowed. It was hoped and +believed that the present was the settled state of things; and that +the old order of things was unsettled for ever: that the French +revolution was as much more permanent than had been the French +despotism, as was the great fabric of nature, than the petty plastic +productions of art. To exclude the period since the revolution, would +be to exclude some of the strongest evidences of the friendship of one +nation, and the enmity of the other.</p> + +<p>The animadversions which had been made on the report of the secretary +of state were retorted with acrimony. It was declared that he would +not suffer by a comparison in point of intelligence, accuracy, and +patriotism, either with the laborious compiler of the table produced +by Mr. Smith, or with the gentleman who had been judiciously selected +for its interpreter. Some explanations were given of the inaccuracies +which had been alleged; and the facts omitted were declared to be +immaterial circumstances, which, if inserted, would have swelled the +report, without adding to the information it communicated.</p> + +<p>In reply to the argument which stated that Great Britain did not, in +common years, raise a sufficient quantity of grain for her own +consumption, and would consequently afford an increasing market for +American wheat and flour, it was remarked that this not only +established the all important position of the dependence of that +country on this, but suggested a very interesting reflection. It was +that the continual increase of debt and paper machinery, will not +produce a correspondent increase of ability in the nation to feed +itself. That an infinity of paper will not produce an infinity of +food.</p> + +<p>In contrasting the ability of the two nations to support a commercial +conflict, it was said, "Great Britain, tottering under the weight of a +king, a court, a nobility, a priesthood, armies, navies, debts, and +all the complicated machinery of oppression which serves to increase +the number of unproductive, and lessen the number of productive hands; +at this moment engaged in a foreign war; taxation already carried to +the ultimatum of financial device; the ability of the people already +displayed in the payment of taxes, constituting a political +phenomenon; all prove the debility of the system, and the decreptitude +of old age. On the other hand, the United States, in the flower of +youth; increasing in hands; increasing in wealth; and, although an +imitative policy had unfortunately prevailed in the erection of a +funded debt, in the establishment of an army, the anticipation of a +navy,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> and all the paper machinery for increasing the number of +unproductive, and lessening the number of productive hands; yet the +operation of natural causes has, as yet, in some degree, countervailed +their influence, and still furnish a great superiority in comparison +with Great Britain."</p> + +<p>An attempt was made to liken the present situation of America to that +in which she stood at the commencement of her revolutionary war; and +the arguments drawn from the inconvenience to which a privation of +British manufactures would expose the people at large were answered by +observing—"This was not the language of America at the time of the +non-importation association; this was not her language at the time of +the declaration of independence. Whence then this change of American +sentiment? Has America less ability than she then had? Is she less +prepared for a national trial than she then was? This can not be +pretended. There is, it is true, one great change in her political +situation. America has now a funded debt: she had no funded debt at +those glorious epochs. May not this change of sentiment, therefore, be +looked for in her change of situation in this respect? May it not be +looked for in the imitative sympathetic organization of our funds with +the British funds? May it not be looked for in the indiscriminate +participation of citizens and foreigners in the emoluments of the +funds? May it not be looked for in the wishes of some to assimilate +the government of the United States to that of Great Britain? or at +least, in wishes for a more intimate connexion?</p> + +<p>"If these causes exist, it is not difficult to find the source of the +national debility. It is not difficult to see that the interests of +the few, who receive and disburse the public contributions, are more +respected than the interest of the great majority of the society, who +furnish the contributions. It is not difficult to see that the +government, instead of legislating for a few millions, is legislating +for a few thousands; and that the sacredness of their rights is the +great obstacle to a great national exertion."</p> + +<p>In addition to Mr. Smith, of South Carolina, the resolutions were +opposed by Mr. Smith, of Maryland, Mr. Goodhue, Mr. Lea, Mr. Dexter, +Mr. Ames, Mr. Dayton, Mr. Hartley, Mr. Tracy, Mr. Hillhouse, Mr. +Forest, Mr. Fitzsimmons, and Mr. Foster.</p> + +<p>If, it was said, the United States had sustained political wrongs from +Great Britain, they should feel as keenly as any persons for the +prostrated honour of their country; but this was not the mode of +redressing them. When that subject should be brought before congress, +they would not be slow in taking such measures as the actual state of +things might require. But they did not approve of retaliating injuries +under the cloak of commercial regulations. Independent of other +objections, it would derogate from the dignity of the American +character.</p> + +<p>The resolutions, it was said, ought to be contemplated commercially; +and the influence they would probably have on the United States, +deliberately weighed. If they were adopted, it ought to be because +they would promote the interests of America, not because they would +benefit one foreign nation, and injure another. It was an old adage +that there was no friendship in trade. Neither ought there to be any +hatred. These maxims should not be forgotten in forming a judgment on +the propositions before the committee. Their avowed objects were to +favour the navigation and the manufactures of the United States, and +their probable operation on these objects ought to be considered.</p> + +<p>It had been said that the American tonnage ought to bear the same +proportion to the foreign tonnage employed in her trade, as exists +between the bulk of her exports and imports. But the correctness of +this principle was not admitted. The fact was otherwise, and it was +not believed to be an evil.</p> + +<p>Great Britain carries for other nations from necessity. Her situation +is calculated for navigation. Her country is fully peopled, so full +that the ground is not sufficient to furnish bread for the whole. +Instead, therefore, of ploughing the earth for subsistence, her +subjects are obliged to plough the ocean. The defence of their coasts +has been another cause which obliges them to abandon the more +lucrative pursuits of agriculture, to provide for their defence. They +have been compelled to sacrifice profit to safety.</p> + +<p>The United States possessed a fertile, extensive, and unsettled +country; and it might well be questioned how far their real interests +would be promoted by forcing a further acceleration of the growth of +their marine, by impelling their citizens from the cultivation of the +soil to the navigation of the ocean. The measures already adopted had +been very operative; and it was by no means certain that an additional +stimulus would be advantageous. The increased duty on foreign tonnage, +and on goods imported in foreign bottoms, had already been attended +with sensible effects. In 1790, the American tonnage was one-half the +whole tonnage employed in their trade: in 1791, it was three-fifths: +in 1792, it had increased to two-thirds. This growth was believed to +be sufficiently rapid. It was more rapid than the growth of British +tonnage had ever been under the fostering care of their celebrated +navigation act. Let the existing system be left to its natural +operation, and it was believed that it would give to the United States +that share in the carriage of their commodities, which it was their +interest to take.</p> + +<p>But if a different opinion prevailed, and it was conceived that +additional encouragement ought to be given to navigation, then let the +duty on all foreign bottoms be increased, and let the particular +disabilities to which American vessels are subjected in any country, +be precisely retaliated. The discriminations proposed, instead of +increasing American navigation, were calculated to encourage the +navigation of one foreign nation at the expense of another.</p> + +<p>The United States did not yet possess shipping sufficient for the +exportation of their produce. The residue must reach a market in +foreign bottoms, or rot upon their hands. They were advancing to a +different state of things; but, in the mean time, they ought to pursue +their interest, and employ those vessels which would best answer their +purpose. The attempt to make it their interest to employ the vessels +of France rather than those of Britain, by discriminating duties which +must enhance the price of freight, was a premium to the vessels of the +favourite nation, paid by American agriculture.</p> + +<p>The navigation act of Great Britain had been made a subject of heavy +complaint. But that act was not particularly directed against the +United States. It had been brought into operation while they were yet +colonies, and was not more unfavourable to them than to others. To its +regulations, Great Britain was strongly attached; and it was not +probable that America could compel her to relinquish them. +Calculations were made on the proportion of British manufactures +consumed in America, from which it was inferred that her trade, though +important, was not sufficiently important to force that nation to +abandon a system which she considered as the basis of her grandeur. In +the contest, considerable injury would be unquestionably sustained; +and nothing was perceived in the situation of the United States, which +should induce them to stand forth the champions of the whole +commercial world, in order to compel the change of a system, in which +all other nations had acquiesced. But if they were to engage in such a +contest, it was by a similar act, by opposing disabilities to +disabilities, that it ought to be carried on. Upon this point, several +members who were opposed to the resolutions, avowed an opinion +favourable to an American navigation act, and expressed their +willingness to concur in framing regulations which meet the +prohibitions imposed on their vessels with corresponding prohibitions. +Thus far they were ready to go; but they were not ready to engage in a +contest injurious to themselves, for the benefit of a foreign nation.</p> + +<p>Another avowed object of the resolutions was to favour the +manufactures of the United States. But certainly it was not by +discriminating duties, by endeavouring to shift commerce from one +channel to another, that American manufactures were to be promoted. +This was to be done by pursuing the course already adopted, by laying +protecting duties on selected articles, in the manufacture of which +America had made some progress; and by a prohibitory duty on others, +of which a sufficient domestic supply could be afforded. But the +proposed measure only went to the imposition of a tax on their own +citizens, for the benefit of a foreign nation.</p> + +<p>If the British market afforded an assortment of goods best suited to +their consumption, and could give them cheaper, a prohibitory duty +imposed upon those goods would only drive their citizens to seek them +in another market, less able to supply their wants, and at a dearer +rate. There was nothing in this tending to encourage manufactures.</p> + +<p>If the United States were prepared to manufacture to the whole amount +of their wants, the importation of all rival articles might be +prohibited. But this they were not prepared to do. Their manufactures +must advance by slow degrees; and they were not to enter into a +measure of this kind, for the purpose of retaliating on a nation which +had not commercially injured them.</p> + +<p>The resolutions then were adapted to the encouragement neither of the +navigation, nor the manufactures of the United States, but of a +foreign nation. Their effect would obviously be to force trade to +change its natural course, by discriminations against a nation which +had in no instance discriminated against the United States, but had +favoured them in many points of real importance. By what commercial +considerations could such a system be recommended?</p> + +<p>That it would be attended with great immediate inconveniences must be +admitted; but for these, ample compensation, it had been said, was to +be found in its remote advantages. These were, a diminution of +American commerce with one nation, by its proportional augmentation +with another; and a repeal of the navigation act, and of the colonial +system of Great Britain.</p> + +<p>On the subject of forcing trade from one nation to another, which is, +of necessity, so complicated in principle, so various and invisible in +consequence, the legislature should never act but with the utmost +caution. They should constantly keep in view, that trade will seek its +own markets, find its own level, and regulate itself much better than +it could be regulated by law. Although the government might embarrass +it, and injure their own citizens, and even foreign nations, for a +while, it would eventually rise above all the regulations they could +make. Merchants, if left to themselves, would always find the best +markets. They would buy as cheap and sell as dear as possible. Why +drive them from those markets into others which were less +advantageous? If trade with Britain was less free, or less profitable, +than with France, the employment of coercive means to force it into +French channels would be unnecessary. It would voluntarily run in +them. That violence must be used in order to change its course, +demonstrated that it was in its natural course.</p> + +<p>It was extraordinary to hear gentlemen complaining of British +restrictions on American commerce, and at the same time stating her +proportion of that commerce as a national grievance, and that the +trade was so free as to become an injury. The very circumstance that +she retained so large a share of it, was evidence that it did not +experience in her ports unusual burdens. Whenever greater advantages +were offered by other countries, there would be no need of legislative +interference to induce the merchants to embrace them. That portion of +trade would go to each country, for which the circumstances of each +were calculated. If Great Britain purchased more American produce than +she consumed, it was because, all circumstances considered, it was the +interest of America to sell her more than she consumed. While this +interest continued, no mischief could result from the fact; when the +cause should cease, the effect would cease also, without the +intervention of the legislature.</p> + +<p>It was very improbable that the resolutions under consideration would +effect their other avowed object, a repeal of the British navigation +act.</p> + +<p>The season, it was said, was peculiarly unfavourable to such +experiments. The internal convulsions of France had laid her +manufactures in ruins. She was not in a condition to supply her own +wants, much less those of the United States. The superb column erected +at Lyons could furnish no stimulus to the industry of her +manufacturers.</p> + +<p>But the attempt to stop the natural intercourse between the United +States and Great Britain, though incapable of producing on the latter +the full effect which was desired, might inflict deep and lasting +wounds on the most essential interests of the former. The injuries +which their agriculture would sustain from the measure, might be long +and severely felt.</p> + +<p>It had been proudly stated, that while America received articles which +might be dispensed with, she furnished in return the absolute +necessaries of life; she furnished bread, and raw materials for +manufactures. "One would think," said Mr. Tracy, "to hear the +declarations in this house, that all men were fed at the opening of +our hand; and, if we shut that hand, the nations starve, and if we but +shake the fist after it is shut, they die." And yet one great +objection to the conduct of Britain was, her prohibitory duty on the +importation of bread stuff while it was under a certain price.</p> + +<p>Nothing could be more deceptive than the argument founded on the +nature of American exports. What, it was asked, would be done with the +surplus produce of the United States? Was it to remain in the country, +and rot upon the hands of those who raised it? If not, if it was to be +exported, it would find its way to the place of demand. Food would +search out those who needed it; and the raw material would be carried +to the manufacturer whose labour could give it value.</p> + +<p>But there was a much more serious aspect in which this subject ought +to be placed. The products of America grew in other soils than hers. +The demands for them might be supplied by other countries. Indeed, in +some instances, articles usually obtained from the United States would +be excluded by a fair competition with the same articles furnished by +other countries. The discriminations made in their favour enabled them +to obtain a preference in the British market. By withholding those +which were of the growth of the United States, Great Britain would not +lose the article, but America would lose the market; and a formidable +rival would be raised up, who would last much longer than the +resolutions under consideration. It is easy by commercial regulations +to do much mischief, and difficult to retrieve losses. It is +impossible to foresee all evils which may arise out of such measures; +and their effects may last after the cause is removed.</p> + +<p>The opponents of the resolutions persisted to consider the credit +given by British merchants, as a solid advantage to any country which, +like the United States, was defective in commercial capital; but they +denied that, from that source, any political influence had arisen. +"If," said Mr. Tracy, "we may argue from a great state, Virginia, to +the union, this is not true; for although that state owes immense +debts, her representatives come forward with great spirit to bring +Great Britain to her feet. The people to the eastward do not owe the +English merchants, and are very generally opposed to these +regulations. These facts must convince us that the credit given by +Great Britain, does not operate to produce a fear, and a dependence, +which can be alarming to government."</p> + +<p>"If," said Mr. Dexter, "I have a predilection for any country besides +my own, that bias is in favour of France, the place of my father's +sepulture. No one, more than myself, laments the spasm of patriotism +which convulses that nation, and hazards the cause of freedom; but I +shall not suffer the torrent of love or hatred to sweep me from my +post. I am sent neither to plead the cause of France nor England, but +am delegated as a guardian of the rights and interests of America."</p> + +<p>The speakers against the resolutions universally laboured to exclude +from all weight in the decision on them, considerations which were +foreign to the interests of the United States. "The discussion of this +subject," said Mr. Tracy, "has assumed an appearance which must be +surprising to a stranger, and painful in the extreme to ourselves. The +supreme legislature of the United States is seriously deliberating, +not upon the welfare of our own citizens, but upon the relative +circumstances of two European nations; and this deliberation has not +for its object, the relative benefits of their markets to us, but +which form of government is best and most like our own, which people +feel the greatest affection for us, and what measures we can adopt +which will best humble one and exalt the other.</p> + +<p>"The primary motive of these resolutions, as acknowledged by their +defenders, is, not the increase of our agriculture, manufactures, or +navigation, but to humble Great Britain and build up France; and +although it is said our manufactures and navigation may receive some +advantage, it is only mentioned as a substitute in case of failure as +to the great object.</p> + +<p>"The discussion in favour of these resolutions has breathed nothing +but hostility and revenge against the English; and yet <i>they</i> put on +the mild garb of commercial regulations. Legislatures, always cautious +of attempting to force trade from its own channels and habits, should +certainly be peculiarly cautious, when they do undertake such +business, to set about it with temperance and coolness; but in this +debate, we are told of the inexecution of a former treaty, withholding +western posts, insults and dominations of a haughty people, that +through the agency of Great Britain the savages are upon us on one +side, and the Algerines on the other. The mind is roused by a group of +evils, and then called upon to consider a statement of duties on goods +imported from foreign countries. If the subject is commercial, why not +treat it commercially, and attend to it with coolness? if it is a +question of political hostility, or of war, a firmer tone may be +adopted."</p> + +<p>On this side of the question, the conduct of Great Britain, if as +hostile as it was represented to be, was spoken of with high +indignation. "If," said Mr. Tracy, "these statements are founded in +fact, I can not justify myself to my constituents, or my conscience, +in saying the adoption of the regulations of commerce, a navigation +act, or the whole parade of shutting ports, and freeing trade from its +shackles, is in any degree calculated to meet or remedy the evil.</p> + +<p>"Although I deprecate war as the worst of calamities for my country, +yet I would inquire seriously whether we had on our part, fulfilled +the treaty with Great Britain, and would do complete justice to them +first. I would negotiate as long and as far as patience ought to go; +and, if I found an obstinate denial of justice, I would then lay the +hand of force upon the western posts, and would teach the world that +the United States were no less prompt in commanding justice to be done +them, than they had been patient and industrious in attempting to +obtain it by fair and peaceable means. In this view of the subject I +should be led to say, away with your milk and water regulations; they +are too trifling to effect objects of such importance. Are the +Algerines to be frightened with paper resolves, or the Indians to be +subdued, or the western posts taken, by commercial regulations? when +we consider the subject merely as a commercial one, it goes too far, +and attempts too much; but when considered as a war establishment, it +falls infinitely short of the mark, and does too little."</p> + +<p>This earnest and interesting debate was protracted to a great length, +and was conducted on both sides with great spirit and eloquence. At +length, on the third of February, the question was taken on the first +resolution, which was carried by a majority of five. The further +consideration of the resolutions was then postponed until the first +Monday in March.</p> + +<p>This animated debate was succeeded by another, on a question which +also brought into full view, the systems that were embraced by the +opposite parties, on some of those great national subjects which give +a character to an administration.</p> + +<p>On the second of January, a resolution was agreed to in the house of +representatives declaring "that a naval force adequate to the +protection of the commerce of the United States against the Algerine +corsairs, ought to be provided." The force proposed was to consist of +six frigates; four of forty-four, and two of thirty-six guns.</p> + +<p>This measure was founded on the communications of the President, +representing the improbability of being able to negotiate a peace with +the dey of Algiers; and on undoubted information that the corsairs of +that regency had, during their first short cruise in the Atlantic, +captured eleven American merchantmen, and made upwards of one hundred +prisoners; and were preparing to renew their attack on the unprotected +vessels of the United States.</p> + +<p>In every stage of its progress this bill was most strenuously opposed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Debates on the subject of a navy.</div> + +<p>The measure was viewed simply as a present protection to commerce, and +then as the commencement of a permanent naval establishment. In both +characters it was reprobated with extreme severity.</p> + +<p>As a measure of protection, it was declared to be altogether +incompetent to the attainment of its object, because the force +contemplated was insufficient, and because it could not be brought +into immediate use. The measure, therefore, would be totally +inefficacious.</p> + +<p>But the object might be effected by other means, more eligible, and +less expensive. By proper management, and a due attention to time and +circumstances, a peace might be procured with money.</p> + +<p>Nations possessing a naval force greatly superior to the proposed +armament, had found it to their advantage to purchase the friendship +of the Algerines. That mode of procuring peace was recommended both by +its efficacy, and its economy. Unless the object was obtained, the +money would not be expended.</p> + +<p>Another mode of giving security to their commerce, preferable to the +plan in the bill, was to purchase the protection of foreign powers. +This might be acquired at a less expense than would be incurred in +fitting out the proposed armament, and its utility would be immediate.</p> + +<p>But the measure was also to be considered as the commencement of a +permanent navy. The question which this view of it presented, was one +of the most important that could engage the consideration of the +house. The adoption of the principle would involve a complete +dereliction of the policy of discharging the public debt. History +afforded no instance of a nation which continued to increase its navy, +and at the same time to decrease its debt.</p> + +<p>To the expensiveness of the navy system were ascribed the oppression +under which the people of England groaned, the overthrow of the French +monarchy, and the dangers which threatened that of Great Britain. The +expensiveness of the government was the true ground of the oppression +of the people. The king, the nobility, the priesthood, the <i>army</i>, and +above all, the navy. All this machinery lessens the number of +productive, and increases the number of unproductive hands in the +nation.</p> + +<p>The United States had already advanced full far enough in this system. +In addition to the civil list, they had funded a debt on the +principles of duration, had raised an army at an immense expense, and +now a proposition was made for a navy.</p> + +<p>The system of governing by debts, was the most refined system of +tyranny. It seemed to be a contrivance devised by politicians to +succeed the old system of feudal tenures. Both were tyrannical, but +the objects of their tyranny were different. The one operated on the +person, the other operates on the pockets of the individual. The +feudal lord was satisfied with the acknowledgment of the tenant that +he was a slave, and the rendition of a pepper corn as an evidence of +it; the product of his labour was left for his own support. The system +of debts affords no such indulgence. Its true policy is to devise +objects of expense, and to draw the greatest possible sum from the +people in the least visible mode. No device can facilitate the system +of debts and expense so much as a navy; and they should hold the +liberty of the American people at a lower rate, should this policy be +adopted.</p> + +<p>Another great objection to the establishment of a navy was, that until +the United States should be able to contend with the great maritime +powers on the ocean, it would be a hostage, to its full value, for +their good behaviour. It would increase rather than lessen their +dependence.</p> + +<p>In reply, it was said that if it had been the intention of the house +to incur a vast expense in the establishment of a navy for vain +parade, there might be force in some of the objections which had been +made. But this was not the case. It was a measure, not of choice, but +of necessity. It was extorted by the pressure of unavoidable events.</p> + +<p>It being universally admitted that their commerce required protection +against the Algerine corsairs, the question was, simply, whether the +plan proposed in the bill was the best mode of affording that +protection.</p> + +<p>To decide this question, it would be proper to consider the +substitutes which had been offered; and then to review the objections +which had been made to the measure.</p> + +<p>The substitutes were, first, to purchase a peace; and secondly, to +subsidize other nations to protect commerce.</p> + +<p>On the first substitute, it was said that the late communications must +satisfy every person who had attended to them, that all hope of +purchasing a peace must be abandoned, unless there was a manifestation +of some force which might give effect to negotiation. So long as the +vessels of the United States remained an easy and tempting prey to the +cupidity of those corsairs, it would be vain to expect that they would +sell a peace for the price the government would be willing to give, or +that a peace would be of any duration. If the executive had +experienced such difficulties while the Algerine cruisers had captured +only one or two vessels, and were confined to the Mediterranean by a +Portuguese squadron, how much less prospect was there of success after +they had captured a considerable number of ships, were likely to +capture many more, and were at liberty to cruise on the Atlantic to +the very coasts of the United States? Even that little prospect of +success would be diminished, when the dey of Algiers should understand +that the United States would take no measures to protect their trade, +and were afraid of the expense of a small armament.</p> + +<p>It was to be understood that they did not rely solely on the +operations of the armament. They still looked forward to negotiation, +and were willing to provide the means for purchasing a peace. But the +former measure was necessary to give success to the latter, and the +armament might be employed to advantage should negotiation fail.</p> + +<p>The other substitute was to subsidize foreign powers. The national +dishonour of depending upon others for that protection which the +United States were able to afford themselves, was strongly urged. But +there were additional objections to this project. Either the nations +in contemplation were at peace or at war with the regency of Algiers. +If the former, it was not to be expected that they would relinquish +that peace for any indemnification the United States could make them. +If the latter, they had sufficient inducements to check the +depredations of their enemies without subsidies. Such a protection +would be hazardous, as it would be, at any time, in the power of the +nation that should be employed, to conclude a truce with Algiers, and +leave the trade of the United States at the mercy of her corsairs. +While the expense of protection was perpetually to be incurred, it +would never furnish the strength which that expense ought to give.</p> + +<p>With a navy of her own, America might co-operate to advantage with any +power at war with Algiers, but it would be risking too much to depend +altogether on any foreign nation.</p> + +<p>To the argument that the force was incompetent to the object, it was +answered, that, from the documents before them, and from the diligent +inquiries of a large committee, the number and strength of the +Algerine corsairs had been ascertained, and the armament contemplated +in the bill was believed to be sufficient. If gentlemen thought +differently, it was surprising that they did not move to augment it.</p> + +<p>The expense of the frigates had been strongly urged. But the saving in +insurance, in ships and cargoes, and in the ransom of seamen, was more +than equivalent to this item. "But are not the slavery of our fellow +citizens, and the national disgrace resulting from it, to be taken +into the account? these are considerations beyond all calculation. Who +can, after reading the affecting narratives of the unfortunate, sit +down contented with cold calculations and syllogisms? their narratives +ought to excite every possible exertion, not only to procure the +release of the captured, but to prevent the increase of the number of +these unhappy victims."</p> + +<p>That a bill providing six frigates, to exist during the war with the +Algerines, should excite apprehensions of a large permanent navy, and +of an immense debt, was truly astonishing. But even if the bill had +not contained a clause enabling the President to discontinue the +armament provided peace should be concluded with the regency of +Algiers, the weight of the objection was denied. America was +peculiarly fitted for a navy; she abounded in all kinds of naval +resources, and had within herself, those means which other nations +were obliged to obtain from abroad. Her situation, and the +dispositions of a considerable proportion of her citizens, evinced +still more the propriety of a naval establishment. Perhaps the country +was not yet mature for such an establishment to any great extent. But +the period was not far distant when it would be. The United States had +an increasing population, much individual wealth, and considerable +national resources. It was not believed that the expense of equipping +a small naval armament for the protection of their commerce, would be +insupportable.</p> + +<p>It was, however, matter of surprise, that gentlemen who had deemed the +improvement of American navigation, as a source of defence, an object +of so much importance as to be anxious to wage an immediate commercial +war with Great Britain for that purpose, should avow such a fixed +determination against resorting to that resource in any degree +whatever, under circumstances the most urgent.</p> + +<p>The original resolution was carried only by a majority of two voices; +but as the bill advanced, several members who were accustomed to vote +in the opposition gave it their support; and, on the final question, a +majority of eleven appeared in its favour. The other branch of the +legislature concurred, and it received the cordial assent of the +President.</p> + +<p>Pending these discussions, the irritations in which they commenced +were greatly aggravated by accounts, that captures of American vessels +by British cruisers were made to an extent altogether unprecedented; +and early in March, an authentic paper was received which proved that +those captures were not unauthorized.</p> + +<p>On the sixth of November, 1793, additional instructions had been +issued to the ships of war and privateers of Great Britain, requiring +them to stop and detain all ships, laden with goods the produce of any +colony belonging to France, or carrying provisions or other supplies +to any such colony, and to bring the same, with their cargoes, to +legal adjudication, in the British courts of admiralty.</p> + +<p>These instructions made a serious impression on the most reflecting +and moderate men in the United States. It was believed that they +originated in a spirit of hostility which must lead to war; and that +it had now become the part of prudence to prepare for that event.</p> + +<p>On the 12th of March, Mr. Sedgewick moved several resolutions, the +objects of which were to raise a military force, and to authorize the +President to lay an embargo. The armament was to consist of fifteen +thousand men, who should be brought into actual service in case of war +with any European power, but not until war should break out. In the +mean time, they were to receive pay while assembled for the purpose of +discipline, which was not to exceed twenty-four days in each year.</p> + +<p>After stating the motives which led to the introduction of these +resolutions, they were laid on the table for the consideration of the +members. Two days afterwards, a motion was made to take up that which +related to an embargo; but this motion was negatived for the purpose +of resuming the consideration of the commercial regulations which had +been offered by Mr. Madison. On the motion of Mr. Nicholas, those +resolutions were amended so as to subject the manufactures of Great +Britain alone, instead of those of all nations having no commercial +treaties with the United States, to the proposed augmentation of +duties. They were again debated with great earnestness, but no +decision on them was made.</p> + +<p>In addition to the objections urged against them as forming a +commercial system in time of peace, they were said to be particularly +inapplicable to the present moment. If, as was believed, the United +States were about to be forced into a war, the public counsels ought +to be directed to measures of defence. In that event, the resolutions +would, at best, be useless. But the greater the danger of war, the +more incumbent was it on the government to unite public opinion in +support of it; and this would best be effected by observing a line of +conduct which would furnish no just cause of hostility. The commercial +discriminations proposed were of a hostile and irritating nature, +might render war certain, would be considered by many as unnecessary, +and might impair that unanimity in which the great strength of the +country consisted. It was submitted to the gentlemen to decide whether +it was wise to press their system through, with so small a majority as +was in its favour.</p> + +<p>The resolutions were defended on the principle, that though not in +themselves contributing to the national defence, they would not +prevent the adoption of such other measures as the state of things +might render necessary. If war should take place, they could do no +harm. But war must at some time be succeeded by peace: and they would +form a valuable basis for negotiation.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenote">An embargo law.</div> + +<p>On the 21st of March, Mr. Sedgewick's motion authorizing the President +to lay an embargo was negatived by a majority of two voices; but in a +few days, the consideration of that subject was resumed, and a +resolution passed, prohibiting all trade from the United States to any +foreign port or place for the space of thirty days, and empowering the +President to carry the resolution into effect.</p> + +<p>This resolution was accompanied with vigorous provisional measures for +defence, respecting the adoption of which, no considerable division of +sentiment was avowed.</p> + +<p>While the measures of congress indicated that expectation of war, a +public document made its appearance which seemed to demonstrate that +Great Britain also was preparing for that event. This was the answer +of Lord Dorchester, on the 10th of February, to a speech delivered by +the deputies of a great number of Indian tribes assembled at Quebec. +In this answer, his lordship had openly avowed the opinion, founded, +as he said, on the conduct of the American people, that a war between +Great Britain and the United States, during the present year, was +probable, and that a new line between the two nations must then be +drawn by the sword.</p> + +<p>This document was not authentic; but it obtained general belief, and +contributed to confirm the opinion that war was scarcely to be +avoided.</p> + +<p>On the 27th of March, Mr. Dayton moved a resolution for sequestering +all debts due to British subjects, and for taking means to secure +their payment into the treasury, as a fund out of which to indemnify +the citizens of the United States for depredations committed on their +commerce by British cruisers, in violation of the laws of nations.</p> + +<p>The debate on this resolution was such as was to be expected from the +irritable state of the public mind. The invectives against the British +nation were uttered with peculiar vehemence, and were mingled with +allusions to the exertions of the government for the preservation of +neutrality, censuring strongly the system which had been pursued.</p> + +<p>Before any question was taken on the proposition for sequestering +British debts, and without a decision on those proposed by Mr. +Madison, Mr. Clarke moved a resolution, which in some degree suspended +the commercial regulations that had been so earnestly debated. This +was to prohibit all intercourse with Great Britain until her +government should make full compensation for all injuries done to the +citizens of the United States by armed vessels, or by any person or +persons acting under the authority of the British king; and until the +western posts should be delivered up.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>On the fourth of April, before any decision was made on the several +propositions which have been stated, the President laid before +congress a letter just received from Mr. Pinckney, the minister of the +United States at London, communicating additional instructions to the +commanders of British armed ships, which were dated the eighth of +January. These instructions revoked those of the sixth of November; +and, instead of bringing in for adjudication all neutral vessels +trading with the French islands, British cruisers were directed to +bring in those only which were laden with cargoes the produce of the +French islands, and were on a direct voyage from those islands to +Europe.</p> + +<p>The letter detailed a conversation with Lord Grenville on this +subject, in which his lordship explained the motives which had +originally occasioned the order of the sixth of November, and gave to +it a less extensive signification than it had received in the courts +of vice admiralty.</p> + +<p>It was intended, he said, to be temporary, and was calculated to +answer two purposes. One was, to prevent the abuses which might take +place in consequence of the whole of the St. Domingo fleet having gone +to the United States; the other was, on account of the attack designed +upon the French West India islands by the armament under Sir John +Jarvis and Sir Charles Grey; but it was now no longer necessary to +continue the regulations for those purposes. His lordship added, that +the order of the sixth of November did not direct the confiscation of +all vessels trading with the French islands, but only that they should +be brought in for legal adjudication; and he conceived that no vessel +would be condemned under it, which would not have been previously +liable to the same sentence.</p> + +<p>The influence of this communication on the party in the legislature +which was denominated federal, was very considerable. Believing that +the existing differences between the two nations still admitted of +explanation and adjustment, they strenuously opposed all measures +which were irritating in their tendency, or which might be construed +into a dereliction of the neutral character they were desirous of +maintaining; but they gave all their weight to those which, by putting +the nation in a posture of defence, prepared it for war, should +negotiation fail.</p> + +<p>On the opposite party, no change of sentiment or of views appears to +have been produced. Their system seems to have been matured, and not +to have originated in the feelings of the moment. They adhered to it +therefore with inflexible perseverance; but seemed not anxious to +press an immediate determination of the propositions which had been +made. These propositions were discussed with great animation; but, +notwithstanding an ascertained majority in their favour, were +permitted to remain undecided, as if their fate depended on some +extrinsic circumstance.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, great exertions were made to increase the public agitation, +and to stimulate the resentments which were felt against Great +Britain. The artillery of the press was played with unceasing fury on +the minority of the house of representatives; and the democratic +societies brought their whole force into operation. Language will +scarcely afford terms of greater outrage than were employed against +those who sought to stem the torrent of public opinion, and to +moderate the rage of the moment. They were denounced as a British +faction, seeking to impose chains on their countrymen. Even the +majority was declared to be but half roused; and to show little of +that energy and decision which the crisis required.</p> + +<p>Unequivocal evidence, it was said, had been obtained of the +liberticide intentions of Great Britain; and only the successes of +freedom against tyranny, the triumphs of their magnanimous French +brethren over slaves, had been the means of once more guaranteeing the +independence of this country. The glorious example of France ought to +animate the American people to every exertion to raise their prostrate +character; and every tie of gratitude and interest should lead them to +cement their connexion with that great republic. The proclamation of +neutrality, though admitted to have originated in the best motives on +the part of the President, was declared to be not only questionable in +a constitutional point of view, but eventually to have proved +impolitic. Being falsely construed by Great Britain into a +manifestation of a pusillanimous disposition, it served to explain the +aggressions of that nation. Experience now urged the abandonment of a +line of conduct, which had fed the pride and provoked the insults of +their unprincipled and implacable enemy; and was derogatory to the +honour, inconsistent with the interest, and hostile to the liberties +of their country.</p> + +<p>Their tameness under British aggressions was declared to furnish just +cause of offence to France; since every infringement of right +submitted to by a neutral, inflicted a correspondent injury on the +nation at war with the offending power.</p> + +<p>The proceedings of the legislature continued to manifest a fixed +purpose to pursue the system which had been commenced; and the public +sentiment seemed to accord with that system. That the nation was +advancing rapidly to a state of war, was firmly believed by many +intelligent men, who doubted the necessity, and denied the policy of +abandoning the neutral position which had been thus long maintained. +In addition to the extensive calamities which must, in any state of +things, result to the United States from a rupture with a nation which +was the mistress of the ocean, and which furnished the best market for +the sale of their produce, and the purchase of manufactures of +indispensable necessity, there were considerations belonging +exclusively to the moment, which, though operating only in a narrow +circle, were certainly entitled to great respect.</p> + +<p>That war with Britain, during the continuance of the passionate and +almost idolatrous devotion of a great majority of the people to the +French republic, would throw America so completely into the arms of +France as to leave her no longer mistress of her own conduct, was not +the only fear which the temper of the day suggested. That the spirit +which triumphed in that nation, and deluged it with the blood of its +revolutionary champions, might cross the Atlantic, and desolate the +hitherto safe and peaceful dwellings of the American people, was an +apprehension not so entirely unsupported by appearances, as to be +pronounced chimerical. With a blind infatuation, which treated reason +as a criminal, immense numbers applauded a furious despotism, +trampling on every right, and sporting with life, as the essence of +liberty; and the few who conceived freedom to be a plant which did not +flourish the better for being nourished with human blood, and who +ventured to disapprove the ravages of the guillotine, were execrated +as the tools of the coalesced despots, and as persons who, to weaken +the affection of America for France, became the calumniators of that +republic. Already had an imitative spirit, captivated with the +splendour, but copying the errors of a great nation, reared up in +every part of the continent self created corresponding societies, who, +claiming to be the people, assumed a control over the government, and +were loosening its bands. Already were the mountain,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and a +revolutionary tribunal, favourite toasts; and already were principles +familiarly proclaimed which, in France, had been the precursors of +that tremendous and savage despotism, which, in the name of the +people, and by the instrumentality of affiliated societies, had spread +its terrific sway over that fine country, and had threatened to +extirpate all that was wise and virtuous. That a great majority of +those statesmen who conducted the opposition would deprecate such a +result, furnished no security against it. When the physical force of a +nation usurps the place of its wisdom, those who have produced such a +state of things no longer control it.</p> + +<p>These apprehensions, whether well or ill founded, produced in those +who felt them, an increased solicitude for the preservation of peace. +Their aid was not requisite to confirm the judgment of the President +on this interesting subject. Fixed in his purpose of maintaining the +neutrality of the United States, until the aggressions of a foreign +power should clearly render neutrality incompatible with honour; and +conceiving, from the last advices received from England, that the +differences between the two nations had not yet attained that point, +he determined to make one decisive effort, which should either remove +the ostensible causes of quarrel, or demonstrate the indisposition of +Great Britain to remove them. This determination was executed by the +nomination of an envoy extraordinary to his Britannic majesty, which +was announced to the senate on the 16th of April in the following +terms:</p> + +<p>"The communications which I have made to you during your present +session, from the despatches of our minister in London, contain a +serious aspect of our affairs with Great Britain. But as peace ought +to be pursued with unremitted zeal, before the last resource which has +so often been the scourge of nations, and can not fail to check the +advanced prosperity of the United States, is contemplated, I have +thought proper to nominate, and do hereby nominate John Jay, as envoy +extraordinary of the United States, to his Britannic majesty.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mr. Jay appointed envoy extraordinary to Great Britain.</div> + +<p>"My confidence in our minister plenipotentiary in London continues +undiminished. But a mission like this, while it corresponds with the +solemnity of the occasion, will announce to the world a solicitude for +the friendly adjustment of our complaints, and a reluctance to +hostility. Going immediately from the United States, such an envoy +will carry with him a full knowledge of the existing temper and +sensibility of our country; and will thus be taught to vindicate our +rights with firmness, and to cultivate peace with sincerity."</p> + +<p>To those who believed the interests of the nation to require a rupture +with England, and a still closer connexion with France, nothing could +be more unlooked for, or more unwelcome, than this decisive measure. +That it would influence the proceedings of congress could not be +doubted; and it would materially affect the public mind was probable. +Evincing the opinion of the executive that negotiation, not +legislative hostility, was still the proper medium for accommodating +differences with Great Britain, it threw on the legislature a great +responsibility, if they should persist in a system calculated to +defeat that negotiation. By showing to the people that their President +did not yet believe war to be necessary, it turned the attention of +many to peace; and, by suggesting the probability, rekindled the +almost extinguished desire, of preserving that blessing.</p> + +<p>Scarcely has any public act of the President drawn upon his +administration a greater degree of censure than this. That such would +be its effect, could not be doubted by a person who had observed the +ardour with which opinions that it thwarted were embraced, or the +extremity to which the passions and contests of the moment had carried +all orders of men. But it is the province of real patriotism to +consult the utility, more than the popularity of a measure; and to +pursue the path of duty, although it may be rugged.</p> + +<p>In the senate, the nomination was approved by a majority of ten +voices; and, in the house of representatives, it was urged as an +argument against persevering in the system which had been commenced. +On the 18th of April, a motion for taking up the report of the +committee of the whole house on the resolution for cutting off all +commercial intercourse with Great Britain, was opposed, chiefly on the +ground that, as an envoy had been nominated to the court of that +country, no obstacle ought to be thrown in his way. The adoption of +the resolution would be a bar to negotiation, because it used the +language of menace, and manifested a partiality to one of the +belligerents which was incompatible with neutrality. It was also an +objection to the resolution that it prescribed the terms on which +alone a treaty should be made, and was consequently an infringement of +the right of the executive to negotiate, and an indelicacy to that +department.</p> + +<p>In support of the motion, it was said, that the measure was strictly +within the duty of the legislature, they having solely the right to +regulate commerce. That, if there was any indelicacy in the clashing +of the proceedings of the legislature and executive, it was to the +latter, not to the former, that this indelicacy was to be imputed. The +resolution which was the subject of debate had been several days +depending in the house, before the nomination of an envoy +extraordinary had been made. America having a right, as an independent +nation, to regulate her own commerce, the resolution could not lead to +war; on the contrary, it was the best means of bringing the +negotiation to a happy issue.</p> + +<p>The motion for taking up the report was carried in the affirmative. +Some embarrassment was produced by an amendment offered by Mr. Smith +of South Carolina, who proposed to add another condition to the +restoration of intercourse between the two countries. This was, +compensation for the negroes carried away in violation of the treaty +of peace. The house avoided this proposition by modifying the +resolutions so as to expunge all that part of it which prescribed the +conditions on which the intercourse might be restored. A bill was +brought in conforming to this resolution, and carried by a +considerable majority. In the senate, it was lost by the casting vote +of the Vice President. The system which had been taken up in the house +of representatives was pressed no further.</p> + +<p>The altercations between the executive and the minister of the French +republic, had given birth to many questions which had been warmly +agitated in the United States, and on which a great diversity of +sentiment prevailed.</p> + +<p>The opinion of the administration that the relations produced by +existing treaties, and indeed by a state of peace independent of +treaty, imposed certain obligations on the United States, an +observance of which it was the duty of the executive to enforce, had +been reprobated with extreme severity. It was contended, certainly by +the most active, perhaps by the most numerous part of the community, +not only that the treaties had been grossly misconstrued, but also +that, under any construction of them, the interference of the +executive acquired the sanction of legislative authority; that, until +the legislature should interpose and annex certain punishments to +infractions of neutrality, the natural right possessed by every +individual to do any act not forbidden by express law, would furnish a +secure protection against those prosecutions which a tyrannical +executive might direct for the crime of disregarding its illegal +mandates. The right of the President to call out the militia for the +detention of privateers about to violate the rules he had established, +was, in some instances, denied; attempts to punish those who had +engaged, within the United States, to carry on expeditions against +foreign nations, were unsuccessful; and a grand jury had refused to +find a bill of indictment against Mr. Duplaine, for having rescued, +with an armed force, a vessel which had been taken into custody by an +officer of justice. Of consequence, however decided the opinion of the +executive might be with respect to its constitutional powers and +duties, it was desirable to diminish the difficulties to be +encountered in performing those duties, by obtaining the sanction of +the legislature to the rules which had been established for the +preservation of neutrality. The propriety of legislative provision for +the case was suggested by the President at the commencement of the +session, and a bill was brought into the senate, "in addition to the +act for punishing certain crimes against the United States." This bill +prohibited the exercise, within the American territory, of those +various rights of sovereignty which had been claimed by Mr. Genet, and +subjected any citizen of the United States who should be convicted of +committing any of the offences therein enumerated, to fine and +imprisonment. It also prohibited the condemnation and sale within the +United States, of prizes made from the citizens or subjects of nations +with whom they were at peace.</p> + +<p>Necessary as this measure was, the whole strength of the opposition in +the senate was exerted to defeat it. Motions to strike out the most +essential clause were successively repeated, and each motion was +negatived by the casting vote of the Vice President. It was only by +his voice that the bill finally passed.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<p>In the house of representatives also, this bill encountered a serious +opposition. The sections which prohibited the sale of prizes in the +United States, and that which declared it to be a misdemeanour to +accept a commission from a foreign power within the territory of the +United States, to serve against a nation with whom they were at peace, +were struck out; but that which respected the acceptance of +commissions was afterwards reinstated.</p> + +<p>In the course of the session, several other party questions were +brought forward, which demonstrated, at the same time, the strength, +and the zeal of the opposition. The subject of amending the +constitution was revived; and a resolution was agreed to in both +houses for altering that instrument, so far as to exempt states from +the suits of individuals. While this resolution was before the senate, +it was also proposed to render the officers of the bank, and the +holders of stock, ineligible to either branch of the legislature; and +this proposition, so far as respected officers in the bank, was +negatived by a majority of only one vote.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> A bill to sell the +shares of the United States in the bank was negatived by the same +majority.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Inquiry into the conduct of the secretary of the treasury +terminates honourably to him.</div> + +<p><a name="p147">In</a> both houses inquiries were set on foot respecting the treasury +department, which obviously originated in the hope of finding some +foundation for censuring that officer, but which failed entirely. In a +similar hope, as respected the minister of the United States at Paris, +the senate passed a vote requesting the President to lay before that +body, his correspondence with the French republic, and also with the +department of state.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p>The preparations for an eventual war, which the aspect of public +affairs rendered it imprudent to omit, and a heavy appropriation of a +million, which, under the title of foreign intercourse, was made for +the purpose of purchasing peace from Algiers, and liberating the +Americans who were in captivity, created demands upon the treasury +which the ordinary revenues were insufficient to satisfy.</p> + +<p>That the imposition of additional taxes had become indispensable, was +a truth too obvious to be controverted with the semblance of reason; +but the subjects of taxation afforded at all times an ample field for +discussion.</p> + +<p>The committee of ways and means reported several resolutions for +extending the internal duties to various objects which were supposed +capable of bearing them, and also proposed an augmentation of the +impost on foreign goods imported into the United States, and a direct +tax. It was proposed to lay a tax on licenses to sell wines and +spirituous liquors, on sales at auction, on pleasure carriages, on +snuff manufactured, and on sugar refined in the United States, and +also to lay a stamp duty.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Internal taxes laid.</div> + +<p>The direct tax was not even supported by the committee. Only thirteen +members voted in its favour. The augmentation of the duty on imposts +met with no opposition. The internal duties were introduced in +separate bills, that each might encounter only those objections which +could be made to itself; and that the loss of one might not involve +the loss of others. The resolution in favour of stamps was rejected: +the others were carried, after repeated and obstinate debates. The +members of the opposition were in favour of raising the whole sum +required by additional burdens on trade, and by direct taxes.</p> + +<p>While these measures were depending before congress, memorials and +resolutions against them were presented by the manufacturers, which +were expressed in terms of disrespect that evidenced the sense in +which numbers understood the doctrine, <i>that the people were +sovereign, and those who administered the government, their servants</i>. +This opportunity for charging the government with tyranny and +oppression, with partiality and injustice, was too favourable not to +be embraced by the democratic societies, those self proclaimed +watchful sentinels over the rights of the people. A person +unacquainted with those motives which, in the struggle of party, too +often influence the conduct of men, would have supposed a direct tax +to be not only in itself more eligible, but to be more acceptable to +the community than those which were proposed. To the more judicious +observers of the springs of human action, the reverse was known to be +the fact.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a name="image04"> +<img src="images/148.jpg" width="586" height="340" alt="Washington's Bedroom" /></a></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b>George Washington's Bedroom at Mount Vernon</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>It was in this room that Washington expired, December 14, 1799. Two +days previously he was exposed in the saddle, for several hours, to +cold and snow, and contracted acute laryngitis for which he was +ineffectually treated in the primitive manner of the period. A short +time before ceasing to breathe, he said: "I die hard; but I am not +afraid to go. I believed from my first attack that I should not +survive it. My breath cannot last long." A little later he murmured: +"I feel myself going. I thank you for your attentions; but I pray you +to take no more trouble about me. Let me go off quietly. I cannot last +long." After giving some instructions about his burial he became +easier, felt his own pulse, and died without a struggle.</i></p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The friends of the administration supported the proposed system +against every objection to it, because they believed it to be more +productive, and less unpopular, than a direct tax. It is not +impossible that what recommended the system to one party, might +constitute a real objection to it with those who believed that the +public interest required a change<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> in the public councils.</p> + +<p>On the ninth of June, this active and stormy session was closed by an +adjournment to the first Monday in the succeeding November.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Congress adjourns.</div> + +<p>The public was not less agitated than the legislature had been, by +those interesting questions which had occasioned some of the most +animated and eloquent discussions that had ever taken place on the +floor of the house of representatives. Mr. Madison's resolutions +especially, continued to be the theme of general conversation; and, +for a long time, divided parties throughout the United States. The +struggle for public opinion was ardent; and each party supported its +pretensions, not only with those arguments which each deemed +conclusive, but also by those reciprocal criminations which, perhaps, +each, in part, believed.</p> + +<p>The opposition declared that the friends of the administration were an +aristocratic and corrupt faction, who, from a desire to introduce +monarchy, were hostile to France, and under the influence of Britain; +that they sought every occasion to increase expense, to augment debt, +to multiply the public burdens, to create armies and navies, and, by +the instrumentality of all this machinery, to govern and enslave the +people: that they were a paper nobility, whose extreme sensibility at +every measure which threatened the funds, induced a tame submission to +injuries and insults, which the interests and honour of the nation +required them to resist.</p> + +<p>The friends of the administration retorted, that the opposition was +prepared to sacrifice the best interests of their country on the altar +of the French revolution. That they were willing to go to war for +French, not for American objects: that while they urged war they +withheld the means of supporting it, in order the more effectually to +humble and disgrace the government: that they were so blinded by their +passion for France as to confound crimes with meritorious deeds, and +to abolish the natural distinction between virtue and vice: that the +principles which they propagated, and with which they sought to +intoxicate the people, were, in practice, incompatible with the +existence of government. That they were the apostles of anarchy, not +of freedom; and were consequently not the friends of real and rational +liberty.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Genet recalled.... Is succeeded by Mr. Fauchet.... +Gouverneur Morris recalled, and is succeeded by Mr. +Monroe.... Kentucky remonstrance.... Intemperate resolutions +of the people of that state.... General Wayne defeats the +Indians on the Miamis.... Insurrection in the western parts +of Pennsylvania.... Quelled by the prompt and vigorous +measures of the government.... Meeting of Congress.... +President's speech.... Democratic societies.... Resignation +of Colonel Hamilton.... Is succeeded by Mr. Wolcott.... +Resignation of General Knox.... Is succeeded by Colonel +Pickering.... Treaty between the United States and Great +Britain.... Conditionally ratified by the President.... The +treaty unpopular.... Mr. Randolph resigns.... Is succeeded +by Colonel Pickering.... Colonel M'Henry appointed secretary +of war.... Charge against the President rejected..... Treaty +with the Indians north-west of the Ohio.... With Algiers.... +With Spain.... Meeting of Congress.... President's +speech.... Mr. Adet succeeds Mr. Fauchet..... The house of +representatives call upon the President for papers relating +to the treaty with Great Britain.... He declines sending +them.... Debates upon the treaty making power.... Upon the +bill for making appropriations to carry into execution the +treaty with Great Britain.... Congress adjourns.... The +President endeavours to procure the liberation of Lafayette.</b></p></div> + +<p> </p> + + +<div class="sidenotey">1794</div> + +<p><span class="lgsmcap">That</span> the most material of those legislative measures on which the two +great parties of the United States were divided, might be presented in +one unbroken view, some transactions have been passed over, which will +now be noticed.</p> + +<p>In that spirit of conciliation, which adopts the least irritating +means for effecting its objects, the President had resolved to bear +with the insults, the resistance, and the open defiance of Mr. Genet, +until his appeal to the friendship and the policy of the French +republic should be fairly tried. Early in January, this resolution was +shaken, by fresh proofs of the perseverance of that minister, in a +line of conduct, not to be tolerated by a nation, which has not +surrendered all pretensions to self government. Mr. Genet had +meditated, and deliberately planned, two expeditions to be carried on +from the territories of the United States, against the dominions of +Spain; and had, as minister of the French republic, granted +commissions to citizens of the United States, who were privately +recruiting troops for the proposed service. The first was destined +against the Floridas, and the second against Louisiana. The detail of +the plans had been settled. The pay, rations, clothing, plunder, and +division of the conquered lands to be allotted to the military; and +the proportion of the acquisitions to be reserved to the republic of +France, were arranged. The troops destined to act against the Floridas +were to be raised in the three southern states, were to rendezvous in +Georgia, were to be aided by a body of Indians and were to co-operate +with the French fleet, should one arrive on the coast. This scheme had +been the subject of a correspondence between the executive and Mr. +Genet, but was in full progress in the preceding December, when by the +vigilance of the legislature of South Carolina, it was more +particularly developed, and some of the principal agents were +arrested.</p> + +<p>About the same time, intelligence less authentic, but wearing every +circumstance of probability, was received, stating that the expedition +against Louisiana, which was to be carried on down the Ohio from +Kentucky, was in equal maturity.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Genet recalled.</div> + +<p>This intelligence seemed to render a further forbearance incompatible +with the dignity, perhaps with the safety of the United States. The +question of superseding the diplomatic functions of Mr. Genet, and +depriving him of the privileges attached to that character, was +brought before the cabinet; and a message to congress was prepared, +communicating these transactions, and avowing a determination to adopt +that measure within —— days, unless, in the mean time, one or the +other house should signify the opinion that it was not adviseable so +to do. In this state, the business was arrested by receiving a letter +from Mr. Morris, announcing, officially, the recall of this rash +minister.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Is succeeded by Mr. Fauchet.</div> + +<p>Mr. Fauchet, the successor of Mr. Genet, arrived in February, and +brought with him strong assurances that his government totally +disapproved the conduct of his predecessor. He avowed a determination +to avoid whatever might be offensive to those to whom he was deputed, +and a wish to carry into full effect the friendly dispositions of his +nation towards the United States. For some time, his actions were in +the spirit of these professions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Gouverneur Morris is recalled and is succeed by Mr. +Monroe.</div> + +<p>Not long after the arrival of Mr. Fauchet, the executive government of +France requested the recall of Mr. Morris. With this request the +president immediately complied; and Mr. Monroe, a senator from +Virginia, who had embraced with ardour the cause of the French +republic, and was particularly acceptable to the party in opposition, +was appointed to succeed him.</p> + +<p>The discontents which had been long fomented in the western country, +had assumed a serious and alarming appearance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Kentucky remonstrance.</div> + +<p>A remonstrance to the President and congress of the United States from +the inhabitants of Kentucky, respecting the navigation of the +Mississippi, was laid before the executive, and each branch of the +legislature. The style of this paper accorded well with the +instructions under which it had been prepared.</p> + +<p>In the language of an offended sovereign people, injured by the +maladministration of public servants, it demanded the use of the +Mississippi as a natural right which had been unjustly withheld; and +charged the government, openly, with being under the influence of a +local policy, which had prevented its making one single real effort +for the security of a good which was all essential to the prosperity +of the western people. Several intemperate aspersions upon the +legislative and executive departments, accompanied with complaints +that the course of the negotiations had not been communicated to those +who were interested in the event, and with threats obviously pointing +to dismemberment, were concluded with a declaration that nothing would +remunerate the western people for the suspension of this great +territorial right; that they must possess it; that the god of nature +had given them the means of acquiring and enjoying it; and that to +permit a sacrifice of it to any other considerations, would be a crime +against themselves and their posterity.</p> + +<p>In the senate, the subject was referred to a committee, who reported, +"that in the negotiation now carrying on at Madrid between the United +States and Spain, the right of the former to the free navigation of +the Mississippi is well asserted and demonstrated, and their claim to +its enjoyment is pursued with all the assiduity and firmness which the +magnitude of the subject demands; and will doubtless continue to be so +pursued until the object shall be obtained, or adverse circumstances +shall render the further progress of the negotiation impracticable. +That in the present state of the business, it would be improper for +congress to interfere. But in order to satisfy the citizens of the +United States more immediately interested in the event of this +negotiation, that the United States have uniformly asserted their +right to the free use of the navigation of the river Mississippi, and +have employed and will continue to pursue such measures as are best +adapted to obtain the enjoyment of this important territorial right, +the committee recommend that it be resolved by the senate—</p> + +<p>"That the President of the United States be, and he hereby is +requested to cause to be communicated to the executive of the state of +Kentucky,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> such part of the existing negotiation between the United +States and Spain relative to this subject, as he may deem adviseable, +and consistent with the course of the negotiation."</p> + +<p>In the house of representatives also, a resolution was passed, +expressing the conviction of the house, that the executive was urging +the claim of the United States to the navigation of the Mississippi, +in the manner most likely to prove successful.</p> + +<p>Had the measures pursued in the western country been dictated, +exclusively, by a wish to obtain an important good, these resolutions +would have allayed the ferment which had been excited. The effect +which must be produced on Spain by the insinuation that the +continuance of their connexion with the Atlantic states depended on +obtaining the object they sought, was too apparent to escape the +notice of men endowed with an ordinary share of intelligence. But when +the real motives for human action are latent, it is vain to +demonstrate the unreasonableness of those which are avowed.</p> + +<p>After the reception of these resolutions, a number of the principal +citizens from various parts of Kentucky assembled at Lexington, and +among many intemperate resolutions passed the following:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Intemperate resolutions of the people of that state.</div> + +<p>"That the general government whose duty it was to put us in possession +of this right (the navigation of the Mississippi) have, either through +design or mistaken policy, adopted no effectual measures for its +attainment.</p> + +<p>"That even the measures they have adopted, have been uniformly +concealed from us, and veiled in mysterious secrecy.</p> + +<p>"That civil liberty is prostituted, when the servants of the people +are suffered to tell their masters, that communications which they may +judge important ought not to be intrusted to them."</p> + +<p>These resolutions concluded with a recommendation of county meetings, +of county committees of correspondence, and of a convention when it +might be judged expedient, to deliberate on the proper steps for the +attainment and security of their just rights.</p> + +<p>To estimate these resolutions accurately, it will be necessary to view +in connexion with them, the military preparations which were making in +that country, under the authority of France.</p> + +<p>In October, 1793, it was alleged by the Spanish commissioners, that +four Frenchmen had left Philadelphia, empowered by the minister of the +French republic to prepare an expedition, in Kentucky, against New +Orleans. This fact was immediately communicated by Mr. Jefferson to +the governor of that state, with a request that he would use those +means of prevention which the law enabled him to employ. Binding to +good behaviour was particularly recommended. This letter was +accompanied by one from the secretary of war, conveying the request of +the President, that, if preventive means should fail, effectual +military force should be employed to arrest the expedition; and +General Wayne was ordered to hold a body of troops at the disposal of +the governor, should he find the militia insufficient for his purpose.</p> + +<p>The governor had already received information, that a citizen of +Kentucky was in possession of a commission appointing him +Commander-in-chief of the proposed expedition; and that the Frenchmen +alluded to in the letter of Mr. Jefferson, had arrived, and, far from +affecting concealment declared, that they only waited for money which +they expected soon to receive, in order to commence their operations.</p> + +<p>The following extract of a letter from the governor, on this subject, +exhibits a curious specimen of the conclusions to which gentlemen were +conducted by the course of political reasoning which prevailed at the +day.</p> + +<p>After stating the facts above alluded to, he says, "I have great +doubts, even if they do attempt to carry their plan into execution, +(provided they manage their business with prudence,) whether there is +any legal authority to restrain or punish them, at least before they +have actually accomplished it. For if it is lawful for any one citizen +of this state to leave it, it is equally so for any number of them to +do it. It is also lawful to carry with them any quantity of +provisions, arms, and ammunition; and if the act is lawful in itself, +there is nothing but the particular intention with which it is done +that can possibly make it unlawful. But I know of no law which +inflicts a punishment on intention only; or any criterion by which to +decide what would be sufficient evidence of that intention, if it was +a proper subject for legal censure.</p> + +<p>"I shall, upon all occasions, be averse to the exercise of any power +which I do not consider myself as clearly and explicitly invested +with, much less would I assume power to exercise it against men whom I +consider as friends and brethren, in favour of a man whom I view as an +enemy and a tyrant. I shall also feel but little inclination to take +an active part in punishing or restraining any of my fellow citizens +for a supposed intrusion only, to gratify or remove the fears of the +minister or a prince who openly withholds from us an invaluable right, +and who secretly instigates against us a most savage and cruel enemy."</p> + +<p>Upon the receipt of this extraordinary letter, the President directed +General Wayne to establish a military post at Fort Massac, on the +Ohio, for the purpose of stopping by force, if peaceful means should +fail, any body of armed men who should be proceeding down that river.</p> + +<p>This precaution appears to have been necessary. The preparations for +the expedition were, for some time, carried on with considerable +activity; and there is reason to believe that it was not absolutely +relinquished, until Spain ceased to be the enemy of France.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> + +<p>The proceedings of the legislature of South Carolina embarrassed those +who had planned the invasion of the Floridas, but did not entirely +disconcert them. In April, a French sloop of war arrived on the +confines of Georgia and East Florida, with a small body of troops, who +were landed on one of the islands on the coast, south of the St. Mary, +and who declared themselves to be part of a larger force, which might +soon be expected. Upon their arrival, several small corps of Americans +who had engaged to serve the republic of France, assembled in Georgia, +for the purpose, as was universally understood, of co-operating with +the French against the neighbouring dominions of Spain.</p> + +<p>The interposition of government, and the inadequacy of the force to +the object, disconcerted this expedition. Its leader conducted his +followers into the Indian country, and endeavoured to make a +settlement on their hunting grounds.</p> + +<p>While these turbulent scenes were acting, the loud plaudits of France, +which were dictated by a passionate devotion to that country, were +reechoed from every part of the American continent. The friendship of +that republic for the United States, her respect for their rights, the +ingratitude with which her continuing benefits were repaid, the +injustice done her by the executive, its tameness under British +insults, were the inexhaustible themes of loud, angry, and unceasing +declamation. It required a firmness of mind, and a weight of character +possessed only by the chief magistrate, to maintain the ground he had +taken, against such an assemblage of passions and of prejudices.</p> + +<p>It will be recollected that in the preceding year, the attempt to +treat with the hostile Indians had suspended the operations of General +Wayne until the season for action had nearly passed away. After the +total failure of negotiation, the campaign was opened with as much +vigour as a prudent attention to circumstances would permit.</p> + +<p>The Indians had expected an attempt upon their villages, and had +collected in full force, with the apparent determination of risking a +battle in their defence. A battle was desired by the American general; +but the consequences of another defeat were too serious to warrant him +in putting more to hazard by precipitate movements, than the +circumstances of the war required. The negotiations with the Indians +were not terminated till September, and it was then too late to +complete the preparations which would enable General Wayne to enter +their country and to hold it. He, therefore, contented himself with +collecting his army and penetrating about six miles in advance of Fort +Jefferson into the uninhabited country, where he established himself +for the winter, in a camp called Greensville. After fortifying his +camp, he took possession of the ground on which the Americans had been +defeated in 1791, where he erected Fort Recovery. These positions +afforded considerable protection to the frontiers, and facilitated the +opening of the ensuing campaign.</p> + +<p>Seeing only the dark side of every measure adopted by the government, +and not disinclined to militia expeditions made at the expense of the +United States, the people of Kentucky loudly charged the President +with a total disregard of their safety, pronounced the continental +troops entirely useless, declared that the Indians were to be kept in +awe alone by militia, and insisted that the power should be deposited +with some person in their state, to call them out at his discretion, +at the charge of the United States.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, some steps were taken by the governor of Upper Canada which +were well calculated to increase suspicions respecting the +dispositions of Great Britain.</p> + +<p><a name="p164">It</a> was believed by the President, not without cause,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> that the +cabinet of London was disposed to avail itself of the non-execution of +that article of the treaty of peace, which stipulates for the payment +of debts, to justify a permanent detention of the posts on the +southern side of the great lakes, and to establish a new boundary +line, whereby those lakes should be entirely comprehended in Upper +Canada. Early in the spring, a detachment from the garrison of Detroit +repossessed and fortified a position near fifty miles south of that +station, on the Miamis of the lakes, a river which empties into Lake +Erie at its westernmost point.</p> + +<p>This movement, the speech of Lord Dorchester, and other facts which +strengthened the belief that the hostile Indians were at least +countenanced by the English, were the subjects of a correspondence +between the secretary of state and Mr. Hammond, in which crimination +was answered by recrimination, in which a considerable degree of +mutual irritation was displayed, and in which each supported his +charges against the nation of the other, much better than he defended +his own. It did not, however, in any manner, affect the operations of +the army.</p> + +<p>The delays inseparable from the transportation of necessary supplies +through an uninhabited country, infested by an active enemy peculiarly +skilled in partisan war, unavoidably protracted the opening of the +campaign until near midsummer. Meanwhile, several sharp skirmishes +took place, in one of which a few white men were stated to be mingled +with the Indians.</p> + +<p>On the 8th of August, General Wayne reached the confluence of the Au +Glaize and the Miamis of the lakes, where he threw up some works of +defence, and protection for magazines. The richest and most extensive +settlements of the western Indians lay about this place.</p> + +<p>The mouth of the Au Glaize is distant about thirty miles from the post +occupied by the British on the Miamis of the lakes, in the vicinity of +which the whole strength of the enemy, amounting, according to +intelligence on which General Wayne relied, to rather less than two +thousand men, was collected. The continental legion was not much +inferior in number to the Indians: and a reinforcement of about eleven +hundred mounted militia from Kentucky, commanded by General Scott, +gave a decided superiority of strength to the army of Wayne. That the +Indians had determined to give him battle was well understood; and the +discipline of his legion, the ardour of all his troops, and the +superiority of his numbers, authorized him confidently to expect a +favourable issue. Yet, in pursuance of that policy by which the United +States had been uniformly actuated, he determined to make one more +effort for the attainment of peace without bloodshed. Messengers were +despatched to the several hostile tribes who were assembled in his +front, inviting them to appoint deputies to meet him on his march, in +order to negotiate a lasting peace.</p> + +<p>On the 15th of August, the American army advanced down the Miamis, +with its right covered by that river; and on the 18th, arrived at the +rapids. Here they halted on the 19th, in order to erect a temporary +work for the protection of the baggage, and to reconnoitre the +situation of the enemy.</p> + +<p>The Indians were advantageously posted behind a thick wood, and behind +the British fort.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General Wayne defeats the Indians at the Miamis.</div> + +<p>At eight in the morning of the 20th, the American army advanced in +columns: the legion with its right flank covered by the Miamis: One +brigade of mounted volunteers commanded by General Todd was on the +left; and the other under General Barbee was in the rear. A select +battalion, commanded by Major Price, moved in front of the legion, +sufficiently in advance to give timely notice for the troops to form +in case of action.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<p>After marching about five miles, Major Price received a heavy fire +from a concealed enemy, and was compelled to retreat.</p> + +<p>The Indians had chosen their ground with judgment. They had advanced +into the thick wood in front of the British works which extends +several miles west from the Miamis, and had taken a position, rendered +almost inaccessible to horse by a quantity of fallen timber which +appeared to have been blown up in a tornado. They were formed in three +lines, within supporting distance of each other; and, as is their +custom, with a very extended front. Their line stretched to the west, +at right angles with the river, about two miles; and their immediate +effort was to turn the left flank of the American army.</p> + +<p>On the discharge of the first rifle, the legion was formed in two +lines, and the front was ordered to advance with trailed arms, and +rouse the enemy from his covert at the point of the bayonet; then, and +not until then, to deliver a fire, and to press the fugitives too +closely to allow them time to load after discharging their pieces. +Soon perceiving the strength of the enemy in front, and that he was +endeavouring to turn the American left, the general ordered the second +line to support the first. The legion cavalry, led by Captain +Campbell, was directed to penetrate between the Indians and the river, +where the wood was less thick and entangled, in order to charge their +left flank; and General Scott, at the head of the mounted volunteers, +was directed to make a considerable circuit, and to turn their right +flank.</p> + +<p>These orders were executed with spirit and promptitude; but such was +the impetuosity of the charge made by the first line of infantry, so +entirely was the enemy broken by it, and so rapid was the pursuit, +that only a small part of the second line and of the mounted +volunteers could get into the action. In the course of one hour, the +Indians were driven more than two miles, through thick woods; when the +pursuit terminated within gun shot of the British fort.</p> + +<p>General Wayne remained three days on the banks of the Miamis, in front +of the field of battle, during which time the houses and cornfields +above and below the fort, some of them within pistol shot of it, were +reduced to ashes. During these operations, a correspondence took place +between General Wayne and Major Campbell, the commandant of the fort, +which is stated by the former in such a manner as to show, that +hostilities between them were avoided only by the prudent acquiescence +of the latter in this devastation of property within the range of his +guns.</p> + +<p>On the 28th, the army returned to Au Glaize by easy marches, +destroying on its route all the villages and corn within fifty miles +of the river.</p> + +<p>In this decisive battle, the loss of the Americans, in killed and +wounded, amounted to one hundred and seven, including officers. Among +the dead was Captain Campbell, who commanded the cavalry, and +Lieutenant Towles of the infantry, both of whom fell in the first +charge. General Wayne bestowed great and well merited praise on the +courage and alacrity displayed by every part of the army.</p> + +<p>The hostility of the Indians still continuing, their whole country was +laid waste, and forts were erected in the heart of their settlements, +to prevent their return.</p> + +<p>This seasonable victory rescued the United States from a general war +with all the Indians north-west of the Ohio. The Six Nations had +discovered a restless uneasy temper; and the interposition of the +President, to prevent a settlement which Pennsylvania was about to +make at Presqueisle, seemed rather to suspend the commencement of +hostilities, than to establish permanent pacific dispositions among +those tribes. The battle of the 20th of August, however, had an +immediate effect; and the clouds which had been long gathering in that +quarter, were instantly dissipated.</p> + +<p>In the south too, its influence was felt. In that quarter, the +inhabitants of Georgia and the Indians seemed equally disposed to war. +Scarcely was the feeble authority of the government competent to +restrain the aggressions of the former, or the dread of its force +sufficient to repress those of the latter. In this doubtful state of +things, the effect of a victory could not be inconsiderable.</p> + +<p>About this time, the seditious and violent resistance to the execution +of the law imposing duties on spirits distilled within the United +States, had advanced to a point in the counties of Pennsylvania lying +west of the Alleghany mountains, which required the decisive +interposition of government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Insurrection in the Western parts of Pennsylvania.</div> + +<p>Notwithstanding the multiplied outrages committed on the persons and +property of the revenue officers, and of those who seemed willing to +submit to the law, yet, in consequence of a steady adherence to the +system of counteraction adopted by the executive, it was visibly +gaining ground, and several distillers in the disaffected country were +induced to comply with its requisites. The opinion, that the +persevering efforts of the administration would ultimately prevail, +derived additional support from the passage of an act by the present +congress, containing those provisions which had been suggested by the +chief of the treasury department. The progress of this bill, which +became a law on the fifth of June, could not have been unknown to the +malcontents, nor could its probable operation have been misunderstood. +They perceived that the certain loss of a market for the article, +added to the penalties to which delinquents were liable, might +gradually induce a compliance on the part of distillers, unless they +could, by a systematic and organized opposition, deprive the +government of the means it employed for carrying the law into +execution.</p> + +<p>On the part of the executive, this open defiance of the laws, and of +the authority of the government, was believed imperiously to require, +that the strength and efficacy of those laws should be tried. Against +the perpetrators of some of the outrages which had been committed, +bills of indictment had been found in a court of the United States, +upon which process was directed to issue; and at the same time, +process was also issued against a great number of non-complying +distillers.</p> + +<p>The marshal repaired in person to the country which was the scene of +these disorders, for the purpose of serving the processes. On the 15th +of July, while in the execution of his duty, he was beset on the road +by a body of armed men, who fired on him, but fortunately did him no +personal injury. At daybreak, the ensuing morning, a party attacked +the house of General Nevil, the inspector; but he defended himself +resolutely, and obliged the assailants to retreat.</p> + +<p>Knowing well that this attack had been preconcerted, and apprehending +that it would be repeated, he applied to the militia officers and +magistrates of the county for protection. The answer was, that "owing +to the too general combination of the people to oppose the revenue +system, the laws could not be executed so as to afford him protection: +that should the <i>posse comitatus</i> be ordered out to support the civil +authority, they would favour the party of the rioters."</p> + +<p>On the succeeding day, the insurgents re-assembled to the number of +about five hundred, to renew their attack on the house of the +inspector. That officer, finding that no protection could be afforded +by the civil authority, had applied to the commanding officer at Fort +Pitt, and had obtained a detachment of eleven men from that garrison, +who were joined by Major Kirkpatrick. Successful resistance to so +great a force being obviously impracticable, a parley took place, at +which the assailants, after requiring that the inspector<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> and all +his papers should be delivered up, demanded that the party in the +house should march out and ground their arms. This being refused, the +parley terminated, and the assault commenced. The action lasted until +the assailants set fire to several adjacent buildings, the heat from +which was so intense that the house could no longer be occupied. From +this cause, and from the apprehension that the fire would soon be +communicated to the main building, Major Kirkpatrick and his party +surrendered themselves.</p> + +<p>The marshal and Colonel Pressly Nevil were seized on their way to +General Nevil's house, and detained until two the next morning. The +marshal, especially, was treated with extreme rudeness. His life was +frequently threatened, and was probably saved by the interposition of +some leading individuals who possessed more humanity, or more +prudence, than those with whom they were associated. He could obtain +his liberty only by entering into a solemn engagement, which was +guaranteed by Colonel Nevil, to serve no more process on the western +side of the Alleghany mountains.</p> + +<p>The marshal and inspector having both retired to Pittsburg, the +insurgents deputed two of their body, one of whom was a justice of the +peace, to demand that the former should surrender all his process, and +that the latter should resign his office; threatening, in case of +refusal, to attack the place, and seize their persons. These demands +were not acceded to; but Pittsburg affording no security, these +officers escaped from the danger which threatened them, by descending +the Ohio; after which, they found their way by a circuitous route to +the seat of government.</p> + +<p>The perpetrators of these treasonable practices, being desirous to +ascertain their strength, and to discover any latent enemies who might +remain unsuspected in the bosom of the disaffected country, despatched +a party which stopped the mail from Pittsburg to Philadelphia, cut it +open, and took out the letters which it contained. In some of these +letters, a direct disapprobation of the violent measures which had +been adopted was avowed; and in others, expressions were used which +indicated unfriendly dispositions towards them. Upon acquiring this +intelligence, delegates were deputed from the town of Washington to +Pittsburg, where the writers of the offensive letters resided, to +demand the banishment of the offenders. A prompt obedience to this +demand was unavoidable; and the inhabitants of Pittsburg, who were +convened on the occasion, engaged to attend a general meeting of the +people, who were to assemble the next day in Braddock's field, in +order to carry into effect such further measures as might be deemed +adviseable with respect to the excise and its friends. They also +determined to elect delegates to a convention which was to meet, on +the 14th of August, at Parkinson's ferry. The avowed motives to these +outrages were to compel the resignation of all officers engaged in the +collection of the duties on distilled spirits; to withstand by force +of arms the authority of the United States; and thereby to extort a +repeal of the law imposing those duties, and an alteration in the +conduct of government.</p> + +<p>Affidavits attesting this serious state of things were laid before the +President.</p> + +<p>The opposition had now reached to a point which seemed to forbid the +continuance of a temporizing system. The efforts at conciliation, +which, for more than three years, the government had persisted to +make, and the alterations repeatedly introduced into the act for the +purpose of rendering it less exceptionable, instead of diminishing the +arrogance of those who opposed their will to the sense of the nation, +had drawn forth sentiments indicative of designs much deeper than the +evasion of a single act. The execution of the laws had at length been +resisted by open force, and a determination to persevere in these +measures was unequivocally avowed. The alternative of subduing this +resistance, or of submitting to it was presented to the government.</p> + +<p>The act of congress which provided for calling forth the militia "to +execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections, and repel +invasions," required as a pre-requisite to the exercise of this power, +"that an associate justice, or the judge of the district, should +certify that the laws of the United States were opposed, or their +execution obstructed, by combinations too powerful to be suppressed by +the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or by the powers vested +in the marshals." In the same act it was provided, "that if the +militia of the state, where such combinations may happen, shall +refuse, or be insufficient, to suppress the same, the President may +employ the militia of other states."</p> + +<p>The evidence which had been transmitted to the President was laid +before one of the associate justices, who gave the certificate, which +enabled the chief magistrate to employ the militia in aid of the civil +power.</p> + +<p>The executive being now authorized to adopt such measures as the +crisis might require, the subject was again seriously considered in +the cabinet; and the governor of Pennsylvania was also consulted +respecting it. To avoid military coercion, if obedience to the laws +could be produced by other means, was the universal wish; and +therefore, all concurred in advising the appointment of commissioners +from the governments of both the union, and the state, who should warn +the deluded insurgents of the impending danger, and should convey a +full pardon for past offences, upon the condition of future +submission. But, respecting ulterior and eventual measures, a +difference of opinion prevailed. The act already mentioned, made it +the duty of the President, previous to the employment of military +force, to issue his proclamation, commanding the insurgents to +disperse within a limited time. The secretary of state (and the +governor of Pennsylvania is understood to have concurred with him) was +of opinion, that this conciliatory mission should be unaccompanied by +any measure which might wear the appearance of coercion. He was +alarmed at the strength of the insurgents, at their connexion with +other parts of the country, at the extensive-ness of the prevailing +discontents with the administration, and at the difficulty and expense +of bringing the militia into the field. The governor of Pennsylvania +having declared his opinion, that the militia of that state, who could +be drawn forth, would be incompetent to enforce obedience, the aid of +the neighbouring states would consequently be necessary. The secretary +of state feared that the militia of the neighbouring states would +refuse to march; and that, should he be mistaken in this, their +compliance with the orders of the executive might be not less fatal +than their disobedience. The introduction of a foreign militia into +Pennsylvania might greatly increase the discontents prevailing in that +state. His apprehensions of a failure, in the attempt to restore +tranquillity by coercive means, were extreme; and the tremendous +consequences of a failure were strongly depicted. From the highly +inflamed state of parties, he anticipated a civil war, which would +pervade the whole union, and drench every part of it with the blood of +American citizens.</p> + +<p>The secretary of the treasury, the secretary of war, and the attorney +general, were of opinion that the President was bound by the most high +and solemn obligations to employ the force which the legislature had +placed at his disposal, for the suppression of a criminal and +unprovoked insurrection. The case contemplated by congress had clearly +occurred; and the President was urged by considerations the most +awful, to perform the duty imposed on him by the constitution, of +providing "that the laws be faithfully executed." The long forbearance +of government, and its patient endeavours to recall the deluded people +to a sense of their duty and interest by appeals to their reason, had +produced only increase of violence, and a more determined opposition. +Perseverance in that system could only give a more extensive range to +disaffection, and multiply the dangers resulting from it.</p> + +<p>Those who were of opinion that the occasion demanded a full trial of +the ability of the government to enforce obedience to the laws, were +also of opinion, that policy and humanity equally dictated the +employment of a force which would render resistance desperate. The +insurgent country contained sixteen thousand men able to bear arms; +and the computation was, that they could bring seven thousand into the +field. If the army of the government should amount to twelve thousand +men, it would present an imposing force which the insurgents would not +venture to meet.</p> + +<p>It was impossible that the President could hesitate to embrace the +latter of these opinions. That a government entrusted to him should be +trampled under foot by a lawless section of the union, which set at +defiance the will of the nation, as expressed by its representatives, +was an abasement to which neither his judgment nor his feelings could +submit. He resolved, therefore, to issue the proclamation, which, by +law, was to precede the employment of force.</p> + +<p>On the same day, a requisition was made on the governors of New +Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, for their several quotas +of militia to compose an army of twelve thousand<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> men; who were to +be immediately organized, and prepared to march at a minute's warning.</p> + +<p>While steps were taking to bring this force into the field, a last +essay was made to render its employment unnecessary. Three +distinguished and popular citizens of Pennsylvania were deputed by the +government to be the bearers of a general amnesty for past offences, +on the sole condition of future obedience to the laws.</p> + +<p>It having been deemed adviseable that the executive of the state +should act in concert with that of the United States, Governor Mifflin +also issued a proclamation, and appointed commissioners to act with +those of the general government.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the insurgents omitted nothing which might enlarge the +circle of disaffection. Attempts were made to embark the adjacent +counties of Virginia in their cause, and their violence was extended +to Morgantown, at which place an inspector resided, who saved himself +by flight, and protected his property by advertising on his own door +that he had resigned his office. They also made similar excursions +into the contiguous counties of Pennsylvania, lying east of the +Alleghany mountains, where numbers were ready to join them. These +deluded men, giving too much faith to the publications of democratic +societies, and to the furious sentiments of general hostility to the +administration, and particularly to the internal taxes, with which the +papers in the opposition abounded, seem to have entertained the +opinion, that the great body of the people were ready to take up arms +against their government, and that the resistance commenced by them +would spread throughout the union, and terminate in a revolution.</p> + +<p>The convention at Parkinson's ferry had appointed a committee of +safety consisting of sixty members, who chose fifteen of their body to +confer with the commissioners of the United States, and of the state +of Pennsylvania. This committee of conference was not empowered to +conclude on any thing. They could only receive and report the +propositions which might be made to them.</p> + +<p>Men of property and intelligence, who had contributed to kindle the +flame under the common error of being able to regulate its heat, now +trembled at the extent of the conflagration. It had passed the limits +they had assigned to it, and was no longer subject to their control.</p> + +<p>The committee of conference expressed themselves unanimously in favour +of accepting the terms offered by the government, and exerted +themselves in the committee of safety to obtain a decision to the same +effect. In that committee, the question whether they would submit +peaceably to the execution of the law, retaining expressly the +privilege of using all constitutional means to effect its repeal, was +debated with great zeal. The less violent party carried it by a small +majority; but, not thinking themselves authorized to decide for their +constituents on so momentous a question, they afterwards resolved that +it should be referred to the people.</p> + +<p>This reference resulted in demonstrating that, though many were +disposed to demean themselves peaceably, yet a vast mass of opposition +remained, determined to obstruct the re-establishment of civil +authority.</p> + +<p>From some causes, among which was disaffection to the particular +service, the prospect of bringing the quota of troops required from +Pennsylvania into the field, was at first unpromising. But the +assembly, which had been summoned by the governor to meet on the first +of September, expressed in strong terms its abhorrence of this daring +attempt to resist the laws, and to subvert the government of the +country; and a degree of ardour and unanimity was displayed by the +people of other states, which exceeded the hopes of the most sanguine +friends of the administration. Some feeble attempts were indeed made +to produce a disobedience to the requisition of the President, by +declaring that the people would never be made the instruments of the +secretary of the treasury to shed the blood of their fellow citizens; +that the representatives of the people ought to be assembled before a +civil war was commenced; and by avowing the extravagant opinion that +the President could not lawfully call forth the militia of any other +state, until actual experiment had ascertained the insufficiency of +that of Pennsylvania. But these insidious suggestions were silenced by +the general sense of the nation, which loudly and strongly proclaimed +that the government and laws must be supported. The officers displayed +an unexampled activity; and intelligence from every quarter gave full +assurance that, with respect to both numbers and time, the +requisitions of the President would be punctually observed.</p> + +<p>The governor of Pennsylvania compensated for the defects in the +militia law of that state by his personal exertions. From some +inadvertence, as was said, on the part of the brigade inspectors, the +militia could not be drafted, and consequently the quota of +Pennsylvania could be completed only by volunteers. The governor, who +was endowed with a high degree of popular elocution, made a circuit +through the lower counties of the state, and publicly addressed the +militia, at different places where he had caused them to be assembled, +on the crisis in the affairs of their country. So successful were +these animating exhortations, that Pennsylvania was not behind her +sister states in furnishing the quota required from her.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of September, the President issued a second proclamation, +describing in terms of great energy the obstinate and perverse spirit +with which the lenient propositions of the government had been +received; and declaring his fixed determination, in obedience to the +high and irresistible duty consigned to him by the constitution, "to +take care that the laws be faithfully executed," to reduce the +refractory to obedience.</p> + +<p>The troops of New Jersey and Pennsylvania were directed to rendezvous +at Bedford, and those of Maryland and Virginia at Cumberland, on the +Potomac.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> The command of the expedition had been conferred on +Governor Lee of Virginia; and the governors of New Jersey and +Pennsylvania commanded the militia of their respective states under +him.</p> + +<p>The President, in person, visited each division of the army; but, +being confident that the force employed must look down all resistance, +he left the secretary of the treasury to accompany it, and returned +himself to Philadelphia, where the approaching session of congress +required his presence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Quelled by the prompt and vigorous measures of the +government.</div> + +<p>From Cumberland and Bedford, the army marched in two divisions into +the country of the insurgents. The greatness of the force prevented +the effusion of blood. The disaffected did not venture to assemble in +arms. Several of the leaders who had refused to give assurances of +future submission to the laws were seized, and some of them detained +for legal prosecution.</p> + +<p>But although no direct and open opposition was made, the spirit of +insurrection was not subdued. A sour and malignant temper displayed +itself, which indicated, but too plainly, that the disposition to +resist had only sunk under the pressure of the great military force +brought into the country, but would rise again should that force be +withdrawn. It was, therefore, thought adviseable to station for the +winter, a detachment to be commanded by Major General Morgan, in the +centre of the disaffected country.</p> + +<p>Thus, without shedding a drop of blood, did the prudent vigour of the +executive terminate an insurrection, which, at one time, threatened to +shake the government of the United States to its foundation. That so +perverse a spirit should have been excited in the bosom of prosperity, +without the pressure of a single grievance, is among those political +phenomena which occur not unfrequently in the course of human affairs, +and which the statesman can never safely disregard. When real ills are +felt, there is something positive and perceptible to which the +judgment may be directed, the actual extent of which may be +ascertained, and the cause of which may be discerned. But when the +mind, inflamed by supposititious dangers, gives a full loose to the +imagination, and fastens upon some object with which to disturb +itself, the belief that the danger exists seems to become a matter of +faith, with which reason combats in vain. Under a government emanating +entirely from the people, and with an administration whose sole object +was their happiness, the public mind was violently agitated with +apprehensions of a powerful and secret combination against liberty, +which was to discover itself by the total overthrow of the republican +system. That those who were charged with these designs were as +destitute of the means, as of the will to effect them, did not shake +the firm belief of their existence. Disregarding the apparent +partiality of the administration for France, so far as that partiality +was compatible with an honest neutrality, the zealots of the day +ascribed its incessant labours for the preservation of peace, to a +temper hostile to the French republic; and, while themselves loudly +imprecating the vengeance of heaven and earth on one of the +belligerents, and openly rejoicing in the victories of the other; +while impetuously rushing into a war with Britain, and pressing +measures which would render accommodation impracticable; they +attributed a system calculated to check them in this furious career, +not to that genuine American spirit which produced it, but to an +influence which, so far as opinions are to depend on facts, has at no +time insinuated itself into the councils of the United States.</p> + +<p>In popular governments, the resentments, the suspicions, and the +disgusts, produced in the legislature by warm debate, and the chagrin +of defeat; by the desire of gaining, or the fear of losing power; and +which are created by personal views among the leaders of parties, will +infallibly extend to the body of the nation. Not only will those +causes of dissatisfaction be urged which really operate on the minds +of intelligent men, but every instrument will be seized which can +effect the purpose, and the passions will be inflamed by whatever may +serve to irritate them. Among the multiplied evils generated by +faction, it is perhaps not the least, that it has a tendency to +abolish all distinction between virtue and vice; and to prostrate +those barriers which the wise and good have erected for the protection +of morals, and which are defended solely by opinion. The victory of +the party becomes the great object; and, too often, all measures are +deemed right or wrong, as they tend to promote or impede it. The +attainment of the end is considered as the supreme good, and the +detestable doctrine is adopted that the end will justify the means. +The mind, habituated to the extenuation of acts of moral turpitude, +becomes gradually contaminated, and loses that delicate sensibility +which instinctively inspires horror for vice, and respect for virtue.</p> + +<p>In the intemperate abuse which was cast on the principal measures of +the government, and on those who supported them; in the violence with +which the discontents of the opponents to those measures were +expressed; and especially in the denunciations which were uttered +against them by the democratic societies; the friends of the +administration searched for the causes of that criminal attempt which +had been made in the western parts of Pennsylvania, to oppose the will +of the nation by force of arms. Had those misguided men believed that +this opposition was to be confined within their own narrow limits, +they could not have been so mad, or so weak as to have engaged in it.</p> + +<p>The ideas of the President on this subject were freely given to +several of his confidential friends. "The <i>real people</i>" he said, +"occasionally assembled in order to express their sentiments on +political subjects, ought never to be confounded with permanent +self-appointed societies, usurping the right to control the +constituted authorities, and to dictate to public opinion. While the +former was entitled to respect, the latter was incompatible with all +government, and must either sink into general disesteem, or finally +overturn the established order of things."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Meeting of congress.</div> + +<p>In his speech, at the opening of congress, the President detailed at +considerable length the progress of opposition to the laws, the means +employed both by the legislature and executive to appease the +discontents which had been fomented,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> and the measures which he had +finally taken to reduce the refractory to submission.</p> + +<p>As Commander-in-chief of the militia when called into actual service, +he had, he said, visited the places of general rendezvous, to obtain +more correct information, and to direct a plan for ulterior movements. +Had there been room for a persuasion that the laws were secure from +obstruction, he should have caught with avidity at the opportunity of +restoring the militia to their families and homes. But succeeding +intelligence had tended to manifest the necessity of what had been +done, it being now confessed by those who were not inclined to +exaggerate the ill conduct of the insurgents, that their malevolence +was not pointed merely to a particular law; but that a spirit inimical +to all order had actuated many of the offenders.</p> + +<p>After bestowing a high encomium on the alacrity and promptitude with +which persons in every station had come forward to assert the dignity +of the laws, thereby furnishing an additional proof that they +understood the true principles of government and liberty, and felt +their inseparable union; he added—</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Democratic societies.</div> + +<p>"To every description indeed of citizens, let praise be given. But let +them persevere in their affectionate vigilance over that precious +depository of American happiness,—the constitution of the United +States. And when in the calm moments of reflection, they shall have +retraced the origin and progress of the insurrection, let them +determine whether it has not been fomented by combinations of men, +who, careless of consequences, and disregarding the unerring truth +that those who rouse can not always appease a civil convulsion, have +disseminated, from an ignorance or perversion of facts, suspicions, +jealousies, and accusations of the whole government."</p> + +<p>The President could not omit this fair occasion, once more to press on +congress a subject which had always been near his heart. After +mentioning the defectiveness of the existing system, he said—</p> + +<p>"The devising and establishing of a well regulated militia, would be a +genuine source of legislative honour, and a perfect title to public +gratitude. I therefore entertain a hope that the present session will +not pass without carrying to its full energy the power of organizing, +arming, and disciplining the militia; and thus providing, in the +language of the constitution, for calling them forth to execute the +laws of the union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions."</p> + +<p>After mentioning the intelligence from the army under the command of +General Wayne, and the state of Indian affairs, he again called the +attention of the house of representatives to a subject scarcely less +interesting than a system of defence against external and internal +violence.</p> + +<p>"The time," he said, "which has elapsed since the commencement of our +fiscal measures, has developed our pecuniary resources, so as to open +the way for a definitive plan for the redemption of the public debt. +It is believed that the result is such as to encourage congress to +consummate this work without delay. Nothing can more promote the +permanent welfare of the union, and nothing would be more grateful to +our constituents. Indeed, whatever is unfinished of our system of +public credit, can not be benefited by procrastination; and, as far as +may be practicable, we ought to place that credit on grounds which can +not be disturbed, and to prevent that progressive accumulation of debt +which must ultimately endanger all governments."</p> + +<p>He referred to subsequent communications for certain circumstances +attending the intercourse of the United States with foreign nations. +"However," he added, "it may not be unseasonable to announce that my +policy in our foreign transactions has been, to cultivate peace with +all the world; to observe treaties with pure and inviolate faith; to +check every deviation from the line of impartiality; to explain what +may have been misapprehended; and correct what may have been injurious +to any nation; and having thus acquired the right, to lose no time in +acquiring the ability, to insist upon justice being done to +ourselves."</p> + +<p>In the senate, an answer was reported which contained the following +clause:</p> + +<p>"Our anxiety, arising from the licentious and open resistance to the +laws in the western counties of Pennsylvania, has been increased by +the proceedings of certain self-created societies relative to the laws +and administration of the government; proceedings, in our +apprehension, founded in political error, calculated, if not intended, +to disorganize our government, and which, by inspiring delusive hopes +of support, have been instrumental in misleading our fellow citizens +in the scene of insurrection."</p> + +<p>The address proceeded to express the most decided approbation of the +conduct of the President in relation to the insurgents; and, after +noticing the different parts of the speech, concluded with saying—</p> + +<p>"At a period so momentous in the affairs of nations, the temperate, +just, and firm policy that you have pursued in respect to foreign +powers, has been eminently calculated to promote the great and +essential interest of our country, and has created the fairest title +to the public gratitude and thanks."</p> + +<p>To this unequivocal approbation of the policy adopted by the executive +with regard to foreign nations, no objections were made. The clause +respecting democratic societies was seriously opposed; but the party +in favour of the administration had been strengthened in the senate by +recent events, and the address reported by the committee was agreed to +without alteration.</p> + +<p>The same spirit did not prevail in the house of representatives. In +that branch of the legislature, the opposition party continued to be +the most powerful, and the respect of their leaders for the person and +character of the chief magistrate was visibly diminishing. His +interference with a favourite system was not forgotten, and the +mission of Mr. Jay still rankled in their bosoms.</p> + +<p>The address prepared by the committee, to whom the speech was +referred, omitted to notice those parts which respected self created +societies, the victory of General Wayne, and the policy observed by +the executive in its intercourse with foreign nations. On a motion +being made by Mr. Dayton to amend it, by inserting a clause which +should express the satisfaction of the house at the success of the +army under General Wayne, Mr. Madison said, that it had been the wish +of the committee who framed the address, to avoid the minutia of the +speech: but as a desire was manifested to amplify particular parts, it +might not be amiss to glance at the policy observed towards foreign +nations. He therefore moved to amend the amendment by adding the +words, "solicitous also as we are for the preservation of peace with +all nations, we can not otherwise than warmly approve of <i>a</i> policy in +our foreign transactions, which keeps in view as well the maintenance +of our national rights, as the continuance of that blessing." Mr. +Hillhouse wished the word <i>your</i> to be substituted for the article +<i>a</i>, that the answer might point, not to an abstract policy, but to +that of the executive, and thus have a direct application to the +speech. This motion produced a warm discussion, which terminated in a +request that Mr. Madison would withdraw his amendment; the friends of +the administration being of opinion, that it was more eligible to pass +over that part of the speech in silence, than to answer it in terms so +equivocal as those to which alone the house seemed willing to assent.</p> + +<p>A proposition was then made by Mr. Fitzsimmons to introduce into the +address, a clause declaring, that "in tracing the origin and progress +of the insurrection, they (the house of representatives) entertain no +doubt that certain self created societies and combinations of men, +careless of consequences, and disregarding truth, by disseminating +suspicions, jealousies, and accusations of the government, have had an +influence in fomenting this daring outrage against the principles of +social order, and the authority of the laws."</p> + +<p>This attempt to censure certain organized assemblages of factious +individuals, who, under the imposing garb of watchfulness over +liberty, concealed designs subversive of all those principles which +preserve the order, the peace, and the happiness of society, was +resisted by the whole force of the opposition. A very eloquent and +animated debate ensued, which terminated in the committee, by striking +out the words "self created societies;" forty-seven voting for, and +forty-five against expunging them. The question was resumed in the +house; and, the chairman of the committee being opposed in sentiment +to the speaker, who was now placed in the chair, the majority was +precisely changed, and the words were reinstated. This victory, +however, if it may be termed one, was soon lost. A motion for +confining the censure to societies and combinations within the four +western counties of Pennsylvania and the adjacent country, succeeded +by the casting vote of the speaker, upon which, the friends of the +amendment gave it up, and the address was voted without expressing any +sentiment on the subject.</p> + +<p>This triumph over the administration revived, for a moment, the +drooping energies of these pernicious societies. But it was only for a +moment. The agency ascribed to them by the opinion of the public, as +well as of the President, in producing an insurrection which was +generally execrated, had essentially affected them; and while +languishing under this wound, they received a deadly blow from a +quarter whence hostility was least expected.</p> + +<p>The remnant of the French convention, rendered desperate by the +ferocious despotism of the Jacobins, and of the sanguinary tyrant who +had made himself their chief; perceiving that the number of victims +who were immolated as his caprice might suggest, instead of satiating, +could only stimulate his appetite for blood, had, at length, sought +for safety by boldly confronting danger; and, succeeding in a +desperate attempt to bring Robespierre to the guillotine, had +terminated his reign of terror. The colossean power of the clubs, +which had been abused to an excess that gives to faithful history the +appearance of fiction, fell with that of their favourite member, and +they sunk into long merited disgrace. The means by which their +political influence had been maintained were wrested from them; and, +in a short time, their meetings were prohibited. Not more certain is +it that the boldest streams must disappear, if the fountains which fed +them be emptied, than was the dissolution of the democratic societies +of America, when the Jacobin clubs were denounced by France. As if +their destinies depended on the same thread, the political death of +the former was the unerring signal for that of the latter; and their +expiring struggles, incapable of deferring their fate, only attested +the reluctance with which they surrendered their much abused power.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the disagreement between the executive and one branch +of the legislature concerning self created societies, and the policy +observed towards foreign nations, the speech of the President was +treated with marked respect; and the several subjects which it +recommended, engaged the immediate attention of congress. A bill was +passed authorizing the President to station a detachment of militia in +the four western counties of Pennsylvania; provision was made to +compensate those whose property had been destroyed by the insurgents, +should those who had committed the injury be unable to repair it: and +an appropriation exceeding one million one hundred thousand dollars +was made to defray the expenses occasioned by the insurrection.</p> + +<p>Many of the difficulties which had occurred in drawing out the militia +were removed, and a bill was introduced to give greater energy to the +militia system generally; but this subject possessed so many intrinsic +difficulties, that the session passed away without effecting any thing +respecting it.</p> + +<p>A bill for the gradual redemption of the national debt was more +successful. The President had repeatedly and earnestly recommended to +the legislature the adoption of measures which might effect this +favourite object; but, although that party which had been reproached +with a desire to accumulate debt as a means of subverting the +republican system had uniformly manifested a disposition to carry this +recommendation into effect, their desire had hitherto been opposed by +obstacles they were unable to surmount. Professions of an anxious +solicitude to discharge the national engagements, without providing +the means of actual payment, might gratify those who consider words as +things, but would be justly estimated by men, who, neither condemning +indiscriminately, nor approving blindly, all the measures of +government, expect that, in point of fact, it shall be rightly and +honestly administered. On the friends of the administration, +therefore, it was incumbent to provide real, substantial funds, which +should attest the sincerity of their professions. This provision could +not be made without difficulty. The duty on imported articles, and on +tonnage, though rapidly augmenting, could not, immediately, be +rendered sufficiently productive to meet, alone, the various +exigencies of the treasury, and yield a surplus for the secure +establishment of a permanent fund to redeem the principal of the debt. +Additional sources of revenue must therefore be explored, or the idea +of reducing the debt be abandoned. New taxes are the never failing +sources of discontent to those who pay them, and will ever furnish +weapons against those who impose them, too operative not to be seized +by their antagonists. In a government where popularity is power, it +requires no small degree of patriotism to encounter the odium which, +however urgently required, they seldom fail to excite. Ready faith is +given to the declaration that they are unjust, tyrannical, and +unnecessary; and no inconsiderable degree of firmness is requisite to +persevere in a course attended with so much political hazard. The +opposition made to the internal taxes, which commenced in congress, +had extended itself through the community. Although only the act +imposing duties on spirits distilled within the United States had been +resisted by force, yet such a degree of irritation was manifested +against the whole system, as to evince the repugnance with which a +large portion of the people saw it go into operation. The duties on +refined sugars, and manufactured tobacco, especially, were censured in +terms which would authorize an opinion that a defect of power, rather +than of will, to resist the execution of the law, confined some of its +opponents to remonstrances. Nothing could be more unfriendly than this +spirit, to the reduction of the debt.</p> + +<p>The reports of the secretary of the treasury having suggested the +several steps which had been taken by congress in the system of +internal taxation, he was justly considered as its author. The +perseverance which marked the character of this officer, gave full +assurance that no clamour would deter him from continuing to recommend +measures which he believed to be essential to the due administration +of the finances. That the establishment of public credit on a sound +basis was all important to the character and prosperity of the United +States, constituted one of those political maxims to which he +invariably adhered; and to effect it completely, seems to have been +among the first objects of his ambition. He had bestowed upon this +favourite subject the most attentive consideration; and while the +legislature was engaged in the discussions of a report made by a +select committee on a resolution moved by Mr. Smith, of South +Carolina, purporting that further provision ought to be made for the +reduction of the debt, addressed a letter to the house of +representatives, through their speaker, informing them that he had +digested and prepared a plan on the basis of the actual revenues, for +the further support of public credit, which he was ready to +communicate.</p> + +<p>This comprehensive and valuable report presented the result of his +laborious and useful investigations, on a subject equally intricate +and interesting.</p> + +<p>This was the last official act of Colonel Hamilton. The penurious +provision made for those who filled the high executive departments in +the American government, excluded from a long continuance in office +all those whose fortunes were moderate, and whose professional talents +placed a decent independence within their reach. While slandered as +the accumulator of thousands by illicit means, Colonel Hamilton had +wasted in the public service great part of the property acquired by +his previous labours, and had found himself compelled to decide on +retiring from his political station. The accusations brought against +him in the last session of the second congress had postponed the +execution of this design, until opportunity should be afforded for a +more full investigation of his official conduct; but he informed the +President that, on the close of the session, to meet in December, +1793, he should resign his situation in the administration. The events +which accumulated about that time, and which were, he said in a letter +to the President, of a nature to render the continuance of peace in a +considerable degree precarious, deferred his meditated retreat. "I do +not perceive," he added, "that I could voluntarily quit my post at +such a juncture, consistently with considerations either of duty or +character; and therefore, I find myself reluctantly obliged to defer +the offer of my resignation.</p> + +<p>"But if any circumstances should have taken place in consequence of +the intimation of an intention to resign, or should otherwise exist, +which serve to render my continuance in office in any degree +inconvenient or ineligible, I beg leave to assure you, sir, that I +should yield to them with all the readiness naturally inspired by an +impatient desire to relinquish a situation, in which, even a momentary +stay is opposed by the strongest personal and family reasons, and +could only be produced by a sense of duty or reputation."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Resignation of Colonel Hamilton.</div> + +<div class="sidenotey">1795</div> + +<p>Assurances being given by the President, of the pleasure with which +the intelligence, that he would continue at his post through the +crisis, was received, he remained in office until the commencement of +the ensuing year. On the 1st of December, immediately on his return +from the western country, the dangers of domestic insurrection or +foreign war having subsided, he gave notice that he should on the last +day of January give in his resignation.</p> + +<p>Seldom has any minister excited the opposite passions of love and hate +in a higher degree than Colonel Hamilton. His talents were too +pre-eminent not to receive from all the tribute of profound respect; +and his integrity and honour as a man, not less than his official +rectitude, though slandered at a distance, were admitted to be +superior to reproach, by those enemies who knew him.</p> + +<p>But with respect to his political principles and designs, the most +contradictory opinions were entertained. While one party sincerely +believed his object to be the preservation of the constitution of the +United States in its original purity; the other, with perhaps equal +sincerity, imputed to him the insidious intention of subverting it. +While his friends were persuaded, that as a statesman, he viewed all +foreign nations with an equal eye; his enemies could perceive in his +conduct, only hostility to France and attachment to her rival.</p> + +<p>It was his fortune to hold a conspicuous station in times which were +peculiarly tempestuous, and under circumstances peculiarly +unfavourable to the fair action of the judgment. In the midst of +prejudices against the national debt, which had taken deep root, and +had long been nourished, he was called to the head of a department, +whose duty it was to contend with those prejudices, and to offer a +system which, in doing justice to the creditor of the public, might +retrieve the reputation of his country. While the passions were +inflamed by a stern contest between the advocates of a national, and +of state governments, duties were assigned to him, in the execution of +which there were frequent occasions to manifest his devotion to the +former. When a raging fever, caught from that which was desolating +France, and exhibiting some of its symptoms, had seized the public +mind, and reached its understanding, it was unfavourable to his quiet, +and perhaps to his fame, that he remain uninfected by the disease. He +judged the French revolution without prejudice; and had the courage to +predict that it could not terminate in a free and popular government.</p> + +<p>Such opinions, at such a time, could not fail to draw a load of +obloquy upon a man whose frankness gave them publicity, and whose +boldness and decision of character insured them an able and steady +support. The suspicions they were calculated to generate, derived +great additional force from the political theories he was understood +to hold. It was known that, in his judgment, the constitution of the +United States was rather chargeable with imbecility, than censurable +for its too great strength; and that the real sources of danger to +American happiness and liberty, were to be found in its want of the +means to effect the objects of its institution;—in its being exposed +to the encroachments of the states,—not in the magnitude of its +powers. Without attempting to conceal these opinions, he declared his +perfect acquiescence in the decision of his country; his hope that the +issue would be fortunate; and his firm determination, in whatever +might depend upon his exertions, to give the experiment the fairest +chance for success. No part of his political conduct has been +perceived, which would inspire doubts of the sincerity of these +declarations. His friends may appeal with confidence to his official +acts, to all his public conduct, for the refutation of those charges +which were made against him while at the head of the treasury +department, and were continued, without interruption, till he ceased +to be the object of jealousy.</p> + +<p><a name="p205">In</a> the esteem and good opinion of the President, to whom he was best +known, Colonel Hamilton at all times maintained a high place. While +balancing on the mission to England, and searching for a person to +whom the interesting negotiation with that government should be +confided, the mind of the chief magistrate was directed, among others, +to this gentleman.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> He carried with him out of office,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> the same +cordial esteem for his character, and respect for his talents, which +had induced his appointment.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Is succeeded by Mr. Wolcott.</div> + +<p>The vacant office of secretary of the treasury was filled by Mr. +Wolcott, of Connecticut, a gentleman of sound judgment, who was well +versed in its duties. He had served as comptroller for a considerable +time, and in that situation, had been eminently useful to the head of +the department.</p> + +<p>The report of the select committee recommended additional objects for +internal taxation, and that the temporary duties already imposed +should be rendered permanent. The opposition made to this important +part of the system was so ardent, and so persevering, that, though the +measure was taken up early in the session, the bill did not pass the +house of representatives until late in February. Not only were the +taxes proposed by the friends of the administration encountered +successively by popular objections, urged with all the vehemence of +passion, and zeal of conviction, but it was with extreme difficulty +that the duties on sugar refined, and tobacco manufactured, within the +United States, could be rendered permanent. When gentlemen were urged +to produce a substitute for the system they opposed, a direct tax was +mentioned with approbation; but no disposition was shown to incur the +responsibility of becoming the patrons of such a measure. At length, +by the most persevering exertions of the federal party, the bill was +carried through the house; and thus was that system adopted, which, if +its operations shall not be disturbed, and if no great accumulations +of debt be made, will, in a few years, discharge all the engagements +of the United States.</p> + +<p>On the third of March, this important session was ended. Although the +party hostile to the administration had obtained a small majority in +one branch of the legislature, several circumstances had occurred to +give great weight to the recommendations of the President. Among these +may be reckoned the victory obtained by General Wayne, and the +suppression of the western insurrection. In some points, however, +which he had pressed with earnestness, his sentiments did not prevail. +One of these was a bill introduced into the senate for preserving +peace with the Indians, by protecting them from the intrusions and +incursions of the whites.</p> + +<p>From the commencement of his administration, the President had +reviewed this subject with great interest, and had permitted scarcely +a session of congress to pass away, without pressing it on the +attention of the legislature. It had been mentioned in his speech at +the commencement of the present session, and had been further enforced +by a message accompanying a report made upon it by the secretary of +war. The following humane sentiments, extracted from that report, are +characteristic of the general views of the administration.</p> + +<p>"It seems that our own experience would demonstrate the propriety of +endeavouring to preserve a pacific conduct in preference to a hostile +one with the Indian tribes. The United States can get nothing by an +Indian war; but they risk men, money, and reputation. As we are more +powerful and more enlightened than they are, there is a responsibility +of national character that we should treat them with kindness, and +even with liberality."</p> + +<p>The plan suggested in this report was, to add to those arrangements +respecting trade, which were indispensable to the preservation of +peace, a chain of garrisoned posts within the territory of the +Indians, provided their assent to the measure should be obtained; and +to subject all those who should trespass on their lands to martial +law. A bill founded on this report passed the senate, but was lost, in +the house of representatives, by a small majority.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Resignation of General Knox.</div> + +<p>This report preceded the resignation of the secretary of war but a few +days. This valuable officer, too, was driven from the service of the +public, by the scantiness of the compensation allowed him.</p> + +<p>On the 28th of December, 1794, he addressed a letter to the President +giving him official notice that, with the year, his services as +secretary for the department of war would cease. This resolution had +long before been verbally communicated.</p> + +<p>"After having served my country," concluded the letter, "near twenty +years, the greater portion of the time under your immediate auspices, +it is with extreme reluctance I find myself constrained to withdraw +from so honourable a situation. But the natural and powerful claims of +a numerous family will no longer permit me to neglect their essential +interests.</p> + +<p>"In whatever situation I shall be, I shall recollect your confidence +and kindness with all the fervour and purity of affection, of which a +grateful heart is susceptible."</p> + +<p>In the letter accepting his resignation, the President expressed the +regret it occasioned, and added:</p> + +<p>"I can not suffer you, however, to close your public service, without +uniting to the satisfaction which must arise in your own mind from +conscious rectitude, assurances of my most perfect persuasion that you +have deserved well of your country.</p> + +<p>"My personal knowledge of your exertions, while it authorizes me to +hold this language, justifies the sincere friendship which I have +borne you, and which will accompany you in every situation of life."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Is succeeded by Colonel Pickering.</div> + +<p>Colonel Pickering, a gentleman who had filled many important offices +through the war of the revolution; who had discharged several trusts +of considerable confidence under the present government; and who at +the time was postmaster general, was appointed to succeed him.</p> + +<p>On the seventh of March, the treaty of amity, commerce, and +navigation, between the United States and Great Britain, which had +been signed by the ministers of the two nations, on the 19th of the +preceding November, was received at the office of state.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Treaty between the United States and Great Britain.</div> + +<p>From his arrival in London on the 15th of June, Mr. Jay had been +assiduously and unremittingly employed on the arduous duties of his +mission. By a deportment respectful, yet firm, mingling a decent +deference for the government to which he was deputed, with a proper +regard for the dignity of his own, this minister avoided those little +asperities which frequently embarrass measures of great concern, and +smoothed the way to the adoption of those which were suggested by the +real interests of both nations. Many and intricate were the points to +be discussed. On some of them an agreement was found to be +impracticable; but, at length, a treaty was concluded, which Mr. Jay +declared to be the best that was attainable, and which he believed it +for the interests of the United States to accept.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Indeed it was +scarcely possible to contemplate the evidences of extreme exasperation +which were given in America, and the nature of the differences which +subsisted between the two countries, without feeling a conviction that +war was inevitable, should this attempt to adjust those differences +prove unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>On Monday, the 8th of June, the senate, in conformity with the summons +of the President, convened in the senate chamber, and the treaty, with +the documents connected with it, were submitted to their +consideration.</p> + +<p>On the 24th of June, after a minute and laborious investigation, the +senate, by precisely a constitutional majority, advised and consented +to its conditional ratification.</p> + +<p>An insuperable objection existed to an article regulating the +intercourse with the British West Indies, founded on a fact which is +understood to have been unknown to Mr. Jay. The intention of the +contracting parties was to admit the direct intercourse between the +United States and those islands, but not to permit the productions of +the latter to be carried to Europe in the vessels of the former. To +give effect to this intention, the exportation from the United States +of those articles which were the principal productions of the islands +was to be relinquished. Among these was cotton. This article, which a +few years before was scarcely raised in sufficient quantity for +domestic consumption, was becoming one of the richest staples of the +southern states. The senate being informed of this fact, advised and +consented that the treaty should be ratified on condition that an +article be added thereto, suspending that part of the twelfth article +which related to the intercourse with the West Indies.</p> + +<p>Although, in the mind of the President, several objections to the +treaty had occurred, they were overbalanced by its advantages; and +before transmitting it to the senate, he had resolved to ratify it, if +approved by that body. The resolution of the senate presented +difficulties which required consideration. Whether they could advise +and consent to an article which had not been laid before them; and +whether their resolution was to be considered as the final exercise of +their power, were questions not entirely free from difficulty. Nor was +it absolutely clear that the executive could ratify the treaty, under +the advice of the senate, until the suspending article should be +introduced into it. A few days were employed in the removal of these +doubts, at the expiration of which, intelligence was received from +Europe which suspended the resolution which the President had formed.</p> + +<p>The English papers contained an account, which, though not official, +was deemed worthy of credit, that the order of the 8th of June, 1793, +for the seizure of provisions going to French ports, was renewed. In +the apprehension that this order might be construed and intended as a +practical construction of that article in the treaty which seemed to +favour the idea that provisions, though not generally contraband, +might occasionally become so, a construction in which he had +determined not to acquiesce, the President thought it wise to +reconsider his decision. Of the result of this reconsideration, there +is no conclusive testimony. A strong memorial against this +objectionable order was directed; and the propositions to withhold the +ratifications of the treaty until the order should be repealed; to +make the exchange of ratifications dependent upon that event; and to +adhere to his original purpose of pursuing the advice of the senate, +connecting with that measure the memorial which had been mentioned, as +an act explanatory of the sense in which his ratification was made, +were severally reviewed by him. In conformity with his practice of +withholding his opinion on controverted points until it should become +necessary to decide them, he suspended his determination on these +propositions until the memorial should be prepared and laid before +him. In the meantime, his private affairs required that he should +visit Mount Vernon.</p> + +<p>So restless and uneasy was the temper respecting foreign nations, that +no surprise ought to be excited at the anxiety which was felt on the +negotiation of a treaty with Great Britain, nor at the means which +were used, before its contents were known, to extend the prejudices +against it.</p> + +<p>Great umbrage was taken at the mysterious secrecy in which the +negotiation had been involved. That the instrument itself was not +immediately communicated to the public, and that the senate +deliberated upon it with closed doors, were considered as additional +evidences of the contempt in which their rulers held the feelings and +understandings of the people, and of the monarchical tendencies of the +government. Crowned heads, it was loudly repeated, who were +machinating designs subversive of the rights of man, and the happiness +of nations, might well cover with an impenetrable veil, their dark +transactions; but republics ought to have no secrets. In republics, +those to whom power was delegated, being the servants of the people, +acting solely for their benefit, ought to transact all national +affairs in open day. This doctrine was not too absurd for the +extravagance of the moment.</p> + +<p>The predetermined hostility to the treaty increased in activity, as +the period for deciding its fate approached. On its particular merits, +no opinion could be formed, because they were unknown; but on the +general question of reconciliation between the two countries, a +decisive judgment was extensively made up. The sentiments called forth +by the occasion demonstrated, that no possible adjustment of +differences with Great Britain, no possible arrangement which might +promise a future friendly intercourse with that nation, could be +satisfactory. The President was openly attacked; his whole system +strongly condemned; and the mission of Mr. Jay, particularly, was +reprobated in terms of peculiar harshness. That a treaty of amity and +commerce should have been formed, whatever might be its principles, +was a degrading insult to the American people; a pusillanimous +surrender of their honour; and an insidious injury to France. Between +such a compact, and an alliance, no distinction was taken. It was an +abandonment of the ancient ally of the United States, whose friendship +had given them independence, and whose splendid victories still +protected them, for a close connexion with her natural enemy, and with +the enemy of human liberty.</p> + +<p>The pretended object of the mission, it was said, was a reparation for +wrongs, not a contaminating connexion with the most faithless and +corrupt court in the world. The return of the envoy without that +reparation, was a virtual surrender of the claim. The honour of the +United States required a peremptory demand of the immediate surrender +of the western posts, and of compensation for the piratical +depredations committed on their commerce; not a disgraceful and +humiliating negotiation. The surrender, and the compensation, ought to +have been made instantly; for no reliance could be placed in promises +to be performed in future.</p> + +<p>That the disinclination formerly manifested by Great Britain, to give +the stability and certainty of compact to the principles regulating +the commercial intercourse between the two countries, had constituted +an important item in the catalogue of complaints against that power: +that the existence, or non-existence of commercial treaties had been +selected as the criterion by which to regulate the discriminations +proposed to be made in the trade of foreign nations; that, in the +discussion on this subject, the favourers of commercial hostility had +uniformly supported the policy of giving value to treaties with the +United States; these opinions were instantly relinquished by the party +which had strenuously asserted them while urged by their leaders in +congress; and it was imputed as a crime to the government, and to its +negotiator, that he had proceeded further than to demand immediate and +unconditional reparation of the wrongs sustained by the United States.</p> + +<p><a name="p216">The</a> most strenuous and unremitting exertions to give increased energy +to the love which was openly avowed for France, and to the detestation +which was not less openly avowed for England,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> were connected with +this course of passionate declamation.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of parties when the senate advised the ratification +of the treaty. Although common usage, and a decent respect for the +executive, and for a foreign nation, not less than a positive +resolution, required that the seal of secrecy should not be broken by +the senate, an abstract of this instrument, not very faithfully taken, +was given to the public; and on the 29th of June, a senator of the +United States transmitted a copy of it to the most distinguished +editor of the opposition party in Philadelphia, to be communicated to +the public through the medium of the press.</p> + +<p>If the negotiation itself had been acrimoniously censured; if amicable +arrangements, whatever might be their character, had been passionately +condemned; it was not to be expected that the treaty would assuage +these pre-existing irritations.</p> + +<p>In fact, public opinion did receive a considerable shock, and men +uninfested by the spirit of faction felt some disappointment on its +first appearance. In national contests, unless there be an undue +attachment to the adversary country, few men, even among the +intelligent, are sensible of the weakness which may exist in their own +pretensions, or can allow their full force to the claims of the other +party. If the people at large enter keenly into the points of +controversy with a foreign power, they can never be satisfied with any +equal adjustment of those points, unless other considerations, +stronger than abstract reason, afford that satisfaction; nor will it +ever be difficult to prove to them, in a case unassisted by the +passions, that in any practicable commercial contract, they give too +much, and receive too little.</p> + +<p>On no subject whatever have considerations, such as these, possessed +more influence than in that which was now brought before the American +people. Their operation was not confined to those whose passions urged +them to take part in the war, nor to the open enemies of the +executive. The friends of peace, and of the administration, had +generally received impressions unfavourable to the fair exercise of +judgment in the case, which it required time and reflection to efface. +Even among them, strong prejudices had been imbibed in favour of +France, which the open attempts on the sovereignty of the United +States had only weakened; and the matters of controversy with Great +Britain had been contemplated with all that partiality which men +generally feel for their own interests. With respect to commerce also, +strong opinions had been preconceived. The desire to gain admission +into the British West India islands, especially, had excited great +hostility to that colonial system which had been adopted by every +country in Europe; and sufficient allowances were not made for the +prejudices by which that system was supported.</p> + +<p>The treaty, therefore, when exposed to the public view, found one +party prepared for a bold and intrepid attack, but the other, not +ready in its defence. An appeal to the passions, the prejudices, and +the feelings of the nation, might confidently be made by those whose +only object was its condemnation; which reflection, information, and +consequently time, were required by men whose first impressions were +not in its favour, but who were not inclined to yield absolutely to +those impressions.</p> + +<p>That a treaty involving a great variety of complicated national +interests, and adjusting differences of long standing, which had +excited strong reciprocal prejudices, would require a patient and +laborious investigation, both of the instrument itself, and of the +circumstances under which it was negotiated, before even those who are +most conversant in diplomatic transactions could form a just estimate +of its merits, would be conceded by all reflecting men. But an immense +party in America, not in the habit of considering national compacts, +without examining the circumstances under which that with Great +Britain had been formed, or weighing the reasons which induced it; +without understanding the instrument, and in many instances without +reading it, rushed impetuously to its condemnation; and, confident +that public opinion would be surprised by the suddenness, or stormed +by the fury of the assault, expected that the President would be +compelled to yield to its violence.</p> + +<p>In the populous cities, meetings of the people were immediately +summoned, in order to take into their consideration, and to express +their opinions respecting an instrument, to comprehend the full extent +of which, a statesman would need deep reflection in the quiet of his +closet, aided by considerable inquiry. It may well be supposed that +persons feeling some distrust of their capacity to form, intuitively, +a correct judgment on a subject so complex, and disposed only to act +knowingly, would be unwilling to make so hasty a decision, and +consequently be disinclined to attend such meetings. Many intelligent +men, therefore, stood aloof, while the most intemperate assumed, as +usual, the name of the people; pronounced a definitive and unqualified +condemnation of every article in the treaty; and, with the utmost +confidence, assigned reasons for their opinions, which, in many +instances, had only an imaginary existence; and in some, were +obviously founded on the strong prejudices which were entertained with +respect to foreign powers. It is difficult to review the various +resolutions and addresses to which the occasion gave birth, without +feeling some degree of astonishment, mingled with humiliation, at +perceiving such proofs of the deplorable fallibility of human reason.</p> + +<p>The first meeting was held in Boston. The example of that city was +soon followed by New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Charleston; +and, as if their addresses were designed at least as much for their +fellow citizens as for their President, while one copy was transmitted +to him, another was committed to the press. The precedent set by these +large cities was followed, with wonderful rapidity, throughout the +union; and the spirit in which this system of opposition originated +sustained no diminution of violence in its progress.</p> + +<p>On the 18th of July, at Baltimore, on his way to Mount Vernon, the +President received the resolutions passed by the meeting at Boston, +which were enclosed to him in a letter from the select men of that +town. The answer to this letter and to these resolutions evinced the +firmness with which he had resolved to meet the effort that was +obviously making, to control the exercise of his constitutional +functions, by giving a promptness and vigour to the expression of the +sentiments of a party, which might impose it upon the world as the +deliberate judgment of the public.</p> + +<p>Addresses to the chief magistrate, and resolutions of town and country +meetings, were not the only means which were employed to enlist the +American people against the measure which had been advised by the +senate. In an immense number of essays, the treaty was critically +examined, and every argument which might operate on the judgment or +prejudice of the public, was urged in the warm and glowing language of +passion. To meet these efforts by counter efforts, was deemed +indispensably necessary by the friends of that instrument; and the +gazettes of the day are replete with appeals to the passions, and to +the reason, of those who are the ultimate arbiters of every political +question. That the treaty affected the interests of France not less +than those of the United States, was, in this memorable controversy, +asserted by the one party, with as much zeal as it was denied by the +other. These agitations furnished matter to the President for deep +reflection, and for serious regret; but they appear not to have shaken +the decision he had formed, or to have affected his conduct otherwise +than to induce a still greater degree of circumspection in the mode of +transacting the delicate business before him. On their first +appearance, therefore, he resolved to hasten his return to +Philadelphia, for the purpose of considering, at that place rather +than at Mount Vernon, the memorial against the provision order, and +the conditional ratification of the treaty. In a private letter to the +secretary of state, of the 29th of July, accompanying the official +communication of this determination, he stated more at large the +motives which induced it. These were, the violent and extraordinary +proceedings which were taking place, and might be expected, throughout +the union; and his opinion that the memorial, the ratification, and +the instructions which were framing, were of such vast magnitude as +not only to require great individual consideration, but a solemn +conjunct revision.</p> + +<p>He viewed the opposition which the treaty was receiving from the +meetings in different parts of the union, in a very serious +light;—not because there was more weight in any of the objections +than was foreseen at first,—for in some of them there was none, and +in others, there were gross misrepresentations; nor as it respected +himself personally, for that he declared should have no influence on +his conduct. He plainly perceived, and was accordingly preparing his +mind for, the obloquy which disappointment and malice were collecting +to heap upon him. But he was alarmed on account of the effect it might +have on France, and the advantage which the government of that country +might be disposed to make of the spirit which was at work, to cherish +a belief, that the treaty was calculated to favour Great Britain at +her expense. Whether she believed or disbelieved these tales, their +effect, he said, would be nearly the same.</p> + +<p>"To sum up the whole," he added, "in a few words, I have never, since +I have been in the administration of the government, seen a crisis +which, in my opinion, has been so pregnant with interesting events, +nor one from which more is to be apprehended, whether viewed on one +side or the other. From New York there is, and I am told will further +be, a counter current;<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> but how formidable it may appear I know +not. If the same does not take place at Boston and other towns, it +will afford but too strong evidence that the opposition is in a manner +universal, and would make the ratification a very serious business +indeed. But as it respects the French, even counter resolutions would, +for the reasons I have already mentioned, do little more than weaken, +in a small degree, the effect the other side would have."</p> + +<p>In a private letter of the 31st of July to the same gentleman, after +repeating his determination to return to Philadelphia, and his +impression of the wisdom, the temperateness, and the firmness for +which the crisis most eminently called; he added, "for there is too +much reason to believe, from the pains that have been taken before, +at, and since the advice of the senate respecting the treaty, that the +prejudices against it are more extensive than is generally imagined. +How should it be otherwise? When no stone has been left unturned that +could impress on the minds of the people the most arrant +misrepresentation of facts: that their rights have not only been +neglected, but absolutely sold; that there are no reciprocal +advantages in the treaty: that the benefits are all on the side of +Great Britain: and, what seems to have had more weight with them than +all the rest, and has been most pressed, that the treaty is made with +the design to oppress the French republic, in open violation of our +treaty with that nation, and contrary too to every principal of +gratitude and sound policy. In time, when passion shall have yielded +to sober reason, the current may possibly turn; but, in the mean +while, this government, in relation to France and England, may be +compared to a ship between Scylla and Charybdis. If the treaty is +ratified, the partisans of the French (or rather of war and confusion) +will excite them to hostile measures, or at least to unfriendly +sentiments;—if it is not, there is no foreseeing all the consequences +that may follow as it respects Great Britain.</p> + +<p>"It is not to be inferred from hence that I am or shall be disposed to +quit the ground I have taken, unless circumstances more imperious than +have yet come to my knowledge, should compel it; for there is but one +straight course, and that is to seek truth, and to pursue it steadily. +But these things are mentioned to show that a close investigation of +the subject is more than ever necessary; and that there are strong +evidences of the necessity of the most circumspect conduct in carrying +the determination of government into effect, with prudence as it +respects our own people, and with every exertion to produce a change +for the better with Great Britain."</p> + +<p>In a letter of the third of August, written to the same gentleman, in +which he stated the increasing extent of hostility to the treaty, the +President added:</p> + +<p>"All these things do not shake my determination with respect to the +proposed ratification, nor will they, unless something more imperious +and unknown to me, should, in the opinion of yourself and the +gentlemen with you, make it adviseable for me to pause."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Conditionally ratified by the president.</div> + +<p>In the afternoon of the 11th of August the President arrived in +Philadelphia; and on the next day, the question respecting the +immediate ratification of the treaty was brought before the cabinet. +The secretary of state maintained, singly, the opinion, that, during +the existence of the provision order,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> and during the war between +Britain and France, this step ought not to be taken. This opinion did +not prevail. The resolution was adopted to ratify the treaty +immediately, and to accompany the ratification with a strong memorial +against the provision order, which should convey, in explicit terms, +the sense of the American government on that subject. By this course, +the views of the executive were happily accomplished. The order was +revoked, and the ratifications of the treaty were exchanged.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The treaty unpopular in the United States.</div> + +<p>The President was most probably determined to adopt this course by the +extreme intemperance with which the treaty was opposed, and the rapid +progress which this violence was apparently making. It was obvious +that, unless this temper could be checked, it would soon become so +extensive, and would arrive at such a point of fury, as to threaten +dangerous consequences. It was obviously necessary either to attempt a +diminution of its action by rendering its exertions hopeless, and by +giving to the treaty the weight of his character and influence, or to +determine ultimately to yield to it. A species of necessity therefore +seems to have been created for abandoning the idea, if it was ever +taken up, of making the ratification of the treaty dependent on the +revocation of the provision order.</p> + +<p>The soundness of the policy which urged this decisive measure was +proved by the event. The confidence which was felt in the judgment and +virtue of the chief magistrate, induced many, who, swept away by the +popular current, had yielded to the common prejudices, to re-examine, +and discard opinions which had been too hastily embraced; and many +were called forth by a desire to support the administration in +measures actually adopted, to take a more active part in the general +contest than they would otherwise have pursued. The consequence was, +that more moderate opinions respecting the treaty began to prevail.</p> + +<p>In a letter from Mount Vernon of the 20th of September, addressed to +General Knox, who had communicated to him the change of opinion which +was appearing in the eastern states, the President expressed in warm +terms the pleasure derived from that circumstance, and added: "Next to +a conscientious discharge of my public duties, to carry along with me +the approbation of my constituents, would be the highest gratification +of which my mind is susceptible. But the latter being secondary, I can +not make the former yield to it, unless some criterion more infallible +than partial (if they are not party) meetings can be discovered as the +touchstone of public sentiment. If any person on earth could, or the +great power above would, erect the standard of infallibility in +political opinions, no being that inhabits this terrestrial globe +would resort to it with more eagerness than myself, so long as I +remain a servant of the public. But as I have hitherto found no better +guide than upright intentions, and close investigation, I shall adhere +to them while I keep the watch, leaving it to those who will come +after me, to explore new ways, if they like, or think them better."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Charge against the president rejected.</div> + +<p>If the ratification of the treaty increased the number of its open +advocates, it seemed also to give increased acrimony to the +opposition. Such hold had the President taken of the affections of the +people, that even his enemies had deemed it generally necessary to +preserve, with regard to him, external marks of decency and respect. +Previous to the mission of Mr. Jay, charges against the chief +magistrate, though frequently insinuated, had seldom been directly +made; and the cover under which the attacks upon his character were +conducted, evidenced the caution with which it was deemed necessary to +proceed. That mission visibly affected the decorum which had been +usually observed towards him; and the ratification of the treaty +brought sensations into open view, which had long been ill concealed. +His military and political character was attacked with equal violence, +and it was averred that he was totally destitute of merit, either as a +soldier, or a statesman. The calumnies with which he was assailed were +not confined to his public conduct; even his qualities as a man were +the subjects of detraction. That he had violated the constitution in +negotiating a treaty without the previous advice of the senate, and in +embracing within that treaty subjects belonging exclusively to the +legislature, was openly maintained, for which an impeachment was +publicly suggested; and that he had drawn from the treasury for his +private use, more than the salary annexed to his office, was asserted +without a blush.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> This last allegation was said to be supported by +extracts from the treasury accounts which had been laid before the +legislature, and was maintained with the most persevering effrontery.</p> + +<p>Though the secretary of the treasury denied that the appropriations +made by the legislature had ever been exceeded, the atrocious charge +was still confidently repeated; and the few who could triumph in any +spot which might tarnish the lustre of Washington's fame, felicitated +themselves on the prospect of obtaining a victory over the reputation +of a patriot, to whose single influence, they ascribed the failure of +their political plans. With the real public, the confidence felt in +the integrity of the chief magistrate remained unshaken; but so +imposing was the appearance of the documents adduced, as to excite an +apprehension that the transaction might be placed in a light to show +that some indiscretion, in which he had not participated, had been +inadvertently committed.</p> + +<p>This state of anxious suspense was of short duration. The late +secretary of the treasury, during whose administration of the finances +this peculation was said to have taken place, came forward with a full +explanation of the fact. It appeared that the President himself had +never touched any part of the compensation annexed to his office, but +that the whole was received, and disbursed, by the gentleman who +superintended the expenses of his household. That it was the practice +of the treasury, when a sum had been appropriated for the current +year, to pay it to that gentleman occasionally, as the situation of +the family might require. The expenses at some periods of the year +exceeded, and at others fell short of the allowance for the quarter; +so that at some times money was paid in advance on account of the +ensuing quarter, and at others, that which was due at the end of the +quarter was not completely drawn out. The secretary entered into an +examination of the constitution and laws to show that this practice +was justifiable, and illustrated his arguments by many examples in +which an advance on account of money appropriated to a particular +object, before the service was completed, would be absolutely +necessary. However this might be, it was a transaction in which the +President personally was unconcerned.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + +<p>When possessed of the entire fact, the public viewed, with just +indignation, this attempt to defame a character which was the nation's +pride. Americans felt themselves involved in this atrocious calumny on +their most illustrious citizen; and its propagators were frowned into +silence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mr. Randolph resigns. Is succeeded by Colonel Pickering.<br /> +Colonel McHenry appointed secretary of war.</div> + +<p><a name="p231">On</a> the 19th of August, the secretary of state had resigned<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> his +place in the administration, and some time elapsed before a successor +was appointed.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> At length, Colonel Pickering was removed to the +department of state, and Mr. M'Henry, a gentleman who had served in +the family of General Washington, and in the congress prior to the +establishment of the existing constitution, was appointed to the +department of war. By the death of Mr. Bradford, a vacancy was also +produced in the office of attorney general, which was filled by Mr. +Lee, a gentleman of considerable eminence at the bar, and in the +legislature of Virginia.</p> + +<p>Many of those embarrassments in which the government, from its +institution, had been involved, were now ended, or approaching their +termination.</p> + +<p>The opposition to the laws, which had so long been made in the western +counties of Pennsylvania, existed no longer.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Treaty with the Indians north-west of the Ohio.</div> + +<p>On the third of August, a definitive treaty was concluded by General +Wayne with the hostile Indians north-west of the Ohio, by which the +destructive and expensive war which had long desolated that frontier, +was ended in a manner perfectly agreeable to the United States. An +accommodation had taken place with the powerful tribes of the south +also; and to preserve peace in that quarter, it was only necessary to +invest the executive with the means of restraining the incursions +which the disorderly inhabitants of the southern frontier frequently +made into the Indian territory; incursions, of which murder was often +the consequence.</p> + +<p>Few subjects had excited more feeling among the people, or in the +government of the United States, than the captivity of their fellow +citizens in Algiers. Even this calamity had been seized as a weapon +which might be wielded with some effect against the President. +Overlooking the exertions he had made for the attainment of peace, and +the liberation of the American captives; and regardless of his +inability to aid negotiation by the exhibition of force, the +discontented ascribed the long and painful imprisonment of their +unfortunate brethren to a carelessness in the administration +respecting their sufferings, and to that inexhaustible source of +accusation,—its policy with regard to France and Britain.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Treaty with Algiers.</div> + +<p>After the failure of several attempts to obtain a peace with the +regency of Algiers, a treaty was, at length, negotiated on terms +which, though disadvantageous, were the best that could be obtained.</p> + +<p>The exertions of the executive to settle the controversy with Spain +respecting boundary, and to obtain the free use of the Mississippi, +had been unavailing. A negotiation in which Mr. Short and Mr. +Carmichael were employed at Madrid, had been protracted by artificial +delays on the part of the Spanish cabinet, until those ministers had +themselves requested that the commission should be terminated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Treaty with Spain.</div> + +<p>At length, Spain, embarrassed by the war in which she was engaged, +discovered symptoms of a temper more inclined to conciliation, and +intimated to the secretary of state, through her commissioners at +Philadelphia, that a minister, deputed on the special occasion, of +higher rank than Mr. Short, who was a resident, would be able to +expedite the negotiation. On receiving this intimation, the President, +though retaining a high and just confidence in Mr. Short, nominated +Mr. Pinckney, in November, 1794, as envoy extraordinary to his +Catholic Majesty. Mr. Pinckney repaired in the following summer to +Madrid, and a treaty was concluded on the 20th of October, in which +the claims of the United States, on the important points of boundary, +and the Mississippi, were fully conceded.</p> + +<p>Thus were adjusted, so far as depended on the executive, all those +external difficulties with which the United States had long struggled; +most of which had originated before the establishment of the existing +government, and some of which portended calamities that no common +share of prudence could have averted.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Meeting of Congress.</div> + +<p>Although the signature of the treaties with Spain and Algiers had not +been officially announced at the meeting of congress, the state of the +negotiations with both powers was sufficiently well understood to +enable the President with confidence to assure the legislature, in his +speech at the opening of the session, that those negotiations were in +a train which promised a happy issue.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">President's speech.</div> + +<p>After expressing his gratification at the prosperous state of American +affairs, the various favourable events which have been already +enumerated were detailed in a succinct statement, at the close of +which he mentioned the British treaty, which, though publicly known, +had not before been communicated officially to the house of +representatives.</p> + +<p>"This interesting summary of our affairs," continued the speech, "with +regard to the powers between whom and the United States controversies +have subsisted; and with regard also to our Indian neighbours with +whom we have been in a state of enmity or misunderstanding, opens a +wide field for consoling and gratifying reflections. If by prudence +and moderation on every side, the extinguishment of all the causes of +external discord which have heretofore menaced our tranquillity, on +terms compatible with our national faith and honour, shall be the +happy results,—how firm and how precious a foundation will have been +laid for accelerating, maturing, and establishing the prosperity of +our country."</p> + +<p>After presenting an animated picture of the situation of the United +States, and recommending several objects to the attention of the +legislature, the President concluded with observing: "Temperate +discussion of the important subjects that may arise in the course of +the session, and mutual forbearance where there is a difference in +opinion, are too obvious and necessary for the peace, happiness, and +welfare of our country, to need any recommendation of mine."</p> + +<p>In the senate, an address was reported which echoed back the +sentiments of the speech.</p> + +<p>In this house of representatives, as in the last, the party in +opposition to the administration had obtained a majority. This party +was unanimously hostile to the treaty with Great Britain; and it was +expected that their answer to the speech of the President would +indicate their sentiments on a subject which continued to agitate the +whole American people. The answer reported by the committee contained +a declaration, that the confidence of his fellow citizens in the chief +magistrate remained undiminished.</p> + +<p>On a motion, to strike out the words importing this sentiment, it was +averred, that the clause asserted an untruth. It was not true that the +confidence of the people in the President was undiminished. By a +recent transaction it had been considerably impaired; and some +gentlemen declared that their own confidence in him was lessened.</p> + +<p>By the friends of the administration, the motion was opposed with +great zeal, and the opinion that the confidence of the people in their +chief magistrate remained unshaken, was maintained with ardour. But +they were outnumbered.</p> + +<p>To avoid a direct vote on the proposition, it was moved, that the +address should be recommitted. This motion succeeded, and, two members +being added to the committee, an answer was reported in which the +clause objected to was so modified as to be free from exception.</p> + +<p>That part of the speech which mentioned the treaty with Great Britain +was alluded to in terms which, though not directly expressive of +disapprobation, were sufficiently indicative of the prevailing +sentiment.</p> + +<p>Early in the month of January the President transmitted to both houses +of congress a message, accompanying certain communications from the +French government which were well calculated to cherish those ardent +feelings that prevailed in the legislature.</p> + +<p>It was the fortune of Mr. Monroe to reach Paris, soon after the death +of Robespierre, and the fall of the Jacobins. On his reception as the +minister of the United States, which was public, and in the +convention, he gave free scope to the genuine feelings of his heart; +and, at the same time, delivered to the President of that body, with +his credentials, two letters addressed by the secretary of state to +the committee of public safety. These letters were answers to one +written by the committee of safety to the congress of the United +States. The executive department being the organ through which all +foreign intercourse was to be conducted, each branch of the +legislature had passed a resolution directing this letter to be +transmitted to the President, with a request, that he would cause it +to be answered in terms expressive of their friendly dispositions +towards the French republic.</p> + +<p>So fervent were the sentiments expressed on this occasion, that the +convention decreed that the flag of the American and French republics +should be united together, and suspended in its own hall, in testimony +of eternal union and friendship between the two people. To evince the +impression made on his mind by this act, and the grateful sense of his +constituents, Mr. Monroe presented to the convention the flag of the +United States, which he prayed them to accept as a proof of the +sensibility with which his country received every act of friendship +from its ally, and of the pleasure with which it cherished every +incident which tended to cement and consolidate the union between the +two nations.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mr. Adet succeeds Mr. Fauchet.</div> + +<p>The committee of safety, disregarding the provisions of the American +constitution, although their attention must have been particularly +directed to them by the circumstance that the letter to congress was +referred by that body to the executive, again addressed the +legislature in terms adapted to that department of government which +superintends its foreign intercourse, and expressive, among other +sentiments, of the sensibility with which the French nation had +perceived those sympathetic emotions with which the American people +had viewed the vicissitudes of her fortune. Mr. Adet, who was to +succeed Mr. Fauchet at Philadelphia, and who was the bearer of this +letter, also brought with him the colours of France, which he was +directed to present to the United States. He arrived in the summer; +but probably in the idea that these communications were to be made by +him directly to congress, did not announce them to the executive until +late in December.</p> + +<div class="sidenotey">1796</div> + +<p>The first day of the new year was named for their reception; when the +colours were delivered to the President, and the letter to congress +also was placed in his hands.</p> + +<p>In executing this duty, Mr. Adet addressed a speech to the President, +which, in the glowing language of his country, represented France as +struggling, not only for her own liberty, but for that of the human +race. "Assimilated to, or rather identified with free people by the +form of her government, she saw in them," he said, "only friends and +brothers. Long accustomed to regard the American people as her most +faithful allies, she sought to draw closer the ties already formed in +the fields of America, under the auspices of victory, over the ruins +of tyranny."</p> + +<p>To answer this speech was a task of some delicacy. It was necessary to +express feelings adapted to the occasion, without implying sentiments +with respect to the belligerent powers, which might be improper to be +used by the chief magistrate of a neutral country. With a view to both +these objects, the President made the following reply:</p> + +<p>"Born, sir, in a land of liberty; having early learned its value; +having engaged in a perilous conflict to defend it; having, in a word, +devoted the best years of my life to secure its permanent +establishment in my own country; my anxious recollections, my +sympathetic feelings, and my best wishes, are irresistibly attracted, +whensoever, in any country, I see an oppressed nation unfurl the +banners of freedom. But above all, the events of the French revolution +have produced the deepest solicitude, as well as the highest +admiration. To call your nation brave, were to pronounce but common +praise. Wonderful people! Ages to come will read with astonishment the +history of your brilliant exploits. I rejoice that the period of your +toils, and of your immense sacrifices is approaching. I rejoice that +the interesting revolutionary movements of so many years have issued +in the formation of a constitution,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> designed to give permanency to +the great object for which you have contended. I rejoice that liberty, +which you have so long embraced with enthusiasm,—liberty, of which +you have been the invincible defenders, now finds an asylum in the +bosom of a regularly organized government;—a government which, being +formed to secure the happiness of the French people, corresponds with +the ardent wishes of my heart, while it gratifies the pride of every +citizen of the United States by its resemblance to their own. On these +glorious events, accept, sir, my sincere congratulations.</p> + +<p>"In delivering to you these sentiments, I express not my own feelings +only, but those of my fellow citizens in relation to the commencement, +the progress, and the issue of the French revolution: and they will +certainly join with me in purest wishes to the Supreme Being, that the +citizens of our sister republic, our magnanimous allies, may soon +enjoy in peace, that liberty which they have purchased at so great a +price, and all the happiness that liberty can bestow.</p> + +<p>"I receive, sir, with lively sensibility, the symbol of the triumphs, +and of the infranchisements of your nation, the colours of France, +which you have now presented to the United States. The transaction +will be announced to congress, and the colours will be deposited with +the archives of the United States, which are at once the evidence and +the memorials of their freedom and independence; may these be +perpetual! and may the friendship of the two republics be commensurate +with their existence."</p> + +<p>The address of Mr. Adet, the answer of the President, and the colours +of France, were transmitted to congress with the letter from the +committee of safety.</p> + +<p>In the house of representatives a resolution was moved, requesting the +President to make known to the representatives of the French republic, +the sincere and lively sensations which were excited by this +honourable testimony of the existing sympathy and affections of the +two republics; that the house rejoiced in an opportunity of +congratulating the French republic on the brilliant and glorious +achievements accomplished during the present afflictive war; and hoped +that those achievements would be attended with a perfect attainment of +their object, the permanent establishment of the liberty and happiness +of that great and magnanimous people.</p> + +<p>The letter to congress having come from the committee of safety, +which, under the revolutionary system, was the department that was +charged with foreign intercourse; and a constitution having been +afterwards adopted in France, by which an executive directory was +established, to which all the foreign relations of the government were +confided, an attempt was made to amend this resolution, by +substituting the directory for the representatives of the people. But +this attempt failed; after which the resolution passed unanimously.</p> + +<p>In the senate also a resolution was offered, expressive of the +sensations of that house, and requesting the President to communicate +them to the proper organ of the French republic. An amendment was +moved to vary this resolution so as to express the sentiment to the +President, and omit the request that it should be communicated to the +French republic. The complimentary correspondence between the two +nations, had, it was said, reached a point, when, if ever, it ought to +close. This amendment, though strenuously combated by the opposition, +was adopted.</p> + +<p>In February, the treaty with Great Britain was returned, in the form +advised by the senate, ratified by his Britannic Majesty. The +constitution declaring a treaty, when made, the supreme law of the +land, the President announced it officially to the people in a +proclamation, requiring from all persons its observance and execution; +a copy of which was transmitted to each house on the 1st of March.</p> + +<p>The party which had obtained the majority in one branch of the +legislature, having openly denied the right of the President to +negotiate a treaty of commerce, was not a little dissatisfied at his +venturing to issue this proclamation before the sense of the house of +representatives had been declared on the obligation of the instrument.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The house of representatives call upon the president for +papers relating to the treaty with Great Britain.</div> + +<p>This dissatisfaction was not concealed. On the 2d of March, Mr. +Livingston laid upon the table a resolution, requesting the President +"to lay before the house a copy of the instructions to the minister of +the United States, who negotiated the treaty with the king of Great +Britain, communicated by his message of the 1st of March, together +with the correspondence and other documents relative to the said +treaty."</p> + +<p>On the 7th of March, he amended this resolution by adding the words, +"excepting such of the said papers as any existing negotiation may +render improper to be disclosed."</p> + +<p>After some debate, Mr. Madison proposed to modify the amendment of Mr. +Livingston, so as to except such papers, as in the judgment of the +President, it might be inconsistent with the interest of the United +States at this time to disclose. This proposition was rejected by a +majority of ten voices, and the discussion of the original resolution +was resumed. The debate soon glided into an argument on the nature and +extent of the treaty making power.</p> + +<p>The friends of the administration maintained, that a treaty was a +contract between two nations, which, under the constitution, the +President, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, had a +right to make; and that it was made when, by and with such advice and +consent, it had received his final act. Its obligations then became +complete on the United States; and to refuse to comply with its +stipulations, was to break the treaty, and to violate the faith of the +nation.</p> + +<p>The opposition contended, that the power to make treaties, if +applicable to every object, conflicted with powers which were vested +exclusively in congress. That either the treaty making power must be +limited in its operation, so as not to touch objects committed by the +constitution to congress, or the assent and co-operation of the house +of representatives must be required to give validity to any compact, +so far as it might comprehend those objects. A treaty, therefore, +which required an appropriation of money, or any act of congress to +carry it into effect, had not acquired its obligatory force until the +house of representatives had exercised its powers in the case. They +were at full liberty to make, or to withhold, such appropriation, or +other law, without incurring the imputation of violating any existing +obligation, or of breaking the faith of the nation.</p> + +<p>The debate on this question was animated, vehement, and argumentative; +all the party passions were enlisted in it; and it was protracted +until the 24th of March, when the resolution was carried in the +affirmative by sixty-two to thirty-seven voices. The next day, the +committee appointed to present it to the chief magistrate reported his +answer, which was, "that he would take the resolution into +consideration."</p> + +<p>The situation in which this vote placed the President was peculiarly +delicate. In an elective government, the difficulty of resisting the +popular branch of the legislature is at all times great, but is +particularly so when the passions of the public have been strongly and +generally excited. The popularity of a demand for information, the +large majority by which that demand was supported, the additional +force which a refusal to comply with it would give to suspicions +already insinuated, that circumstances had occurred in the negotiation +which the administration dared not expose, and that the President was +separating himself from the representatives of the people, furnished +motives, not lightly to be over-ruled, for yielding to the request +which had been made.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a name="image05"> +<img src="images/244.jpg" width="368" height="438" alt="George Washington" /></a></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b>George Washington</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p style="text-align: center"><i>From the profile portrait by James Sharples</i></p> + +<p><i>Sharples painted two pictures of Washington—this portrait showing +him in the costume of a country gentleman, distinguished as being the +only profile of the First President ever painted, and a full face +presentation of him in military dress, reproduced in Volume IV of this +work.</i></p> + +<p><i>Sharples, an English painter by birth, was recommended by the great +George Romney as being equipped to produce a work "worthy of the +greatest of Americans." His success is attested by the praise of +Washington's adopted son, who declared the Sharples portraits to be +"the truest likenesses ever made," and by Ralph Waldo Emerson, who saw +the pictures later in England and wrote: "I would willingly have +crossed the Atlantic, if only to look on these portraits."</i></p> + +<p>Courtesy Herbert L. Pratt</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>But these considerations were opposed by others which, though less +operative with men who fear to deserve the public favour by hazarding +its loss, possess an irresistible influence over a mind resolved to +pursue steadily the path of duty, however it may abound with thorns.</p> + +<p>That the future diplomatic transactions of the government might be +seriously and permanently affected by establishing the principle that +the house of representatives could demand as a right, the instructions +given to a foreign minister, and all the papers connected with a +negotiation, was too apparent to be unobserved. Nor was it less +obvious that a compliance with the request now made, would go far in +establishing this principle. The form of the request, and the motives +which induced it, equally led to this conclusion. It left nothing to +the discretion of the President with regard to the public interests; +and the information was asked for the avowed purpose of determining +whether the house of representatives would give effect to a public +treaty.</p> + +<p>It was also a subject for serious reflection, that in a debate +unusually elaborate, the house of representatives had claimed a right +of interference in the formation of treaties, which, in the judgment +of the President, the constitution had denied them. Duties the most +sacred requiring that he should resist this encroachment on the +department which was particularly confided to him, he could not +hesitate respecting the course it became him to take; and on the 30th +of March he returned the following answer to the resolution which had +been presented to him.</p> + +<p>"Gentlemen of the house of representatives,</p> + +<p>"With the utmost attention I have considered your resolution of the +24th instant, requesting me to lay before your house, a copy of the +instructions to the minister of the United States, who negotiated the +treaty with the king of Great Britain, together with the +correspondence and other documents relative to that treaty, excepting +such of the said papers, as any existing negotiation may render +improper to be disclosed.</p> + +<p>"In deliberating upon this subject, it was impossible for me to lose +sight of the principle which some have avowed in its discussion, or to +avoid extending my views to the consequences which must flow from the +admission of that principle.</p> + +<p>"I trust that no part of my conduct has ever indicated a disposition +to withhold any information which the constitution has enjoined it +upon the President as a duty to give, or which could be required of +him by either house of congress as a right; and with truth I affirm, +that it has been, as it will continue to be, while I have the honour +to preside in the government, my constant endeavour to harmonize with +the other branches thereof, so far as the trust delegated to me by the +people of the United States, and my sense of the obligation it +imposes, to preserve, protect and defend the constitution<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> will +permit.</p> + +<p>"The nature of foreign negotiations require caution, and their success +must often depend on secrecy: and even when brought to a conclusion, a +full disclosure of all the measures, demands, or eventual concessions +which may have been proposed or contemplated would be extremely +impolitic; for this might have a pernicious influence on future +negotiations, or produce immediate inconveniences, perhaps danger and +mischief to other persons. The necessity of such caution and secrecy +was one cogent reason for vesting the power of making treaties in the +President, with the advice and consent of the senate, the principle on +which that body was formed confining it to a small number of members.</p> + +<p>"To admit then a right in the house of representatives to demand, and +to have as a matter of course, all the papers respecting a negotiation +with a foreign power, would be to establish a dangerous precedent.</p> + +<p>"It does not occur that the inspection of the papers asked for, can be +relative to any purpose under the cognizance of the house of +representatives, except that of an impeachment, which the resolution +has not expressed. I repeat that I have no disposition to withhold any +information which the duty of my station will permit, or the public +good shall require to be disclosed; and in fact, all the papers +affecting the negotiation with Great Britain were laid before the +senate, when the treaty itself was communicated for their +consideration and advice.</p> + +<p>"The course which the debate has taken on the resolution of the house, +leads to some observations on the mode of making treaties under the +constitution of the United States.</p> + +<p>"Having been a member of the general convention, and knowing the +principles on which the constitution was formed, I have ever +entertained but one opinion upon this subject; and from the first +establishment of the government to this moment, my conduct has +exemplified that opinion. That the power of making treaties is +exclusively vested in the President, by and with the advice and +consent of the senate, provided two-thirds of the senators present +concur; and that every treaty so made and promulgated, thenceforward +becomes the law of the land. It is thus that the treaty making power +has been understood by foreign nations: and in all the treaties made +with them, <i>we</i> have declared, and <i>they</i> have believed, that when +ratified by the President with the advice and consent of the senate, +they became obligatory. In this construction of the constitution, +every house of representatives has heretofore acquiesced; and until +the present time, not a doubt or suspicion has appeared to my +knowledge, that this construction was not a true one. Nay, they have +more than acquiesced; for until now, without controverting the +obligation of such treaties, they have made all the requisite +provisions for carrying them into effect.</p> + +<p>"There is also reason to believe that this construction agrees with +the opinions entertained by the state conventions when they were +deliberating on the constitution; especially by those who objected to +it, because there was not required in commercial treaties, the consent +of two-thirds of the whole number of the members of the senate, +instead of two-thirds of the senators present; and because in treaties +respecting territorial and certain other rights and claims, the +concurrence of three-fourths of the whole number of the members of +both houses respectively was not made necessary.</p> + +<p>"It is a fact declared by the general convention and universally +understood, that the constitution of the United States was the result +of a spirit of amity and mutual concession. And it is well known, that +under this influence, the smaller states were admitted to an equal +representation in the senate with the larger states; and that this +branch of the government was invested with great powers; for on the +equal participation of those powers, the sovereignty and political +safety of the smaller states were deemed essentially to depend.</p> + +<p>"If other proofs than these and the plain letter of the constitution +itself be necessary to ascertain the point under consideration, they +may be found in the journals of the general convention which I have +deposited in the office of the department of state. In these journals +it will appear, that a proposition was made 'that no treaty should be +binding on the United States which was not ratified by a law,' and +that the proposition was explicitly rejected.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">He declines sending them.</div> + +<p>"As therefore it is perfectly clear to my understanding that the +assent of the house of representatives is not necessary to the +validity of a treaty; as the treaty with Great Britain exhibits in +itself all the objects requiring legislative provision; and on these +the papers called for can throw no light; and as it is essential to +the due administration of the government that the boundaries fixed by +the constitution between the different departments should be +preserved; a just regard to the constitution, and to the duty of my +office, under all the circumstances of this case, forbid a compliance +with your request."</p> + +<p>The terms in which this decided, and, it would seem, unexpected +negative to the call for papers was conveyed, appeared to break the +last cord of that attachment which had theretofore bound some of the +active leaders of the opposition to the person of the President. +Amidst all the agitations and irritations of party, a sincere respect, +and real affection for the chief magistrate, the remnant of former +friendship, had still lingered in the bosoms of some who had engaged +with ardour in the political contests of the day. But, if the last +spark of this affection was not now extinguished, it was at least +concealed under the more active passions of the moment.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Debates upon the treaty making power.</div> + +<p>A motion to refer the message of the President to a committee of the +whole house, was carried by a large majority. In committee, +resolutions were moved by Mr. Blount of North Carolina, declaratory of +the sense of the house respecting its own power on the subject of +treaties. These resolutions take a position less untenable than had +been maintained in argument, and rather inexplicit on an essential +part of the question. Disclaiming a power to interfere in making +treaties, they assert the right of the house of representatives, +whenever stipulations are made on subjects committed by the +constitution to congress, to deliberate on the expediency of carrying +them into effect, without deciding what degree of obligation the +treaty possesses on the nation, so far as respects those points, +previous to such deliberation. After a debate in which the message was +freely criticised, the resolutions were carried, fifty-seven voting in +the affirmative, and thirty-five in the negative.</p> + +<p>In the course of the month of March, the treaties with his Catholic +majesty, and with the Dey of Algiers, had been ratified by the +President, and were laid before congress. On the 13th of April, in a +committee of the whole house on the state of the union, the instant +the chairman was seated, Mr. Sedgewick moved "that provision ought to +be made by law for carrying into effect with good faith the treaties +lately concluded with the Dey and Regency of Algiers, the King of +Great Britain, the King of Spain, and certain Indian tribes north-west +of the Ohio."</p> + +<p>This motion produced a warm altercation. The members of the majority +complained loudly of the celerity with which it had been made, and +resented the attempt to blend together four treaties in the same +resolution, after the solemn vote entered upon their journals, +declaratory of their right to exercise a free discretion over the +subject, as an indignity to the opinions and feelings of the house.</p> + +<p>After a discussion manifesting the irritation which existed, the +resolution was amended, by changing the word "treaties" from the +plural to the singular number, and by striking out the words "Dey and +Regency of Algiers, the King of Great Britain, and certain Indian +tribes north-west of the river Ohio," so that only the treaty with the +King of Spain remained to be considered.</p> + +<p>Mr. Gallatin then objected to the words "provision ought to be made by +law," as the expression seemed to imply a negative of the principle +laid down in their resolution, that the house was at perfect liberty +to pass, or not to pass, any law for giving effect to a treaty. In +lieu of them, he wished to introduce words declaring the expediency of +passing the necessary laws. This amendment was objected to as an +innovation on the forms which had been invariably observed; but it was +carried; after which, the words "with good faith," were also +discarded.</p> + +<p>The resolution thus amended was agreed to without a dissenting voice; +and then, similar resolutions were passed respecting the treaties with +Algiers, and with the Indians north-west of the Ohio.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Upon the bill for making appropriations to carry into +execution the treaty with Great Britain.</div> + +<p>This business being despatched, the treaty with Great Britain was +brought before the house. The friends of that instrument urged an +immediate decision of the question. On a subject which had so long +agitated the whole community, the judgment of every member, they +believed, was completely formed; and the hope to make converts by +argument was desperate. In fact, they appeared to have entertained the +opinion that the majority would not dare to encounter the immense +responsibility of breaking that treaty, without previously +ascertaining that the great body of the people were willing to meet +the consequences of the measure. But the members of the opposition, +though confident of their power to reject the resolution, called for +its discussion. The expectation might not unreasonably have been +entertained, that the passions belonging to the subject would be so +inflamed by debate, as to produce the expression of a public sentiment +favourable to their wishes; and, if in this they should be +disappointed, it would be certainly unwise, either as a party, or as a +branch of the legislature, to plunge the nation into embarrassments in +which it was not disposed to entangle itself, and from which the means +of extricating it could not be distinctly perceived.</p> + +<p>The minority soon desisted from urging an immediate decision of the +question; and the spacious field which was opened by the propositions +before the house, seemed to be entered with equal avidity and +confidence by both parties.</p> + +<p>At no time perhaps have the members of the national legislature been +stimulated to great exertions by stronger feelings than impelled them +on this occasion. Never has a greater display been made of argument, +of eloquence, and of passion; and never has a subject been discussed +in which all classes of their fellow citizens took a deeper interest.</p> + +<p>To those motives which a doubtful contest for power, and for victory, +can not fail to furnish, were added others of vast influence on the +human mind. Those who supported the resolution, declaring the +expediency of carrying the treaty into effect, firmly believed that +the faith of the nation was pledged, and that its honour, its +character, and its constitution, depended on the vote about to be +given. They also believed that the best interests of the United States +required an observance of the compact as formed. In itself, it was +thought as favourable as the situation of the contracting parties, and +of the world, entitled them to expect; but its chief merit consisted +in the adjustment of ancient differences, and in its tendency to +produce future amicable dispositions, and friendly intercourse. If +congress should refuse to perform this treaty on the part of the +United States, a compliance on the part of Great Britain could not be +expected. The posts on the great lakes would still be occupied by +their garrisons; no compensation would be made for American vessels +illegally captured; the hostile dispositions which had been excited +would be restored with increased aggravation; and that these +dispositions must lead infallibly to war, was implicitly believed. +They also believed that the political subjugation of their country +would be the inevitable consequence of a war with Britain, during the +existing impassioned devotion of the United States to France.</p> + +<p>The opposite party was undoubtedly of opinion that the treaty +contained stipulations really injurious to the United States. Several +favourite principles to which they attached much importance, were +relinquished by it; and some of the articles relative to commerce, +were believed to be unequal in their operation. Nor ought the +sincerity with which their opinion on the constitutional powers of the +house had been advanced, to be questioned. In the fervour of political +discussion, that construction which, without incurring the imputation +of violating the national faith, would enable the popular branch of +the legislature to control the President and senate in making +treaties, may have been thought the safe and the correct construction. +But no consideration appears to have had more influence than the +apprehension that the amicable arrangements made with Great Britain, +would seriously affect the future relations of the United States with +France.</p> + +<p>Might a conjecture on this subject be hazarded, it would be that, in +the opinion of many intelligent men, the preservation of that honest +and real neutrality between the belligerent powers, at which the +executive had aimed, was impracticable; that America would probably be +forced into the war; and that the possibility of a rupture with France +was a calamity too tremendous not to be avoided at every hazard.</p> + +<p>As had been foreseen, this animated debate was on a subject too deeply +and immediately interesting to the people, not to draw forth their +real sentiments. The whole country was agitated; meetings were again +held throughout the United States; and the strength of parties was +once more tried.</p> + +<p>The fallacy of many of the objections to the treaty had been exposed, +the odium originally excited against it had been diminished, the +belief that its violation would infallibly precipitate the nation into +a war, if not universal, was extensive. These considerations brought +reflecting men into action; and the voice of the nation was pronounced +unequivocally with the minority in the house of representatives.</p> + +<p>This manifestation of the public sentiment was decisive with congress. +On the 29th of April the question was taken in the committee of the +whole, and was determined, by the casting vote of the chairman, in +favour of the expediency of making the necessary laws. The resolution +was finally carried, fifty-one voting in the affirmative, and +forty-eight in the negative.</p> + +<p>That necessity to which a part of the majority in the house of +representatives had reluctantly yielded, operated on no other subject; +nor did it affect the strength of parties. Their opinion respecting +that system of policy which ought to be observed in their external +relations, remained the same; and their partialities and prejudices +for and against foreign nations, sustained no diminution.</p> + +<p>With regard to internal affairs also, the same spirit was retained.</p> + +<p>So excessive had been the jealousy entertained by the opposition +against a military force of any kind, that, even under the pressure of +the Algerine war, the bill providing a naval armament could not be +carried through the house without the insertion of a section +suspending all proceedings under the act, should that war be +terminated. The event which was to arrest the executive in the +prosecution of this work having occurred, not a single frigate could +be completed, without further authority from the legislature. This +circumstance was the more important, as a peace had not been concluded +with Tunis, or Tripoli; and, of consequence, the Mediterranean could +not yet be safely navigated by the vessels of the United States. The +President called the attention of congress to this subject; and stated +the loss which would accrue from the sudden interruption of the work, +and dispersion of the workmen. A bill to enable him to complete three, +instead of six frigates, was with difficulty carried through the +house.</p> + +<p>But, except the treaty with Great Britain, no subject was brought +forward in which parties felt a deeper interest, than on those +questions which related to the revenue.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the increasing productiveness of the duties on +external commerce, this resource had not yet become entirely adequate +to the exigencies of the nation. To secure the complete execution of +the system for gradually redeeming the public debt, without +disregarding those casualties to which all nations are exposed, it was +believed that some additional aids to the treasury would be required. +Upon the nature of these aids, much contrariety of opinion prevailed. +The friends of the administration were in favour of extending the +system of indirect internal taxation: but, constituting the minority +in one branch of the legislature, they could carry no proposition on +which the opposition was united; and the party which had become the +majority in the house of representatives, had been generally hostile +to that mode of obtaining revenue. From an opinion that direct taxes +were recommended by intrinsic advantages, or that the people would +become more attentive to the charges against the administration, +should their money be drawn from them by visible means, those who +wished power to change hands, had generally manifested a disposition +to oblige those who exercised it, to resort to a system of revenue, by +which a great degree of sensibility will always be excited. The +indirect taxes proposed in the committee of ways and means were +strongly resisted; and only that which proposed an augmentation of the +duty on carriages for pleasure was passed into a law.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Congress adjourns.</div> + +<p>On the first day of June, this long and interesting session was +terminated. No preceding legislature had been engaged in discussions +by which their own passions, or those of their constituents were more +strongly excited; nor on subjects more vitally important to the United +States.</p> + +<p>From this view of the angry contests of party, it may not be +unacceptable to turn aside for a moment, and to look back to a +transaction in which the movements of a feeling heart discover +themselves, not the less visibly, for being engaged in a struggle with +the stern duties of a public station.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The president endeavors to procure the liberation of +Lafayette.</div> + +<p>No one of those foreigners who, during the war of the revolution, had +engaged in the service of the United States, had embraced their cause +with so much enthusiasm, or had held so distinguished a place in the +affections of General Washington, as the Marquis de Lafayette. The +attachment of these illustrious personages to each other had been +openly expressed, and had yielded neither to time, nor to the +remarkable vicissitude of fortune with which the destinies of one of +them had been chequered. For his friend, while guiding the course of a +revolution which fixed the anxious attention of the world, or while a +prisoner in Prussia, or in the dungeon of Olmutz, the President +manifested the same esteem, and felt the same solicitude. The extreme +jealousy, however, with which the persons who administered the +government of France, as well as a large party in America, watched his +deportment towards all those whom the ferocious despotism of the +Jacobins had exiled from their country, imposed upon him the painful +necessity of observing great circumspection in his official conduct, +on this delicate subject. A formal interposition in favour of the +virtuous and unfortunate victim of their furious passions, would have +been unavailing. Without benefiting the person whom it would be +designed to aid, it might produce serious political mischief. But the +American ministers employed at foreign courts were instructed to seize +every fair occasion to express, unofficially, the interest taken by +the President in the fate of Lafayette; and to employ the most +eligible means in their power to obtain his liberty, or to meliorate +his situation. A confidential person<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> had been sent to Berlin to +solicit his discharge: but before this messenger had reached his +destination, the King of Prussia had delivered over his illustrious +prisoner to the Emperor of Germany. Mr. Pinckney had been instructed +not only to indicate the wishes of the President to the Austrian +minister at London, but to endeavour, unofficially, to obtain the +powerful mediation of Britain; and had at one time flattered himself +that the cabinet of St. James would take an interest in the case; but +this hope was soon dissipated.</p> + +<p>After being disappointed in obtaining the mediation of the British +cabinet, the President addressed the following letter to the Emperor +of Germany.</p> + +<p>"It will readily occur to your majesty that occasions may sometimes +exist, on which official considerations would constrain the chief of a +nation to be silent and passive in relation even to objects which +affect his sensibility and claim his interposition as a man. Finding +myself precisely in this situation at present, I take the liberty of +writing this private letter to your majesty, being persuaded that my +motives will also be my apology for it.</p> + +<p>"In common with the people of this country, I retain a strong and +cordial sense of the services rendered to them by the Marquis de +Lafayette; and my friendship for him has been constant and sincere. It +is natural, therefore, that I should sympathize with him and his +family in their misfortunes, and endeavour to mitigate the calamities +they experience, among which his present confinement is not the least +distressing.</p> + +<p>"I forbear to enlarge on this delicate subject. Permit me only to +submit to your majesty's consideration, whether his long imprisonment, +and the confiscation of his estate, and the indigence and dispersion +of his family, and the painful anxieties incident to all these +circumstances, do not form an assemblage of sufferings which recommend +him to the mediation of humanity? allow me, sir, on this occasion, to +be its organ; and to entreat that he may be permitted to come to this +country, on such conditions, and under such restrictions, as your +majesty may think it expedient to prescribe.</p> + +<p>"As it is a maxim with me not to ask what, under similar +circumstances, I would not grant, your majesty will do me the justice +to believe that this request appears to me to correspond with those +great principles of magnanimity and wisdom, which form the basis of +sound policy, and durable glory."</p> + +<p>This letter was transmitted to Mr. Pinckney to be conveyed to the +Emperor through his minister at London. How far it operated in +mitigating immediately the rigour of Lafayette's confinement, or in +obtaining his liberation, remains unascertained.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Letter from General Washington to Mr. Jefferson.... Hostile +measures of France against the United States.... Mr. Monroe +recalled and General Pinckney appointed to succeed him.... +General Washington's valedictory address to the people of +the United States.... The Minister of France endeavours to +influence the approaching election.... The President's +speech to Congress.... He denies the authenticity of certain +spurious letters published in 1776.... John Adams elected +President, and Thomas Jefferson Vice President.... General +Washington retires to Mount Vernon.... Political situation +of the United States at this period.... The French +government refuses to receive General Pinckney as +Minister.... Congress is convened.... President's speech.... +Three envoys extraordinary deputed to France.... Their +treatment.... Measures of hostility adopted by the American +government against France.... General Washington appointed +Commander-in-chief of the American army.... His death.... +And character.</b></p></div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="sidenotey">1796</div> + +<p><span class="lgsmcap">The</span> confidential friends of the President had long known his fixed +purpose to retire from office at the end of his second term, and the +people generally suspected it. Those who dreaded a change of system, +in changing the person, of the chief magistrate, manifested an earnest +desire to avoid this hazard, by being permitted once more to offer to +the public choice a person who, amidst all the fierce conflicts of +party, still remained the object of public veneration. But his +resolution was to be shaken only by the obvious approach of a perilous +crisis, which, endangering the safety of the nation, would make it +unworthy of his character, and incompatible with his principles, to +retreat from its service. In the apprehension that the co-operation of +external with internal causes might bring about such a crisis, he had +yielded to the representations of those who urged him to leave himself +master of his conduct, by withholding a public declaration of his +intention, until the propriety of affording a reasonable time to fix +on a successor should require its disclosure. "If," said Colonel +Hamilton in a letter on this subject of the fifth of July, "a storm +gathers, how can you retreat? this is a most serious question."</p> + +<p>The suspense produced in the public opinion by this silence on the +part of the chief magistrate, seemed to redouble the efforts of those +who laboured to rob him of the affection of the people, and to attach +odium to the political system which he had pursued. As passion alone +is able successfully to contend with passion, they still sought, in +the hate which America bore to Britain, and in her love to France, for +the most powerful means with which to eradicate her love to +Washington. Amongst the various artifices employed to effect this +object, was the publication of those queries which had been propounded +by the President to his cabinet council, previous to the arrival of +Mr. Genet. This publication was intended to demonstrate the existence +of a disposition in the chief magistrate unfriendly to the French +republic, of "a Machiavellian policy, which nothing but the universal +sentiment of enthusiastic affection displayed by the <i>people</i> of the +United States, on the arrival of Mr. Genet, could have subdued." Some +idea of the intemperance of the day may be formed from the conclusion +of that number of a series of virulent essays, in which these queries +were inserted, and from recollecting that it was addressed to a man +who, more than any other, had given character as well as independence +to his country; and whose life, devoted to her service, had exhibited +one pure undeviating course of virtuous exertion to promote her +interests.</p> + +<p>It is in these words: "The foregoing queries were transmitted for +consideration to the heads of departments, previously to a meeting to +be held at the President's house. The text needs no commentary. It has +stamped upon its front in characters brazen enough for idolatry to +comprehend, perfidy and ingratitude. To doubt in such a case was +dishonourable, to proclaim those doubts treachery. For the honour of +the American character and of human nature, it is to be lamented that +the records of the United States exhibit such a stupendous monument of +degeneracy. It will almost require the authenticity of holy writ to +persuade posterity that it is not a libel ingeniously contrived to +injure the reputation of the saviour of his country."</p> + +<p>As this state paper was perfectly confidential, and had been +communicated only to the cabinet ministers, Mr. Jefferson thought +proper to free himself from any possible suspicion of having given it +publicity, by assuring the President that this breach of confidence +must be ascribed to some other person.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Letter from General Washington to Mr. Jefferson.</div> + +<p>In answer to this letter the President said—</p> + +<p>"If I had entertained any suspicion before, that the queries which +have been published in Bache's paper proceeded from you, the +assurances you have given of the contrary would have removed +them:—but the truth is, I harboured none. I am at no loss to +conjecture from what source they flowed, through what channel they +were conveyed, nor for what purpose they and similar publications +appear.</p> + +<p>"As you have mentioned<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> the subject yourself, it would not be +frank, candid, or friendly to conceal, that your conduct has been +represented as derogating from that opinion I conceived you +entertained of me; that to your particular friends and connexions you +have described, and they have denounced me, as a person under a +dangerous influence, and that, if I would listen <i>more</i> to some +<i>other</i> opinions, all would be well. My answer invariably has been, +that I had never discovered any thing in the conduct of Mr. Jefferson +to raise suspicions in my mind of his sincerity; that if he would +retrace my public conduct while he was in the administration, abundant +proofs would occur to him, that truth and right decisions were the +<i>sole</i> objects of my pursuit; that there were as many instances within +his <i>own</i> knowledge of my having decided <i>against</i> as in <i>favour</i> of +the person evidently alluded to; and moreover, that I was no believer +in the infallibility of the politics or measures of any man living. In +short, that I was no party man myself, and that the first wish of my +heart was, if parties did exist, to reconcile them.</p> + +<p>"To this I may add, and very truly, that until the last year or two, I +had no conception that parties would, or even could go the lengths I +have been witness to; nor did I believe, until lately, that it was +within the bounds of probability—hardly within those of +possibility—that while I was using my utmost exertions to establish a +national character of our own, independent as far as our obligations +and justice would permit, of every nation of the earth; and wished by +steering a steady course to preserve this country from the horrors of +a desolating war, I should be accused of being the enemy of one nation +and subject to the influence of another; and to prove it, that every +act of my administration would be tortured, and the grossest and most +insidious misrepresentations of them be made, by giving one side only +of a subject, and that too in such exaggerated and indecent terms as +could scarcely be applied to a Nero—to a notorious defaulter—or even +to a common pick-pocket.</p> + +<p>"But enough of this—I have already gone further in the expression of +my feelings than I intended."</p> + +<p>Of the numerous misrepresentations and fabrications which, with +unwearied industry, were pressed upon the public in order to withdraw +the confidence of the nation from its chief, no one marked more +strongly the depravity of that principle which justifies the means by +the end, than the republication of certain forged letters, purporting +to have been written by General Washington in the year 1776.</p> + +<p>These letters had been originally published in the year 1777, and in +them were interspersed, with domestic occurrences which might give +them the semblance of verity, certain political sentiments favourable +to Britain in the then existing contest.</p> + +<p>But the original fabricator of these papers missed his aim. It was +necessary to assign the manner in which the possession of them was +acquired; and in executing this part of his task, circumstances were +stated so notoriously untrue, that, at the time, the meditated +imposition deceived no person.</p> + +<p>In the indefatigable research for testimony which might countenance +the charge that the executive was unfriendly to France, and under the +influence of Britain, these letters were drawn from the oblivion into +which they had sunk, it had been supposed forever, and were +republished as genuine. The silence with which the President treated +this as well as every other calumny, was construed into an +acknowledgment of its truth; and the malignant commentators on this +spurious text, would not admit the possibility of its being +apocryphal.</p> + +<p><a name="p272">Those</a> who laboured incessantly to establish the favourite position +that the executive was under other than French influence, reviewed +every act of the administration connected with its foreign relations, +and continued to censure every part of the system with extreme +bitterness. Not only the treaty with Great Britain, but all those +measures which had been enjoined by the duties of neutrality, were +reprobated as justly offensive to France; and no opinion which had +been advanced by Mr. Genet, in his construction of the treaties +between the two nations, was too extravagant to be approved. The +ardent patriot can not maintain the choicest rights of his country +with more zeal than was manifested in supporting all the claims of the +French republic upon the United States. These discussions were not +confined to the public prints. In almost every assemblage of +individuals, whether for social or other purposes, this favourite +theme excluded all others; and the pretensions of France were +supported and controverted with equal earnestness. The opposing +parties, mutually exasperated by unceasing altercations, cherished +reciprocal suspicions of each other, and each charged its adversary +with being under a foreign influence.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> Those who favoured the +measures adopted by America were accused as the enemies of liberty, +the enemies of France, and the tools of Britain. In turn, they charged +their opponents with disseminating principles subversive of all order +in society; and with supporting a foreign government against their +own.</p> + +<p>Whatever might be the real opinion of the French government on the +validity of its charges against the United States, those charges were +too vehemently urged, and too powerfully espoused in America, to be +abandoned at Paris. If at any time they were in part relinquished, +they were soon resumed.</p> + +<p>For a time, Mr. Fauchet forbore to press the points on which his +predecessor had insisted; but his complaints of particular cases which +grew out of the war, and out of the rules which had been established +by the executive were unremitting. The respectful language in which +these complaints were at first urged, soon yielded to the style of +reproach; and in his correspondence with the secretary of state, +towards its close, he adopted the sentiments, without absolutely +discarding the manner of Mr. Genet.</p> + +<p>Mr. Adet, the successor of Mr. Fauchet, arrived at Philadelphia, while +the senate was deliberating on the treaty of amity with Great Britain.</p> + +<p>In the observations he made on that instrument, when submitted to his +consideration by order of the President, he complained particularly of +the abandonment of the principle that free ships should make free +goods; and urged the injustice, while French cruisers were restrained +by treaty from taking English goods out of American bottoms, that +English cruisers should be liberated from the same restraint. No +demonstration could be more complete than was the fallacy of this +complaint. But the American government discovered a willingness +voluntarily to release France from the pressure of a situation in +which she had elected to place herself.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hostile measures of France against the United States.</div> + +<p>In the anxiety which was felt by the President to come to full and +immediate explanations on this treaty, the American minister at Paris +had been furnished, even before its ratification, and still more fully +afterwards, with ample materials for the justification of his +government. But, misconceiving<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> the views of the administration, he +reserved these representations to answer complaints which were +expected, and omitted to make them in the first instance, while the +course to be pursued by the Directory was under deliberation. +Meanwhile, his letters kept up the alarm which had been excited with +regard to the dispositions of France; and intelligence from the West +Indies served to confirm it. Through a private channel, the President +received information that the special agents of the Directory in the +islands were about to issue orders for the capture of all American +vessels, laden in the whole or in part with provisions, and bound for +any port within the dominions of the British crown.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mr. Monroe recalled and General Pinckney appointed to +succeed him.</div> + +<p>Knowing well that the intentions of the executive towards the French +republic had been at all times friendly, and entertaining a strong +conviction that its conduct was liable to no just objection, the +President had relied with confidence on early and candid +communications, for the removal of any prejudices or misconceptions, +which the passions of the moment might have occasioned. That the +French government would be disappointed at the adjustment of those +differences which had threatened to embroil the United States with +Great Britain, could not be doubted; but as neither this adjustment, +nor the arrangements connected with it, had furnished any real cause +of complaint, he cherished the hope that it would produce no serious +consequences, if the proper means of prevention should be applied in +time. He was therefore dissatisfied with delays which he had not +expected; and seems to have believed that they originated in a want of +zeal to justify a measure, which neither the minister himself nor his +political friends had ever approved. To insure an earnest and active +representation of the true sentiments and views of the administration, +the President was inclined to depute an envoy extraordinary for the +particular purpose, who should be united with the actual minister; but +an objection drawn from the constitution was suggested to this +measure. During the recess of the senate, the President can only fill +up vacancies; and the appointment of a minister when no vacancy +existed, might be supposed to transcend his powers. From respect to +this construction of the constitution, the resolution was taken to +appoint a successor to Colonel Monroe. The choice of a person in all +respects qualified for this mission was not without its difficulty. +While a disposition friendly to the administration was a requisite not +to be dispensed with, it was also desirable that the person employed +should have given no umbrage to the French government. No individual +who had performed a conspicuous part on the political theatre of +America, fitted both branches of this description. All who had openly +sustained with zeal and with talents, the measures of the American +government, had been marked as the enemies of France, and were on this +account to be avoided.</p> + +<p>For this critical and important service, the President, after some +deliberation, selected General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South +Carolina, an elder brother of Mr. Thomas Pinckney, the late<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> +minister of the United States at London. No man in America was more +perfectly free from exception than this gentleman. Having engaged with +ardour in that war which gave independence to his country, he had, in +its progress, sustained from the British army indignities to his +person, and injuries to his fortune, which are not easily forgotten. +In the early part of the French revolution, he had felt and expressed +all the enthusiasm of his countrymen for the establishment of the +republic; but, after the commencement of its contests with the United +States, he stood aloof from both those political parties which had +divided America. Restrained by the official situation of his brother +during the negotiations which had been carried on with England, he had +forborne to express any opinion respecting the treaty in which those +negotiations terminated, and had consequently taken no part with those +who approved, or with those who condemned that instrument. No man, +therefore, who had not declared himself unfriendly to the principles +he would be deputed to support, could be less objectionable to France.</p> + +<p>To the President he was recommended by an intimate knowledge of his +worth; by a confidence in the sincerity of his personal attachment to +the chief magistrate; by a conviction that his exertions to effect the +objects of his mission would be ardent and sincere; and that, whatever +might be his partialities for France, he possessed a high and delicate +sense of national as well as individual honour, was jealous for the +reputation of his country, and tenacious of its rights.</p> + +<p>In July, immediately after the appointment of General Pinckney, +letters were received from Colonel Monroe communicating the official +complaints against the American government which had been made to him +in March by Mr. de La Croix, the minister of exterior relations, +together with his answer to those complaints.</p> + +<p>In this answer the American minister had effectually refuted the +criminations of Mr. de La Croix; and the executive was satisfied with +it. But the Directory had decided on their system, and it was not by +reasoning, however conclusive, that this decision was to be changed.</p> + +<p>As the time for electing the chief magistrate approached, the anxiety +of the public respecting the person in office, seemed to increase. In +states where the electors are chosen by the people, names of great +political influence were offered for their approbation. The strong +hold which Washington had taken of the affections of his countrymen +was, on this occasion, fully evinced. In districts where the +opposition to his administration was most powerful, where all his +measures were most loudly condemned, where those who approved his +system possessed least influence, the men who appeared to control +public opinion on every other subject, found themselves unable to move +it on this. Even the most popular among the leaders of the opposition +were reduced to the necessity of surrendering their pretensions to a +place in the electoral body, or of pledging themselves to bestow their +suffrage on the actual President. The determination of his fellow +citizens had been unequivocally manifested, and it was believed to be +apparent that the election would again be unanimous, when he announced +his resolution to withdraw from the honours and the toils of office.</p> + +<p>Having long contemplated this event, and having wished to terminate +his political course with an act which might be at the same time +suitable to his own character, and permanently useful to his country, +he had prepared for the occasion a valedictory address, in which, with +the solicitude of a person, who, in bidding a final adieu to his +friends, leaves his affections and his anxieties for their welfare +behind him, he made a last effort to impress upon his countrymen those +great political truths which had been the guides of his own +administration, and could alone, in his opinion, form a sure and solid +basis for the happiness, the independence, and the liberty of the +United States.</p> + +<p>This interesting paper was published in September, at a time when +hopes were entertained that the discontents of France might be +appeased by proper representations. It contains precepts to which the +American statesman can not too frequently recur, and though long, is +thought too valuable to be omitted or abridged.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General Washington's valedictory address to the people of +the United States in which he declines being considered as a candidate +for the presidency.</div> + +<p style="text-align: center">TO THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES.</p> + +<p>"Friends and fellow citizens,</p> + +<p>"The period for a new election of a citizen to administer the +executive government of the United States being not far distant, and +the time actually arrived when your thoughts must be employed in +designating the person who is to be clothed with that important trust, +it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a more +distinct expression of the public voice, that I should now apprize you +of the resolution I have formed, to decline being considered among the +number of those, out of whom a choice is to be made.</p> + +<p>"I beg you, at the same time, to do me the justice to be assured, that +this resolution has not been taken, without a strict regard to all the +considerations appertaining to the relation which binds a dutiful +citizen to his country; and that, in withdrawing the tender of service +which silence in my situation might imply, I am influenced by no +diminution of zeal for your future interest; no deficiency of grateful +respect for your past kindness; but am supported by a full conviction +that the step is compatible with both.</p> + +<p>"The acceptance of, and continuance hitherto in the office to which +your suffrages have twice called me, have been a uniform sacrifice of +inclination to the opinion of duty and to a deference for what +appeared to be your desire. I constantly hoped that it would have been +much earlier in my power, consistently with motives which I was not at +liberty to disregard, to return to that retirement from which I had +been reluctantly drawn. The strength of my inclination to do this, +previous to the last election, had even led to the preparation of an +address to declare it to you; but mature reflection on the then +perplexed and critical posture of our affairs with foreign nations, +and the unanimous advice of persons entitled to my confidence, +impelled me to abandon the idea.</p> + +<p>"I rejoice that the state of your concerns, external as well as +internal, no longer renders the pursuit of inclination incompatible +with the sentiment of duty or propriety; and am persuaded, whatever +partiality may be retained for my services, that in the present +circumstances of our country, you will not disapprove my determination +to retire.</p> + +<p>"The impressions with which I first undertook the arduous trust, were +explained on the proper occasion. In the discharge of this trust, I +will only say that I have, with good intentions, contributed towards +the organization and administration of the government, the best +exertions of which a very fallible judgment was capable. Not +unconscious in the outset, of the inferiority of my qualifications, +experience, in my own eyes, perhaps still more in the eyes of others, +has strengthened the motives to diffidence of myself; and, every day, +the increasing weight of years admonishes me more and more, that the +shade of retirement is as necessary to me as it will be welcome. +Satisfied that if any circumstances have given peculiar value to my +services, they were temporary, I have the consolation to believe that, +while choice and prudence invite me to quit the political scene, +patriotism does not forbid it.</p> + +<p>"In looking forward to the moment which is to terminate the career of +my political life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep +acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude which I owe to my beloved +country, for the many honours it has conferred upon me; still more for +the steadfast confidence with which it has supported me; and for the +opportunities I have thence enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable +attachment, by services faithful and persevering, though in usefulness +unequal to my zeal. If benefits have resulted to our country from +these services, let it always be remembered to your praise, and as an +instructive example in our annals, that under circumstances in which +the passions, agitated in every direction, were liable to mislead +amidst appearances sometimes dubious, vicissitudes of fortune often +discouraging—in situations in which not unfrequently, want of success +has countenanced the spirit of criticism—the constancy of your +support was the essential prop of the efforts, and a guarantee of the +plans by which they were effected. Profoundly penetrated with this +idea, I shall carry it with me to my grave, as a strong incitement to +unceasing vows, that heaven may continue to you the choicest tokens of +its beneficence—that your union and brotherly affection may be +perpetual—that the free constitution, which is the work of your +hands, may be sacredly maintained—that its administration in every +department may be stamped with wisdom and virtue—that, in fine, the +happiness of the people of these states, under the auspices of +liberty, may be made complete by so careful a preservation, and so +prudent a use of this blessing, as will acquire to them the glory of +recommending it to the applause, the affection, and adoption of every +nation which is yet a stranger to it.</p> + +<p>"Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. But a solicitude for your welfare, +which can not end but with my life, and the apprehension of danger, +natural to that solicitude, urge me, on an occasion like the present, +to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your +frequent review, some sentiments which are the result of much +reflection, of no inconsiderable observation, and which appear to me +all important to the permanency of your felicity as a people. These +will be offered to you with the more freedom, as you can only see in +them the disinterested warnings of a parting friend, who can possibly +have no personal motive to bias his counsel. Nor can I forget, as an +encouragement to it, your indulgent reception of my sentiments on a +former and not dissimilar occasion.</p> + +<p>"Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your +hearts, no recommendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm +the attachment.</p> + +<p>"The unity of government which constitutes you one people, is also now +dear to you. It is justly so; for it is a main pillar in the edifice +of your real independence; the support of your tranquillity at home; +your peace abroad; of your safety; of your prosperity; of that very +liberty which you so highly prize. But, as it is easy to foresee, that +from different causes, and from different quarters, much pains will be +taken, many artifices employed, to weaken in your minds the conviction +of this truth; as this is the point in your political fortress against +which the batteries of internal and external enemies will be most +constantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously) +directed; it is of infinite moment, that you should properly estimate +the immense value of your national union to your collective and +individual happiness; that you should cherish a cordial, habitual, and +immovable attachment to it; accustoming yourselves to think and speak +of it as of the palladium of your political safety and prosperity; +watching for its preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing +whatever may suggest even a suspicion that it can, in any event, be +abandoned; and indignantly frowning upon the first dawning of every +attempt to alienate any portion of our country from the rest, or to +enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the various parts.</p> + +<p>"For this you have every inducement of sympathy and interest. Citizens +by birth, or choice, of a common country, that country has a right to +concentrate your affections. The name of American, which belongs to +you in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of +patriotism, more than any appellation derived from local +discriminations. With slight shades of difference, you have the same +religion, manners, habits, and political principles.—You have, in a +common cause, fought and triumphed together; the independence and +liberty you possess, are the work of joint counsels, and joint +efforts, of common dangers, sufferings, and successes.</p> + +<p>"But these considerations, however powerfully they address themselves +to your sensibility, are greatly outweighed by those which apply more +immediately to your interest.—Here, every portion of our country +finds the most commanding motives for carefully guarding and +preserving the union of the whole.</p> + +<p>"The <i>north</i> in an unrestrained intercourse with the <i>south</i>, +protected by the equal laws of a common government, finds in the +productions of the latter, great additional resources of maritime and +commercial enterprise, and precious materials of manufacturing +industry.—The <i>south</i>, in the same intercourse, benefiting by the +same agency of the <i>north</i>, sees its agriculture grow, and its +commerce expand. Turning partly into its own channels the seamen of +the <i>north</i>, it finds its particular navigation invigorated; and while +it contributes, in different ways, to nourish and increase the general +mass of the national navigation, it looks forward to the protection of +a maritime strength, to which itself is unequally adapted. The <i>east</i>, +in a like intercourse with the <i>west</i>, already finds, and in the +progressive improvement of interior communications by land and water, +will more and more find a valuable vent for the commodities which it +brings from abroad, or manufactures at home. The <i>west</i> derives from +the <i>east</i> supplies requisite to its growth and comfort—and what is +perhaps of still greater consequence, it must of necessity owe the +<i>secure</i> enjoyment of indispensable <i>outlets</i> for its own productions, +to the weight, influence, and the future maritime strength of the +Atlantic side of the union, directed by an indissoluble community of +interest as <i>one nation</i>. Any other tenure by which the <i>west</i> can +hold this essential advantage, whether derived from its own separate +strength, or from an apostate and unnatural connexion with any foreign +power, must be intrinsically precarious.</p> + +<p>"While then every part of our country thus feels an immediate and +particular interest in union, all the parts combined can not fail to +find in the united mass of means and efforts, greater strength, +greater resource, proportionably greater security from external +danger, a less frequent interruption of their peace by foreign +nations; and, what is of inestimable value, they must derive from +union an exemption from those broils and wars between themselves, +which so frequently afflict neighbouring countries not tied together +by the same government; which their own rivalships alone would be +sufficient to produce, but which, opposite foreign alliances, +attachments, and intrigues, would stimulate and embitter.—Hence +likewise, they will avoid the necessity of those overgrown military +establishments, which under any form of government are inauspicious to +liberty, and which are to be regarded as particularly hostile to +republican liberty. In this sense it is, that your union ought to be +considered as a main prop of your liberty, and that the love of the +one ought to endear to you the preservation of the other.</p> + +<p>"These considerations speak a persuasive language to every reflecting +and virtuous mind, and exhibit the continuance of the union as a +primary object of patriotic desire. Is there a doubt whether a common +government can embrace so large a sphere? Let experience solve it. To +listen to mere speculation in such a case were criminal. We are +authorized to hope that a proper organization of the whole, with the +auxiliary agency of governments for the respective subdivisions, will +afford a happy issue to the experiment. It is well worth a fair and +full experiment. With such powerful and obvious motives to union, +affecting all parts of our country, while experience shall not have +demonstrated its impracticability, there will always be reason to +distrust the patriotism of those, who, in any quarter, may endeavour +to weaken its bands.</p> + +<p>"In contemplating the causes which may disturb our union, it occurs as +matter of serious concern, that any ground should have been +furnished for characterizing parties by <i>geographical</i> +discriminations,—<i>northern</i> and <i>southern</i>—<i>Atlantic</i> and <i>western</i>; +whence designing men may endeavour to excite a belief that there is a +real difference of local interests and views. One of the expedients of +party to acquire influence within particular districts, is to +misrepresent the opinions and aims of other districts. You can not +shield yourselves too much against the jealousies and heart burnings +which spring from these misrepresentations: they tend to render alien +to each other those who ought to be bound together by fraternal +affection. The inhabitants of our western country have lately had a +useful lesson on this head: they have seen, in the negotiation by the +executive, and in the unanimous ratification by the senate of the +treaty with Spain, and in the universal satisfaction at the event +throughout the United States, a decisive proof how unfounded were the +suspicions propagated among them of a policy in the general government +and in the Atlantic states, unfriendly to their interests in regard to +the Mississippi. They have been witnesses to the formation of two +treaties, that with Great Britain and that with Spain, which secure to +them every thing they could desire, in respect to our foreign +relations, towards confirming their prosperity. Will it not be their +wisdom to rely for the preservation of these advantages on the union +by which they were procured? will they not henceforth be deaf to those +advisers, if such there are, who would sever them from their brethren, +and connect them with aliens?</p> + +<p>"To the efficacy and permanency of your union, a government for the +whole is indispensable. No alliances, however strict, between the +parts can be an adequate substitute; they must inevitably experience +the infractions and interruptions which all alliances, in all times, +have experienced. Sensible of this momentous truth, you have improved +upon your first essay, by the adoption of a constitution of government +better calculated than your former for an intimate union, and for the +efficacious management of your common concerns. This government, the +offspring of our own choice uninfluenced and unawed, adopted upon full +investigation and mature deliberation, completely free in its +principles, in the distribution of its powers uniting security with +energy, and containing within itself a provision for its own +amendment, has a just claim to your confidence and your support. +Respect for its authority, compliance with its laws, acquiescence in +its measures, are duties enjoined by the fundamental maxims of true +liberty. The basis of our political systems is the right of the people +to make and to alter their constitutions of government.—But the +constitution which at any time exists, until changed by an explicit +and authentic act of the whole people, is sacredly obligatory upon +all. The very idea of the power and the right of the people to +establish government, presupposes the duty of every individual to obey +the established government.</p> + +<p>"All obstructions to the execution of the laws, all combinations and +associations under whatever plausible character, with the real design +to direct, control, counteract, or awe the regular deliberations and +action of the constituted authorities, are destructive of this +fundamental principle, and of fatal tendency.—They serve to organize +faction, to give it an artificial and extraordinary force, to put in +the place of the delegated will of the nation the will of party, often +a small but artful and enterprising minority of the community; and, +according to the alternate triumphs of different parties, to make the +public administration the mirror of the ill concerted and incongruous +projects of faction, rather than the organ of consistent and wholesome +plans digested by common councils, and modified by mutual interests.</p> + +<p>"However combinations or associations of the above description may now +and then answer popular ends, they are likely, in the course of time +and things, to become potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and +unprincipled men, will be enabled to subvert the power of the people, +and to usurp for themselves the reins of government; destroying +afterwards the very engines which have lifted them to unjust dominion.</p> + +<p>"Towards the preservation of your government and the permanency of +your present happy state, it is requisite, not only that you steadily +discountenance irregular oppositions to its acknowledged authority, +but also that you resist with care the spirit of innovation upon its +principles, however specious the pretext. One method of assault may be +to effect, in the forms of the constitution, alterations which will +impair the energy of the system; and thus to undermine what can not be +directly overthrown. In all the changes to which you may be invited, +remember that time and habit are at least as necessary to fix the true +character of governments, as of other human institutions:—that +experience is the surest standard by which to test the real tendency +of the existing constitution of a country:—that facility in changes, +upon the credit of mere hypothesis and opinion, exposes to perpetual +change from the endless variety of hypothesis and opinion: and +remember, especially, that for the efficient management of your common +interests, in a country so extensive as ours, a government of as much +vigour as is consistent with the perfect security of liberty is +indispensable. Liberty itself will find in such a government, with +powers properly distributed and adjusted, its surest guardian. It is, +indeed, little else than a name, where the government is too feeble to +withstand the enterprises of faction, to confine each member of the +society within the limits prescribed by the laws, and to maintain all +in the secure and tranquil enjoyment of the rights of person and +property.</p> + +<p>"I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the state, +with particular references to the founding them on geographical +discriminations. Let us now take a more comprehensive view, and warn +you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the +spirit of party generally.</p> + +<p>"This spirit, unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having +its root in the strongest passions of the human mind.—It exists under +different shapes in all governments, more or less stifled, controlled, +or repressed; but in those of the popular form, it is seen in its +greatest rankness, and is truly their worst enemy.</p> + +<p>"The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by +the spirit of revenge natural to party dissension, which, in different +ages and countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is +itself a frightful despotism.—But this leads at length to a more +formal and permanent despotism. The disorders and miseries which +result, gradually incline the minds of men to seek security and repose +in the absolute power of an individual; and, sooner or later, the +chief of some prevailing faction, more able or more fortunate than his +competitors, turns this disposition to the purposes of his own +elevation on the ruins of public liberty.</p> + +<p>"Without looking forward to an extremity of this kind, (which +nevertheless ought not to be entirely out of sight,) the common and +continual mischiefs of the spirit of party, are sufficient to make it +the interest and duty of a wise people to discourage and restrain it.</p> + +<p>"It serves always to distract the public councils, and enfeeble the +public administration. It agitates the community with ill founded +jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against +another; foments occasional riot and insurrection. It opens the door +to foreign influence and corruption, which finds a facilitated access +to the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus +the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and +will of another.</p> + +<p>"There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks +upon the administration of the government, and serve to keep alive the +spirit of liberty. This, within certain limits, is probably true; and, +in governments of a monarchical cast, patriotism may look with +indulgence, if not with favour, upon the spirit of party. But in those +of the popular character, in governments purely elective, it is a +spirit not to be encouraged. From their natural tendency, it is +certain there will always be enough of that spirit for every salutary +purpose. And there being constant danger of excess, the effort ought +to be, by force of public opinion, to mitigate and assuage it. A fire +not to be quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent it +bursting into a flame, lest, instead of warming, it should consume.</p> + +<p>"It is important likewise, that the habits of thinking in a free +country should inspire caution in those intrusted with its +administration, to confine themselves within their respective +constitutional spheres, avoiding in the exercise of the powers of one +department, to encroach upon another. The spirit of encroachment tends +to consolidate the powers of all the departments in one, and thus to +create, whatever the form of government, a real despotism. A just +estimate of that love of power and proneness to abuse it which +predominate in the human heart, is sufficient to satisfy us of the +truth of this position. The necessity of reciprocal checks in the +exercise of political power, by dividing and distributing it into +different depositories, and constituting each the guardian of the +public weal against invasions of the others, has been evinced by +experiments ancient and modern: some of them in our country, and under +our own eyes.—To preserve them must be as necessary as to institute +them. If, in the opinion of the people, the distribution or +modification of the constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, +let it be corrected by an amendment in the way which the constitution +designates.—But let there be no change by usurpation; for though +this, in one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the +customary weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The +precedent must always greatly overbalance in permanent evil, any +partial or transient benefit which the use can at any time yield.</p> + +<p>"Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political +prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports. In vain +would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labour to +subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of +the duties of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the +pious man, ought to respect and to cherish them.—A volume could not +trace all their connexions with private and public felicity. Let it +simply be asked, where is the security for property, for reputation, +for life, if the sense of religious obligation <i>desert</i> the oaths +which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice? And +let us with caution indulge the supposition that morality can be +maintained without religion. Whatever may be conceded to the influence +of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and +experience both forbid us to expect, that national morality can +prevail in exclusion of religious principle.</p> + +<p>"It is substantially true, that virtue or morality is a necessary +spring of popular government. The rule, indeed, extends with more or +less force to every species of free government. Who that is a sincere +friend to it can look with indifference upon attempts to shake the +foundation of the fabric?</p> + +<p>"Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for +the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of +a government gives force to public opinion, it should be enlightened.</p> + +<p>"As a very important source of strength and security, cherish public +credit. One method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as +possible, avoiding occasions of expense by cultivating peace, but +remembering also, that timely disbursements, to prepare for danger, +frequently prevent much greater disbursements to repel it; avoiding +likewise the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning occasions of +expense, but by vigorous exertions in time of peace, to discharge the +debts which unavoidable wars may have occasioned, not ungenerously +throwing upon posterity the burden which we ourselves ought to bear. +The execution of these maxims belongs to your representatives, but it +is necessary that public opinion should co-operate. To facilitate to +them the performance of their duty, it is essential that you should +practically bear in mind, that towards the payment of debts there must +be revenue; that to have revenue, there must be taxes; that no taxes +can be devised which are not more or less inconvenient and unpleasant; +that the intrinsic embarrassment inseparable from the selection of the +proper objects, (which is always a choice of difficulties,) ought to +be a decisive motive for a candid construction of the conduct of the +government in making it, and for a spirit of acquiescence in the +measures for obtaining revenue, which the public exigencies may at any +time dictate.</p> + +<p>"Observe good faith and justice towards all nations; cultivate peace +and harmony with all. Religion and morality enjoin this conduct; and +can it be that good policy does not equally enjoin it? it will be +worthy of a free, enlightened, and, at no distant period, a great +nation, to give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of a +people always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence. Who can +doubt but, in the course of time and things, the fruits of such a plan +would richly repay any temporary advantages which might be lost by a +steady adherence to it; can it be that Providence has not connected +the permanent felicity of a nation with its virtue? the experiment, at +least, is recommended by every sentiment which ennobles human nature. +Alas! is it rendered impossible by its vices?</p> + +<p>"In the execution of such a plan, nothing is more essential than that +permanent, inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and +passionate attachments for others, should be excluded; and that, in +place of them, just and amicable feelings towards all should be +cultivated. The nation which indulges towards another an habitual +hatred, or an habitual fondness, is in some degree a slave. It is a +slave to its animosity or to its affection, either of which is +sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its interest. Antipathy +in one nation against another, disposes each more readily to offer +insult and injury, to lay hold of slight causes of umbrage, and to be +haughty and intractable when accidental or trifling occasions of +dispute occur. Hence, frequent collisions, obstinate, envenomed, and +bloody contests. The nation, prompted by ill will and resentment, +sometimes impels to war the government, contrary to the best +calculations of policy. The government sometimes participates in the +national propensity, and adopts through passion what reason would +reject; at other times, it makes the animosity of the nation +subservient to projects of hostility, instigated by pride, ambition, +and other sinister and pernicious motives.—The peace often, sometimes +perhaps the liberty of nations has been the victim.</p> + +<p>"So likewise, a passionate attachment of one nation for another +produces a variety of evils. Sympathy for the favourite nation, +facilitating the illusion of an imaginary common interest in cases +where no real common interest exists, and infusing into one the +enmities of the other, betrays the former into a participation in the +quarrels and wars of the latter, without adequate inducements or +justification. It leads also to concessions to the favourite nation, +of privileges denied to others, which is apt doubly to injure the +nation making the concessions; by unnecessarily parting with what +ought to have been retained; and by exciting jealousy, ill will, and a +disposition to retaliate in the parties from whom equal privileges are +withheld: and it gives to ambitious, corrupted or deluded citizens who +devote themselves to the favourite nation, facility to betray or +sacrifice the interests of their own country, without odium, sometimes +even with popularity; gilding with the appearances of a virtuous sense +of obligation, a commendable deference for public opinion, or a +laudable zeal for public good, the base or foolish compliances of +ambition, corruption, or infatuation.</p> + +<p>"As avenues to foreign influence in innumerable ways, such attachments +are particularly alarming to the truly enlightened and independent +patriot. How many opportunities do they afford to tamper with domestic +factions, to practise the arts of seduction, to mislead public +opinion, to influence or awe the public councils!—such an attachment +of a small or weak, towards a great and powerful nation dooms the +former to be the satellite of the latter.</p> + +<p>"Against the insidious wiles of foreign influence, (I conjure you to +believe me, fellow citizens) the jealousy of a free people ought to be +<i>constantly</i> awake; since history and experience prove, that foreign +influence is one of the most baneful foes of republican government. +But that jealousy, to be useful must be impartial; else it becomes the +instrument of the very influence to be avoided, instead of a defence +against it. Excessive partiality for one foreign nation, and excessive +dislike for another, cause those whom they actuate to see danger only +on one side, and serve to veil and even second the arts of influence +on the other. Real patriots, who may resist the intrigues of the +favourite, are liable to become suspected and odious; while its tools +and dupes usurp the applause and confidence of the people, to +surrender their interests.</p> + +<p>"The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is, +in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little +<i>political</i> connexion as possible. So far as we have already formed +engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith.—Here, let +us stop.</p> + +<p>"Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us have none, or a +very remote relation. Hence, she must be engaged in frequent +controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our +concerns.—Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to implicate +ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary vicissitudes of her +politics, or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her +friendships or enmities.</p> + +<p>"Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a +different course. If we remain one people, under an efficient +government, the period is not far off when we may defy material injury +from external annoyance; when we may take such an attitude as will +cause the neutrality we may at any time resolve upon, to be +scrupulously respected; when belligerent nations under the +impossibility of making acquisitions upon us, will not lightly hazard +the giving us provocation; when we may choose peace or war, as our +interest, guided by justice, shall counsel.</p> + +<p>"Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation? why quit our +own to stand upon foreign ground? why, by interweaving our destiny +with that of any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in +the toils of European ambition, rivalship, interest, humour, or +caprice?</p> + +<p>"It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any +portion of the foreign world; so far, I mean, as we are now at liberty +to do it; for let me not be understood as capable of patronizing +infidelity to existing engagements. I hold the maxim no less +applicable to public than to private affairs, that honesty is always +the best policy. I repeat it, therefore, let those engagements be +observed in their genuine sense. But in my opinion, it is unnecessary, +and would be unwise to extend them.</p> + +<p>"Taking care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on +a respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary +alliances for extraordinary emergencies.</p> + +<p>"Harmony, and a liberal intercourse with all nations, are recommended +by policy, humanity, and interest. But even our commercial policy +should hold an equal and impartial hand; neither seeking nor granting +exclusive favours or preferences; consulting the natural course of +things; diffusing and diversifying by gentle means the streams of +commerce, but forcing nothing; establishing with powers so disposed, +in order to give trade a stable course, to define the rights of our +merchants, and to enable the government to support them, conventional +rules of intercourse, the best that present circumstances and mutual +opinion will permit, but temporary, and liable to be from time to time +abandoned or varied as experience and circumstances shall dictate; +constantly keeping in view, that it is folly in one nation to look for +disinterested favours from another; that it must pay with a portion of +its independence for whatever it may accept under that character; that +by such acceptance, it may place itself in the condition of having +given equivalents for nominal favours, and yet of being reproached +with ingratitude for not giving more. There can be no greater error +than to expect, or calculate upon real favours from nation to nation. +It is an illusion which experience must cure, which a just pride ought +to discard.</p> + +<p>"In offering to you, my countrymen, these counsels of an old and +affectionate friend, I dare not hope they will make the strong and +lasting impression I could wish; that they will control the usual +current of the passions; or prevent our nation from running the course +which has hitherto marked the destiny of nations; but if I may even +flatter myself, that they may be productive of some partial benefit, +some occasional good; that they may now and then recur to moderate the +fury of party spirit, to warn against the mischiefs of foreign +intrigue, to guard against the impostures of pretended patriotism; +this hope will be a full recompense for the solicitude for your +welfare by which they have been dictated.</p> + +<p>"How far, in the discharge of my official duties, I have been guided +by the principles which have been delineated, the public records and +other evidences of my conduct must witness to you and to the world. To +myself, the assurance of my own conscience is, that I have, at least, +believed myself to be guided by them.</p> + +<p>"In relation to the still subsisting war in Europe, my proclamation of +the 22d of April, 1793, is the index to my plan. Sanctioned by your +approving voice, and by that of your representatives in both houses of +congress; the spirit of that measure has continually governed me; +uninfluenced by any attempts to deter or divert me from it.</p> + +<p>"After deliberate examination, with the aid of the best lights I could +obtain, I was well satisfied that our country, under all the +circumstances of the case, had a right to take, and was bound, in duty +and interest, to take a neutral position.—Having taken it, I +determined, as far as should depend upon me, to maintain it with +moderation, perseverance, and firmness.</p> + +<p>"The considerations which respect the right to hold this conduct, it +is not necessary on this occasion to detail.—I will only observe +that, according to my understanding of the matter, that right, so far +from being denied by any of the belligerent powers, has been virtually +admitted by all.</p> + +<p>"The duty of holding a neutral conduct may be inferred, without +anything more, from the obligation which justice and humanity impose +on every nation, in cases in which it is free to act, to maintain +inviolate the relations of peace and amity towards other nations.</p> + +<p>"The inducements of interest for observing that conduct will best be +referred to your own reflections and experience. With me, a +predominant motive has been to endeavour to gain time to our country +to settle and mature its yet recent institutions, and to progress, +without interruption, to that degree of strength and consistency which +is necessary to give it, humanly speaking, the command of its own +fortunes.</p> + +<p>"Though in reviewing the incidents of my administration, I am +unconscious of intentional error; I am nevertheless too sensible of my +defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many +errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to +avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry +with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with +indulgence; and that, after forty-five years of my life dedicated to +its service, with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities +will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions +of rest.</p> + +<p>"Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, and actuated by +that fervent love towards it, which is so natural to a man who views +in it the native soil of himself and his progenitors for several +generations; I anticipate with pleasing expectation that retreat in +which I promise myself to realize, without alloy, the sweet enjoyment +of partaking, in the midst of my fellow citizens, the benign influence +of good laws under a free government—the ever favourite object of my +heart, and the happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labours, +and dangers."</p> + +<p>The sentiments of veneration with which this address was generally +received, were manifested in almost every part of the union. Some of +the state legislatures directed it to be inserted at large in their +journals; and nearly all of them passed resolutions expressing their +respect for the person of the President, their high sense of his +exalted services, and the emotions with which they contemplated his +retirement from office. Although the leaders of party might rejoice at +this event it produced solemn and anxious reflections in the great +body even of those who belonged to the opposition.</p> + +<p>The person in whom alone the voice of the people could be united +having declined a re-election, the two great parties in America +brought forward their respective chiefs; and every possible effort was +made by each, to obtain the victory. Mr. John Adams and Mr. Thomas +Pinckney, the late minister at London, were supported as President and +Vice President by the federalists: the whole force of the opposite +party was exerted in favour of Mr. Jefferson.</p> + +<p>Motives of vast influence were added, on this occasion, to those which +usually impel men in a struggle to retain or acquire power. The +continuance or the change not only of those principles on which the +internal affairs of the United States had been administered, but of +the conduct which had been observed towards foreign nations, was +believed to depend on the choice of a chief magistrate. By one party, +the system pursued by the existing administration with regard to the +belligerent powers, had been uniformly approved; by the other, it had +been as uniformly condemned. In the contests therefore which preceded +the choice of electors, the justice of the complaints which were made +on the part of the French republic were minutely discussed, and the +consequences which were to be apprehended from her resentment, or from +yielding to her pretensions, were reciprocally urged as considerations +entitled to great weight in the ensuing election.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The minister of France endeavors to influence the +approaching election.</div> + +<p>In such a struggle, it was not to be expected that foreign powers +could feel absolutely unconcerned. In November, while the parties were +so balanced that neither scale could be perceived to preponderate, Mr. +Adet addressed a letter to the secretary of state, in which he +recapitulated the numerous complaints which had been urged by himself +and his predecessors, against the government of the United States; and +reproached that government, in terms of great asperity, with violating +those treaties which had secured its independence, with ingratitude to +France, and with partiality to England. These wrongs, which commenced +with the "<i>insidious</i>" proclamation of neutrality, were said to be so +aggravated by the treaty concluded with Great Britain, that Mr. Adet +announced the orders of the Directory to suspend his ministerial +functions with the federal government. "But the cause," he added, +"which had so long restrained the just resentment of the executive +Directory from bursting forth, now tempered its effects. The name of +America, notwithstanding the wrongs of its government, still excited +sweet emotions in the hearts of Frenchmen; and the executive Directory +wished not to break with a people whom they loved to salute with the +appellation of a friend." This suspension of his functions therefore +was not to be regarded "as a rupture between France and the United +States, but as a mark of just discontent which was to last until the +government of the United States returned to sentiments and to measure +more conformable to the interests of the alliance, and to the sworn +friendship between the two nations."</p> + +<p>This letter was concluded in the following terms:</p> + +<p>"Alas! Time has not yet demolished the fortifications with which the +English roughened this country—nor those the Americans raised for +their defence; their half rounded summits still appear in every +quarter, amidst plains, on the tops of mountains. The traveller need +not search for the ditch which served to encompass them; it is still +open under his feet. Scattered ruins of houses laid waste, which the +fire had partly respected, in order to leave monuments of British +fury, are still to be found.—Men still exist, who can say, here a +ferocious Englishman slaughtered my father; there my wife tore her +bleeding daughter from the hands of an unbridled Englishman.—Alas! +the soldiers who fell under the sword of the Britons are not yet +reduced to dust: the labourer in turning up his field, still draws +from the bosom of the earth their whitened bones; while the ploughman, +with tears of tenderness and gratitude, still recollects that his +fields, now covered with rich harvests, have been moistened with +French blood. While every thing around the inhabitants of this country +animates them to speak of the tyranny of Great Britain, and of the +generosity of Frenchmen; when England has declared a war of death to +that nation, to avenge herself for its having cemented with its blood +the independence of the United States:—It was at this moment their +government made a treaty of amity with their ancient tyrant, the +implacable enemy of their ancient ally. Oh Americans covered with +noble scars! Oh you who have so often flown to death and to victory +with French soldiers! You who know those generous sentiments which +distinguish the true warrior! whose hearts have always vibrated with +those of your companions in arms! consult them to-day to know what +they experience; recollect at the same time, that if magnanimous souls +with liveliness resent an affront, they also know how to forget one. +Let your government return to itself, and you will still find in +Frenchmen faithful friends and generous allies."</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a name="image06"> +<img src="images/308.jpg" width="480" height="342" alt="Martha Washington's Bedroom" /></a></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b>Martha Washington's Bedroom at Mount Vernon</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Returning to their beloved Mount Vernon with General Washington after +his retirement, in 1796, as First President of the United States, +Martha Washington seldom spent a night away from the historic mansion +overlooking the Potomac. There she continued to offer a gracious +hospitality to the many visitors attracted by her distinguished +husband. She never recovered from his death in 1799, and dwelt in deep +mourning until she followed him, May 22, 1802. Her remains rest with +those of Washington in the vault at Mount Vernon.</i></p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>As if to remove all doubts respecting the purpose for which this +extraordinary letter was written, a copy was, on the day of its date, +transmitted to a printer for publication.</p> + +<p>Whatever motives might have impelled Mr. Adet to make this open and +direct appeal to the American people, in the critical moment of their +election of a chief magistrate, it does not appear, in any material +degree, to have influenced that election. Many reflecting men, who had +condemned the course of the administration, could not approve this +interference in the internal affairs of the United States; and the +opposite party, generally, resented it as an attempt to control the +operations of the American people in the exercise of one of the +highest acts of sovereignty, and to poison the fountain of their +liberty and independence, by mingling foreign intrigue with their +elections. Viewing it as a fulfilment of their most gloomy prognostics +respecting the designs of France to establish an influence in the +councils of America, they believed the best interests of their country +to require that it should be defeated; and their exertions against the +candidate Mr. Adet was understood to favour, were the more determined +and the more vigorous.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The president's speech to congress.</div> + +<p>On the 7th of December, while this dubious and ardently contested +election was depending, the President, for the last time, met the +national legislature in the senate chamber. His address on the +occasion was comprehensive, temperate, and dignified. In presenting a +full and clear view of the situation of the United States, and in +recommending those great national measures, in the utility of which he +felt a confidence, no personal considerations could induce the +omission of those, to which open and extensive hostility had been +avowed.</p> + +<p>After congratulating congress on the internal situation of the United +States, and on the progress of that humane system which had been +adopted for the preservation of peace with their Indian neighbours; +after stating the measures which had been taken in execution of the +treaties with Great Britain, Spain, and Algiers, and the negotiations +which were pending with Tunis and Tripoli; he proceeded to say:</p> + +<p>"To an active external commerce, the protection of a naval force is +indispensable—this is manifest with regard to wars in which a state +is itself a party—but besides this, it is in our own experience, that +the most sincere neutrality is not a sufficient guard against the +depredations of nations at war. To secure respect to a neutral flag, +requires a naval force, organized and ready to vindicate it from +insult or aggression—this may even prevent the necessity of going to +war, by discouraging belligerent powers from committing such +violations of the rights of the neutral party, as may first or last, +leave no other option. From the best information I have been able to +obtain, it would seem as if our trade to the Mediterranean, without a +protecting force, will always be insecure; and our citizens exposed to +the calamities from which numbers of them have but just been relieved.</p> + +<p>"These considerations invite the United States to look to the means, +and to set about the gradual creation of a navy. The increasing +progress of their navigation promises them, at no distant period, the +requisite supply of seamen; and their means, in other respects, favour +the undertaking. It is an encouragement likewise, that their +particular situation will give weight, and influence, to a moderate +naval force in their hands. Will it not then be adviseable, to begin +without delay, to provide and lay up the materials for the building +and equipping of ships of war; and to proceed in the work by degrees, +in proportion as our resources shall render it practicable, without +inconvenience; so that a future war of Europe may not find our +commerce in the same unprotected state, in which it was found by the +present?"</p> + +<p>The speech next proceeded earnestly to recommend the establishment of +national works for manufacturing such articles as were necessary for +the defence of the country; and also of an institution which should +grow up under the patronage of the public, and be devoted to the +improvement of agriculture. The advantages of a military academy,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> +and of a national university, were also urged; and the necessity of +augmenting the compensations to the officers of the United States, in +various instances, was explicitly stated.</p> + +<p>Adverting to the dissatisfaction which had been expressed by one of +the great powers of Europe, the President said, "while in our external +relations some serious inconveniences and embarrassments have been +overcome, and others lessened, it is with much pain and deep regret I +mention, that circumstances of a very unwelcome nature have lately +occurred. Our trade has suffered, and is suffering extensive injuries +in the West Indies from the cruisers and agents of the French +republic; and communications have been received from its minister +here, which indicate the danger of a further disturbance of our +commerce by its authority; and which are, in other respects, far from +agreeable.</p> + +<p>"It has been my constant, sincere and earnest wish, in conformity with +that of our nation, to maintain cordial harmony, and a perfectly +friendly understanding with that republic. This wish remains unabated; +and I shall persevere in the endeavour to fulfil it to the utmost +extent of what shall be consistent with a just and indispensable +regard to the rights and honour of our country; nor will I easily +cease to cherish the expectation, that a spirit of justice, candour +and friendship, on the part of the republic, will eventually ensure +success.</p> + +<p>"In pursuing this course, however, I can not forget what is due to the +character of our government and nation; or to a full and entire +confidence in the good sense, patriotism, self-respect, and fortitude +of my countrymen.</p> + +<p>"I reserve for a special message, a more particular communication on +this interesting subject."</p> + +<p>The flourishing state of the revenue, the expectation that the system +for the gradual extinction of the national debt would be completed at +this session, the anxiety which he felt respecting the militia, were +successively mentioned, and the speech was concluded in the following +terms:</p> + +<p>"The situation in which I now stand, for the last time, in the midst +of the representatives of the people of the United States, naturally +recalls the period when the administration of the present form of +government commenced; and I can not omit the occasion to congratulate +you, and my country, on the success of the experiment; nor to repeat +my fervent supplications to the Supreme Ruler of the universe, and +sovereign arbiter of nations, that his providential care may still be +extended to the United States;—that the virtue and happiness of the +people may be preserved; and that the government, which they have +instituted for the protection of their liberties, may be perpetual."</p> + +<p>The answer of the senate embraced the various topics of the speech, +and approved every sentiment it contained.</p> + +<p>To a review of the prosperous situation of the interior of the United +States, the senate subjoined—</p> + +<p>"Whilst contemplating the causes that produce this auspicious result, +we must acknowledge the excellence of the constitutional system, and +the wisdom of the legislative provisions;—but we should be deficient +in gratitude and justice, did we not attribute a great portion of +these advantages, to the virtue, firmness, and talents of your +administration; which have been conspicuously displayed, in the most +trying times, and on the most critical occasions—it is therefore, +with the sincerest regrets, that we now receive an official +notification of your intentions to retire from the public employments +of your country.</p> + +<p>"When we review the various scenes of your public life, so long and so +successfully devoted to the most arduous services, civil and military; +as well during the struggles of the American revolution, as the +convulsive periods of a recent date, we can not look forward to your +retirement without our warmest affections, and most anxious regards, +accompanying you; and without mingling with our fellow citizens at +large, in the sincerest wishes for your personal happiness, that +sensibility and attachment can express.</p> + +<p>"The most effectual consolation that can offer for the loss we are +about to sustain, arises from the animating reflection, that the +influence of your example will extend to your successors, and the +United States thus continue to enjoy an able, upright, and energetic +administration."</p> + +<p>In the house of representatives, a committee of five had been +appointed to prepare a respectful answer to the speech, three of whom +were friends to the administration. Knowing well that the several +propositions it contained could not be noticed in detail, without +occasioning a debate in which sentiments opposed to those of the +address would be expressed, probably by a majority of the house; and +hoping that the disposition would be general to avow in strong terms +their attachment to the person and character of the President, the +committee united in reporting an answer, which, in general terms, +promised due attention to the various subjects recommended to their +consideration, but was full and explicit in the expression of +attachment to himself, and of approbation of his administration.</p> + +<p>But the unanimity which prevailed in the committee did not extend to +the house.</p> + +<p>After amplifying and strengthening the expressions of the report which +stated the regrets of the house that any interruption should have +taken place in the harmony which had subsisted between the United +States and France, and modifying those which declared their hopes in +the restoration of that affection which had formerly subsisted between +the two republics, so as to avoid any implication that the rupture of +that affection was exclusively ascribable to France, a motion was made +by Mr. Giles to expunge from the answer the following paragraphs.</p> + +<p>"When we advert to the internal situation of the United States, we +deem it equally natural and becoming to compare the present period +with that immediately antecedent to the operation of the government, +and to contrast it with the calamities in which the state of war still +involves several of the European nations, as the reflections deduced +from both tend to justify, as well as to excite a warmer admiration of +our free constitution, and to exalt our minds to a more fervent and +grateful sense of piety towards Almighty God for the beneficence of +his Providence, by which its administration has been hitherto so +remarkably distinguished.</p> + +<p>"And while we entertain a grateful conviction that your wise, firm, +and patriotic administration has been signally conducive to the +success of the present form of government, we can not forbear to +express the deep sensations of regret with which we contemplate your +intended retirement from office.</p> + +<p>"As no other suitable occasion may occur, we can not suffer the +present to pass without attempting to disclose some of the emotions +which it can not fail to awaken.</p> + +<p>"The gratitude and admiration of your countrymen are still drawn to +the recollection of those resplendent virtues and talents which were +so eminently instrumental to the achievement of the revolution, and of +which that glorious event will ever be the memorial. Your obedience to +the voice of duty and your country, when you quitted reluctantly, a +second time, the retreat you had chosen, and first accepted the +presidency, afforded a new proof of the devotedness of your zeal in +its service, and an earnest of the patriotism and success which have +characterized your administration. As the grateful confidence of the +citizens in the virtues of their chief magistrate has essentially +contributed to that success, we persuade ourselves that the millions +whom we represent, participate with us in the anxious solicitude of +the present occasion.</p> + +<p>"Yet we can not be unmindful that your moderation and magnanimity, +twice displayed by retiring from your exalted stations, afford +examples no less rare and instructive to mankind than valuable to a +republic.</p> + +<p>"Although we are sensible that this event, of itself, completes the +lustre of a character already conspicuously unrivalled by the +coincidence of virtue, talents, success, and public estimation; yet we +conceive we owe it to you, sir, and still more emphatically to +ourselves and to our nation, (of the language of whose hearts we +presume to think ourselves, at this moment, the faithful interpreters) +to express the sentiments with which it is contemplated.</p> + +<p>"The spectacle of a free and enlightened nation offering by its +representatives the tribute of unfeigned approbation to its first +citizen, however novel and interesting it may be, derives all its +lustre (a lustre which accident or enthusiasm could not bestow, and +which adulation would tarnish) from the transcendent merit, of which +it is the voluntary testimony.</p> + +<p>"May you long enjoy that liberty which is so dear to you, and to which +your name will ever be so dear; may your own virtue and a nation's +prayers obtain the happiest sunshine for the decline of your days, and +the choicest of future blessings. For our country's sake; for the sake +of republican liberty, it is our earnest wish that your example may be +the guide of your successors; and thus, after being the ornament and +safeguard of the present age, become the patrimony of our +descendants."</p> + +<p>In support of this motion, after urging the indelicacy of exulting +over the misfortunes of others by contrasting our happiness with their +misery, Mr. Giles said, that with respect to the wisdom<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and +firmness of the President, he differed in opinion from the answer; and +though he might be singular, yet it being his opinion, he should not +be afraid to avow it. He had not that grateful conviction there +mentioned, and if he were to come there and express it, he should +prove an inconsistent character. He should not go into a lengthy +discussion on this point, but if they turned their eyes to our foreign +relations, there would be found no reason to exult in the wisdom and +firmness of the administration. He believed, on the contrary, that it +was from a want of wisdom and firmness that we were brought into our +present critical situation. If gentlemen had been satisfied with +expressing their esteem of the patriotism and virtue of the President, +they might have got a unanimous vote; but they could not suppose that +gentlemen would so far forget self-respect as to join in the proposed +adulation.</p> + +<p>Mr. Giles said he was one of those citizens who did not regret the +President's retiring from office. He hoped he would retire to his +country seat and enjoy all the happiness he could wish; and he +believed he would enjoy more there than in his present situation. He +believed the government of the United States would go on without him. +The people were competent to their own government. What calamities +would attend the United States if one man alone was essential to their +government! He believed there were a thousand men in the United States +who were capable of filling the presidential chair as well as it had +been filled heretofore. And although a clamour had been raised in all +parts of the United States, more or less, from apprehensions on the +departure of the President from office, yet, not feeling these +apprehensions himself, he was perfectly easy on the occasion. He +wished the President as much happiness as any man; and hoping he would +retire, he could not express any regrets at the event. And it would be +extraordinary, if gentlemen whose names in the yeas and nays are found +in opposition to certain prominent measures of the administration, +should now come forward and approve those measures. This could not be +expected. He, for his part, retained the same opinions he had always +done with respect to those measures, nor should any influence under +heaven prevent him from expressing that opinion—an opinion in which +he was confident, ere long, all America would concur.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> + +<p>This motion was opposed with great earnestness by the party which had +supported the administration. The advantages which had resulted from +the constitution were said to be too obvious to be controverted; and +it was maintained that a comparison of the present situation of the +United States with its condition anterior to the adoption of that +instrument, or with the condition of foreign powers, was natural and +proper. This comparison was made not for the purposes of exultation, +but of exciting just sentiments respecting their own conduct.</p> + +<p>In reply to the observations respecting the President, it was said, +that the whole course of his administration had demonstrated the +correctness with which the terms "wisdom and firmness" were applied to +it. Particular circumstances were stated in which these qualities had +been pre-eminently displayed; but the general impression which facts +had made on the public mind was considered as dispensing with the +necessity of stating the particular facts themselves.</p> + +<p>It might be true, they said, that there were many others who could +fill with propriety and advantage the presidential chair, but no man +could fill it who possessed, in an equal degree, the confidence of the +people. The possession of this confidence enabled the chief magistrate +to perform the duties of his office in a manner greatly conducive to +the interests of the nation, and the loss of so valuable a public +servant was certainly just cause of regret. With this sentiment, the +feelings of the community fully accorded. In every part of the United +States, the declarations of their constituents attested the regrets +with which this event was contemplated by them. Those gentlemen who +did not participate in these feelings would have an opportunity to +record their names with their opinions. But those who did participate +in them ought not to be restrained from expressing them.</p> + +<p>The motion to strike out was lost; after which the words "the +spectacle of a whole nation, the freest and most enlightened in the +world," were amended, so as to read, "the spectacle of a free and +enlightened nation," and the answer was carried by a great majority.</p> + +<div class="sidenotey">1797</div> + +<p>Early in the session, the President communicated to congress in a +special message, the complaints alleged by the representative of the +French republic against the government of the United States. These +complaints embracing most of the transactions of the legislative and +executive departments, in relation to the belligerent powers, a +particular and careful review of almost every act of the +administration, which could affect those powers, became indispensable. +The principal object for the mission of General Pinckney to Paris, +having been to make full and fair explanations of the principles and +conduct of the American government, this review was addressed to that +minister. It presented a minute and comprehensive detail of all the +points of controversy which had arisen between the two nations; and +defended the measures which had been adopted in America, with a +clearness, and a strength of argument, believed to be irresistible. To +place the subject in a point of view, admitting of no possible +misunderstanding, the secretary of state had annexed to his own full +and demonstrative reasoning, documents, establishing the real fact in +each particular case, and the correspondence relating to it.</p> + +<p>This letter, with its accompanying documents, was laid before +congress.</p> + +<p>Those who read these valuable papers will not be surprised, that the +President should have relied upon their efficacy in removing from the +government of France, all impressions unfavourable to the fairness of +intention which had influenced the conduct of the United States; and +in effacing from the bosoms of the great body of the American people, +all those unjust and injurious suspicions which had been entertained +against their own administration. Should their immediate operation on +the executive of France disappoint his hopes, he persuaded himself +that he could not mistake their influence in America; and he felt the +most entire conviction that the accusations against the United States +would cease, with the evidence that those accusations were +countenanced and supported by a great portion of the American people.</p> + +<p>These documents were communicated to the public; but, unfortunately, +their effect at home was not such as had been expected, and they were +consequently inoperative abroad. The fury of political controversy +seemed to sustain no diminution; and the American character continued +to be degraded by reciprocal criminations, which the two great parties +made upon each other, of being under a British, and a French +influence.</p> + +<p>The measures particularly recommended by the President in his speech, +at the opening of the session, were not adopted; and neither the +debates in Congress, nor the party publications with which the nation +continued to be agitated, furnished reasonable ground for the hope, +that the political intemperance which had prevailed from the +establishment of the republican form of government in France, was +about to be succeeded by a more conciliatory spirit.</p> + +<p><a name="p326">The</a> President contemplated with a degree of pleasure<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> seldom felt +at the resignation of power, his approaching retirement to the +delightful scenes of domestic and rural life.</p> + +<p>It was impossible to be absolutely insensible to the bitter +invectives, and malignant calumnies of which he had long been the +object. Yet in one instance only, did he depart from the rule he had +prescribed for his conduct regarding them. Apprehending permanent +injury from the republication of certain spurious letters which have +been already noticed, he, on the day which terminated his official +character, addressed to the secretary of state the following letter.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">He denies the authenticity of certain spurious letters +published as his in 1776.</div> + +<p>"Dear Sir,</p> + +<p>"At the conclusion of my public employments, I have thought it +expedient to notice the publication of certain forged letters which +first appeared in the year 1777, and were obtruded upon the public as +mine. They are said by the editor to have been found in a small +portmanteau that I had left in the care of my mulatto servant named +Billy, who, it is pretended, was taken prisoner at Fort Lee, in 1776. +The period when these letters were first printed will be recollected, +and what were the impressions they were intended to produce on the +public mind. It was then supposed to be of some consequence to strike +at the integrity of the motives of the American Commander-in-chief, +and to paint his inclinations as at variance with his professions and +his duty—another crisis in the affairs of America having occurred, +the same weapon has been resorted to, to wound my character and +deceive the people.</p> + +<p>"The letters in question have the dates, addresses, and signatures +here following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p style="text-align: right">New York, June 12th, 1776.</p> + +<p>To Mr. Lund Washington, at Mount Vernon, Fairfax county, +Virginia.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">G.W.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">June 18th, 1776.</p> + +<p>To John Parke Custis, Esqr., at the Hon Benedict Calvert's +Esqr., Mount Airy, Maryland.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">G.W.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">New York, July 8th, 1776.</p> + +<p>To Mr. Lund Washington, Mount Vernon, Fairfax county, +Virginia.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">G.W.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">New York, July 16th, 1776.</p> + +<p>To Mr. Lund Washington.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">G.W.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">New York, July 15th, 1776.</p> + +<p>To Mr. Lund Washington.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">G.W.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">New York, July 22d, 1776.</p> + +<p>To Mr. Lund Washington.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">G.W.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">June 24th, 1776.</p> + +<p>To Mrs. Washington.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">G.W.</p></div> + +<p>"At the time when these letters first appeared, it was notorious to +the army immediately under my command, and particularly to the +gentlemen attached to my person, that my mulatto man Billy had never +been one moment in the power of the enemy. It is also a fact that no +part of my baggage, or any of my attendants, were captured during the +whole course of the war. These well known facts made it unnecessary, +during the war, to call the public attention to the forgery by any +express declaration of mine; and a firm reliance on my fellow +citizens, and the abundant proofs they gave of their confidence in me, +rendered it alike unnecessary to take any formal notice of the revival +of the imposition, during my civil administration. But as I can not +know how soon a more serious event may succeed to that which will this +day take place, I have thought it a duty that I owed to myself, to my +country, and to truth, now to detail the circumstances above recited, +and to add my solemn declaration that the letters herein described are +a base forgery, and that I never saw or heard of them until they +appeared in print. The present letter I commit to your care, and +desire it may be deposited in the office of the department of state, +as a testimony of the truth to the present generation and to +posterity. Accept, &c. &c."</p> + +<div class="sidenote">John Adams elected president, and Thomas Jefferson vice +president.</div> + +<p>In February, the votes for the first and second magistrates of the +union were opened and counted in presence of both houses; and the +highest number appearing in favour of Mr. Adams, and the second in +favour of Mr. Jefferson, the first was declared to be the President, +and the second the Vice President, of the United States, for four +years to commence on the fourth day of the ensuing March.</p> + +<p>On that day, the members of the senate, conducted by the Vice +President, together with the officers of the general and state +governments, and an immense concourse of citizens, convened in the +hall of the house of representatives, in which the oaths were +administered to the President.</p> + +<p><a name="p329">The</a> sensibility which was manifested when General Washington entered, +did not surpass the cheerfulness which overspread his own countenance, +nor the heartfelt pleasure with which he saw another invested with the +powers that had so long been exercised by himself.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenote">General Washington retires to Mount Vernon.</div> + +<p><a name="p330">After</a> the solemnities of the occasion had been concluded, and he had +paid to his successor those respectful compliments which he believed +to be equally due to the man and to the office, he hastened<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> to +that real felicity which awaited him at Mount Vernon, the enjoyment of +which he had long impatiently anticipated.</p> + +<p>The same marks of respect and affection for his person, which had on +all great occasions been manifested by his fellow citizens, still +attended him. His endeavours to render his journey private were +unavailing; and the gentlemen of the country through which he passed, +were still ambitious of testifying their sentiments for the man who +had, from the birth of the republic, been deemed the first of American +citizens. Long after his retirement, he continued to receive addresses +from legislative bodies, and various classes of citizens, expressive +of the high sense entertained of his services.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the extraordinary popularity of the first President of +the United States, scarcely has any important act of his +administration escaped the most bitter invective.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Political situation of the United States at this period.</div> + +<p>On the real wisdom of the system which he pursued, every reader will +decide for himself. Time will, in some measure, dissipate the +prejudices and passions of the moment, and enable us to view objects +through a medium which represents them truly.</p> + +<p>Without taking a full review of measures which were reprobated by one +party and applauded by the other, the reader may be requested to +glance his eye at the situation of the United States in 1797, and to +contrast it with their condition in 1788.</p> + +<p>At home, a sound credit had been created; an immense floating debt had +been funded in a manner perfectly satisfactory to the creditors: an +ample revenue had been provided; those difficulties which a system of +internal taxation, on its first introduction, is doomed to encounter, +were completely removed; and the authority of the government was +firmly established. Funds for the gradual payment of the debt had been +provided; a considerable part of it had been actually discharged; and +that system which is now operating its entire extinction, had been +matured and adopted. The agricultural and commercial wealth of the +nation had increased beyond all former example. The numerous tribes of +warlike Indians, inhabiting those immense tracts which lie between the +then cultivated country and the Mississippi, had been taught, by arms +and by justice, to respect the United States, and to continue in +peace. This desirable object having been accomplished, that humane +system was established for civilizing, and furnishing them with the +conveniences of life which improves their condition, while it secures +their attachment.</p> + +<p>Abroad, the differences with Spain had been accommodated; and the free +navigation of the Mississippi had been acquired, with the use of New +Orleans as a place of deposit for three years, and afterwards, until +some other equivalent place should be designated. Those causes of +mutual exasperation which had threatened to involve the United States +in a war with the greatest maritime and commercial power in the world, +had been removed; and the military posts which had been occupied +within their territory, from their existence as a nation, had been +evacuated. Treaties had been formed with Algiers and with Tripoli, and +no captures appear to have been made by Tunis; so that the +Mediterranean was opened to American vessels.</p> + +<p>This bright prospect was indeed, in part, shaded by the discontents of +France. Those who have attended to the particular points of difference +between the two nations, will assign the causes to which these +discontents are to be ascribed, and will judge whether it was in the +power of the President to have avoided them, without surrendering the +real independence of the nation, and the most invaluable of all rights +—the right of self-government.</p> + +<p>Such was the situation of the United States at the close of +Washington's administration. Their circumstances at its commencement +will be recollected; and the contrast is too striking not to be +observed.</p> + +<p>That this beneficial change in the affairs of America is to be +ascribed exclusively to the wisdom which guided the national councils +will not be pretended. That many of the causes which produced it +originated with the government, and that their successful operation +was facilitated, if not secured, by the system which was adopted, will +scarcely be denied. To estimate that system correctly, their real +influence must be allowed to those strong prejudices, and turbulent +passions, with which it was assailed.</p> + +<p>Accustomed in the early part of his life to agricultural pursuits, and +possessing a real taste for them, General Washington was particularly +well qualified to enjoy, in retirement, that tranquil felicity which +he had anticipated. Resuming former habits, and returning to ancient +and well known employments, he was familiar with his new situation, +and therefore exempt from the danger of that disappointment which is +the common lot of those who, in old age, retire from the toils of +business, or the cares of office, to the untried pleasures of the +country. A large estate, which exhibited many proofs of having been +long deprived of the attentions of its proprietor, in the management +and improvement of which he engaged with ardour, an extensive +correspondence, and the society of men and books, gave employment to +every hour which was equally innocent and interesting, and furnished +ground for the hope that the evening of a life which had been devoted +to the public service, would be as serene, as its mid-day had been +brilliant.</p> + +<p>Though devoted to these occupations, an absolute indifference to +public affairs would have been incompatible with that love of country +which had influenced all his conduct. Feeling strong impressions in +favour of that system, with regard to foreign powers, which had been +adopted by himself, and which was faithfully pursued by his successor, +he could not be inattentive to the immense, and continued exertions, +made by a powerful party to overturn it. Yet for a time, he sought to +abstract himself from these political contests, and to diminish the +interest which his feelings impelled him to take in them. His letters +abound in paragraphs not unlike the following. "I have confidence +however in that Providence which has shielded the United States from +the evils that have hitherto threatened them; and, as I believe the +major part of the people of this country to be well affected to its +constitution and government, I rest satisfied that, should a crisis +ever arise to call forth the sense of the community, it will be strong +in support of the honour and dignity of the nation. Therefore, however +much I regret the opposition which has for its object the +embarrassment of the administration, I shall view things in the 'calm +light of mild philosophy,' and endeavour to finish my course in +retirement and ease."</p> + +<p>But the designs of France were soon manifested in a form which, to the +veteran soldier and statesman of Mount Vernon, appeared to be too +dangerous as well as unequivocal, to admit the preservation of this +equanimity.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The French government refuses to receive General Pinckney +as minister.</div> + +<p>In the executive of that republic, General Pinckney encountered +dispositions of a very different character from that amicable and +conciliatory temper which had dictated his mission. After inspecting +his letter of credence, the Directory announced to him their haughty +determination "not to receive another minister plenipotentiary from +the United States, until after the redress of grievances demanded of +the American government, which the French republic had a right to +expect from it." This message was succeeded, first by indecorous +verbal communications, calculated to force the American minister out +of France, and afterwards, by a written mandate to quit the +territories of the republic.</p> + +<p>This act of hostility was accompanied with another which would explain +the motives for this conduct, if previous measures had not rendered +all further explanation unnecessary.</p> + +<p>On giving to the recalled minister his audience of leave, the +president of the directory addressed a speech to him, in which terms +of outrage to the government, were mingled with expressions of +affection for the people of the United States; and the expectation of +ruling the former, by their influence over the latter, was too clearly +manifested not to be understood. To complete this system of hostility, +American vessels were captured wherever found; and, under the pretext +of their wanting a document, with which the treaty of commerce had +been uniformly understood to dispense, they were condemned as prize.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Congress is convened.<br />President's speech.</div> + +<p>This serious state of things demanded a solemn consideration. On +receiving from General Pinckney the despatches which communicated it, +the President issued his proclamation requiring congress to meet on +the 15th day of June. The firm and dignified speech delivered by the +chief magistrate at the commencement of the session, exhibited that +sensibility which a high minded and real American might be expected to +feel, while representing to the national legislature the great and +unprovoked outrages of a foreign government. Adverting to the audience +of leave given by the executive Directory to Colonel Monroe, he said, +"the speech of the President discloses sentiments more alarming than +the refusal of a minister, because more dangerous to our independence +and union; and, at the same time, studiously marked with indignities +towards the government of the United States. It evinces a disposition +to separate the people from their government; to persuade them that +they have different affections, principles, and interests from those +of their fellow citizens whom they themselves have chosen to manage +their common concerns; and thus to produce divisions fatal to our +peace. Such attempts ought to be repelled with a decision which shall +convince France, and the world, that we are not a degraded people, +humiliated under a colonial spirit of fear, and sense of inferiority, +fitted to be the miserable instruments of foreign influence, and +regardless of national honour, character, and interest."</p> + +<p>"Retaining still the desire which had uniformly been manifested by the +American government to preserve peace and friendship with all nations, +and believing that neither the honour nor the interest of the United +States absolutely forbade the repetition of advances for securing +these desirable objects with France, he should," he said, "institute a +fresh attempt at negotiation, and should not fail to promote and +accelerate an accommodation on terms compatible with the rights, +duties, interests, and honour of the nation." But while he should be +making these endeavours to adjust all differences with the French +republic by amicable negotiation, he earnestly recommended it to +congress to provide effectual measures of defence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Three envoys extraordinary deputed to negotiate with +France.</div> + +<p>To carry into effect the pacific dispositions avowed in the speech, +three envoys extraordinary were appointed, at the head of whom General +Pinckney was placed. Their instructions conformed to the public +language of the President. Peace and reconciliation were to be pursued +by all means, compatible with the honour and the faith of the United +States; but no national engagements were to be impaired; no innovation +to be permitted upon those internal regulations for the preservation +of peace which had been deliberately and uprightly established; nor +were the rights of the government to be surrendered.</p> + +<p>The debates in the house of representatives, on the answer to the +speech, were long and earnest. To expressions approving the conduct of +the executive with regard to foreign nations, the opposition was +ardent, but unsuccessful. On the third of June, an answer was agreed +to which contained sentiments worthy of an American legislature, and +for which several of the leaders of the opposition voted.</p> + +<p>The speech of the President was well adapted to the occasion, and to +the times. It was calculated to rouse those indignant feelings which a +high spirited people, insulted and injured by a foreign power, can +never fail to display, if their judgment be not blinded, or their +sensibility to external wrongs blunted, by invincible prejudices. He +relied principally on the manifestation of these feelings for the +success of the negotiation; and on their real existence, for the +defence of the national rights, should negotiation fail. His +endeavours were not absolutely unsuccessful. Some impression was made +on the mass of the people; but it was too slight to be productive of +the advantages expected from it. The conduct of France was still +openly defended; and the opinion, that the measures which had been +adopted by the executive of the United States furnished that republic +with just cause of war, was still publicly maintained, and +indefatigably circulated. According to these opinions, America could +entitle herself to peace, only by retracing the steps she had taken, +and yielding to the demands of her justly offended but generous and +magnanimous ally.</p> + +<p>Still jealous for the honour, as well as confident of the importance, +of his country, and retaining that full conviction respecting the +propriety of its measures which had induced their adoption, General +Washington could not repress the solicitude with which he contemplated +passing events. His confidential letters disclose the strong feelings +of his own bosom, but betray no apprehensions that the French +government would press its present system to extremities. He firmly +believed that the hostile attitude it had assumed was to be, +exclusively, ascribed to the conduct of those Americans who had been +the uniform advocates of all the pretensions of France, and who were +said to be supported by a real majority of the people; and confidently +expected that, under the old pretext of magnanimous forbearance, the +executive directory would, slowly, and gradually, recede from its +present system, so soon as the error in which it originated should +become manifest. The opinion he had always entertained of the good +sense and patriotism of his fellow citizens, silenced every doubt +respecting the manner in which they would act, when their real +situation should be perceived by themselves.</p> + +<div class="sidenotey">1798</div> + +<p>For a considerable length of time, no certain intelligence reached the +United States respecting the negotiation at Paris. At length, in the +winter of 1798, letters were received from the American envoys, +indicating an unfavourable state of things; and, in the spring, +despatches arrived which announced the total failure of the mission.</p> + +<p>History will scarcely furnish the example of a nation, not absolutely +degraded, which has received from a foreign power such open contumely, +and undisguised insult, as were, on this occasion, suffered by the +United States in the persons of their ministers.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Their treatment.</div> + +<p>It was insinuated that their being taken from the party<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> which had +supported the measures of their own government furnished just cause of +umbrage; and, under slight pretexts, the executive directory delayed +to accredit them as the representatives of an independent nation. In +this situation, they were assailed by persons, not indeed invested +with formal authority, but exhibiting sufficient evidence of the +source from which their powers were derived, who, in direct and +explicit terms, demanded money from the United States as the condition +which must precede, not only the reconciliation of America to France, +but any negotiation on the differences between the two countries.</p> + +<p>That an advance of money by a neutral to a belligerent power would be +an obvious departure from neutrality, though an insuperable objection +to this demand, did not constitute the most operative reason for +repelling it. Such were the circumstances under which it was made, +that it could not be acceded to without a surrender of the real +independence of the United States; nor without being, in fact, the +commencement of a system, the end of which it was impossible to +foresee.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a name="image07"> +<img src="images/340.jpg" width="585" height="337" alt="Mount Vernon" /></a></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b>Mount Vernon</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>This colonial mansion overlooking the Potomac River fifteen miles +south of Washington, D.C., and famous as the home and burial-place of +the "Father of His Country," was built in 1743 by Washington's elder +brother, Lawrence, who called it Mount Vernon, after Admiral Vernon, +under whom he had served in the British Navy. Mount Vernon, which was +much enlarged by President Washington, was by him bequeathed to +Bushrod Washington, upon whose death it came into the hands of John A. +Washington, his nephew, who sold it in 1858 to the Ladies Mount Vernon +Association, which holds it in trust as a national shrine.</i></p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>A decided negative was therefore given to the preliminary required by +these unofficial agents; but they returned to the charge with +wonderful perseverance, and used unwearied arts to work upon the fears +of the American ministers for their country, and for themselves. The +immense power of France was painted in glowing colours, the +humiliation of the house of Austria was stated, and the conquest of +Britain was confidently anticipated. In the friendship of France +alone, it was said, could America look for safety; and the fate of +Venice was held up to warn her of the danger which awaited those who +incurred the displeasure of the great republic. The ministers were +assured that, if they believed their conduct would be approved in the +United States, they were mistaken. The means which the Directory +possessed, in that country, to excite odium against them, were great, +and would unquestionably be employed.</p> + +<p>This degrading intercourse was at length interrupted by the positive +refusal of the envoys to hold any further communication with the +persons employed in it.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, they urged the object of their mission with persevering but +unavailing solicitude. The Directory still refused to acknowledge them +in their public character; and the secretary of exterior relations, at +unofficial visits which they made him, renewed the demand which his +agents had unsuccessfully pressed.</p> + +<p>Finding the objections to their reception in their official character +insurmountable, the American ministers made a last effort to execute +the duties assigned to them. In a letter addressed to the secretary of +exterior relations, they entered at large into the explanations +committed to them by their government, and illustrated, by a variety +of facts, the uniform friendliness of its conduct to France.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> +Notwithstanding the failure of this effort, and their perfect +conviction that all further attempts would be equally unavailing, they +continued, with a passiveness which must search for its apology in +their solicitude to demonstrate to the American people the real views +of the French republic, to employ the only means in their power to +avert the rupture which was threatened, and which appeared to be +inevitable.</p> + +<p>During these transactions, occasion was repeatedly taken to insult the +American government; open war was continued to be waged by the +cruisers of France on American commerce; and the flag of the United +States was a sufficient justification for the capture and condemnation +of any vessel over which it waved.</p> + +<p>At length, when the demonstration became complete, that the resolution +of the American envoys was not less fixed, than their conduct had been +guarded and temperate, various attempts were made to induce two of +them, voluntarily, to relinquish their station; on the failure of +which, they were ordered to quit the territories of the republic. As +if to aggravate this national insult, the third, who had been selected +from that party which was said to be friendly to France, was permitted +to remain, and was invited to resume the discussions which had been +interrupted.</p> + +<p>The despatches communicating these events were laid before congress, +and were afterwards published. The indignation which they excited was +warm and extensive. The attempt to degrade the United States into a +tributary nation was too obvious to be concealed; and the resentment +produced, as well by this attempt as by the threats which accompanied +it, was not confined to the federalists. For the moment, a spirit was +roused on which an American may reflect with pride, and which he may +consider as a sure protection from external danger. In every part of +the continent, the favourite sentiment was "millions for defence, not +a cent for tribute."</p> + +<p>The disposition still existed to justify France, by criminating the +American government, by contending that her intentions were not really +hostile, that her conduct was misrepresented by men under British +influence, who wished for war, or had been deceived by unauthorized +intriguers; that, admitting it to be otherwise, she only demanded +those marks of friendship which, at a critical moment, she had herself +afforded; that the real interests of the United States required a +compliance with this demand; that it would cost more money to resist +than to yield to it; that the resistance would infallibly be +ineffectual; and that national honour was never secured by national +defeat. Neither these sentiments, nor the arguments which were founded +on them, accorded with the general feeling; and it required the +co-operation of other causes to establish the influence of those who +urged them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Measures of hostility adopted by the American government +against France.</div> + +<p>In congress, vigorous measures were adopted for retaliating injuries +which had been sustained, and for repelling those which were +threatened. Amongst these was a regular army. A regiment of +artillerists and engineers was added to the permanent establishment; +and the President was authorized to raise twelve additional regiments +of infantry, and one regiment of cavalry, to serve during the +continuance of the existing differences with the French republic if +not sooner discharged. He was also authorized to appoint officers for +a provisional army, and to receive and organize volunteer corps who +would be exempt from ordinary militia duty; but neither the volunteers +nor the officers of the provisional army were to receive pay unless +called into actual service.</p> + +<p>Addresses<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> to the executive from every part of the United States +attested the high spirit of the nation, and the answers of the +President were well calculated to give it solidity and duration.</p> + +<p>No sooner had a war become probable, to the perils of which no man +could be insensible, than the eyes of all were directed to General +Washington, as the person who should command the American army. He +alone could be seen at the head of a great military force without +exciting jealousy; he alone could draw into public service, and +arrange properly the best military talents of the nation; and he more +than any other, could induce the utmost exertions of its physical +strength.</p> + +<p>Indignant at the unprovoked injuries which had been heaped upon his +country, and convinced that the conflict, should a war be really +prosecuted by France with a view to conquest, would be extremely +severe, and could be supported, on the part of America, only by a +persevering exertion of all her force, he could not determine, should +such a crisis arrive, to withhold those aids which it might be in his +power to afford, should public opinion really attach to his services +that importance which would render them essential. His own reflections +appear to have resulted in a determination not to refuse once more to +take the field, provided he could be permitted to secure efficient aid +by naming the chief officers of the army, and to remain at home until +his service in the field should be required by actual invasion.</p> + +<p>A confidential and interesting letter from Colonel Hamilton of the +19th of May, on political subjects, concludes with saying, "You ought +also to be aware, my dear sir, that in the event of an open rupture +with France, the public voice will again call you to command the +armies of your country; and though all who are attached to you will +from attachment as well as public considerations, deplore an occasion +which should once more tear you from that repose to which you have so +good a right; yet it is the opinion of all those with whom I converse +that you will be compelled to make the sacrifice. All your past +labours may demand, to give them efficacy, this further, this very +great sacrifice."</p> + +<p>"You may be assured," said General Washington in reply, "that my mind +is deeply impressed with the present situation of public affairs, and +not a little agitated by the outrageous conduct of France towards the +United States, and at the inimitable conduct of those partisans who +aid and abet her measures. You may believe further, from assurances +equally sincere, that if there was any thing in my power to be done +consistently, to avert or lessen the danger of the crisis, it should +be rendered with hand and heart.</p> + +<p><a name="p348">"But,</a> my dear sir, dark as matters appear at present, and expedient as +it is to be prepared for the worst that can happen, (and no man is +more disposed to this measure than I am) I can not make up my mind +yet, for the expectation of open war; or, in other words, for a +formidable invasion by France. I can not believe, although I think her +capable of any thing, that she will attempt to do more than she has +done. When she perceives the spirit and policy of this country rising +into resistance, and that she has falsely calculated upon support from +a large part of the people<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> to promote her views and influence in +it, she will desist even from those practices, unless unexpected +events in Europe, or the acquisition of Louisiana and the Floridas, +should induce her to continue them. And I believe further, that +although the leaders of their party in this country will not change +their sentiments, they will be obliged to change their plan, or the +mode of carrying it on. The effervescence which is appearing in all +quarters, and the desertion of their followers, will frown them into +silence—at least for a while.</p> + +<p>"If I did not view things in this light, my mind would be infinitely +more disquieted than it is: for, if a crisis should arrive when a +sense of duty, or a call from my country should become so imperious as +to leave me no choice, I should prepare for relinquishment, and go +with as much reluctance from my present peaceful abode, as I should go +to the tombs of my ancestors."</p> + +<p>The opinion that prudence required preparations for open war, and that +General Washington must once more be placed at the head of the +American armies, strengthened every day; and on the 22d of June, the +President addressed him a letter in which that subject was thus +alluded to.</p> + +<p>"In forming an army, whenever I must come to that extremity, I am at +an immense loss whether to call out the old generals, or to appoint a +young set. If the French come here, we must learn to march with a +quick step, and to attack, for in that way only they are said to be +vulnerable. I must tax you, sometimes, for advice. We must have your +name, if you will in any case permit us to use it. There will be more +efficacy in it than in many an army."</p> + +<p>A letter from the secretary of war, written four days afterwards, +concludes with asking, "May we flatter ourselves that, in a crisis so +awful and important, you will accept the command of all our armies? I +hope you will, because you alone can unite all hearts and all hands, +if it is possible that they can be united."</p> + +<p>These letters reached General Washington on the same day. The +following extract from his reply to the President will exhibit the +course of his reflections relative to his appearance once more at the +head of the American armies.</p> + +<p>"At the epoch of my retirement, an invasion of these states by any +European power, or even the probability of such an event in my days, +was so far from being contemplated by me, that I had no conception +either that or any other occurrence would arise in so short a period +which could turn my eyes from the shades of Mount Vernon. But this +seems to be the age of wonders. And it is reserved for intoxicated and +lawless France (for purposes of Providence far beyond the reach of +human ken) to slaughter her own citizens, and to disturb the repose of +all the world besides. From a view of the past,—from the prospect of +the present,—and of that which seems to be expected, it is not easy +for me to decide satisfactorily on the part it might best become me to +act. In case of actual invasion by a formidable force, I certainly +should not intrench myself under the cover of age and retirement, if +my services should be required by my country to assist in repelling +it. And if there be good cause to expect such an event, which +certainly must be better known to the government than to private +citizens, delay in preparing for it may be dangerous, improper, and +not to be justified by prudence. The uncertainty however of the +latter, in my mind, creates my embarrassment; for I can not bring it +to believe, regardless as the French are of treaties, and of the laws +of nations, and capable as I conceive them to be of any species of +despotism and injustice, that they will attempt to invade this country +after such a uniform and unequivocal expression of the determination +of the people in all parts to oppose them with their lives and +fortunes. That they have been led to believe by their agents and +partisans among us that we are a divided people, that the latter are +opposed to their own government, and that the show of a small force +would occasion a revolt, I have no doubt; and how far these men (grown +desperate) will further attempt to deceive, and may succeed in keeping +up the deception, is problematical. Without that, the folly of the +Directory in such an attempt would, I conceive, be more conspicuous, +if possible, than their wickedness.</p> + +<p>"Having with candour made this disclosure of the state of my mind, it +remains only for me to add, that to those who knew me best, it is best +known that, should imperious circumstances induce me to exchange once +more the smooth paths of retirement for the thorny ways of public +life, at a period too when repose is more congenial to nature, it +would be productive of sensations which can be more easily conceived +than expressed."</p> + +<p>His letter to the secretary of war was more detailed and more +explicit. "It can not," he said, "be necessary for me to promise to +you or to others who know my sentiments, that to quit the tranquillity +of retirement, and enter the boundless field of responsibility, would +be productive of sensations which a better pen than I possess would +find it difficult to describe. Nevertheless, the principle by which my +conduct has been actuated through life, would not surfer me, in any +great emergency, to withhold any services I could render when required +by my country;—especially in a case where its dearest rights are +assailed by lawless ambition and intoxicated power, in contempt of +every principle of justice, and in violation of solemn compact, and of +laws which govern all civilized nations:—and this too with the +obvious intent to sow thick the seeds of disunion for the purpose of +subjugating our government, and destroying our independence and +happiness.</p> + +<p>"Under circumstances like these, accompanied by an actual invasion of +our territory, it would be difficult for me, at any time, to remain an +idle spectator, under the plea of age or retirement. With sorrow, it +is true, I should quit the shades of my peaceful abode, and the ease +and happiness I now enjoy, to encounter anew the turmoils of war, to +which, possibly, my strength and powers might be found incompetent. +These, however, should not be stumbling blocks in my own way. But +there are other things highly important for me to ascertain and settle +before I could give a definite answer to your question.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1st. The propriety in the opinion of the public, so far as +that opinion has been expressed in conversation, of my +appearing again on the public theatre, after declaring the +sentiments I did in my valedictory address of September, +1796.</p> + +<p>2dly. A conviction in my own breast, from the best +information that can be obtained, that it is the wish of my +country that its military force should be committed to my +charge; and,</p> + +<p>3dly. That the army now to be formed should be so appointed +as to afford a well grounded hope of its doing honour to the +country, and credit to him who commands it in the field.</p></div> + +<p>"On each of these heads you must allow me to make observations."</p> + +<p>General Washington then proceeded to detail his sentiments on those +points on which his consent to take command of the army must depend.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General Washington appointed commander-in-chief of the +American Army.</div> + +<p>Some casual circumstances delayed the reception of the letters of the +President and secretary of war for several days, in consequence of +which, before the answer of General Washington reached the seat of +government, the President had nominated him to the chief command of +all the armies raised or to be raised in the United States, with the +rank of Lieutenant General; and the senate had unanimously advised and +consented to his appointment.</p> + +<p>By the secretary of war, who was directed to wait upon him with his +commission, the President addressed to him the following letter:</p> + +<p>"Mr. M'Henry, the secretary of war, will have the honour to wait on +you in my behalf, to impart to you a step I have ventured to take, +which I should have been happy to have communicated in person, had +such a journey, at this time, been in my power.</p> + +<p>"My reasons for this measure will be too well known to need any +explanation to the public. Every friend and every enemy of America +will comprehend them at first blush. To you, sir, I owe all the +apology I can make. The urgent necessity I am in of your advice and +assistance, indeed of your conduct and direction of the war, is all I +can urge; and that is a sufficient justification to myself and to the +world. I hope it will be so considered by yourself. Mr. M'Henry will +have the honour to consult you upon the organization of the army, and +upon every thing relating to it."</p> + +<p>Open instructions, signed by the President, were on the same day +delivered to the secretary of war, of which the following is a copy:</p> + +<p>"It is my desire that you embrace the first opportunity to set out on +your journey to Mount Vernon, and wait on General Washington with the +commission of Lieutenant General and Commander-in-chief of the armies +of the United States, which, by the advice and consent of the senate, +has been signed by me.</p> + +<p>"The reasons and motives which prevailed on me to venture on such a +step as the nomination of this great and illustrious character, whose +voluntary resignation alone occasioned my introduction to the office I +now hold, were too numerous to be detailed in this letter, and are too +obvious and important to escape the observation of any part of America +or Europe. But as it is a movement of great delicacy, it will require +all your address to communicate the subject in a manner that shall be +inoffensive to his feelings, and consistent with all the respect that +is due from me to him.</p> + +<p>"If the General should decline the appointment, all the world will be +silent, and respectfully acquiesce. If he should accept it, all the +world, except the enemies of his country, will rejoice. If he should +come to no decisive determination, but take the subject into +consideration, I shall not appoint any other lieutenant general until +his conclusion is known.</p> + +<p>"His advice in the formation of a list of officers would be extremely +desirable to me. The names of Lincoln, Morgan, Knox, Hamilton, Gates, +Pinckney, Lee, Carrington, Hand, Muhlenberg, Dayton, Burr, Brooks, +Cobb, Smith, as well as the present Commander-in-chief, may be +mentioned to him, and any others that occur to you. Particularly, I +wish to have his opinion on the men most suitable for inspector +general, adjutant general, and quarter master general.</p> + +<p>"His opinion on all subjects would have great weight, and I wish you +to obtain from him as much of his reflections upon the times and the +service as you can."</p> + +<p>The communications between General Washington and the secretary of war +appear to have been full and unreserved. The impressions of the former +respecting the critical and perilous situation of his country had +previously determined him to yield to the general desire, and accept +the commission offered him, provided he could be permitted to select +for the high departments of the army, and especially for the military +staff, those in whom he could place the greatest confidence. Being +assured that there was every reason to believe his wishes in this +respect would not be thwarted, he gave to the secretary the +arrangement<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> which he would recommend for the principal stations in +the army; and, on the 13th of July, addressed the following letter to +the President.</p> + +<p>"I had the honour, on the evening of the 11th instant, to receive from +the hands of the secretary at war, your favour of the seventh, +announcing that you had, with the advice and consent of the senate, +appointed me Lieutenant General and Commander-in-chief of the armies +raised or to be raised for the service of the United States.</p> + +<p>"I can not express how greatly affected I am at this new proof of +public confidence, and at the highly flattering manner in which you +have been pleased to make the communication. At the same time, I must +not conceal from you my earnest wish that the choice had fallen upon a +man less declined in years, and better qualified to encounter the +usual vicissitudes of war.</p> + +<p>"You know, sir, what calculations I had made relative to the probable +course of events on my retiring from office, and the determination, +with which I had consoled myself, of closing the remnant of my days in +my present peaceful abode. You will therefore be at no loss to +conceive and appreciate the sensations I must have experienced, to +bring my mind to any conclusion that would pledge me, at so late a +period of life, to leave scenes I sincerely love, to enter upon the +boundless field of public action, incessant trouble, and high +responsibility.</p> + +<p>"It was not possible for me to remain ignorant of, or indifferent to +recent transactions. The conduct of the Directory of France towards +our country; their insidious hostility to its government; their +various practices to withdraw the affections of the people from it; +the evident tendency of their arts, and those of their agents, to +countenance and invigorate opposition; their disregard of solemn +treaties and the laws of nations; their war upon our defenceless +commerce; their treatment of our ministers of peace; and their +demands, amounting to tribute, could not fail to excite in me +sentiments corresponding with those my countrymen have so generally +expressed in their affectionate addresses to you.</p> + +<p>"Believe me, sir, no man can more cordially approve the wise and +prudent measures of your administration. They ought to inspire +universal confidence, and will no doubt, combined with the state of +things, call from congress such laws and means as will enable you to +meet the full force and extent of the crisis.</p> + +<p>"Satisfied, therefore, that you have sincerely wished and endeavoured +to avert war, and exhausted to the last drop the cup of +reconciliation, we can, with pure hearts, appeal to heaven for the +justice of our cause, and may confidently trust the final result to +that kind Providence who has heretofore, and so often, signally +favoured the people of the United States.</p> + +<p>"Thinking in this manner, and feeling how incumbent it is upon every +person of every description to contribute, at all times, to his +country's welfare, and especially in a moment like the present, when +every thing we hold dear and sacred is so seriously threatened, I have +finally determined to accept the commission of Commander-in-chief of +the armies of the United States, with the reserve only,—that I shall +not be called into the field until the army is in a situation to +require my presence, or it becomes indispensable by the urgency of +circumstances.</p> + +<p>"In making this reservation, I beg it to be understood that I do not +mean to withhold any assistance to arrange and organize the army, +which you may think I can afford. I take the liberty also to mention +that I must decline having my acceptance considered as drawing after +it any immediate charge upon the public, or that I can receive any +emoluments annexed to the appointment before I am in a situation to +incur expense."</p> + +<p>From this period, General Washington intermingled the cares and +attentions of office with his agricultural pursuits. His solicitude +respecting the organization of an army which he might possibly be +required to lead against an enemy the most formidable in the world, +was too strong to admit of his being inattentive to its arrangements. +Yet he never did believe that an invasion of the United States would +actually take place. His conviction that it was not the interest of +France to wage an unprovoked war with America, and that the hostile +measures which the executive Directory had adopted originated in the +opinion that those measures would overthrow the administration, and +place power in the hands of those who had uniformly supported all the +pretensions of the French republic, remained unshaken. As a necessary +consequence of this conviction, he was persuaded that the indignation +which this system had excited, would effect its change. The only +circumstance that weakened this hope, arose from the persevering +opposition which was still maintained in congress, and from the +evidence which was daily afforded that those party animosities, to +which he ascribed the present dangerous crisis, were far from being +healed. Those who had embraced the cause of France in the controversy +between that nation and the United States, had been overwhelmed by a +flood of testimony which silenced them for a time, but which weakened +them more in appearance than in reality. They were visibly recovering +both strength and confidence. It is not therefore wonderful that +General Washington should have expressed himself more freely than had +been his custom, respecting American parties, and that he should have +exerted an influence which he had not been in the habit of employing, +to induce men whose talents he respected, but who had declined +political life, to enter into the national and state legislatures.</p> + +<p>Events soon demonstrated that he had not calculated unreasonably on +the effects of the spirit manifested by his country. Although America, +supplicating for peace, had been spurned with contempt; although the +executive Directory had rejected with insult her repeated and sincere +prayers to be permitted to make explanations, and had haughtily +demanded a concession of their arrogant and unfounded claims or the +advance of pecuniary aids, as a preliminary to negotiation;—America, +in arms, was treated with some respect. Indirect pacific overtures +were made, and a willingness on the part of France, to accommodate the +existing differences on reasonable terms, was communicated.</p> + +<div class="sidenotey">1799</div> + +<p>The President, truly solicitous to restore that harmony and good +understanding which the United States had laboured so incessantly and +so sincerely to preserve with their ancient ally, caught at the +overtures which were indirectly made, and again appointed three envoys +extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary to the French republic. +These gentlemen found the government in the hands of a person who had +taken no part in those transactions which had embroiled the two +countries, and who entered into negotiations with them which +terminated in the amicable adjustment of differences.</p> + +<p>General Washington did not live to witness the restoration of peace.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">His death.</div> + +<p>On Friday the 13th of December, while attending to some improvements +upon his estate, he was exposed to a light rain, by which his neck and +hair became wet. Not apprehending danger from this circumstance, he +passed the afternoon in his usual manner; but, in the night, was +seized with an inflammatory affection of the windpipe. The disease +commenced with a violent ague, accompanied with some pain in the upper +and fore part of the throat, a sense of stricture in the same part, a +cough, and a difficult rather than a painful deglutition, which were +soon succeeded by fever, and a quick and laborious respiration.</p> + +<p>Believing bloodletting to be necessary, he procured a bleeder who took +from his arm twelve or fourteen ounces of blood, but he would not +permit a messenger to be despatched for his family physician until the +appearance of day. About eleven in the morning Doctor Craik arrived; +and perceiving the extreme danger of the case, requested that two +consulting physicians should be immediately sent for. The utmost +exertions of medical skill were applied in vain. The powers of life +were manifestly yielding to the force of the disorder; speaking, which +was painful from the beginning, became almost impracticable: +respiration became more and more contracted and imperfect, until half +past eleven on Saturday night; when, retaining the full possession of +his intellect, he expired without a struggle.</p> + +<p>Believing at the commencement of his complaint, as well as through +every succeeding stage of it, that its conclusion would be mortal, he +submitted to the exertions made for his recovery, rather as a duty, +than from any expectation of their efficacy. Some hours before his +death, after repeated efforts to be understood, he succeeded in +expressing a desire that he might be permitted to die without +interruption. After it became impossible to get any thing down his +throat, he undressed himself and went to bed, there to die. To his +friend and physician, Doctor Craik, who sat on his bed, and took his +head in his lap, he said with difficulty, "Doctor, I am dying, and +have been dying for a long time, but I am not afraid to die."</p> + +<p>During the short period of his illness he economized his time, in +arranging with the utmost serenity those few concerns which required +his attention; and anticipated his approaching dissolution with every +demonstration of that equanimity, for which his life was so uniformly, +and singularly, conspicuous.</p> + +<p>The deep and wide spreading grief occasioned by this melancholy event, +assembled a great concourse of people for the purpose of paying the +last tribute of respect to the first of Americans. His body, attended +by military honours and the ceremonies of religion, was deposited in +the family vault at Mount Vernon, on Wednesday, the 18th of December.</p> + +<p>So short was his illness that, at the seat of government, the +intelligence of his death preceded that of his indisposition. It was +first communicated by a passenger in the stage to an acquaintance whom +he met in the street, and the report quickly reached the house of +representatives which was then in session. The utmost dismay and +affliction was displayed for a few minutes; after which a member +stated in his place, the melancholy information which had been +received. This information he said was not certain, but there was too +much reason to believe it true.</p> + +<p>"After receiving intelligence," he added, "of a national calamity so +heavy and afflicting, the house of representatives can be but ill +fitted for public business." He therefore moved an adjournment. Both +houses adjourned until the next day.</p> + +<p>On the succeeding day, as soon as the orders were read, the same +member addressed the chair in the following terms:</p> + +<p>"The melancholy event which was yesterday announced with doubt, has +been rendered but too certain. Our <span class="smcap">Washington</span> is no more! the hero, +the patriot, and the sage of America;—the man on whom, in times of +danger, every eye was turned, and all hopes were placed,—lives now +only in his own great actions, and in the hearts of an affectionate +and afflicted people.</p> + +<p>"If, sir, it had even not been usual openly to testify respect for the +memory of those whom heaven has selected as its instruments for +dispensing good to man, yet, such has been the uncommon worth, and +such the extraordinary incidents which have marked the life of him +whose loss we all deplore, that the whole American nation, impelled by +the same feelings, would call, with one voice, for a public +manifestation of that sorrow which is so deep and so universal.</p> + +<p>"More than any other individual, and as much as to one individual was +possible, has he contributed to found this our wide spreading empire, +and to give to the western world independence and freedom.</p> + +<p>"Having effected the great object for which he was placed at the head +of our armies, we have seen him convert the sword into the +ploughshare, and sink the soldier into the citizen.</p> + +<p>"When the debility of our federal system had become manifest, and the +bonds which connected this vast continent were dissolving, we have +seen him the chief of those patriots who formed for us a constitution +which, by preserving the union, will, I trust, substantiate and +perpetuate those blessings which our revolution had promised to +bestow.</p> + +<p>"In obedience to the general voice of his country calling him to +preside over a great people, we have seen him once more quit the +retirement he loved, and, in a season more stormy and tempestuous than +war itself, with calm and wise determination, pursue the true +interests of the nation, and contribute, more than any other could +contribute, to the establishment of that system of policy, which will, +I trust, yet preserve our peace, our honour, and our independence.</p> + +<p>"Having been twice unanimously chosen the chief magistrate of a free +people, we have seen him, at a time when his re-election with +universal suffrage could not be doubted, afford to the world a rare +instance of moderation, by withdrawing from his high station to the +peaceful walks of private life.</p> + +<p>"However the public confidence may change, and the public affections +fluctuate with respect to others, with respect to him, they have, in +war and in peace, in public and in private life, been as steady as his +own firm mind, and as constant as his own exalted virtues.</p> + +<p>"Let us then, Mr. Speaker, pay the last tribute of respect and +affection to our departed friend. Let the grand council of the nation +display those sentiments which the nation feels. For this purpose I +hold in my hand some resolutions which I take the liberty of offering +to the house."</p> + +<p>The resolutions,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> after a preamble stating the death of General +Washington, were in the following terms.</p> + +<p>"Resolved, that this house will wait on the President in condolence of +this mournful event.</p> + +<p>"Resolved, that the speaker's chair be shrouded with black, and that +the members and officers of the house wear black during the session.</p> + +<p>"Resolved, that a committee, in conjunction with one from the senate, +be appointed to consider on the most suitable manner of paying honour +to the memory of the <span class="smcap">Man</span>, first in war, first in peace, and first in +the hearts of his fellow citizens."</p> + +<p>Immediately after the passage of these resolutions, a written message +was received from the President, accompanying a letter from Mr. Lear, +which he said, "will inform you that it had pleased Divine Providence +to remove from this life our excellent fellow citizen, <span class="smcap">George +Washington</span>, by the purity of his life, and a long series of services +to his country, rendered illustrious through the world. It remains for +an affectionate and grateful people, in whose hearts he can never die, +to pay suitable honour to his memory."</p> + +<p>To the speaker and members of the house of representatives who waited +on him in pursuance of the resolution which has been mentioned, he +expressed the same deep-felt and affectionate respect "for the most +illustrious and beloved personage America had ever produced."</p> + +<p>The senate, on this melancholy occasion, addressed to the President +the following letter:</p> + +<p>"The senate of the United States respectfully take leave, sir, to +express to you their deep regret for the loss their country sustains +in the death of General <span class="smcap">George Washington</span>.</p> + +<p>"This event, so distressing to all our fellow citizens, must be +peculiarly heavy to you who have long been associated with him in +<i>deeds of patriotism</i>. Permit us, sir, to mingle our tears with yours. +On this occasion it is manly to weep. To lose such a man, at such a +crisis, is no common calamity to the world. Our country mourns a +father. The Almighty disposer of human events has taken from us our +greatest benefactor and ornament. It becomes us to submit with +reverence, to <span class="smcap">Him</span> who 'maketh darkness his pavilion.'</p> + +<p>"With patriotic pride we review the life of our <span class="smcap">Washington</span>, and +compare him with those of other countries who have been pre-eminent in +fame. Ancient and modern names are diminished before him. Greatness +and guilt have too often been allied; but <i>his</i> fame is whiter than it +is brilliant. The destroyers of nations stood abashed at the majesty +of <i>his</i> virtues. It reproved the intemperance of their ambition, and +darkened the splendour of victory. The scene is closed,—and we are no +longer anxious lest misfortune should sully his glory; he has traveled +on to the end of his journey, and carried with him an increasing +weight of honour: he has deposited it safely where misfortune can not +tarnish it; where malice can not blast it. Favoured of heaven, he +departed without exhibiting the weakness of humanity; magnanimous in +death, the darkness of the grave could not obscure his brightness.</p> + +<p>"Such was the man whom we deplore. Thanks to God, his glory is +consummated. Washington yet lives on earth in his spotless +example—his spirit is in heaven.</p> + +<p>"Let his countrymen consecrate the memory of the heroic general, the +patriotic statesman, and the virtuous sage: let them teach their +children never to forget that the fruits of his labours and his +example <i>are their inheritance</i>."</p> + +<p>To this address the President returned the following answer: "I +receive, with the most respectful and affectionate sentiments, in this +impressive address, the obliging expressions of your regret for the +loss our country has sustained in the death of her most esteemed, +beloved, and admired citizen.</p> + +<p>"In the multitude of my thoughts and recollections on this melancholy +event, you will permit me to say that I have seen him in the days of +adversity, in some of the scenes of his deepest distress and most +trying perplexities. I have also attended him in his highest elevation +and most prosperous felicity, with uniform admiration of his wisdom, +moderation, and constancy.</p> + +<p>"Among all our original associates in that memorable <i>league of this +continent</i> in 1774, which first expressed the <span class="smcap">Sovereign will of a Free +Nation in America</span>, he was the only one remaining in the general +government. Although with a constitution more enfeebled than his, at +an age when he thought it necessary to prepare for retirement, I feel +myself alone, bereaved of my last brother; yet I derive a strong +consolation from the unanimous disposition which appears in all ages +and classes to mingle their sorrows with mine on this common calamity +to the world.</p> + +<p>"The life of our <span class="smcap">Washington</span> can not suffer by a comparison with those +of other countries who have been most celebrated and exalted by fame. +The attributes and decorations of <i>royalty</i> could only have served to +eclipse the majesty of those virtues which made him, from being a +modest <i>citizen</i>, a more resplendent luminary. Misfortune, had he +lived, could hereafter have sullied his glory only with those +superficial minds who, believing that characters and actions are +marked by success alone, rarely deserve to enjoy it. <i>Malice</i> could +never blast his honour, and <i>Envy</i> made him a singular exception to +her universal rule. For himself, he had lived long enough to life and +to glory:—for his fellow citizens, if their prayers could have been +answered, he would have been immortal: for me, his departure is at a +most unfortunate moment. Trusting, however, in the wise and righteous +dominion of Providence over the passions of men, and the results of +their councils and actions, as well as over their lives, nothing +remains for me but <i>humble resignation</i>.</p> + +<p>"His example is now complete; and it will teach wisdom and virtue to +magistrates, citizens, and men, not only in the present age, but in +future generations, as long as our history shall be read. If a Trajan +found a Pliny, a Marcus Aurelius can never want biographers, +eulogists, or historians."</p> + +<p>The joint committee which had been appointed to devise the mode by +which the nation should express its feelings on this melancholy +occasion, reported the following resolutions:</p> + +<p>"That a marble monument be erected by the United States at the city of +Washington, and that the family of General Washington be requested to +permit his body to be deposited under it; and that the monument be so +designed as to commemorate the great events of his military and +political life.</p> + +<p>"That there be a funeral procession from congress hall to the German +Lutheran church, in memory of General Washington, on Thursday, the +26th instant, and that an oration be prepared at the request of +congress, to be delivered before both houses on that day; and that the +president of the senate, and speaker of the house of representatives, +be desired to request one of the members of congress to prepare and +deliver the same.</p> + +<p>"That it be recommended to the people of the United States to wear +crape on the left arm as a mourning for thirty days.</p> + +<p>"That the President of the United States be requested to direct a copy +of these resolutions to be transmitted to Mrs. Washington, assuring +her of the profound respect congress will ever bear to her person and +character, of their condolence on the late affecting dispensation of +Providence, and entreating her assent to the interment of the remains +of General Washington in the manner expressed in the first resolution.</p> + +<p>"That the President be requested to issue his proclamation, notifying +to the people throughout the United States the recommendation +contained in the third resolution."</p> + +<p>These resolutions passed both houses unanimously, and those which +would admit of immediate execution were carried into effect. The whole +nation appeared in mourning. The funeral procession was grand and +solemn, and the eloquent oration, which was delivered on the occasion +by General Lee, was heard with profound attention and with deep +interest.</p> + +<p>Throughout the United States, similar marks of affliction were +exhibited. In every part of the continent funeral orations were +delivered, and the best talents of the nation were devoted to an +expression of the nation's grief.</p> + +<p>To the letter of the President which transmitted to Mrs. Washington +the resolutions of congress, and of which his secretary was the +bearer, that lady answered, "Taught by the great example which I have +so long had before me, never to oppose my private wishes to the public +will, I must consent to the request made by congress which you have +had the goodness to transmit to me;—and in doing this, I need not, I +can not say what a sacrifice of individual feeling I make to a sense +of public duty."</p> + +<p>The monument, however, has not been erected. That the great events of +the political as well as military life of General Washington should be +commemorated, could not be pleasing to those who had condemned, and +who continued to condemn, the whole course of his administration. This +resolution, although it passed unanimously, had many enemies. That +party which had long constituted the opposition, and which, though the +minority for the moment, nearly divided the house of representatives, +declared its preference for the equestrian statue which had been voted +by congress at the close of the war. The division between a statue and +a monument was so nearly equal, that the session passed away without +an appropriation for either. The public feelings soon subsided, and +those who possessed the ascendancy over the public sentiment employed +their influence to draw odium on the men who favoured a monument; to +represent that measure as a part of a general system to waste the +public money; and to impress the idea that the only proper monument to +the memory of a meritorious citizen, was that which the people would +erect in their affections.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a name="image08"> +<img src="images/372.jpg" width="523" height="344" alt="Washington Tomb" /></a></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b>Resting-Place of George and Martha Washington at Mount Vernon</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Dying December 14, 1799, the body of Washington Was placed, with +simple but impressive ceremonies, in the old family vault, from which +it was removed in 1831 to a tomb of plain brick construction, near a +wooded ravine a short distance from the house. Behind an iron grating +may be seen the two sarcophagi which contain the mortal remains of +George Washington and his wife, Martha.</i></p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>General Washington was rather above the common size, his frame was +robust, and his constitution vigorous—capable of enduring great +fatigue, and requiring a considerable degree of exercise for the +preservation of his health. His exterior created in the beholder the +idea of strength, united with manly gracefulness.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">And character.</div> + +<p>His manners were rather reserved than free, though they partook +nothing of that dryness, and sternness, which accompany reserve when +carried to an extreme; and on all proper occasions, he could relax +sufficiently to show how highly he was gratified by the charms of +conversation, and the pleasures of society. His person and whole +deportment exhibited an unaffected and indescribable dignity, +unmingled with haughtiness, of which all who approached him were +sensible; and the attachment of those who possessed his friendship, +and enjoyed his intimacy, was ardent, but always respectful.</p> + +<p>His temper was humane, benevolent, and conciliatory; but there was a +quickness in his sensibility to any thing apparently offensive, which +experience had taught him to watch, and to correct.</p> + +<p>In the management of his private affairs he exhibited an exact yet +liberal economy. His funds were not prodigally wasted on capricious +and ill examined schemes, nor refused to beneficial though costly +improvements. They remained therefore competent to that expensive +establishment which his reputation, added to a hospitable temper, had +in some measure imposed upon him; and to those donations which real +distress has a right to claim from opulence.</p> + +<p>He made no pretensions to that vivacity which fascinates, or to that +wit which dazzles, and frequently imposes on the understanding-More +solid than brilliant, judgment, rather than genius, constituted the +most prominent feature of his character.</p> + +<p>Without making ostentatious professions of religion, he was a sincere +believer in the Christian faith, and a truly devout man.</p> + +<p>As a military man, he was brave, enterprising, and cautious. That +malignity which was sought to strip him of all the higher qualities of +a General, has conceded to him personal courage, and a firmness of +resolution which neither dangers nor difficulties could shake. But +candour will allow him other great and valuable endowments. If his +military course does not abound with splendid achievements, it +exhibits a series of judicious measures adapted to circumstances, +which probably saved his country.</p> + +<p>Placed, without having studied the theory, or been taught in the +school of experience the practice of war, at the head of an +undisciplined, ill organized multitude, which was impatient of the +restraints, and unacquainted with the ordinary duties of a camp, +without the aid of officers possessing those lights which the +Commander-in-chief was yet to acquire, it would have been a miracle +indeed had his conduct been absolutely faultless. But, possessing an +energetic and distinguishing mind, on which the lessons of experience +were never lost, his errors, if he committed any, were quickly +repaired; and those measures which the state of things rendered most +adviseable, were seldom, if ever, neglected. Inferior to his adversary +in the numbers, in the equipment, and in the discipline of his troops, +it is evidence of real merit that no great and decisive advantages +were ever obtained over him, and that the opportunity to strike an +important blow never passed away unused. He has been termed the +American Fabius; but those who compare his actions with his means, +will perceive at least as much of Marcellus as of Fabius, in his +character. He could not have been more enterprising, without +endangering the cause he defended, nor have put more to hazard, +without incurring justly the imputation of rashness. Not relying upon +those chances which sometimes give a favourable issue to attempts +apparently desperate, his conduct was regulated by calculations made +upon the capacities of his army, and the real situation of his +country. When called a second time to command the armies of the United +States, a change of circumstances had taken place, and he meditated a +corresponding change of conduct. In modelling the army of 1798, he +sought for men distinguished for their boldness of execution, not less +than for their prudence in counsel, and contemplated a system of +continued attack. "The enemy," said the General in his private +letters, "must never be permitted to gain foothold on our shores."</p> + +<p>In his civil administration, as in his military career, ample and +repeated proofs were exhibited of that practical good sense, of that +sound judgment, which is perhaps the most rare, and is certainly the +most valuable quality of the human mind. Devoting himself to the +duties of his station, and pursuing no object distinct from the public +good, he was accustomed to contemplate at a distance those critical +situations in which the United States might probably be placed; and to +digest, before the occasion required action, the line of conduct which +it would be proper to observe. Taught to distrust first impressions, +he sought to acquire all the information which was attainable, and to +hear, without prejudice, all the reasons which could be urged for or +against a particular measure. His own judgment was suspended until it +became necessary to determine; and his decisions, thus maturely made, +were seldom if ever to be shaken. His conduct therefore was +systematic, and the great objects of his administration were steadily +pursued.</p> + +<p>Respecting, as the first magistrate in a free government must ever do, +the real and deliberate sentiments of the people, their gusts of +passion passed over, without ruffling the smooth surface of his mind. +Trusting to the reflecting good sense of the nation for approbation +and support, he had the magnanimity to pursue its real interests, in +opposition to its temporary prejudices; and, though far from being +regardless of popular favour, he could never stoop to retain, by +deserving to lose it. In more instances than one, we find him +committing his whole popularity to hazard, and pursuing steadily, in +opposition to a torrent which would have overwhelmed a man of ordinary +firmness, that course which had been dictated by a sense of duty.</p> + +<p>In speculation, he was a real republican, devoted to the constitution +of his country, and to that system of equal political rights on which +it is founded. But between a balanced republic and a democracy, the +difference is like that between order and chaos. Real liberty, he +thought, was to be preserved, only by preserving the authority of the +laws, and maintaining the energy of government. Scarcely did society +present two characters which, in his opinion, less resembled each +other, than a patriot and a demagogue.</p> + +<p>No man has ever appeared upon the theatre of public action, whose +integrity was more incorruptible, or whose principles were more +perfectly free from the contamination of those selfish and unworthy +passions, which find their nourishment in the conflicts of party. +Having no views which required concealment, his real and avowed +motives were the same; and his whole correspondence does not furnish a +single case, from which even an enemy would infer that he was capable, +under any circumstances, of stooping to the employment of duplicity. +No truth can be uttered with more confidence than that his ends were +always upright, and his means always pure. He exhibits the rare +example of a politician to whom wiles were absolutely unknown, and +whose professions to foreign governments, and to his own countrymen, +were always sincere. In him was fully exemplified the real +distinction, which forever exists, between wisdom and cunning, and the +importance as well as truth of the maxim that "honesty is the best +policy."</p> + +<p>If Washington possessed ambition, that passion was, in his bosom, so +regulated by principles, or controlled by circumstances, that it was +neither vicious, nor turbulent. Intrigue was never employed as the +means of its gratification, nor was personal aggrandizement its +object. The various high and important stations to which he was called +by the public voice, were unsought by himself; and, in consenting to +fill them, he seems rather to have yielded to a general conviction +that the interests of his country would be thereby promoted, than to +an avidity for power.</p> + +<p>Neither the extraordinary partiality of the American people, the +extravagant praises which were bestowed upon him, nor the inveterate +opposition and malignant calumnies which he encountered, had any +visible influence upon his conduct. The cause is to be looked for in +the texture of his mind.</p> + +<p>In him, that innate and unassuming modesty which adulation would have +offended, which the voluntary plaudits of millions could not betray +into indiscretion, and which never obtruded upon others his claims to +superior consideration, was happily blended with a high and correct +sense of personal dignity, and with a just consciousness of that +respect which is due to station. Without exertion, he could maintain +the happy medium between that arrogance which wounds, and that +facility which allows the office to be degraded in the person who +fills it.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to contemplate the great events which have occurred +in the United States under the auspices of Washington, without +ascribing them, in some measure, to him. If we ask the causes of the +prosperous issue of a war, against the successful termination of which +there were so many probabilities? of the good which was produced, and +the ill which was avoided, during an administration fated to contend +with the strongest prejudices, that a combination of circumstances, +and of passions, could produce? of the constant favour of the great +mass of his fellow citizens, and of the confidence which, to the last +moment of his life, they reposed in him? the answer, so far as these +causes may be found in his character, will furnish a lesson well +meriting the attention of those who are candidates for political fame.</p> + +<p>Endowed by nature with a sound judgment, and an accurate +discriminating mind, he feared not that laborious attention which made +him perfectly master of those subjects, in all their relations, on +which he was to decide: and this essential quality was guided by an +unvarying sense of moral right, which would tolerate the employment, +only, of those means that would bear the most rigid examination; by a +fairness of intention which neither sought nor required disguise: and +by a purity of virtue which was not only untainted, but unsuspected.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES.</h2> + + +<h3><a name="NOTE1">NOTE</a>—No. I. <i>See <a href="#p9">Page 9</a>.</i></h3> + +<p style="text-align: center"><i>The following are copies of these interesting questions, and of the +letter which enclosed them.</i></p> + +<p style="text-align: right">Philadelphia, 18th April, 1793.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>,—The posture of affairs in Europe, particularly between France +and Great Britain, place the United States in a delicate situation, +and require much consideration of the measures which will be proper +for them to observe in the war between those powers. With a view to +forming a general plan of conduct for the executive, I have stated and +enclosed sundry questions to be considered preparatory to a meeting at +my house to-morrow, where I shall expect to see you at 9 o'clock, and +to receive the result of your reflections thereon.</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> I. Shall a proclamation issue for the purpose of preventing +interferences of the citizens of the United States in the war between +France and Great Britain, &c.? shall it contain a declaration of +neutrality or not? what shall it contain?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> II. Shall a minister from the republic of France be received?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> III. If received, shall it be absolutely or with +qualifications; and if with qualifications, of what kind?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> IV. Are the United States obliged by good faith to consider +the treaties heretofore made with France as applying to the present +situation of the parties? may they either renounce them or hold them +suspended until the government of France shall be <i>established</i>?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> V. If they have the right, is it expedient to do either? and +which?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> VI. If they have an option, would it be a breach of neutrality +to consider the treaties still in operation?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> VII. If the treaties are to be considered as now in operation, +is the guarantee in the treaty of alliance applicable to a defensive +war only, or to war, either offensive or defensive?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> VIII. Does the war in which France is engaged appear to be +offensive or defensive on her part? or of a mixed and equivocal +character?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> IX. If of a mixed and equivocal character, does the guarantee +in any event apply to such a war?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> X. What is the effect of a guarantee, such as that to be found +in the treaty of alliance between the United States and France?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> XI. Does any article in either of the treaties prevent ships +of war, other than privateers, of the powers opposed to France, from +coming into the ports of the United States to act as convoys to their +own merchantmen? or does it lay any other restraints upon them more +than would apply to the ships of war of France?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> XII. Should the future regent of France send a minister to the +United States, ought he to be received?</p> + +<p><i>Ques.</i> XIII. Is it necessary or adviseable to call together the two +houses of congress with a view to the present posture of European +affairs? if it is, what should be the particular objects of such a +call?</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE2">NOTE</a>—No. II. <i>See <a href="#p15">Page 15</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>The official letter announcing to the convention the appointment of +Mr. Genet, contained a communication of a very delicate nature, which +was immediately made public. That the French government had not +mingled with its desire to separate America from Britain, a +willingness to see the United States acquire a degree of strength +which might render them truly independent, and formidable to their +neighbours, though well known to congress, had been concealed from the +people at large. It seems, therefore, to have been apprehended by the +leaders of the revolution in France, that some remnant of that +affection which had been so lavishly expressed for their fallen +monarch while exercising sovereign power, might still be cherished in +the American bosom, and might obstruct the endeavours they were about +to make to produce a more intimate connexion between the two nations. +It might be supposed that such sentiments, if they existed, would be +effectually destroyed by a disclosure of the motives which had +influenced the conduct of those by whom the aids so highly valued had +been granted. The letter alluded to contains this passage: "From the +instructions that were given by the former ministry to the agents in +that country (America) which the executive council caused to be laid +before them, they have seen with indignation, that at the very time +when the good people of America expressed to us their friendship and +gratitude in the most affectionate manner, Vergennes and Montmorin +thought, <i>that it was not suitable to France to give to America all +the consistence of which it was capable, because it would acquire a +strength which it might probably abuse</i>. They, therefore, enjoined on +their agents a passive conduct in regard to that nation, and to speak +of nothing but the personal views of the king for its prosperity. The +operations of war were directed by the same Machiavellian maxims. The +same duplicity was employed in the negotiations of peace; in which, +when signed, the people for whom we had taken up arms were altogether +neglected." The official letter brought by Mr. Genet, to the executive +of the United States, conveyed in less explicit terms the same idea; +and to prove the correctness of these allegations, he communicated +copies of official documents expressing in plain terms the solicitude +of France and Spain to exclude the United States from the Mississippi; +their jealousies of the growing power and ambition of this country; +and the wish of France, expressed while the question was pending, that +the constitution might not be adopted, as it "suits France that the +United States should remain in their present state, because if they +should acquire the consistence of which they are susceptible, they +would soon acquire a force or a power which they would be very ready +to abuse." The minister of the king, however, was directed not to avow +the inclination of his sovereign on this point.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE3">NOTE</a>—No. III. <i>See <a href="#p40">Page 40</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>Of the excessive and passionate devotion which was felt for the French +republic, and of the blind and almost equally extensive hostility to +the measures of the administration, the gazettes of the day are +replete with the most abundant proof. As an example of this spirit, +the following toasts are selected, because they were given at a +festival made by persons of some distinction, at which the governor of +Pennsylvania and the minister of France were present.</p> + +<p>To commemorate the 14th of July, the anniversary of the destruction of +the Bastille, the officers of the 2d regiment of Philadelphia militia +assembled at Weed's ferry. Eighty-five rounds were discharged from the +artillery in honour of the eighty-five departments of France, and the +following toasts were given:</p> + +<p>1st. The <i>fourteenth</i> day of July; may it be a sabbath in the calendar +of freedom, and a jubilee to the European world.</p> + +<p>2d. The <i>tenth</i> of August; may the freemen who offered up their lives +on the altar of liberty be ever remembered as martyrs, and canonized +as saints.</p> + +<p>3d. May the Bastille of despotism throughout the earth be crumbled +into dust, and the Phoenix of freedom grow out of the ashes.</p> + +<p>4th. Nerve to the arm, fortitude to the heart, and triumph to the soul +struggling for the rights of man.</p> + +<p>5th. May no blind attachment to men lead France to the precipice of +that tyranny from which they have escaped.</p> + +<p>6th. May the sister republics of France and America be as incorporate +as light and heat, and the man who endeavours to disunite them be +viewed as the Arnold of his country.</p> + +<p>7th. May honour and probity be the principles by which the connexions +of free nations shall be determined; and no Machiavellian commentaries +explain the text of treaties.</p> + +<p>8th. <i>The treaty of alliance with France</i>: may those who attempt to +evade or violate the political obligations and faith of our country be +considered as traitors, and consigned to infamy.</p> + +<p>9th. <i>The citizen soldiers</i>, before they act may they know and approve +the cause, and may remorse attend the man that would think of opposing +the French while they war for the rights of man.</p> + +<p>10th. The <i>youth</i> of the <i>Paris legion</i>; may the rising generation of +America imitate their heroism and love of country.</p> + +<p>11th. The republics of France and America; may the cause of liberty +ever be a bond of union between the two nations.</p> + +<p>12th. A dagger to the bosom of that man who makes patriotism a cover +to his ambition, and feels his country's happiness absorbed in his +own.</p> + +<p>13th. May <i>French</i>, superior to <i>Roman or Grecian</i> virtue, be the +electric fluid of freedom, that shall animate and quicken the earth.</p> + +<p>14th. Union and mutual confidence to the patriots of France; confusion +and distress to the counsels of their enemies.</p> + +<p>15th. May the succeeding generation wonder that such beings as <i>kings</i> +were ever permitted to exist.</p> + +<p>Volunteer from the chair.</p> + +<p>The rule of proportion; as France acted with respect to America, so +may America act with respect to France!</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE4">NOTE</a>—No. IV. <i>See <a href="#p47">Page 47</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>Of the sensibility of the president to the calumnies against his +administration with which the press abounded, and of their new +direction against him personally, his correspondence furnishes but few +evidences. The first and almost only notice taken of them is in a +private letter of the 21st of July, to his friend General Lee, then +governor of Virginia, an extract from which follows:</p> + +<p>"That there are in this, as in all other countries, discontented +characters I well know; as also that these characters are actuated by +very different views:—Some good, from an opinion that the measures of +the general government are impure;—some bad, and (if I might be +allowed to use so harsh an expression) diabolical, inasmuch as they +are not only meant to impede the measures of that government +generally, but more especially to destroy the confidence which it is +necessary the people should place (until they have unequivocal proof +of demerit) in their public servants:—for in this light I consider +myself whilst I am an occupant of office; and if they were to go +further and call me their slave, during this period, I would not +dispute the point with them. But in what will this abuse terminate?</p> + +<p>"For the result, as it respects myself, I care not. I have a +consolation within of which no earthly efforts can deprive me;—and +that is, that neither ambitious nor interested motives have influenced +my conduct. The arrows of malevolence, therefore, however barbed and +pointed, can never reach my most valuable part; though, whilst I am +<i>up</i> as a <i>mark</i>, they will be continually aimed at me. The +publications in Freneau's and Bache's papers are outrages on common +decency; and they progress in that style in proportion as their pieces +are treated with contempt, and passed over in silence by those against +whom they are directed. Their tendency, however, is too obvious to be +mistaken by men of cool and dispassionate minds;—and, in my opinion, +ought to alarm them; because it is difficult to prescribe bounds to +their effect."</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE5">NOTE</a>—No. V. <i>See <a href="#p48">Page 48</a>.</i></h3> + +<p style="text-align: center">They are as follows:</p> + +<p>1st. The original arming and equipping of vessels in the ports of the +United States by any of the belligerent parties, for military service, +offensive or defensive, is deemed unlawful.</p> + +<p>2d. Equipments of merchant vessels, by either of the belligerent +parties in the ports of the United States, purely for the +accommodation of them as such, is deemed lawful.</p> + +<p>3d. Equipments in the ports of the United States of vessels of war in +the immediate service of the government of any of the belligerent +parties, which if done to other vessels would be of a doubtful nature +as being applicable either to commerce or war, are deemed lawful, +except those which shall have made prize of the subjects, people, or +property of France, coming with their prizes into the ports of the +United States pursuant to the seventeenth article of our treaty of +amity and commerce with France.</p> + +<p>4th. Equipments in the ports of the United States by any of the +parties at war with France of vessels fitted for merchandise and war, +whether with or without commissions, which are doubtful in their +nature as being applicable either to commerce or war, are deemed +lawful, except those which shall have made prize, &c.</p> + +<p>5th. Equipments of any of the vessels of France, in the ports of the +United States, which are doubtful in their nature as being applicable +to commerce or war, are deemed lawful.</p> + +<p>6th. Equipments of every kind in the ports of the United States, of +privateers of the powers at war with France, are deemed unlawful.</p> + +<p>7th. Equipments of vessels in the ports of the United States, which +are of a nature solely adapted to war, are deemed unlawful; except +those stranded or wrecked, as mentioned in the eighteenth article of +our treaty with France, the sixteenth of our treaty with the United +Netherlands, the ninth of our treaty with Prussia, and except those +mentioned in the nineteenth article of our treaty with France, the +seventeenth of our treaty with the United Netherlands, the eighteenth +of our treaty with Prussia.</p> + +<p>8th. Vessels of either of the parties, not armed, or armed previous to +their coming into the ports of the United States, which shall not have +infringed any of the foregoing rules, may lawfully engage or enlist +therein their own subjects or citizens, not being inhabitants of the +United States, except privateers of the powers at war with France, and +except those vessels which shall have made prize, &c.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE6">NOTE</a>—No. VI. <i>See <a href="#p64">Page 64</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>The earnestness as well as force with which the argument against this +measure was pressed on the British cabinet, and the extreme irritation +it produced on the public mind, contrasted with the silence of the +executive respecting a much more exceptionable decree of the national +convention, and the composure of the people of the United States under +that decree, exhibits a striking proof of the difference with which +not only the people, but an administration, which the phrensy of the +day accused of partiality to England, contemplated at that time the +measures of the two nations.</p> + +<p>On the 9th of May, 1793, the national convention passed a decree +relative to the commerce of neutrals; the first article of which is in +these words: "The French ships of war and privateers may stop and +bring into the ports of the republic, such neutral vessels as are +loaded, in whole or in part either with provisions belonging to +neutrals and destined for enemy ports, or with merchandise belonging +to enemies."</p> + +<p>On the 23d of May, in consequence of the remonstrances of Mr. Morris, +the convention declared, "that the vessels of the United States are +not comprised in the regulations of the decree of the 9th of May." On +the 28th of the same month the decree of the 23d was repealed, and on +the first of July it was re-established. But on the 27th of July it +was again repealed, and thus the decree of the 9th of May was left in +full operation against the vessels of the United States.</p> + +<p>So far was this regulation from affecting the sentiments of America +for France, that its existence was scarcely known.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE7">NOTE</a>—No. VII. <i>See <a href="#p90">Page 90</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>Before these resolutions were offered, the strength of parties was in +some measure tried in a fuller house than that which had elected the +speaker.</p> + +<p>A rule had been entered into by a former congress providing, that on +the discussion of confidential communications from the president, the +house should be cleared of all persons except the members and clerk. +On taking up a confidential message relative to the truce between +Portugal and Algiers, the doors as usual were closed. The next day +when the subject was resumed, Mr. Nicholas expressed his opinion that +there was no necessity for shutting the galleries; upon which the rule +was mentioned with a request that it should be read. Mr. Madison moved +a reconsideration of this rule. In the course of the debate on the +motion, it was said by its advocates that secrecy in a republican +government wounds the majesty of the sovereign people—that this +government is in the hands of the people—and that they have a right +to know all the transactions relative to their own affairs. This right +ought not to be infringed incautiously, for such secrecy tends to +diminish the confidence of the people in their own government.</p> + +<p>In reply to these remarks it was said, that because this government is +republican, it will not be pretended that it can have no secrets. The +President of the United States is the depositary of secret +transactions. His duty may lead him to communicate them to the members +of the house, and the success, safety, and energy of the government +may depend on keeping those secrets inviolable. The people have a +right to be well governed. They have interests as well as rights, and +it is the duty of the legislature to take every possible measure to +promote those interests. To discuss the secret transactions of the +government publicly, was the ready way to sacrifice the public +interest, and to deprive the government of all foreign information. +Afterwards the rule was amended so far as to leave it in the +discretion of the house, after receiving a confidential message, to +debate upon it in private or in public.</p> + +<p>Among the resolutions reported from the committee of the whole house +on this occasion, was one for appointing a committee to report the +naval force which would be necessary for the protection of the +commerce of the United States against the Algerine corsairs, together +with an estimate of the expense. It was moved to amend this resolution +by adding, "and the ways and means for defraying the same." This +motion revived the old party question of calling on the secretary of +the treasury to report ways and means. The amendment was carried, Ayes +46. Noes 44.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE8">NOTE</a>—No. VIII. <i>See <a href="#p147">Page 147</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>The private correspondence of Mr. Morris with the president exhibits a +faithful picture, drawn by the hand of a master, of the shifting +revolutionary scenes which with unparalleled rapidity succeeded each +other in Paris. With the eye of an intelligent, and of an +unimpassioned observer, he marked all passing events, and communicated +them with fidelity. He did not mistake despotism for freedom, because +it was sanguinary, because it was exercised by those who denominated +themselves the people, or because it assumed the name of liberty. +Sincerely wishing happiness and a really free government to France, he +could not be blind to the obvious truth that the road to those +blessings had been mistaken. It was expected by his enemies that the +correspondence which was asked for would disclose something which +might be deemed offensive to the rulers of the republic, and +consequently furnish additional matter for charging the administration +with unfriendliness to France.</p> + +<p>The resolution requesting all the correspondence, not even excluding +that which the president might think proper to withhold, involved +considerations of some delicacy, respecting which it was proper that +the rights of the executive should be precisely understood. It was, +therefore, laid before the cabinet, and, in conformity with their +advice, the President sent a message to the senate informing them that +he had examined the correspondence they requested, and had caused it +to be copied, except in those particulars which in his judgment, for +public considerations, ought not to be communicated; which copies he +transmitted to them. The nature of these papers, he added, manifested +the propriety of their being received as confidential.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE9">NOTE</a>—No. IX. <i>See <a href="#p164">Page 164</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>This opinion derived fresh confirmation from a notification +transmitted in August, 1794, by the governor of Upper Canada to +Captain Williamson, who was establishing a settlement on the Great +Sodus, a bay of lake Ontario, about twenty miles from Oswego, and +within the state of New York. Captain Williamson not being at the +place, Lieutenant Sheaff, the bearer of the message, addressed a +letter to him, in which he said, that he had come with instructions +from the lieutenant governor of Upper Canada to demand by what +authority an establishment had been ordered at that place, and to +require that such a design be immediately relinquished for the reasons +stated in the written declaration accompanying the letter.</p> + +<p>The written declaration was in these words:</p> + +<p>"I am commanded to declare that, during the inexecution of the treaty +of peace between Great Britain and the United States, and until the +existing differences respecting it shall be mutually and finally +adjusted, the taking possession of any part of the Indian territory, +either for the purposes of war or sovereignty, is held to be a direct +violation of his Britannic majesty's rights, as they unquestionably +existed before the treaty, and has an immediate tendency to interrupt, +and in its progress to destroy that good understanding which has +hitherto subsisted between his Britannic majesty and the United States +of America. I, therefore, require you to desist from any such +aggression."</p> + +<p>In the same spirit, complaints had been made as early as 1792, of +encroachments made by the people of Vermont on a country confessedly +within the territorial line of the United States, but inhabited by +persons said to live under the protection of the British garrisons.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE10">NOTE</a>—No. X. <i>See <a href="#p205">Page 205</a>.</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>On receiving the resignation of the secretary, the +President addressed a letter to him expressive of the sense +he entertained of his services. This letter is not found in +the letter book, but its purport may be collected from the +following answer.</i></p></div> + +<p style="text-align: right">Philadelphia, February 3d, 1795.</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Sir</span>,—My particular acknowledgments are due for your very kind letter +of yesterday. As often as I may recall the vexations I have endured, +your approbation will be a great and precious consolation.</p> + +<p>"It was not without a struggle that I yielded to the very urgent +motives which impelled me to relinquish a station in which I could +hope to be in any degree instrumental in promoting the success of an +administration under your direction; a struggle which would have been +far greater had I supposed that the prospect of future usefulness was +proportioned to the sacrifices to be made.</p> + +<p>"Whatever may be my destination hereafter, I entreat you to be +persuaded (not the less for my having been sparing in professions) +that I shall never cease to render a just tribute to those eminent and +excelling qualities which have been already productive of so many +blessings to your country—that you will always have my fervent wishes +for your public and personal felicity, and that it will be my pride to +cultivate a continuance of that esteem, regard and friendship, of +which you do me the honour to assure me."</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE11">NOTE</a>—No. XI. <i>See <a href="#p216">Page 216</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>The following toasts which were given at a civic feast in Philadelphia +on the first of May, attended by a great number of American citizens, +to celebrate the victories of France, and which was honoured by the +presence of the minister and consul of the French republic, and of the +consul of Holland, then subdued by the arms of France, will furnish +some idea of the prevailing spirit of the times.</p> + +<p>1st. The republic of France; whose triumphs have made this day a +jubilee; may she destroy the race of kings, and may their broken +sceptres and crowns, like the bones and teeth of the Mammoth, be the +only evidences that such monsters ever infested the earth.</p> + +<p>2d. The republic of France; may the shores of Great Britain soon hail +the tricoloured standard, and the people rend the air with shouts of +long live the republic.</p> + +<p>3d. The republic of France; may her navy clear the ocean of pirates, +that the common highway of nations may no longer, like the highways of +Great Britain, be a receptacle for robbers.</p> + +<p>4th. The republic of France; may all free nations learn of her to +transfer their attachment from men to principles, and from individuals +to the people.</p> + +<p>5th. The republic of France; may her example in the abolition of +titles and splendour be a lesson to all republics to destroy those +leavens of corruption.</p> + +<p>6th. The republic of Holland; may the flame of liberty which they have +rekindled never be permitted to expire for want of vigilance and +energy.</p> + +<p>7th. The republic of Holland; may her two sisters, the republics of +France and America, form with her an invincible triumvirate in the +cause of liberty.</p> + +<p>8th. The republic of Holland; may she again give birth to a Van Tromp +and De Ruyter, who shall make the satellites of George tremble at +their approach, and seek their safety in flight.</p> + +<p>9th. The republic of Holland; may that fortitude which sustained her +in the dire conflict with Philip II. and the success that crowned her +struggles, be multiplied upon her, in the hour of her regeneration.</p> + +<p>10th. The republic of Holland; may that government which they are +about establishing have neither the balances of aristocracy, nor the +checks of monarchy.</p> + +<p>11th. The republic of America; may the sentiment that impelled her to +resist a British tyrant's will, and the energy which rendered it +effectual, prompt her to repel usurpation in whatever shape it may +assail her.</p> + +<p>12th. The republic of America; may the aristocracy of wealth founded +upon the virtues, the toils, and the blood of her revolutionary armies +soon vanish, and like the baseless fabric of a vision, leave not a +wreck behind.</p> + +<p>13th. The republic of America; may her government have public good for +its object, and be purged of the dregs of sophisticated republicanism.</p> + +<p>14th. The republic of America; may the alliance formed between her and +France acquire vigour with age, and that man be branded as the enemy +of liberty who shall endeavour to weaken or unhinge it.</p> + +<p>15th. The republic of America; may her administration have virtue +enough to defy the ordeal of patriotic societies, and patriotism +enough to cherish instead of denouncing them.</p> + +<p>It was not in Philadelphia alone that this temper was manifested. In +every part of the United States, the love of France appeared to be a +passion much more active with immense numbers, than that of America. +Her victories were celebrated with enthusiasm, her heroes were toasted +on public occasions, and moderation with regard to England was deemed +a crime not readily to be pardoned.</p> + +<p>General Washington received an invitation to attend this feast in the +following terms.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>,—The subscribers, a committee in behalf of a number of American, +French, and Dutch citizens, request the honour of your company to a +civic festival, to be given on Friday, April 17th, appointed to +celebrate the late victories of the French republic, and the +emancipation of Holland.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE12">NOTE</a>—No. XII. <i>See <a href="#p231">Page 231</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>A letter addressed to his government in October, 1794, by the minister +of the French republic was intercepted by the captain of a British +frigate and forwarded to Mr. Hammond, by whom it was delivered about +the last of July to the secretary of the treasury, who, on the arrival +of the President in Philadelphia, placed it in his hands. This letter +alluded to communications from Mr. Randolph which, in the opinion of +the President, were excessively improper. The ecclaircissements which +the occasion required were followed by the resignation of the +secretary. For the purpose, he alleged, of vindicating his conduct, he +demanded a sight of a confidential letter which had been addressed to +him by the President, and which was left in the office. His avowed +design was to give this as well as some others of the same description +to the public in order to support the allegation, that in consequence +of his attachment to France and to liberty, he had fallen a victim to +the intrigues of a British and an aristocratic party. The answer given +to this demand was a license which few politicians in turbulent times +could allow to a man who had possessed the unlimited confidence of the +person giving it. "I have directed," said the President, "that you +should have the inspection of my letter of the 22d of July, agreeable +to your request: and you are at full liberty to publish without +reserve <i>any</i> and <i>every</i> private and confidential letter I ever wrote +<i>you</i>: nay more—every word I ever uttered to or in your presence, +from whence you can derive any advantage in your vindication."</p> + +<p>As the asperity with which Mr. Randolph spoke of the President on +other occasions as well as in his vindication, was censured by many, +it may rescue the reputation of that gentleman from imputations which +might be injurious to it to say that, some time before his death, he +had the magnanimity to acknowledge the injustice of those imputations. +A letter to the honourable Bushrod Washington, of July 2d, 1810, a +copy of which was transmitted by Mr. Randolph to the author, contains +the following declarations among others of similar import. "I do not +retain the smallest degree of that feeling which roused me fifteen +years ago against some individuals. For the world contains no +treasure, deception, or charm which can seduce me from the consolation +of being in a state of good will towards all mankind; and I should not +be mortified to ask pardon of any man with whom I have been at +variance for any injury which I may have done him. If I could now +present myself before your venerated uncle, it would be my pride to +confess my contrition that I suffered my irritation, let the cause be +what it might, to use some of those expressions respecting him which, +at this moment of my indifference to the ideas of the world, I wish to +recall, as being inconsistent with my subsequent conviction. My life +will I hope be sufficiently extended for the recording of my sincere +opinion of his virtues and merit, in a style which is not the result +of a mind merely debilitated by misfortune, but of that Christian +philosophy on which alone I depend for inward tranquillity."</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE13">NOTE</a>—No. XIII. <i>See <a href="#p231">Page 231</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>This place was offered to Mr. Henry, a gentleman of eminent talents, +great influence, and commanding eloquence. He had led the opposition +to the constitution in Virginia, but, after its adoption, his +hostility had in some measure subsided. He was truly a personal friend +of the President, and had lately manifested a temper not inimical to +the administration. The chief magistrate was anxious to engage him in +the public service, but was aware of the embarrassments which must +result from placing in so confidential a station, a person whose +opinions might lead him to thwart every measure of the executive. It +was, therefore, necessary to come to some explanations with Mr. Henry +on this subject, and the letter which invited him into the department +of state opened the way for this explanation by stating truly the +views and character of the administration. "I persuade myself, sir," +said the President, "it has not escaped your observation, that a +crisis is approaching which must, if it can not be arrested, soon +decide whether order and good government shall be preserved, or +anarchy and confusion ensue. I can most religiously aver that I have +no wish incompatible with the dignity, happiness, and true interests +of the people of this country. My ardent desire is, and my aim has +been (as far as depended upon the executive department) to comply +strictly with all our foreign and domestic engagements; but to keep +the United States free from political connexions with <i>every</i> other +country;—to see them independent of <i>all</i>, and under the influence of +<i>none</i>. In a word, I want an <i>American</i> character; that the powers of +Europe may be convinced we act for <i>ourselves</i> and not for <i>others</i>. +This, in my judgment, is the only way to be respected abroad, and +happy at home; and not by becoming the partisans of Great Britain or +France, create dissensions, disturb the public tranquillity, and +destroy, perhaps forever, the cement that binds the union.</p> + +<p>"I am satisfied these sentiments can not be otherwise than congenial +to your own. Your aid, therefore, in carrying them into effect would +be flattering and pleasing to me."</p> + +<p>This accurate chart of the road he was invited to travel, presented in +itself no impediments which to Mr. Henry appeared insurmountable. By +private considerations alone was he restrained from proceeding in it.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE14">NOTE</a>—No. XIV. <i>See <a href="#p272">Page 272</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>The course of the war in Europe had brought the two parties into +opposition on a point on which no difference had originally existed +between them, which gave more countenance to the charge that the +advocates of the American government were unfriendly to France than it +could justly claim when first made. Those who in 1793 had supported +the proclamation of neutrality, and the whole system connected with +it, were then, generally speaking, ardent and sincere in their wishes +for the success of the French arms. But as the troops of the republic +subdued Belgium and Holland; as they conquered Italy, and established +the complete influence of France over the monarchy of Spain, this +union of sentiment gradually disappeared. By one party it was +contended that America could feel no interest in seeing Europe +subjected to any one power. That to such a power, the Atlantic would +afford no impassable barriers; and that no form of government was a +security against national ambition. They, therefore, wished this +series of victories to be interrupted; and that the balance of Europe +should not be absolutely overturned. Additional strength was +undoubtedly given to this course of reasoning by the aggressions of +France on the United States.</p> + +<p>In the opinion of the opposite party, the triumphs of France were the +triumphs of liberty. In their view every nation which was subdued, was +a nation liberated from oppression. The fears of danger to the United +States from the further aggrandizement of a single power were treated +as chimerical, because that power being a republic must, consequently, +be the friend of republics in every part of the globe, and a stranger +to that lust of domination which was the characteristic passion of +monarchies. Shifting with address the sentiment really avowed by their +opponents, they ridiculed a solicitude for the existence of a balance +of power in Europe, as an opinion that America ought to embark herself +in the crusade of kings against France in order to preserve that +balance.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE15">NOTE</a>—No. XV. <i>See <a href="#p326">Page 326</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>The following extract from a letter written to General Knox the day +before the termination of his office, exhibits the sentiments with +which he contemplated this event, and with which he viewed the +unceasing calumnies with which his whole administration continued to +be aspersed.</p> + +<p>"To the wearied traveller who sees a resting place, and is bending his +body to lean thereon, I now compare myself; but to be suffered to do +<i>this</i> in peace, is too much to be endured by <i>some</i>. To misrepresent +my motives; to reprobate my politics; and to weaken the confidence +which has been reposed in my administration;—are objects which can +not be relinquished by those who will be satisfied with nothing short +of a change in our political system. The consolation, however, which +results from conscious rectitude, and the approving voice of my +country unequivocally expressed by its representatives—deprives their +sting of its poison, and places in the same point of view both the +weakness and the malignity of their efforts.</p> + +<p>"Although the prospect of retirement is most grateful to my soul, and +I have not a wish to mix again in the great world, or to partake in +its politics, yet I am not without my regrets at parting with (perhaps +never more to meet) the few intimates whom I love. Among these, be +assured you are one."</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE16">NOTE</a>—No. XVI. <i>See <a href="#p329">Page 329</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>In the speech delivered by the President on taking the oaths of +office, after some judicious observations on the constitution of his +country, and on the dangers to which it was exposed, that able +statesman thus spoke of his predecessor.</p> + +<p>"Such is the amiable and interesting system of government (and such +are some of the abuses to which it may be exposed) which the people of +America have exhibited, to the admiration and anxiety of the wise and +virtuous of all nations, for eight years, under the administration of +a citizen, who, by a long course of great actions, regulated by +prudence, justice, temperance and fortitude, conducting a people +inspired with the same virtues, and animated with the same ardent +patriotism and love of liberty, to independence and peace, to +increasing wealth and unexampled prosperity, has merited the gratitude +of his fellow-citizens, commanded the highest praises of foreign +nations, and secured immortal glory with posterity.</p> + +<p>"In that retirement which is his voluntary choice, may he long live to +enjoy the delicious recollection of his services, the gratitude of +mankind, the happy fruits of them to himself and the world, which are +daily increasing, and that splendid prospect of the future fortunes of +his country which is opening from year to year. His name may be still +a rampart, and the knowledge that he lives a bulwark against all open +or secret enemies of his country's peace."</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE17">NOTE</a>—No. XVII. <i>See <a href="#p330">Page 330</a>.</i></h3> + +<p>To testify their love for the person who had for eight years +administered the government of the United States, the merchants of +Philadelphia had prepared a splendid banquet for the day, to which the +general, several officers of rank in the late army, the heads of +departments, foreign ministers, and other persons of distinction were +invited.</p> + +<p>In the rotundo in which it was given, an elegant compliment was +prepared for the <i>principal guest</i>, which is thus described in the +papers of the day.</p> + +<p>"Upon entering the area the general was conducted to his seat. On a +signal given, music played Washington's march, and a scene which +represented simple objects in the rear of the principal seat was drawn +up, and discovered emblematical painting.</p> + +<p>"The principal was a female figure large as life, representing +America, seated on an elevation composed of sixteen marble steps. At +her left side, stood the federal shield and eagle, and at her feet, +lay the cornucopia; in her right hand, she held the Indian calumet of +peace supporting the cap of liberty: in the perspective appeared the +temple of fame; and on her left hand, an altar dedicated to public +gratitude, upon which incense was burning. In her left hand she held a +scroll inscribed valedictory; and at the foot of the altar lay a +plumed helmet and sword, from which a figure of General Washington, +large as life, appeared, retiring down the steps, pointing with his +right hand to the emblems of power which he had resigned, and with his +left to a beautiful landscape representing Mount Vernon, in front of +which oxen were seen harnessed to the plough. Over the general +appeared a <i>Genius</i> placing a wreath of laurels on his head."</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="NOTE18">NOTE</a>—No. XVIII. <i>See <a href="#p348">Page 348</a>.</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>(All footnotes on pages covered by Note No. XVIII are +references to the correspondence of Thomas Jefferson.)</i></p></div> + +<p>A letter from Mr. Jefferson to Mr. Mazzei, an Italian who had passed +some time in the United States, was published in Florence, and +republished in the Moniteur, with some severe strictures on the +conduct of the United States, and a remark "that the French government +had testified its resentment by breaking off communication with an +ungrateful and faithless ally until she shall return to a more just +and benevolent conduct. No doubt," adds the editor, "it will give rise +in the United States to discussions which may afford a triumph to the +party of good republicans, the friends of France.</p> + +<p>"Some writers, in disapprobation of this wise and necessary measure of +the Directory, maintain that, in the United States, the French have +for partisans only certain demagogues who aim to overthrow the +existing government. But their impudent falsehoods convince no one, +and prove only, what is too evident, that they use the liberty of the +press to serve the enemies of France."</p> + +<p>Mr. Jefferson, in his correspondence,<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> has animadverted on the +preceding note with such extreme bitterness, as to impose on its +author the necessity of entering into some explanations. Censure from +a gentleman who has long maintained an unexampled ascendency over +public opinion, can not be entirely disregarded.</p> + +<p>The offence consists in the reference to the letter written by him to +Mr. Mazzei, which was published in Florence, and republished in Paris +by the editor of the Moniteur, then the official paper of the +Directory. In this letter, Mr. Jefferson says, a paragraph was +interpolated which makes him charge his own country with ingratitude +and injustice to France.</p> + +<p>By the word "country," Mr. Jefferson is understood to allude to the +government, not to the people of America.</p> + +<p>This letter, containing the sentence now alleged to be interpolated, +was published throughout the United States in the summer of 1797. It +became immediately, as may well be supposed, the subject of universal +conversation. The writer, and the individual to whom it particularly +alludes, filled too large a space in the public mind for such a paper +not to excite general attention and deep interest. It did excite both.</p> + +<p>Had it been fabricated, Mr. Jefferson, it was supposed, could not have +permitted it to remain uncontradicted. It came in a form too +authentic, the matter it contained affected his own reputation and +that of the illustrious individual who is its principal subject, too +vitally to permit the imputation to remain unnoticed. It would not, it +could not have remained unnoticed, if untrue. Yet its genuineness was +never questioned by Mr. Jefferson, or by any of his numerous friends. +Not even to General Washington, as is now avowed, was it ever denied. +Had it been denied to him, his strong sense of justice and of right +would have compelled him to relieve the reputation of the supposed +writer from a charge of such serious import.</p> + +<p>It was, of course, universally received as a genuine letter. An open +avowal of it could not have added to the general conviction.</p> + +<p>The letter having this irresistible claim on the general confidence, +no one part of it was entitled to less credit than every other. The +interpolation of a particular sentence was neither suggested nor +suspected. The whole was published in Europe and republished in +America as the letter of Mr. Jefferson, with his name subscribed. The +genuineness of no part of it was ever called into question. How then +could the public or any individual have ventured to select a +particular sentence, and to say—this is spurious?</p> + +<p>Had it been suggested by Mr. Jefferson or his confidential friends +that the letter was in general his, but that one sentence was +fabricated, there is not perhaps an individual in the United States +who would have pointed to that which censured the conduct of our +government towards France, as the fabricated sentence. That which +placed the then chief magistrate at the head of the "Anglican, +monarchical, and aristocratical party which had sprung up," would have +been much more probably selected. This conjecture is hazarded because, +at the date of the letter,<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Mr. Jefferson shared the confidence of +General Washington, and was on terms of intimate professed friendship +with him; while his censures of the conduct of the United States +towards France were open and unreserved. The sentence there said to be +interpolated would, if really written by him, have involved no +imputation on his sincerity,—would have consisted perfectly with his +general declarations. These declarations were so notorious, especially +after the mission of Mr. Jay to Great Britain, and the reception of +the treaty negotiated by him, that there was perhaps not an individual +in the United States, at all conversant with public affairs, to whom +they were unknown. Without reference to other proofs, sufficient +evidence of this fact is furnished by that portion of his +correspondence which has been selected for publication. Some examples +will be quoted.</p> + +<p>In a letter of the 27th of April, 1795,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> he says, "I sincerely +congratulate you on the great prosperities of our two first allies, +the French and the Dutch.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> If I could but see them now at peace +with the rest of their continent, I should have little doubt of dining +with Pichegru in London next autumn; for I believe I should be tempted +to leave my clover for a while, to go and hail the dawn of +republicanism in that island."</p> + +<p>In a letter of September 21st, 1795,<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> after speaking of the +discussions in the papers concerning the treaty, and alluding to the +efforts made to give it effect as the boldest act of Hamilton and Jay +to undermine the government, he says, "a bolder party stroke was never +struck. For it certainly is an attempt by a party who find they have +lost their majority in one branch of the legislature, to make a law by +the aid of the other branch and of the executive, under colour of a +treaty, which shall bind up the hands of the adverse branch from ever +restraining the commerce of their patron nation."</p> + +<p>On the 30th of November, 1795,<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> he says, "I join with you in +thinking the treaty an execrable thing." "I trust the popular branch +of the legislature will disapprove of it, and thus rid us of this +infamous act, which is really nothing more than an alliance between +England and the Anglo men of this country, against the legislature and +people of the United States."</p> + +<p>On the 21st of December, 1795,<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> speaking of a contemporary member +of the cabinet, he says, "The fact is that he has generally given his +principles to the one party and his practice to the other, the oyster +to one, and the shell to the other. Unfortunately, the shell was +generally the lot of his friends, the French and Republicans, and the +oyster of their antagonists."</p> + +<p>On the 21st of March, 1796,<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> he says, "The British treaty has been +formally at length laid before congress. All America is a tiptoe to +see what the house of representatives will decide on it." Speaking of +the right of the legislature to determine whether it shall go into +effect or not, and of the vast importance of the determination, he +adds, "It is fortunate that the first decision is to be made in a case +so palpably atrocious as to have been predetermined by all America."</p> + +<p>On the 27th of the same month he says,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> "If you decide in favour of +your right to refuse co-operation, I should wonder on what occasion it +is to be used, if not in one, where the rights, the interest, the +honour and faith of our nation are so grossly sacrificed; where a +faction has entered into a conspiracy with the enemies of their +country to chain down the legislature at the feet of both; where the +whole mass of your constituents have condemned the work in the most +unequivocal manner, and are looking to you as their last hope to save +them from the effects of the avarice and corruption of the first +agent, the revolutionary machinations of others, and the +incomprehensible acquiescence of the only honest man who has assented +to it. I wish that his honesty and his political errors may not +furnish a second occasion to exclaim, 'curse on his virtues, they have +undone his country.'"</p> + +<p>On the 12th of June, 1796,<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> he says, "Congress have risen. You will +have seen by their proceedings what I always observed to you, that one +man outweighs them all in influence over the people, who have +supported his judgment against their own, and that of their +representatives. Republicanism must lie on its oars, resign the vessel +to its pilot, and themselves to the course he thinks best for them."</p> + +<p>On the 22d of January, 1797,<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> he says, "I sincerely deplore the +situation of our affairs with France. War with them and consequent +alliance with Great Britain will completely compass the object of the +executive council from the commencement of the war between France and +England; taken up by some of them from that moment; by others more +latterly."</p> + +<p>On the 17th of June, 1797,<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> he says, "I have always hoped that the +popularity of the late President being once withdrawn from active +effect, the natural feelings of the people towards liberty would +restore the equilibrium between the executive and legislative +departments which had been destroyed by the superior weight and effect +of that popularity; and that their natural feelings of moral +obligation would discountenance the unnatural predilection of the +executive in favour of Great Britain. But, unfortunately, the +preceding measures had already alienated the nation who were the +object of them, and the reaction has on the minds of our citizens an +effect which supplies that of the Washington popularity.</p> + +<p>"P.S. Since writing the above we have received a report that the +French Directory has proposed a declaration of war against the United +States to the Council of Ancients, who have rejected it. Thus we see +two nations who love one another affectionately, brought by the ill +temper of their executive administrations to the very brink of a +necessity to imbrue their hands in the blood of each other."</p> + +<p>On the 14th of February, 1799,<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> he says, "The President has +appointed, and the senate approved, Rufus King, to enter into a treaty +of commerce with the Russians, at London, and William Smith (Phocion) +envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to go to +Constantinople to make one with the Turks. So that as soon as there is +a coalition of Turks, Russians, and English against France, we seize +that moment to countenance it as openly as we dare, by treaties which +we never had with them before. All this helps to fill up the measure +of provocation towards France, and to get from them a declaration of +war which we are afraid to be the first in making."</p> + +<p>If these sentiments, in perfect coincidence with the pretensions of +France, and censuring the neutral course of the American government, +were openly avowed by Mr. Jefferson; if, when they appeared embodied +in a letter addressed to a correspondent in Europe, and republished +throughout the United States, they remained, even after becoming the +topic of universal interest and universal excitement, totally +uncontradicted, who could suspect that any one sentence, particularly +that avowing a sentiment so often expressed by the writer, had been +interpolated?</p> + +<p>Yet Mr. Jefferson, unmindful of these circumstances, after some +acrimonious remarks on Colonel Pickering, has said,<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> "and even +Judge Marshall makes history descend from its dignity, and the ermine +from its sanctity, to exaggerate, to record, and to sanction this +forgery."</p> + +<p>The note itself will best demonstrate the inaccuracy of this +commentary. To this text an appeal is fearlessly made.</p> + +<p>This unmerited invective is followed by an accusation not less +extraordinary. It is made a cause of crimination that the author has +copied the remark of the Parisian editor, instead of the letter +itself.</p> + +<p>To remove this reproach, he will now insert the letter, not as +published in Europe, and transferred from the French to the American +papers, but as preserved and avowed by Mr. Jefferson, and given to the +world by his grandson. It is in these words.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">"Monticello, April 24th, 1796.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> + +<p>"My Dear Friend,</p> + +<p>"The aspect of our politics has wonderfully changed since you left us. +In place of that noble love of liberty and republican government which +carried us triumphantly through the war, an Anglican, monarchical, and +aristocratical party has sprung up, whose avowed object is to draw +over us the substance as it has already done the forms of the British +government. The main body of our citizens, however, remain true to +their republican principles; the whole landed interest is republican, +and so is a great mass of talents. Against us are the executive, the +judiciary, two out of three branches of the legislature, all the +officers of the government, all who want to be officers, all timid men +who prefer the calm of despotism to the boisterous sea of liberty, +British merchants and Americans trading on British capitals, +speculators and holders in the banks and public funds, a contrivance +invented for the purposes of corruption, and for assimilating us in +all things to the rotten as well as sound parts of the British model. +It would give you a fever were I to name to you the apostates who have +gone over to these heresies, men who were Samsons in the field and +Solomons in council, but who have had their heads shorn by the harlot +England. In short, we are likely to preserve the liberty we have +obtained only by unremitting labours and perils. But we shall preserve +it; and our mass of weight and wealth on the good side is so great as +to leave no danger that force will ever be attempted against us. We +have only to awake and snap the Lilliputian cords with which they have +been entangling us during the first sleep which succeeded our labours.</p> + +<p>"I will forward the testimonials, &c."</p> + +<p>The reader is requested to pause, to reflect on the state of things at +the date of this letter, and to ask himself if its inevitable tendency +be not to strengthen the impression in the Directory of France which +had influenced its conduct towards the United States?—If it be not in +the same spirit with the interpolated sentence, carried to a greater +extreme, and calculated to produce the same effect?—If the editor who +made the interpolation might not reasonably suppose that he was only +applying expressly to France a sentiment already indicated in terms +too plain to be misunderstood?</p> + +<p>France and Great Britain were then waging deadly war against each +other. In this mortal conflict, each sought to strengthen herself, or +weaken her adversary by any influence to be acquired over foreign +powers—by obtaining allies when allies were attainable, or securing +neutrality where co-operation was not to be expected. The temper with +which the American people contemplated this awful spectacle can not be +forgotten. The war of our revolution, in which France fought by the +side of America against Great Britain, was fresh in their +recollection. Her unexamined professions of republicanism enlisted all +their affections in her favour, and all their antipathies against the +monarchs with whom she was contending. Feelings which were believed to +be virtuous, and which certainly wore the imposing garb of patriotism, +impelled them with almost irresistible force against that wise +neutrality which the executive government had laboured to preserve, +and had persisted in preserving with wonderful and unexampled +firmness. France might, not unreasonably, indulge the hope that our +government would be forced out of its neutral course, and be compelled +to enter into the war as her ally. The letter to Mazzei could scarcely +fail to encourage this hope.</p> + +<p>The suggestion had been repeatedly made, and France not only +countenanced but acted on it, that the American people were ready to +take part with her, and were with difficulty restrained by their +government. That the government had fallen into the hands of an +English party who were the more closely attached to their favourite +nation, because they were unfriendly to republicanism, and sought to +assimilate the government of the United States to that of England. +Partiality to England was ingratitude to France. Monarchical +propensities were of course anti-republican, and led to a system of +policy separating the United States from republican France, and +connecting them with her monarchical enemies.</p> + +<p>These sentiments were expressed in the interpolated sentence; and are +intimated in terms perhaps more offensive, certainly not to be +mistaken, in the letter as avowed.</p> + +<p>Review its language.</p> + +<p>"In place of that noble love of liberty and republican government +which carried us triumphantly through the War, an Anglican, +monarchical, and aristocratical party has sprung up, whose avowed +object is to draw over us the substance as it has already done the +forms of the British government."</p> + +<p>Could this party have been friendly—must it not have been hostile to +France? It was not only monarchical and aristocratical,—it was +Anglican also. Consequently it was anti-Gallican. But it did not +comprehend the mass of the people. "The main body of our citizens, +however," continues the letter, "remain true to their republican +principles; the whole landed interest is republican, and so is a great +mass of talents." Who then composed this odious Anglican, monarchical, +aristocratical party? The letter informs us: "Against us are the +executive, the judiciary, two out of three branches of the +legislature, all the officers of the government, all who want to be +officers, all timid men who prefer the calm of despotism to the +boisterous sea of liberty, British merchants and Americans trading on +British capitals, speculators, and holders in the banks and public +funds."</p> + +<p>The executive then and at least one other branch of the legislature +were Anglican. The judiciary, a department not absolutely +insignificant in a maritime war, was also Anglican. But the executive, +being the organ of intercourse with foreign nations, is considered by +them as essentially the government. This being thought Anglican, its +course being such as to induce the writer to brand it with this odious +epithet, ought it to excite surprise that an editor, the organ of the +French government, made the strictures upon it which are quoted in the +note? Are not those strictures as applicable to the letter now avowed +as to the interpolated sentence?</p> + +<p>The remark that the "French government had testified its resentment by +breaking off communication with an ungrateful and faithless ally until +she shall return to a more just and benevolent conduct," was the +assertion of a fact which had taken place, and the commentary +discloses its object not less plainly than did the time at which this +fact was announced to the American government and people.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> "It will +give rise in the United States," says the editor, "to discussions +which may afford a triumph to the party of good republicans, the +friends of France."</p> + +<p>The letter, without the aid of the interpolated sentence, could not +fail to cherish this sentiment. It states explicitly an unequivocal +division and a decided hostility between those who administered the +government, and the great body of land holders, who, in this country, +are the people. The first were Anglican and monarchical, the last were +republican, and, in the language of the Moniteur, "the friends of +France." What so certain to produce or continue the rupture of +communication mentioned by the editor as the opinion that this +statement was true? If we could doubt, our doubts are removed by the +declaration that it would produce "discussions in the United States +which may afford a triumph to the party of good republicans, the +friends of France;" and by the declaration of Mr. Adet.</p> + +<p>The interpolated sentence then does not vary the import of the letter, +nor change the impression it made in France, and must make on the mind +of the reader.</p> + +<p>Were it otherwise, Mr. Jefferson should have directed his reproaches +towards himself for the countenance his silent acquiescence gave to +the opinion that the whole letter was genuine—not towards the great +body of his countrymen who yielded implicit faith to this imposing +testimony.</p> + +<p>Could such a letter from such a personage be entirely overlooked by +the biographer of Washington? Having assumed the task of delineating +the character, and detailing the actions and opinions of the great +soldier and statesman of America, an essential part of which was to be +looked for in the difficulties and the opposition he encountered and +overcame, could a transaction which contains such strong intrinsic +evidence of those difficulties and that opposition be passed over in +total silence? These questions were revolved in his mind while engaged +in this part of the work; and the result to which his judgment +conducted him was a conviction that, though he might forbear to make +those strictures on the letter which the relative situation of the +writer and the individual so seriously criminated seemed to invite, +his duty required him to notice it so far as it indicated the violence +of party spirit at the time, the extreme to which it was carried, the +dangers to which it led, and the difficulties which the wise and firm +mind of Washington was doomed to encounter.</p> + +<p>The remarks of the French editor were quoted because they have a +strong tendency, especially when connected with subsequent events, to +explain the motives by which the Directory was actuated in its +aggressions on the United States, and to justify the policy of the +Washington administration. These remarks did not grow out of the +interpolated sentence, nor were they confined to it. They apply to the +whole letter. That sentence is not cited, nor is any particular +allusion made to it, in the note which is charged with "exaggerating, +recording, and sanctioning the forgery." How then could Mr. Jefferson +deliberately make the charge?</p> + +<p>In the same letter he endeavours to convey the opinion that the harsh +and injurious strictures made to Mazzei were not intended for General +Washington, and that this distinguished individual never applied them +to himself.</p> + +<p>The evidence in support of this proposition is not derived from the +person whose opinion Mr. Jefferson undertakes to state. The writer +says,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> "I do affirm that there never passed a word, written or +verbal, directly or indirectly, between General Washington and myself +on the subject of that letter." If his observations on this point are +to be considered as reasoning rather than assertion, they may be +freely examined.</p> + +<p>At the head of the list of those composing the "Anglican, monarchical, +aristocratical party," the letter places "the executive." "Against us +are the executive, the judiciary, two out of three branches of the +legislature, all the officers of government, all who want to be +officers," &c.</p> + +<p>The letter speaks in the present tense, and the term "executive" can +describe only the then actual President. Consequently, it designates +General Washington as expressly as if he had been named.</p> + +<p>If this positive evidence could be strengthened by auxiliary proof, it +is furnished by the same sentence. "All officers of government, all +who want to be officers," are included in the enumeration of those +composing the party opposed to "the main body of citizens who remained +true to republican principles."</p> + +<p>By whom were these Anglican, monarchical, and aristocratical officers +selected? By General Washington. To him alone were they indebted for +their appointments. To whom did those "who wanted to be officers" look +for the gratification of their wishes? To the same person. Would every +individual in search of office enlist himself in a party so odious to +"the main body of our citizens," and "the whole landed interest," if +he did not think the road leading directly to that which he sought?</p> + +<p>As if willing to keep out of view what can not be explained away, Mr. +Jefferson turns our attention to other passages supposed to be more +equivocal. He insists<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> that the letter saying "that two out of the +three branches of the legislature were against us, was an obvious +exception of him; it being well known that the majorities in the two +branches of the senate and representatives were the very instruments +which carried, in opposition to the old and real republicans, the +measures which were the subjects of condemnation in this letter."</p> + +<p>But did these measures obtain the force of laws by the mere act of the +senate and house of representatives? Did not the President assent to +them? If he did, how could the expression "two out of three branches +of the legislature" be an obvious exception of him? But the letter +speaks of the then existing legislature. "Against us <i>are</i> two out of +three branches of the legislature." The fact is notorious that the +house of representatives was, at the date of the letter, opposed to +the administration. Mr. Jefferson himself gives us this information. +In September, 1795,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> he terms the effort to carry the treaty with +Great Britain into effect, "an attempt of a party who find <i>they have +lost their majority in one branch of the legislature</i> to make a law by +the aid of the other branch and the executive under colour of a +treaty," &c. Mr. Jefferson then has deprived himself of this +explanation. He could not have intended to exclude the President by +the phrase "two out of three branches of the legislature."</p> + +<p>The same letter contains also the following expression,<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> "Mr. +Pickering quotes the passage in the letter of the men who were Samsons +in the field and Solomons in the council, but who had their heads +shorn by the harlot England." "Now this expression also was perfectly +understood by General Washington. He knew that I meant it for the +Cincinnati generally; and that from what had passed between us at the +commencement of that institution, I could not mean to include him."</p> + +<p>In the letter to Mazzei these words obviously designate distinguished +individuals, not whole classes of men, many of whom were unknown. "It +would give you a fever were <i>I to name to you the apostates</i> who have +gone over to these heresies; men who were Samsons in the field and +Solomons in the council, but who have had their heads shorn by the +harlot England."</p> + +<p>In addition to this apparent allusion to individuals, it may be asked, +could Mr. Jefferson mean to say that every officer engaged in the war +of our revolution (for almost every one of them was a member of the +Cincinnati) was an apostate who had gone over to the heresies he was +describing? Could he mean to say that all those who had passed their +prime of manhood in the field fighting the battles of American +independence, and of republicanism against England, had become +apostates from the cause to which their lives had been devoted, and +the vile instruments of the power it was their pride and boast to have +overthrown? That they were in a body following their ancient chief in +a course directly opposite to that glorious career by which they had +elevated their country to its high rank among the nations of the +earth?</p> + +<p>There is other evidence that he could not have intended to fix this +foul stigma on the officers of the revolution. They were far from +being united in support of the administration. In Virginia certainly, +a large number, perhaps a majority of the Cincinnati were opposed to +it. Two<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> of them in congress at the time, and were among the most +zealous supporters of Mr. Jefferson, and of that system of measures +which he termed republican. The very letter under discussion contains +an assertion incompatible with this construction of these terms. "The +whole landed interest is republican." At the date of this letter there +were few if any members of the Cincinnati in the south who were not +also land holders. In the southern region generally, the army of our +revolution was officered by land holders and their sons.</p> + +<p>But if the writer of the letter could have intended to designate the +members of the Cincinnati as "Samsons in the field," could he also +have alluded to them as "Solomons in council?" Were the brave and +hardy men who passed their youth, not in college, not in study, but +under arms, suddenly converted, all of them, into "Solomons in +council?" That some of them were entitled to this appellation is +acknowledged with pride and pleasure, but as a class, it could not fit +them. It is difficult to treat the proposition seriously.</p> + +<p>It is impossible for the intelligent reader to concur with Mr. +Jefferson in the conclusion he draws from these premises, when he +says,<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> "General Washington then understanding perfectly what and +whom I meant to designate in both phrases, and that they could not +have any application or view to himself, could find in neither any +cause of offence to himself."</p> + +<p>But were it otherwise, had Mr. Jefferson been as successful in the +opinion of others as he would seem to be in his own, in proving that +the phrases on which he reasons do not comprehend General Washington, +what would be gained? Would it follow that the word "executive" did +not mean the President, or that it excluded General Washington who was +President when the letter was written, and had been President during +the whole time while the laws were enacted, and the measures carried +into execution, which he so harshly criminates? If the word +"executive" must mean him, does it palliate the injury to be assured +that the writer did not class him among "Samsons in the field" or +"Solomons in council?"</p> + +<p>It is matter of some surprise to find a letter written so late as +June, 1824, on the political paragraph contained in the letter to +Mazzei, the following averment.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> "In this information there was not +one word which would not then have been or would not now be approved +by every republican in the United States, looking back to those +times."</p> + +<p>In June, 1834, then, twenty-eight years after this extraordinary +letter was written, and twenty-three years after its principal object +had ceased to thwart the policy, or be an obstacle to the ambition of +any man, Mr. Jefferson could deliberately, and on full consideration +permit himself to make this assertion, and thus in effect to repeat +the charge that General Washington belonged to an "Anglican, +monarchical, and aristocratical party whose <i>avowed</i> object was to +draw over us the substance as they had already done the forms of the +British government,"—and this too while the venerated object of the +charge was the chief magistrate of this great republic, acting under +the obligation of a solemn oath "faithfully to execute the office of +President of the United States, and to the best of his ability to +preserve, protect, and defend the constitution!"</p> + +<p>This unpleasant subject is dismissed. If the grave be a sanctuary +entitled to respect, many of the intelligent and estimable friends of +Mr. Jefferson may perhaps regret that he neither respected it himself, +nor recollected that it is a sanctuary from which poisoned arrows +ought never to be shot at the dead or the living.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3>END OF VOLUME V.</h3> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="footnotes"><h2><a name="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</a></h2> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The day on which the palace of the Tuilleries +was stormed and the royal government subverted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> With this letter were addressed two others to +the ministers at London and Paris respectively, stating the +interest taken by the President and people of the United +States in the fate of the Marquis de Lafayette. This +gentleman was declared a traitor by France, and was +imprisoned by Prussia. The ministers of the United States +were to avail themselves of every opportunity of sounding +the way towards his liberation, which they were to endeavour +to obtain by informal solicitations; but, if formal ones +should be necessary, they were to watch the moment when they +might be urged with the best prospect of success. This +letter was written at the sole instance of the President.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE1">No. I.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE2">No. II.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The regulation alluded to as was stated by Mr. +Jefferson in reply, did not relate to vessels arming for +defence, but to cruisers against the enemies of France.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> They were particularly enumerated, and the +decision was also extended to the ship Jane, an English +armed merchantman, alleged by Mr. Genet to be a privateer, +and the governor was requested to attend to her, and if he +found her augmenting her force and about to depart, to cause +her to be stopped. +</p><p> +The Jane had augmented her armament by replacing four old +gun-carriages with new ones, and opening two new portholes. +The request of the British consul that these alterations +might be allowed was peremptorily rejected, and directions +were given that she should be restored precisely to the +situation in which she entered the port. Had she attempted +to sail without obeying these orders, Governor Mifflin had +taken measures to stop her at Mud Island.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE3">No. III.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE4">No. IV.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE5">No. V.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> They received it from the secretaries of the +treasury and of war.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE6">No. VI.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The state of affairs was so inauspicious to +the continuance of peace that in a letter written in the +month of June, to the secretary of war, the President thus +expressed himself: "It is of great importance that this +government should be fully informed of the Spanish force in +the Floridas, the troops which have lately arrived, the +number of their posts, and the strength and situation of +each; together with such other circumstances as would enable +it to adopt correspondent measures, in case we should, in +spite of our endeavours to avoid it, get embroiled with that +nation. It would be too improvident, might be too late, and +certainly would be disgraceful, to have this information to +obtain when our plans ought to be formed." After suggesting +the propriety of making the proper inquiries in a particular +channel, he added, "I point you to the above as one source +only of information. My desire to obtain knowledge of these +facts leads me to request with equal earnestness, that you +would improve every other to ascertain them with certainty. +No reasonable expense should be spared to accomplish objects +of such magnitude in times so critical."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE7">No. VII.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Resolutions had been offered for the creation +of a small navy to be employed in the Mediterranean.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In the course of this debate the resolutions +were still considered as calculated to promote the +interests, not of the United States, but of France. Mr. Ames +said they had <i>French</i> stamped upon the very face of them. +This expression produced a warm retort from Colonel Parker. +He wished there was a stamp on the forehead of every person +to designate whether he was for France or Britain. For +himself he would not be silent and hear that nation abused +to whom America was indebted for her rank as a nation. He +was firmly persuaded that but for the aid of France in the +last war, those gentlemen now on the floor who prided +themselves in abusing her, would not have had an opportunity +in that place of doing it. This sentiment produced a clap in +the galleries. This indecorum was severely reprobated, and a +motion was made to clear the galleries. Although the debate +shows that the degree of sensibility excited by this +disorder was extremely different in the different parties, +it was justified by none, and the galleries were cleared.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> A few days before the motions of Mr. Dayton +and Mr. Clarke, a report was made by the secretary of state +relative to the vexations of American commerce committed by +the officers and cruisers of the belligerent powers. It was +made from materials collected in an inquiry which had been +instituted by the President before the meeting of congress. +In this report, after detailing the numerous complaints +which were made against Great Britain, the secretary +proceeded to notice those which were brought against other +nations. Against France, he said, it was urged that her +privateers harassed the American trade no less than those of +the British. That their courts of admiralty were guilty of +equal oppression. That they had violated the treaty between +the two nations. That a very detrimental embargo had +detained a number of American vessels in her ports, and that +the government had discharged a specie contract with +assignats. The effect of this report seems to have been to +excite a suspicion that the secretary of state was not +sufficiently attached to liberty and to France.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> A well known term designating the most violent +party in France.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Previous to taking the question on this bill, +a petition had been received against Mr. Gallatin, a senator +from the state of Pennsylvania, who was determined not to +have been a citizen a sufficient time to qualify him under +the constitution for a seat in the senate. This casual +circumstance divided the senate, or the bill would probably +have been lost.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> A clause in the resolution as proposed, which +was understood to imply that the act for incorporating the +bank was unconstitutional, was previously struck out by the +same majority.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE8">No. VIII.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> The declaration was not unfrequently made that +the people could only be roused to a proper attention to the +violation of their rights, and to the prodigal waste of +their money, by perceiving the weight of their taxes. This +was concealed from them by the indirect, and would be +disclosed to them by the direct, system of taxation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Two months previous to the passage of this +resolution, the secretary of state had, by direction of the +President, given the governor the most solemn assurances on +this point.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Intercepted letters were laid before the +President, showing that this expedition had been +communicated to some members of the national convention and +approved. It was stated that Mr. Genet, with the rank of +major general, was to be Commander-in-chief of all forces +raised on the American continent, and to direct their +movements.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE9">No. IX.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> An evasive answer having been returned to the +pacific overture made from the Au Glaize, General Wayne was +uncertain whether the Indians had decided for peace or war.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> The inspector had left the house and secreted +himself. The demand of the papers was acceded to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> This requisition was afterwards augmented to +fifteen thousand.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The spirit of disaffection was rapidly +spreading, and had it not been checked by this vigorous +exertion of the powers of the government, it would be +difficult to say what might have been its extent. Even while +the militia were assembling, it broke out in more than one +county in Pennsylvania, and showed itself in a part of +Maryland.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> The impression, he said, made by this +moderation on the discontented, did not correspond with what +it deserved. The acts of delusion were no longer confined to +the efforts of designing individuals. The very forbearance +to press prosecutions was misinterpreted into a fear of +urging the execution of the laws, and associations of men +began to denounce threats against the officers employed. +From a belief that by a more formal concert their operations +might be defeated, certain self-created societies assumed +the tone of condemnation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The apprehensions entertained by the +opposition that Colonel Hamilton would be appointed on the +embassy to England were extreme. Among the letters to +General Washington, are some from members of each branch of +the legislature, advising against the mission generally, and +dissuading him from the appointment of Colonel Hamilton +particularly, in terms which manifest a real opinion that +the best interests of the nation would be sacrificed by such +an appointment. Colonel Hamilton himself recommended Mr. +Jay.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE10">No. X.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> In a private letter to the President, of the +same date with the signature of the treaty, Mr. Jay said "to +do more was impossible. I ought not to conceal from you, +that the confidence reposed in your personal character was +visible and useful throughout the negotiation. +</p><p> +"If there is not a good disposition in the far greater part +of the cabinet and nation towards us, I am exceedingly +mistaken. I do not mean an ostensible and temporizing, but a +real good disposition.—I wish it may have a fair trial."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE11">No. XI.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The chamber of commerce in New York had voted +resolutions expressing their approbation of the treaty.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Previous to the reception of the account of +this order, the opinion of the secretary had been in favour +of ratifying the treaty.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> See the Aurora from August to December, 1795. +See, in particular, a series of essays, signed "A Calm +Observer," published from the 23d of October to the 5th of +November, 1795.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Gazette of the United States, 16th November, +1795.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE12">No. XII.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE13">No. XIII.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Subsequent to the mission of Mr. Adet, but +previous to this time, the revolutionary government which +succeeded the abolition of monarchy had yielded to the +constitution of the republican form.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The words of the oath of office prescribed for +the chief magistrate.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Mr. James Marshall.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> In the same letter Mr. Jefferson had stated +his total abstraction from party questions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE14">No. XIV.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> See Monroe's View.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> At his own request, Mr. Pinckney had been +recalled; and Mr. King, a gentleman whose talents have been +universally acknowledged, and whose services will be long +recollected with approbation, had succeeded him.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The constitutional power of congress to +appropriate money to objects of the description here +recommended was denied by the opposition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Some objection has been made to the accuracy +of this speech, as reported in the Daily Advertiser. The +author has therefore deemed it proper to make some extracts +from the Aurora, the leading paper of that party, of which +Mr. Giles was a conspicuous member. +</p><p> +Mr. Giles, after stating that "the want of wisdom and +firmness" in the administration, "had conducted the affairs +of the nation to a crisis which threatens greater calamities +than any that has before occurred,"—remarks as +follows:—"Another sentiment in the report he could not +agree to. He did not regret the President's retiring from +office. He hoped he would retire, and enjoy the happiness +that awaited him in retirement. He believed it would more +conduce to that happiness that he should retire than if he +should remain in office. He believed the government of the +United States, founded on the broad basis of the people, +that they were competent to their own government, and the +remaining of no man in office was necessary to the success +of that government. The people would truly be in a +calamitous situation, if one man were essential to the +existence of the government. He was convinced that the +United States produces a thousand citizens capable of +filling the presidential chair, and he would trust to the +discernment of the people for a proper choice. Though the +voice of all America should declare the President's retiring +as a calamity, he could not join in the declaration, because +he did not conceive it a misfortune. He hoped the President +would be happy in his retirement, and he hoped he would +retire." He reverted again to that part of the report which +declared the administration to have been wise and firm in +its measures. "He had always disapproved," he repeated, "of +the measures of that administration with respect to foreign +relations, and many members of the house had also; he was +therefore surprised that gentlemen should now come forward +and wish him, in one breath, to disavow all his former +opinions, without being previously convinced of having been +in an error. For his own part, he conceived there was more +cause than ever for adhering to his old opinion. The course +of events had pointed out their propriety; and, if he was +not much mistaken, a crisis was at hand which would confirm +them. He wished, that while gentlemen were willing to +compliment the President, they would have some respect for +the feelings of others."—<i>Aurora, December 15th, 1796.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Dunlap and Claypole's Daily Advertiser, +December 16th, 1796.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE15">No. XV.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE16">No. XVI.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE17">No. XVII.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Two of them were of the party denominated +federal; the third was arranged with the opposition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> It is a remarkable fact, that the answer of +the French minister to this letter, an answer which +criminated the American government in bitter terms, was in +the possession of a printer in Philadelphia who had +uniformly supported the pretensions of that republic, before +it reached the American government.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Having heard that the President contemplated a +tour as far south as the district of Columbia, General +Washington invited him to Mount Vernon, and concluded his +letter with saying: "I pray you to believe that no one has +read the various approbatory addresses which have been +presented to you with more heartfelt satisfaction than I +have done, nor are there any who more sincerely wish that +your administration of the government may be easy, happy and +honourable to yourself, and prosperous to the country."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> See note + <a href="#NOTE18">No. XVIII.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>The following is the list of generals, and of the +military staff.</i></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="generals"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td align="left" colspan="3">Alexander Hamilton, <i>Inspector</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Charles C. Pinckney,</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Henry Knox, or, if either refuses</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left">Major Generals.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Henry Lee.</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Henry Lee (if not Major General)</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">John Brooks,</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">William S. Smith, or</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left">Brigadiers.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">John E. Howard.</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Edward Hand, or</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Jonathan Dayton, or</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left">Adjutant General.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">William S. Smith.</td> + <td align="left">}</td> + <td align="left"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" colspan="3">Edward Carrington, Quarter Master General.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" colspan="3">James Craik, Director of the Hospital.</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> These resolutions were prepared by General +Lee, who happening not to be in his place when the +melancholy intelligence was received and first mentioned in +the house, placed them in the hands of the member who moved +them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 402.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> April, 1796.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 313.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Holland, it will be remembered, had been +conquered by Pichegru.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 316.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 317.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 319.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 323.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 324.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 328.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 347.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 347</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 418.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 402.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 327.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> It was announced by Mr. Adet in the crisis of +the first contest for the Presidency between Mr. Adams and +Mr. Jefferson.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 401.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 405.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Vol. iii. p. 316.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 404.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Colonels Cabell and Par.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 406.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 402.</p></div> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of George Washington, Vol. 5 +(of 5), by John Marshall + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON *** + +***** This file should be named 18595-h.htm or 18595-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various 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