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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Andes and the Amazon, by James Orton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Andes and the Amazon
+       Across the Continent of South America
+
+Author: James Orton
+
+Release Date: September 8, 2006 [EBook #19209]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was made using scans of public domain works
+from the University of Michigan Digital Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: The accentuation and spelling of the original
+has been retained. This may at times seem variable: e.g., manati and
+manat�. Greek transliterations appear between + signs. This symbol:
+[=o], which appears once to represent the letter o with a line above it.
+Italics are indicated by under-scores, as in this example: _NEW YORK:_.
+The illustrations are viewable in the XHTML version.]
+
+[Illustration: PALMS ON THE MIDDLE AMAZON.]
+
+
+
+
+                          THE
+
+                  ANDES AND THE AMAZON:
+
+                           OR,
+
+          ACROSS THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+                  By JAMES ORTON, M.A.
+
+ PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN VASSAR COLLEGE, POUGHKEEPSIE, N.Y.,
+                   AND CORRESPONDING
+    MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, PHILADELPHIA.
+
+  _WITH A NEW MAP OF EQUATORIAL AMERICA AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+                      _NEW YORK:_
+             HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+                   FRANKLIN SQUARE
+                         1870.
+
+    Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by
+                   HARPER & BROTHERS,
+In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
+             Southern District of New York.
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+                         TO
+
+           CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
+
+                WHOSE PROFOUND RESEARCHES
+    HAVE THROWN SO MUCH LIGHT UPON EVERY DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE,
+                         AND
+     WHOSE CHARMING "VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE" HAS SO PLEASANTLY
+        ASSOCIATED HIS NAME WITH OUR SOUTHERN CONTINENT,
+   THESE SKETCHES OF THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON ARE, BY PERMISSION,
+                  MOST RESPECTFULLY
+                      Dedicated.
+
+           *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none
+     exceed in sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of
+     man; whether those of Brazil, where the powers of Life are
+     predominant, or those of Terra del Fuego, where Death and Decay
+     prevail. Both are temples filled with the varied productions of the
+     God of Nature: no one can stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not
+     feel that there is more in man than the mere breath of his
+     body."--DARWIN'S _Journal_, p. 503.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This volume is one result of a scientific expedition to the equatorial
+Andes and the river Amazon. The expedition was made under the auspices
+of the Smithsonian Institution, and consisted of the following gentlemen
+besides the writer: Colonel Staunton, of Ingham University, Leroy, N.Y.;
+F.S. Williams, Esq., of Albany, N.Y.; and Messrs. P.V. Myers and A.
+Bushnell, of Williams College. We sailed from New York July 1, 1867;
+and, after crossing the Isthmus of Panama and touching at Paita, Peru,
+our general route was from Guayaquil to Quito, over the Eastern
+Cordillera; thence over the Western Cordillera, and through the forest
+on foot to Napo; down the Rio Napo by canoe to Pebas, on the Mara�on;
+and thence by steamer to Par�.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Another division, consisting of Messrs. H.M. Myers, R.H.
+Forbes, and W. Gilbert, of Williams College, proceeded to Venezuela, and
+after exploring the vicinity of Lake Valencia, the two former traversed
+the Ilanos to Pao, descended the Apur� and ascended the Orinoco to
+Yavita, crossed the portage of Pimichin (a low, level tract, nine miles
+wide, separating the waters of the Orinoco from those of the Amazon),
+and descended the Negro to Man�os, making a voyage by canoe of over 2000
+miles through a little-known but deeply-interesting region. A narrative
+of this expedition will soon be given to the public.]
+
+Nearly the entire region traversed by the expedition is strangely
+misrepresented by the most recent geographical works. On the Andes of
+Ecuador we have little besides the travels of Humboldt; on the Napo,
+nothing; while the Mara�on is less known to North Americans than the
+Nile.
+
+Many of the following pages first appeared in the New York _Evening
+Post_. The author has also published "Physical Observations on the Andes
+and the Amazon" and "Geological Notes on the Ecuadorian Andes" in the
+_American Journal of Science_, an article on the great earthquake of
+1868 in the Rochester _Democrat_, and a paper _On the Valley of the
+Amazon_ read before the American Association at Salem. These papers have
+been revised and extended, though the popular form has been retained. It
+has been the effort of the writer to present a condensed but faithful
+picture of the physical aspect, the resources, and the inhabitants of
+this vast country, which is destined to become an important field for
+commercial enterprise. For detailed descriptions of the collections in
+natural history, the scientific reader is referred to the various
+reports of the following gentlemen, to whom the specimens were committed
+by the Smithsonian Institution:
+
+Volcanic Rocks                  Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., Montreal.
+
+Plants                          Dr. Asa Gray, Cambridge.
+
+Land and Fresh-water Shells.    M. Crosse, Paris,
+                                and Thomas Bland, Esq., New York.
+
+Marine Shells                   Rev. Dr. E.R. Beadle, Philadelphia.
+
+Fossil Shells                   W.M. Gabb, Esq., Philadelphia.
+
+Hemiptera                       Prof. P.R. Uhler, Baltimore.
+
+Orthoptera                      S.H. Scudder, Esq., Boston.
+
+Hymenoptera and Nocturnal Lepidoptera    Dr. A.S. Packard, Jr., Salem.
+
+Diurnal Lepidoptera             Tryon Reakirt, Esq., Philadelphia.
+
+Coleoptera                      George D. Smith, Esq., Boston.
+
+Phalangia and Pedipalpi         Dr. H.C. Wood, Jr., Philadelphia.
+
+Fishes                          Dr. Theodore Gill, Washington.
+
+Reptiles                        Prof. E.D. Cope, Philadelphia.
+
+Birds                           John Cassin, Esq.,[2] Philadelphia.
+
+Bats                            Dr. H. Allen, Philadelphia.
+
+Mammalian Fossils               Dr. Joseph Leidy, Philadelphia.
+
+[Footnote 2: This eminent ornithologist died in the midst of his
+examination. Mr. George N. Lawrence, of New York, has identified the
+remainder, including all the hummers.]
+
+Many of the type specimens are deposited in the museums of the
+Smithsonian Institution, the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science,
+the Boston Society of Natural History, the Peabody Academy of Science,
+and Vassar College; but the bulk of the collection was purchased by
+Ingham University, Leroy, New York.
+
+The Map of Equatorial America was drawn with great care after original
+observations and the surveys of Humboldt and Wisse on the Andes, and of
+Azevedo, Castlenau, and Bates on the Amazon.[3] The names of Indian
+tribes are in small capitals. Most of the illustrations are after
+photographs or drawings made on the ground, and can be relied upon. The
+portrait of Humboldt, which is for the first time presented to the
+public, was photographed from the original painting in the possession of
+Sr. Aguirre, Quito. Unlike the usual portrait--an old man, in
+Berlin--this presents him as a young man in Prussian uniform, traveling
+on the Andes.
+
+[Footnote 3: We have retained the common orthography of this word,
+though _Amazons_, used by Bates, is doubtless more correct, as more akin
+to the Brazilian name _Amazonas_.]
+
+We desire to express our grateful acknowledgments to the Smithsonian
+Institution, Hon. William H. Seward, and Hon. James A. Garfield, of
+Washington; to Cyrus W. Field, Esq., and William Pitt Palmer, Esq., of
+New York; to C.P. Williams, Esq., of Albany; to Rev. J.C. Fletcher, now
+United States Consul at Oporto; to Chaplain Jones, of Philadelphia; to
+Dr. William Jameson, of the University of Quito; to J.F. Reeve, Esq.,
+and Captain Lee, of Guayaquil; to the Pacific Mail Steamship, Panama
+Railroad, and South Pacific Steam Navigation companies; to the officers
+of the Peruvian and Brazilian steamers on the Amazon; and to the eminent
+naturalists who have examined the results of the expedition.
+
+NOTE.--Osculati has alone preceded us, so far as we can learn, in
+obtaining a vocabulary of Z�paro words; but, as his work is not to be
+found in this country, we have not had the pleasure of making a
+comparison.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+BY
+
+REV. J.C. FLETCHER,
+
+AUTHOR OF "BRAZIL AND BRAZILIANS."
+
+
+In this day of many voyages, in the Old World and the New, it is
+refreshing to find an untrodden path. Central Africa has been more fully
+explored than that region of Equatorial America which lies in the midst
+of the Western Andes and upon the slopes of these mountain monarchs
+which look toward the Atlantic. In this century one can almost count
+upon his hand the travelers who have written of their journeys in this
+unknown region. Our own Herndon and Gibbon descended--the one the
+Peruvian and the other the Bolivian waters--the affluents of the Amazon,
+beginning their voyage where the streams were mere channels for canoes,
+and finishing it where the great river appears a fresh-water ocean. Mr.
+Church, the artist, made the sketches for his famous "Heart of the
+Andes" where the headwaters of the Amazon are rivulets. But no one whose
+language is the English has journeyed down and described the voyage from
+the _plateaux_ of Ecuador to the Atlantic Ocean until Professor Orton
+and his party accomplished this feat in 1868. Yet it was over this very
+route that the King of Waters (as the Amazon is called by the
+aborigines) was originally discovered. The _auri sacra fames_, which in
+1541 urged the adventurous Gonzalo Pizarro to hunt for the fabled city
+of _El Dorado_ in the depths of the South American forests, led to the
+descent of the great river by Orellana, a knight of Truxillo. The fabled
+women-warriors were said to have been seen in this notable voyage, and
+hence the name of the river _Amazon_, a name which in Spanish and
+Portuguese is in the plural. It was not until nearly one hundred years
+after Orellana was in his grave that a voyage of discovery ascended the
+river. In 1637 Pedro Teixeira started from Par� with an expedition of
+nearly two thousand (all but seventy of whom were natives), and with
+varied experiences, by water and by land, the explorer in eight months
+reached the city of Quito, where he was received with distinguished
+honor. Two hundred years ago the result of this expedition was
+published.
+
+The Amazon was from that time, at rare intervals, the highway of Spanish
+and Portuguese priests and friars, who thus went to their distant
+charges among the Indians. In 1745 the French academician De la
+Condamine descended from Quito to Par�, and gave the most accurate idea
+of the great valley which we had until the first quarter of this
+century.
+
+The narrow policy of Spain and Portugal was most unfruitful in its
+results to South America. A jealous eye guarded that great region, of
+which it can be so well said there are
+
+                "Realms unknown and blooming wilds,
+    And fruitful deserts, worlds of solitude,
+    Where the sun smiles and seasons teem in vain."
+
+Now, the making known to the world of any portion of these "fruitful
+deserts" is performing a service for the world. This Professor Orton
+has done. His interesting and valuable volume hardly needs any
+introduction or commendation, for its intrinsic merit will exact the
+approbation of every reader. Scientific men, and tourists who seek for
+new routes of travel, will appreciate it at once; and I trust that the
+time is near at hand when our mercantile men, by the perusal of such a
+work, will see how wide a field lies before them for future commercial
+enterprise. This portion of the tropics abounds in natural resources
+which only need the stimulus of capital to draw them forth to the light;
+to create among the natives a desire for articles of civilization in
+exchange for the crude productions of the forest; and to stimulate
+emigration to a healthy region of perpetual summer.
+
+It seems as if Providence were opening the way for a great change in the
+Valley of the Amazon. That immense region drained by the great river is
+as large as all the United States east of the States of California and
+Oregon and the Territory of Washington, and yet it has been so secluded,
+mainly by the old monopolistic policy of Portugal, that that vast space
+has not a population equal to the single city of Rio de Janeiro or of
+Brooklyn. Two million five hundred thousand square miles are drained by
+the Amazon. Three fourths of Brazil, one half of Bolivia, two thirds of
+Peru, three fourths of Ecuador, and a portion of Venezuela are watered
+by this river. Riches, mineral and vegetable, of inexhaustible supply
+have been here locked up for centuries. Brazil held the key, but it was
+not until under the rule of their present constitutional monarch, Don
+Pedro II., that the Brazilians awoke to the necessity of opening this
+glorious region. Steamers were introduced in 1853, subsidized by the
+government. But it is to a young Brazilian statesman, Sr. A.C. Tavares
+Bastos, that belongs the credit of having agitated, in the press and in
+the national parliament, the opening of the Amazon, until public
+opinion, thus acted upon, produced the desired result. On another
+occasion, in May, 1868, I gave several indices of a more enlightened
+policy in Brazil, and stated that the opening of the Amazon, which
+occurred on the 7th of September, 1867, and by which the great river is
+free to the flags of all nations, from the Atlantic to Peru, and the
+abrogation of the monopoly of the coast-trade from the Amazon to the Rio
+Grande do Sul, whereby 4000 miles of Brazilian sea-coast are open to the
+vessels of every country, can not fail not only to develop the resources
+of Brazil, but will prove of great benefit to the bordering
+Hispano-American republics and to the maritime nations of the earth. The
+opening of the Amazon is the most significant indication that the leaven
+of the narrow monopolistic Portuguese conservatism has at last worked
+out. Portugal would not allow Humboldt to enter the Amazon Valley in
+Brazil. The result of the new policy is beyond the most sanguine
+expectation. The exports and imports for Par� for October and November,
+1867, were double those of 1866. This is but the beginning. Soon it will
+be found that it is cheaper for Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and New Granada,
+east of the Andes, to receive their goods from, and to export their
+India-rubber, cinchona, etc., to the United States and Europe, _via_ the
+great water highway which discharges into the Atlantic, than by the
+long, circuitous route of Cape Horn or the trans-Isthmian route of
+Panama.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+Guayaquil.--First and Last Impressions.--Climate.--Commerce.--The
+Malecon.--Glimpse of the Andes.--Scenes on the Guayas.--Bodegas.--Mounted
+for Quito.--La Mena.--A Tropical Forest......Page 25
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Our Tambo.--Ascending the Andes.--Camino Real.--Magnificent Views.
+--Guaranda.--Cinchona.--The
+Summit.--Chimborazo.--Over the Andes.--Chuquipoyo
+the Wretched.--Ambato.--A Stupid City.--Cotopaxi.--The
+Vale of Machachi.--Arrival at Quito......40
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Early History of Quito.--Its Splendor under the Incas.--Crushed by Spain.
+--Dying now.--Situation.--Altitude.--Streets.--Buildings......56
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Population of Quito.--Dress.--Manners.--Character.--Commerce.--Agriculture.
+--Manufactures.--Arts.--Education.--Amusements.--Quito
+Ladies......68
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Ecuador.--Extent.--Government.--Religion.--A Protestant Cemetery in
+Quito.--Climate.--Regularity of Tropical Nature.
+--Diseases on the Highlands......85
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Astronomic Virtues of Quito.--Flora and Fauna of the Valley of Quito.
+--Primeval Inhabitants of the Andes.--Quichua Indians......97
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Geological History of South America.--Rise of the Andes.--Creation of the
+Amazon.--Characteristic Features of the Continent.--Andean Chain.--The
+Equatorial Volcanoes......114
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+The Volcanoes of Ecuador.--Western Cordillera.--Chimborazo.--Iliniza.
+--Corazon.--Pichincha.--Descent into its Crater.      Page 127
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+The Volcanoes of Ecuador.--Eastern Cordillera.--Imbabura.--Cayambi.--Antisana.
+--Cotopaxi.--Llanganati.--Tunguragua.--Altar.--Saugai......143
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+The Valley of Quito.--Riobamba.--A Bed of "Fossil Giants."--Chillo Hacienda.
+--Otovalo and Ibarra.--The Great Earthquake of 1868......152
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+"The Province of the Orient," or the Wild Napo Country.--The Napos, Zaparos,
+and J�varos Indians.--Preparations to cross the Continent......164
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+Departure from Quito.--Itulcachi.--A Night in a Bread-tray.--Crossing the
+Cordillera.--Guamani.--Papallacta.--Domiciled at the Governor's.--An
+Indian Aristides.--Our Peon Train.--In the Wilderness......177
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+Baeza.--The Forest.--Crossing the Cosanga.--Curi-urcu.--Archidona.--Appearance,
+Customs, and Belief of the Natives.--Napo and Napo River......187
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+Afloat on the Napo.--Down the Rapids.--Santa Rosa and its mulish Alcalde.
+--Pratt on Discipline.--Forest Music.--Coca.--Our Craft and Crew.--Storm
+on the Napo......200
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+Sea-Cows and Turtles' Eggs.--The Forest.--Peccaries.--Indian Tribes on
+the Lower Napo.--Anacondas and Howling Monkeys.--Insect Pests.--Battle
+with Ants.--Barometric Anomaly.--First View of the Amazon.--Pebas......215
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+Down the Amazon.--Steam on the Great River.--Loreto.--San Antonio.--Tabatinga.
+--Brazilian Steamers.--Scenery on the Amazon.--Tocant�ns.--Fonte
+Boa.--Ega.--Rio Negro.--Man�os......230
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+Down the Amazon.--Serpa.--Villa Nova.--Obidos.--Santarem.--A Colony
+of Southerners.--Monte Al�gre.--Porto do Moz.--Leaving the Amazon.
+--Breves.--Par� River.--The City of Par�.--Legislation and Currency.
+--Religion and Education.--Nonpareil Climate.      Page 247
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+The River Amazon.--Its Source and Magnitude.--Tributaries and Tints.--Volume
+and Current.--Rise and Fall.--Navigation.--Expeditions on the
+Great River......264
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+The Valley of the Amazon.--Its Physical Geography.--Geology.--Climate.
+--Vegetation......280
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+Life within the Great River.--Fishes.--Alligators.--Turtles.--Porpoises
+and Manat�s......295
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+Life around the Great River.--Insects.--Reptiles.--Birds.--Mammals......300
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+Life around the Great River.--Origin of the Red Man.--General Characteristics
+of the Amazonian Indians.--Their Languages, Costumes, and Habitations.
+--Principal Tribes.--Mixed Breeds.--Brazilians and Brazil......315
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+How to Travel in South America.--Routes.--Expenses.--Outfit.--Precautions.
+--Dangers......325
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+In Memoriam......334
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+Barometrical Measurements across South America      Page 338
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+Vocabularies from the Quichua, Z�paro, Y�gua, and C�mpas Languages      340
+
+APPENDIX C
+
+Commerce of the Amazon      344
+
+ADDENDA      349
+
+INDEX      349
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Palms on the Middle Amazon      _Frontispiece_
+Cathedral of Guayaquil      Page 27
+Equipped for the Andes      37
+Ascending the Andes      42
+Quito from the North      61
+Water-carriers      62
+Street in Quito      63
+Capitol at Quito      66
+Indian Dwellings      78
+Washerwomen      83
+Ecclesiastics      88
+Profiles of Ecuadorian Volcanoes      123
+Crater of Pichincha      135
+Humboldt in 1802      156
+Ibarra      158
+Napo Peon      184
+Autograph of an Indian      185
+Papaya-tree      202
+Trapiche, or Sugar-mill      208
+Our Craft on the Napo      211
+Hunting Turtle-eggs      217
+A Howler      223
+Kitchen on the Amazon      238
+Natives on the Middle Amazon      241
+A Siesta      244
+Santarem      250
+Par�      255
+Fruit-peddlers      259
+Igarap�, or Canoe-path      265
+Coca-plant      293
+Iguana      305
+Toucans      307
+Brazilian Hummers      Page 309
+Capybara      310
+Jaguar      311
+Native Comb      317
+Colonel Staunton      _To face page_ 334
+Map of Equatorial America      _End._
+
+
+
+
+THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+     Guayaquil.--First and Last Impressions.--Climate.--Commerce.--The
+     Malecon.--Glimpse of the Andes.--Scenes on the
+     Guayas.--Bodegas.--Mounted for Quito.--La Mona.--A Tropical Forest.
+
+
+Late in the evening of the 19th of July, 1867, the steamer "Favorita"
+dropped anchor in front of the city of Guayaquil. The first view
+awakened visions of Oriental splendor. Before us was the Malecon,
+stretching along the river, two miles in length--at once the most
+beautiful and the most busy street in the emporium of Ecuador. In the
+centre rose the Government House, with its quaint old tower, bearing
+aloft the city clock. On either hand were long rows of massive,
+apparently marble, three-storied buildings, each occupying an entire
+square, and as elegant as they were massive. Each story was blessed with
+a balcony, the upper one hung with canvas curtains now rolled up, the
+other protruding over the sidewalk to form a lengthened arcade like that
+of the Rue de Rivoli in imperial Paris. In this lower story were the gay
+shops of Guayaquil, filled with the prints, and silks, and fancy
+articles of England and France. As this is the promenade street as well
+as the Broadway of commerce, crowds of Ecuadorians, who never do
+business in the evening, leisurely paced the magnificent arcade; hatless
+ladies sparkling with fire-flies[4] instead of diamonds, and far more
+brilliant than koh-i-noors, swept the pavement with their long trains;
+martial music floated on the gentle breeze from the barracks or some
+festive hall, and a thousand gas-lights along the levee and in the city,
+doubling their number by reflection from the river, betokened wealth and
+civilization.
+
+[Footnote 4: The _Pyrophorus noctilucus_, or "cucujo," found also in
+Mexico and the West Indies. It resembles our large spring-beetle. The
+light proceeds from two eye-like spots on the thorax and from the
+segments underneath. It feeds on the sugar-cane. On the Upper Amazon we
+found the _P. clarus_, _P. pellucens_, and _P. tuberculatus_.
+At Bahia, on the opposite coast, Darwin found _P. luminosus_, the most common
+luminous insect.]
+
+We landed in the morning to find our vision a dissolving view in the
+light of the rising sun. The princely mansions turned out to be hollow
+squares of wood-work, plastered within and without, and roofed with red
+tiles. Even the "squares" were only distant approximations; not a right
+angle could we find in our hotel. All the edifices are built (very
+properly in this climate) to admit air instead of excluding it, and the
+architects have wonderfully succeeded; but with the air is wafted many
+an odor not so pleasing as the spicy breezes from Ceylon's isle. The
+cathedral is of elegant design. Its photograph is more imposing than
+Notre Dame, and a Latin inscription tells us that it is the Gate of
+Heaven. But a near approach reveals a shabby structure, and the pewless
+interior is made hideous by paintings and images which certainly must be
+caricatures. A few genuine works of art imported from Italy alone
+relieve the mind of the visitor. Excepting a few houses on the Malecon,
+and not excepting the cathedral, the majority of the buildings have a
+tumble-down appearance, which is not altogether due to the frequent
+earthquakes which have troubled this city; while the habitations in the
+outskirts are exceedingly primitive, floored and walled with split cane
+and thatched with leaves, the first story occupied by domestic animals
+and the second by their owners. The city is quite regularly laid out,
+the main streets running parallel to the river. A few streets are
+rudely paved, many are shockingly filthy, and all of them yield grass to
+the delight of stray donkeys and goats. A number of mule-carts, half a
+dozen carriages, one omnibus, and a hand-car on the Malecon, sum up the
+wheeled vehicles of Guayaquil. The population is twenty-two thousand,
+the same for thirty years past. Of these, about twenty are from the
+United States, and perhaps twenty-five can command $100,000. No
+foreigner has had reason to complain that Guayaquilians lacked the
+virtues of politeness and hospitality. The ladies dress in excellent
+taste, and are proverbial for their beauty. Spanish, Indian, and Negro
+blood mingle in the lower classes. The city supports two small papers,
+_Los Andes_ and _La Patria_, but they are usually issued about ten days
+behind date. The hourly cry of the night-watchman is quite as musical as
+that of the muezzin in Constantinople. At eleven o'clock, for example,
+they sing "_Ave Maria purissima! los once han dedo, noche clara y
+serena. Viva la Patria!_"
+
+[Illustration: Cathedral of Guayaquil.]
+
+The full name of the city is Santiago de Guayaquil.[5] It is so called,
+first, because the conquest of the province was finished on the 25th of
+July (the day of St. James), 1533; and, secondly, after Guayas, a
+feudatory cacique of Atahuallpa. It was created a city by Charles V.,
+October 6, 1535. It has suffered much in its subsequent history by fires
+and earthquakes, pirates and pestilence. It is situated on the right
+bank of the River Guayas, sixty miles from the ocean, and but a few feet
+above its level. Though the most western city in South America, it is
+only two degrees west of the longitude of Washington, and it is the same
+distance below the equator--Orion sailing directly overhead, and the
+Southern Cross taking the place of the Great Dipper. The mean annual
+temperature, according to our observations, is 83�. There are two
+seasons, the wet, or _invierno_, and the dry, or _verano_. The _verano_
+is called the summer, although astronomically it is winter; it begins in
+June and terminates in November.[6] The heavy rains come on about
+Christmas. March is the rainiest month in the year, and July the
+coldest. It is at the close of the _invierno_ (May) that fevers most
+abound. The climate of Guayaquil during the dry season is nearly
+perfect. At daybreak there is a cool easterly breeze; at sunrise a brief
+lull, and then a gentle variable wind; at 3 P.M. a southwest wind, at
+first in gusts, then in a sustained current; at sunset the same softened
+down to a gentle breeze, increasing about _7_ P.M., and dying away about
+3 A.M. Notwithstanding heaps of filth and green-mantled pools,
+sufficient to start a pestilence if transported to New York, the city
+is usually healthy, due in great part, no doubt, to countless flocks of
+buzzards which greedily wait upon decay. These carrion-hawks enjoy the
+protection of law, a heavy fine being imposed for wantonly killing
+one.[7] It is during the rainy season that this port earns the
+reputation of being one of the most pestiferous spots on the globe. The
+air is then hot and oppressive, reminding the geologist of the steaming
+atmosphere in the carboniferous period; the surrounding plains are
+flooded with water, and the roads, even some of the streets of the city,
+become impassable; intolerable musquitoes, huge cockroaches, disgusting
+centipedes, venomous scorpions, and still more deadly serpents, keep the
+human species circumspect, and fevers and dysenteries do the work of
+death.
+
+[Footnote 5: The ancient name was _Culenta_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The continuity of the dry season is broken by a rainy fit
+commencing a few days after the autumnal equinox, and called _el
+Cordonazo de San Francisco_. "Throughout South America (observes Mr.
+Spruce) the periodical alternations of dry and rainy weather are laid to
+the account of those saints whose 'days' coincide nearly with the epochs
+of change. But if the weather be rainy when it ought to be fair, or if
+the rains of winter be heavier than ordinary, the blame is invariably
+laid on the moon."]
+
+[Footnote 7: The turkey-buzzard, the "John Crow" of the West Indies, is
+not a social bird, though a score are often seen together: each comes
+and goes by himself.]
+
+The Guayas is the largest river on the Pacific coast; and Guayaquil
+monopolizes the commerce of Ecuador, for it is the only port. Esmeraldas
+and Peylon are not to be mentioned. Through its custom-house passes
+nearly every import and export. The green banks of the Guayas, covered
+with an exuberant growth, are in strong contrast with the sterile coast
+of Peru, and the possession of Guayaquil has been a coveted prize since
+the days of Pizarro. Few spots between the tropics can vie with this
+lowland in richness and vigor of vegetation. Immense quantities of
+cacao--second only to that of Caracas--are produced, though but a
+fraction is gathered, owing to the scarcity of laborers, so many
+Ecuadorians have been exiled or killed in senseless revolutions. Twenty
+million pounds are annually exported, chiefly to Spain; and two million
+pounds of excellent coffee, which often finds its way into New York
+under the name of "pure Java." There are three or four kinds of
+indigenous cacao on this coast, all richly deserving the generic title
+_Theobroma_, or "food for the gods." The best grows in Esmeraldas, as it
+contains the largest amount of oil and has the most pleasant flavor. But
+very little of it is exported, because it rots in about six months. The
+_cacao de arriba_, from up the River Guayas, is the best to export, as
+it keeps two years without damage. Next in order is the _cacao de
+abajo_, from down the river, as Machala, Santa Rosa, Balao, and Manabi,
+below Guayaquil. A still richer nut is the mountain cacao, but it is
+never cultivated. It is small and white, and almost pure oil. This oil,
+called cacao-butter, is used by the natives for burns, sores, and many
+cutaneous diseases. Cacao contributes more to the commerce of the
+republic than any other production of its soil. The flowers and fruit
+grow directly out of the trunk and branches. "A more striking example
+(says Humboldt) of the expansive powers of life could hardly be met with
+in organic nature." The fruit is yellowish-red, and of oblong shape, and
+the seeds (from which chocolate is prepared) are enveloped in a mass of
+white pulp. The tree resembles our lilac in size and shape, and yields
+three crops a year--in March, June, and September. Spain is the largest
+consumer of cacao. The Mexican _chocolalt_ is the origin of our word
+chocolate. Tucker gives the following comparative analysis of unshelled
+beans from Guayaquil and Caracas:
+
+                     Guayaquil.    Caracas.
+
+Theobromine            0.63         0.55
+Cacao-red              4.56         6.18
+Cacao-butter          36.38        35.08
+Gluten                 2.96         3.21
+Starch                 0.53         0.62
+Gum                    1.58         1.19
+Extractive matter      3.44         6.22
+Humic acid             8.57         9.28
+Cellulose             30.50        28.66
+Ash                    3.03         2.91
+Water                  6.20         5.58
+                      -----        -----
+                      98.38        99.48
+
+The coffee-tree is about eight feet high, and has dark green leaves,
+white blossoms, and green, red, and purple berries at the same time.
+Each tree yields on an average two pounds annually.
+
+The other chief articles of exportation are hides, cotton, "Panama
+hats," manufactured at Indian villages on the coast, cinchona bark,
+caucho, tobacco, orchilla weed, sarsaparilla, and tamarinds.[8] The hats
+are usually made of the "Toquilla" (_Carludovica palmata_), an
+arborescent plant about five feet high, resembling the palm. The leaf,
+which is a yard long, is plaited like a fan, and is borne on a
+three-cornered stalk. It is cut while young, the stiff parallel veins
+removed, then slit into shreds by whipping it, and immersed in boiling
+water, and finally bleached in the sun. The same "straw" is used in the
+interior. The "Mocora," which grows like a cocoa-nut tree, with a very
+smooth, hard, thorny bark, is rarely used, as it is difficult to work.
+The leaves are from eight to twelve feet in length, so that the "straws"
+will finish a hat without splicing. Such hats require two or three
+months, and bring sometimes $150; but they will last a lifetime. They
+can be packed away in a vest pocket, and they can be turned inside out
+and worn, the inside surface being as smooth and well finished as the
+outside. "Toquilla" hats are whiter than the "mocora."
+
+[Footnote 8: In 1867 there were exported to Europe of cacao, 197,260
+quintals; cotton, 10,247 do.; caucho, 8911 do.; sarsaparilla, 149 do.;
+orchilla, 10,247 packages; quinine, 5000 do.; tobacco, 2000 do.; coffee,
+1611 do.; tamarinds, 65 bbls.; sides of leather, 22,514; hats, 8397.]
+
+The exports from Guayaquil bear no proportion to the capabilities of the
+country; Ecuador has no excuse for being bankrupt. Most of the imports
+are of English origin; lard comes from the United States, and flour from
+Chile.
+
+The Malecon and river present a lively scene all the year round; the
+rest of the city appears deserted in comparison. The British steamers
+from Panama and Payta arrive weekly; Yankee steam-boats make regular
+trips up and down the Guayas and its tributaries; half a dozen sailing
+vessels, principally French, are usually lying in the stream, which is
+here six fathoms deep; and hundreds of canoes are gliding to and fro.
+But the _balsas_ are the most original, and, therefore, the most
+attractive sight. These are rafts made of light balsa wood, so buoyant
+as to be used in coasting voyages. They were invented by the old
+Peruvians, and are the homes of a literally floating population. By
+these and the smaller craft are brought to the mole of the Malecon,
+besides articles for exportation, a boundless variety of
+fruits--pine-apples (whose quality has made Guayaquil famous), oranges,
+lemons, limes, plantains, bananas, cocoa-nuts, alligator pears, papayas,
+mangos, guavas, melons, etc.; many an undescribed species of fish known
+only to the epicure, and barrels or jars of water from a distant point
+up the river, out of the reach of the tide and the city sewers. Ice is
+frequently brought from Chimborazo, and sold for $1 per pound. A flag
+hoisted at a favorite caf� announces that snow has arrived from the
+mountains, and that ice-cream can be had. The market, held every morning
+by the river side, is an animated scene. The strife of the half-naked
+fishmongers, the cry of the swarthy fruit-dealers--"Pinas!" "Naranjas!"
+etc., and the song of the itinerant dulce-peddler--"Tamales!" mingled
+with the bray of the water-bearing donkeys as they trot through the
+town, never fail to arrest the attention of every traveler.
+
+But there is another sight more attractive still--one worth a long
+voyage, for Nature nowhere else repeats the picture. From the balconies
+of Guayaquil can be seen on a clear day the long, towering range of the
+Andes. We may forget all the incidents in our subsequent journey, but
+the impression produced by that glorious view is unfading. The sun had
+nearly touched the Pacific when the clouds, which for days had wrapped
+the Cordilleras[9] in misty robes, suddenly rose like a curtain. There
+stood, in inconceivable grandeur, one of the stupendous products of the
+last great revolution of the earth's crust, as a geologist would say,
+but, in the language of history, the lofty home of the Incas, made
+illustrious by the sword of Pizarro and the pen of Prescott. On the
+right a sea of hills rose higher and higher, till they culminated in the
+purple mountains of Assuay. Far to the left, one hundred miles
+northeasterly, the peerless Chimborazo lifted its untrodden and
+unapproachable summit above its fellows--an imposing background to
+lesser mountains and stately forests. The great dome reflected
+dazzlingly the last blushes of the west, its crown of snow fringed with
+black lines, which were the steep and sharp edges of precipitous rocks.
+It was interesting to watch the mellowing tints on the summit as the
+shadows crept upward: gold, vermilion, violet, purple, were followed by
+a momentary "glory;" then darkness covered the earth, and a host of
+stars, "trembling with excess of light," burst suddenly into view over
+the peaks of the Andes.
+
+[Footnote 9: _Cordillera_ (pronounced Cor-de-y�r-ra), literally a long
+ridge, is usually applied to a longitudinal subdivision of the Andes, as
+the east and west cordilleras inclosing the valley of Quito; _Sierra_
+(from the Spanish for saw or Arabic _sehrah_, an uncultivated tract) is
+a jagged spur of the Andes; _Cerro_, "a hog-backed hill." _Paramo_ (a
+desert) is the treeless, uninhabited, uncultivated rolling steppes just
+below the snow-limit.]
+
+Bidding "adios" to our Guayaquilian friends, we took passage in one of
+Captain Lee's little steamers to Bodegas, seventy miles up the river.
+The Ecuadorian government, strange to say, does not patronize these
+steamers, but carries the Quito mail in a canoe. The Guayas is a
+sluggish stream, its turbid waters starting from the slope of the
+Andes, and flowing through a low, level tract, covered with varied forms
+of vegetable life. Forests of the broad-leaved plantain and banana line
+the banks. The fruit is the most common article of food in equatorial
+America, and is eaten raw, roasted, baked, boiled, and fried. It grows
+on a succulent stem formed of sheath-like leaf-stalks rolled over one
+another, and terminating in enormous light green, glossy blades nearly
+ten feet long by two feet wide, so delicate that the slightest wind will
+tear them transversely. Each tree (vulgarly called "the tree of
+paradise") produces fruit but once, and then dies. A single bunch often
+weighs 60 or 70 pounds; and Humboldt calculated that 33 pounds of wheat
+and 99 pounds of potatoes require the same space of ground as will
+produce 4000 pounds of bananas. They really save more labor than steam,
+giving the greatest amount of food from a given piece of ground with the
+least labor. They are always found where the palm is; but their original
+home is the foot of the Himalayas. The banana (by some botanists
+considered a different species from the plantain) is about four inches
+long, and cylindrical, and is eaten raw. The plantain is twice as large
+and prismatic, and uncooked is unhealthy. There is another variety,
+_platanos de Otaheite_, which resembles the banana in size and quality,
+but is prismatic.
+
+A belt of jungle and impenetrable brushwood intervenes, and then cacao
+and coffee plantations, vast in extent, arrest the eye. Passing these,
+the steamer brings you alongside of broad fields covered with the low,
+prickly pine-apple plant; the air is fragrant with a rich perfume wafted
+from a neighboring grove of oranges and lemons; the mango spreads its
+dense, splendid foliage, and bears a golden fruit, which, though praised
+by many, tastes to us like a mixture of tow and turpentine; the exotic
+bread-tree waves its fig-like leaves and pendent fruit; while high over
+all the beautiful cocoa-palm lifts its crown of glory.[10] Animal life
+does not compare with this luxuriant growth. The steamer-bound traveler
+may see a few monkeys, a group of _gallinazos_, and many brilliant,
+though songless birds; but the chief representative is the lazy, ugly
+alligator. Large numbers of these monsters may be seen on the mud-bank
+basking in the hot sun, or asleep with their mouths wide open.
+
+[Footnote 10: The mango of Asia is superior in size and flavor to that
+of America. It is eaten largely in Brazil by negroes and cattle. The
+cocoa-palm is also of Asiatic origin, and is most abundant in Ceylon. It
+has a swollen stem when young, but becomes straight and tall when
+mature. The flowers burst into a long plume of soft, cream-colored
+blossoms. It is worthy of remembrance that the most beautiful forms of
+vegetation in the tropics are at the same time most useful to man.]
+
+Eight hours after leaving the Malecon we arrived at Bodegas, a little
+village of two thousand souls, rejoicing in the synonym of Babahoyo.
+This has been a place of deposit for the interior from the earliest
+times. In the rainy season the whole site is flooded, and only the upper
+stories are habitable. Cock-fighting seems to be the chief amusement. We
+breakfasted with the governor, a portly gentleman who kept a little
+dry-goods store. His excellency, without waiting for a formal
+introduction, and with a cordiality and courtesy almost confined to the
+Latin nations, received us into his own house, and honored us with a
+seat at his private table, spread with the choicest viands of his
+kingdom, serving them himself with a grace to which we can not do
+justice. Much as we find to condemn in tropical society, we can not
+forget the kindness of these simple-hearted people. Though we may
+portray, in the coming pages, many faults and failings according to a
+New York standard, we wish it to be understood that there is another
+side to the picture; that there are virtues on the Andes to which the
+North is well-nigh a stranger. "How many times (says an American
+resident of ten years) I have arrived at a miserable hut in the heart
+of the mountains, tired and hungry, after traveling all day without any
+other companion than the arriero, to receive a warm-hearted welcome, the
+best, perhaps the only chair or hammock offered to me, the fattest
+chicken in the yard killed on my account, and more than once they have
+compelled me by force to take the only good bed, because I must be
+tired, and should have a good night's rest. A man may travel from one
+end of the Andes to the other, depending altogether on the good people
+he meets."
+
+At Bodegas travelers take to mules or horses for the mountains, hiring
+one set for Guaranda and another at that village for Quito; muleteers
+seldom allow their animals to pass from one altitude to the other. These
+_arrieros_, or muleteers, form a very important class in Ecuador. Their
+little caravans are the only baggage and express trains in the republic;
+there is not a single regularly established public conveyance in the
+land. The _arrieros_ and their servants (_peons_) are Indians or
+half-breeds. They wear a straw or felt hat, a poncho striped like an
+Arab's blanket, and cotton breeches ending at the knees. For food they
+carry a bag of parched corn, another bag of roasted barley-meal
+(_mashka_), and a few red peppers. The beasts are thin, decrepit jades,
+which threaten to give out the first day; yet they must carry you
+halfway up the Andes. The distance to the capital is nearly two hundred
+miles. The time required is usually eight or nine days; but officials
+often travel it in four.
+
+[Illustration: Equipped for the Andes.]
+
+We left Bodegas at noon. It was impossible to start the muleteer a
+moment earlier, though he had promised to be ready at seven. Patience is
+a necessary qualification in a South American traveler. In our company
+were a Jesuit priest, with three attendants, going to Riobamba, and a
+young Quito merchant, with his mother--the mother of only twenty-five
+children. This merchant had traveled in the United States, and could not
+help contrasting the thrift and enterprise of our country with the
+beggary and laziness of his own, adding, with a show of sincerity, "I am
+sorry I have Spanish blood in my veins." The suburbs of Bodegas reminded
+us of the outskirts of Cairo; but the road soon entered a broad savannah
+instead of a sandy desert. At 3 P.M. we passed through La Mona, a
+village of twenty-five bamboo huts, all on stilts, for in the rainy
+season the whole town is under water. Signs of indolence and neglect
+were every where visible. Idle men, with an uncertain mixture of
+European, Negro, and Indian blood; sad-looking Quichua women, carrying a
+naked infant or a red water-jar on the back; black hogs and lean poultry
+wandering at will into the houses--such is the picture of the motley
+life in the inland villages. Strange was the contrast between human
+poverty and natural wealth. We were on the borders of a virgin forest,
+and the overpowering beauty of the vegetation soon erased all memory of
+the squalor and lifelessness of La Mona. Our road--a mere path, suddenly
+entered this seemingly impenetrable forest, where the branches crossed
+overhead, producing a delightful shade. The curious forms of tropical
+life were all attractive to one who had recently rambled over the
+comparatively bleak hills of New England. Delight is a weak term to
+express the feelings of a naturalist who for the first time wanders in a
+South American forest. The superb banana, the great charm of equatorial
+vegetation, tossed out luxuriantly its glossy green leaves, eight feet
+in length; the slender but graceful bamboo shot heavenward, straight as
+an arrow; and many species of palm bore aloft their feathery heads,
+inexpressibly light and elegant. On the branches of the independent
+trees sat tufts of parasites, many of them orchids, which are here
+epiphytal; and countless creeping plants, whose long flexible stems
+entwined snake-like around the trunks, or formed gigantic loops and
+coils among the limbs. Beneath this world of foliage above, thick beds
+of mimos� covered the ground, and a boundless variety of ferns attracted
+the eye by their beautiful patterns.[11] It is easy to specify the
+individual objects of admiration in these grand scenes, but it is not
+possible to give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of wonder,
+astonishment, and devotion which fill and elevate the mind. This road to
+the Andes is a paradise to the contemplative man. "There is something in
+a tropical forest (says Bates) akin to the ocean in its effects on the
+mind. Man feels so completely his insignificance, and the vastness of
+nature." The German traveler Burmeister observes that "the contemplation
+of a Brazilian forest produced on him a painful impression, on account
+of the vegetation displaying a spirit of restless selfishness, eager
+emulation, and craftiness." He thought the softness, earnestness, and
+repose of European woodland scenery were far more pleasing, and that
+these formed one of the causes of the superior moral character of
+European nations. Live and let live is certainly not the maxim taught in
+these tropical forests, and it is equally clear that selfishness is not
+wanting among the people. Here, in view of so much competition among
+organized beings, is the spot to study Darwin's "Origin of Species." We
+have thought that the vegetation under the equator was a fitter emblem
+of the human world than the forests of our temperate zone. There is here
+no set time for decay and death, but we stand amid the living and the
+dead; flowers and leaves are falling, while fresh ones are budding into
+life. Then, too, the numerous parasitic plants, making use of their
+neighbors as instruments for their own advancement, not inaptly
+represent a certain human class.
+
+[Footnote 11: Ferns constitute one sixth of the flora of South America;
+Spruce counted 140 species within the space of three square miles. Their
+limits of growth are 500 and 7000 feet above the sea.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+     Our Tambo.--Ascending the Andes.--Camino Real.--Magnificent
+     Views.--Guaranda.--Cinchona.--The Summit.--Chimborazo.--Over the
+     Andes.--Chuquipoyo the Wretched.--Ambato.--A Stupid
+     City.--Cotopaxi.--The Vale of Machachi.--Arrival at Quito.
+
+
+We reached Savaneta at 5 P.M. This little village of hardly twenty
+houses becomes the Bodegas, or place of deposit for the mountains six
+months in the year, for in the _invierno_ the roads are flooded, and
+canoes take the place of mules from Savaneta to Babahoyo. Even in the
+dry season the dampness of this wilderness is so great that the
+traveler's sugar and chocolate are melted into one, and envelopes seal
+themselves. We put up at a _tambo_, or wayside inn, a simple two-storied
+bamboo hovel, thatched with plantain leaves without and plastered with
+cobwebs within, yet a palace compared with what sheltered us afterward.
+The only habitable part was the second story, which was reached by a
+couple of notched bamboo sticks. A hammock, two earthen kettles, two
+plates, and a few calabashes constituted the household furniture. The
+dormitory was well ventilated, for two sides were open. Our lodging,
+however, cost us nothing; travelers only pay for _yerba_ for their
+beasts. Though this has been the royal road to Quito for three
+centuries, there is but one _posada_ between Guayaquil and Ambato, a
+distance of one hundred and fifty miles; travelers must carry their own
+bedding and provisions.
+
+[Illustration: Ascending the Andes.]
+
+Leaving Savaneta at dawn, and breakfasting at a wayside hut owned by an
+old negro, we struck about noon the Rio Charriguajaco, dashing down the
+mountains in hot haste for the Guayas. It was refreshing to look upon
+living waters for the first time since leaving the hills of our
+native country. Fording this stream we know not how many times, and
+winding through the dense forest in narrow paths often blockaded by
+laden donkeys that doggedly disputed the passage, we soon found
+ourselves slowly creeping up the Andes. We frequently met mountaineers
+on their way to Bodegas with loads of potatoes, peas, barley, fowls,
+eggs, etc. They are generally accompanied by their wives or daughters,
+who ride like the men, but with the knees tucked up higher. On the
+slippery tracks which traverse this western slope, bulls are often used
+as beasts of burden, the cloven hoofs enabling them to descend with
+great security. But mules are better than horses or asses. "That a
+hybrid (muses Darwin) should possess more reason, memory, obstinacy,
+social affection, powers of muscular endurance, and length of life than
+either of its parents, seems to indicate that art has here outdone
+nature."
+
+Toward evening the ascent became rapid and the road horrible beyond
+conception, growing narrower and rougher as we advanced. Indeed, our way
+had long since ceased to be a road. In the dense forest, where sunshine
+never comes, rocks, mud, and fallen trees in rapid alternation
+macadamize the path, save where it turns up the bed of a babbling brook.
+In the comparatively level tracts, the equable step of the beasts has
+worn the soil into deep transverse ridges, called _camellones_, from
+their resemblance to the humps on a camel's back. In the precipitous
+parts the road is only a gully worn by the transit of men and beasts for
+ages, aided by torrents of water in the rainy season. As we ascend, this
+changes to a rocky staircase, so strait that one must throw up his legs
+to save them from being crushed, and so steep that horse and rider run
+the risk of turning a somersault. It is fearful to meet in a narrow
+defile, or where the road winds around the edge of a precipice, a drove
+of reckless donkeys and mules descending the mountain, urged on by the
+cries and lashes of the muleteers behind. Yet this has been the highway
+of Ecuadorian commerce for three hundred years. In vain we tried to
+reach the little village of Camino Real on the crest of the ridge; but
+the night was advancing rapidly, and crawling up such a road by
+starlight was not a little dangerous. So we put up at a miserable tambo,
+Pogyos by name. It was a mud hut of the rudest kind, windowless and
+unfloored; very clean, if it had been left to nature, but man and beast
+had rendered it intolerably filthy. Our hostess, a Quichua woman, with
+tattered garments, and hair disheveled and standing up as if
+electrified, set a kettle on three stones, and, making a fire under it,
+prepared for us a calabash of chicken and _locro_. _Locro_, the national
+dish in the mountains, is in plain English simply potato soup. Sitting
+on the ground, we partook of this refreshment by the aid of fingers and
+wooden spoons, enticing our appetites by the reflection that potato soup
+would support life. The unkempt Indian by our side, grinning in
+conscious pride over her successful cookery, did not aid us in this
+matter. Fire is used in Ecuador solely for culinary purposes, not for
+warmth. It is made at no particular spot on the mud floor, and there is
+no particular orifice for the exit of the smoke save the chinks in the
+wall. There is not a chimney in the whole republic. As the spare room in
+the establishment belonged to the women, we gentlemen slept on the
+ground outside, or on beds made of round poles. The night was piercingly
+cold. The wished-for morning came at last, and long before the sun
+looked over the mountains we were on our march. It was the same terrible
+road, running zigzag, or "quingo" fashion, up to Camino Real, where it
+was suddenly converted into a royal highway.
+
+We were now fairly out of the swamps of the lowlands, and, though under
+the equator, out of the tropics too. The fresh mountain breeze and the
+chilly mists announced a change of climate.[12] Fevers and dysenteries,
+snakes and musquitoes, the plantain and the palm, we had left behind.
+Camino Real is a huddle of eight or ten dwellings perched on the summit
+of a sierra a thousand feet higher than the top of Mount Washington. The
+views from this stand-point compensate for all past troubles. The wild
+chaos of mountains on every side, broken by profound ravines, the heaps
+of ruins piled up during the lapse of geologic ages, the intense azure
+of the sky, and the kingly condor majestically wheeling around the still
+higher pinnacles, make up a picture rarely to be seen. Westward, the
+mountains tumble down into hills and spread out into plains, which, in
+the far distant horizon, dip into the great Pacific. The setting sun
+turns the ocean into a sheet of liquid fire. Long columns of purple
+light shoot up to the zenith, and as the last point of the sun sinks
+beneath the horizon, the stars rush out in full splendor; for at the
+equator day gives place to night with only an hour and twenty minutes of
+twilight. The mountains are Alpine, yet grander than the Alps; not so
+ragged as the granite peaks of Switzerland, but with rounder heads. The
+prospect down this occidental slope is diversified by deep valleys,
+lands-lides, and flowering trees. Magnificent are the views eastward,
+
+    "Where Andes, giant of the western star,
+    Looks from his throne of clouds o'er half the world."
+
+[Footnote 12: The altitude of 7000 feet is the usual limit of the
+rain-line on the west slope of the Andes. The condensation which
+produces rain takes place at the equator two or three times higher than
+in our latitude.]
+
+The majestic dome of Chimborazo was entirely uncovered of clouds, and
+presented a most splendid spectacle. There it stood, its snow-white
+summit, unsullied by the foot of man, towering up twice as high as Etna.
+For many years it received the homage of the world as the highest point
+in America; but now the Aconcagua of Chile claims the palm. Still, what
+a panorama from the top of Chimborazo, could one reach it, for the eye
+would command ten thousand square miles!
+
+Our road gently winds down the sierra, giving us at every turn sublime
+ideas of what nature can do in tossing up the thin crust of our globe.
+But sublimity is at a discount here--there is too much of it. Suddenly
+we are looking down into the enchanting valley of Chimbo. This romantic
+and secluded spot is one of those forgotten corners of the earth which,
+barricaded against the march of civilization by almost impassable
+mountains, and inhabited by a thriftless race, has been left far behind
+in the progress of mankind. Distance lends enchantment to the view. We
+are reminded of the pastoral vales of New England. Wheat takes the place
+of the sugar-cane, barley of cacao, potatoes of plantains, and turnips
+of oranges. Bamboo sheds have given way to neatly whitewashed villages,
+and the fields are fenced with rows of aloe. But, drawing nearer, we
+find the habitations are in reality miserable mud hovels, without
+windows, and tenanted by vermin and ragged poverty. There are herds of
+cattle and fields of grain; yet we shall not find a quart of milk or a
+loaf of bread for sale. The descent into the valley is very precipitous,
+and, after a rain, alarmingly slippery. Mules, drawing their legs
+together, slide down with startling velocity, and follow the windings
+with marvelous dexterity.
+
+We arrived at Guaranda at 5 P.M. on the third day after leaving Bodegas.
+This is a desolate town of two thousand souls, dwelling in low
+dilapidated huts made of the most common building material in the
+Andes--_adobe_, or sun-dried blocks of mud mingled with straw.[13]
+
+[Footnote 13: From _adoub_, an Egyptian word still used by the Copts;
+carried by the Moors to Spain, thence to America; and from America the
+word has gone to the Sandwich Islands.]
+
+The streets are rudely paved, and pitch to the centre, to form an
+aqueduct, like the streets of old Sychar. The inhabitants are in happy
+ignorance of the outside world. They pass the day without a thought of
+work, standing on the Plaza, or in front of some public office, staring
+vacantly into space, or gossiping. A cockfight will soonest rouse them
+from their lethargy. They seem to have no purpose in life but to keep
+warm under their ponchos and to eat when they are hungry. Guaranda is a
+healthy locality, lying in a deep valley on the west bank of the Chimbo,
+at an elevation, according to our barometer, of 8840 feet, and having a
+mean temperature slightly less than that of Quito. It is a place of
+importance, inasmuch as it is the resting-place before ascending or
+after descending the still loftier ranges, and much more because it is
+the capital of the region which yields the invaluable _cinchona_, or
+Peruvian bark.[14] This tree is indigenous to the Andes, where it is
+found on the western slope between the altitudes of two thousand and
+nine thousand feet, the species richest in alkaloids occupying the
+higher elevations, where the air is moist. Dr. Weddell enumerates
+twenty-one species, seven of which are now found in Ecuador, but the
+only one of value is the the _C. succirubra_ (the _calisaya_ has run
+out), and this is now nearly extinct, as the trees have been destroyed
+to obtain the bark. This species is a beautiful tree, having large,
+broadly oval, deep green, shining leaves, white, fragrant flowers, and
+red bark, and sometimes, though rarely, attains the height of sixty
+feet. A tree five feet in circumference will yield fifteen hundred
+pounds of green bark, or eight hundred of the dry. The roots contain the
+most alkaloid, though the branches are usually barked for commerce. The
+true cinchona barks, containing quinine, quinidine, and cinchonine, are
+distinguished from the false by their splintery-fibrous texture, the
+latter being pre-eminently corky. The cascarilleros begin to hunt for
+bark in August. Dr. Taylor, of Riobamba, found one tree which gave $3600
+worth of quinine. The general yield is from three to five pounds to a
+quintal of bark. The tree has been successfully transplanted to the
+United States, and particularly to India, where there are now over a
+million of plants. It was introduced into India by Markham in 1861. The
+bark is said to be stronger than that from Ecuador, yielding twice as
+much alkaloid, or eleven per cent. The quinine of commerce will
+doubtless come hereafter from the slopes of the Himalayas instead of the
+Andes. In 1867 only five thousand pounds of bark were exported from
+Guayaquil. The Indians use the bark of another tree, the _Maravilla_,
+which is said to yield a much stronger alkaloid than cinchona. It grows
+near Pallatanga.
+
+[Footnote 14: This celebrated febrifuge was first taken to Europe about
+the middle of the seventeenth century, and was named after the Countess
+of Chinchon, who had been cured of intermittent fever at Lima.
+Afterward, when Cardinal de Lugo spread the knowledge of the remedy
+through France, and recommended it to Cardinal Mazarin, it received the
+name of _Jesuits' Bark_. The French chemists, Pelletier and Caverton,
+discovered quinine in 1820.]
+
+We left Guaranda at 5 A.M. by the light of Venus and Orion, having
+exchanged our horses for the sure-footed mule. It was a romantic ride.
+From a neighboring stand-point Church took one of his celebrated views
+of "The Heart of the Andes." But the road, as aforetime, was a mere
+furrow, made and kept by the tread of beasts. For a long distance the
+track runs over the projecting and jagged edges of steeply-inclined
+strata of slate, which nobody has had the energy to smooth down. At many
+places on the road side were human skulls, set in niches in the bank,
+telling tales of suffering in their ghastly silence; while here and
+there a narrow passage was blocked up by the skeleton or carcass of a
+beast that had borne its last burden. At nine o'clock we came out on a
+narrow, grassy ridge called the Ensillada, or Saddleback, where there
+were three straw huts, with roofs resting on the ground, and there we
+breakfasted on _locro_. During our stay the Indians killed a pig, and
+before the creature was fairly dead dry grass was heaped upon it and set
+on fire. This is the ordinary method of removing the bristles.
+
+Still ascending, we lose sight of the valley of the Chimbo, and find
+ourselves in a wilderness of crags and treeless mountains clothed with
+the long, dreary-looking paramo grass called _paja_. But we are face to
+face with "the monarch of the Andes," and we shall have its company the
+rest of the day. The snowy dome is flooded with the golden light of
+heaven; delicate clouds of softest hues float around its breast; while,
+far below, its feet are wrapped in the baser mists of earth. We attained
+the summit of the pass at 11 A.M. All travelers strive to reach it early
+in the morning, for in the afternoon it is swept by violent winds which
+render it uncomfortable, if not dangerous. This part of the road is
+called the "Arenal," from the sand and gravel which cover it. It is
+about a league in length, and crosses the side of Chimborazo at an
+elevation of more than fourteen thousand feet. Chimborazo stands on the
+left of the traveler. How tantalizing its summit! It appears so easy of
+access; and yet many a valiant philosopher, from Humboldt down, has
+panted for the glory and failed. The depth of the snow and numerous
+precipices are the chief obstacles; but the excessively rarefied air is
+another hinderance. Even in crossing the Arenal, a native of the
+lowlands complains of violent headache, a propensity to vomit, and a
+difficulty of breathing. The Arenal is often swept by snow-storms; and
+history has it that some of the Spanish conquerors were here frozen to
+death. The pale yellow gravel is considered by some geologists as the
+moraine of a glacier. It is spread out like a broad gravel walk, so
+that, without exaggeration, one of the best roads in Ecuador has been
+made by Nature's hand on the crest of the Andes.
+
+It was interesting to trace the different hypsometrical zones by the
+change of vegetation from Bodegas to this lofty spot. The laws of the
+decrease of heat are plainly written on the rapid slopes of the
+Cordilleras. On the hot, steaming lowlands of the coast reign bananas
+and palms. As these thin out, tree-ferns take their place. Losing these,
+we found the cinchona bedewed by the cool clouds of Guaranda; and last
+of all, among the trees, the polylepis. The twisted, gnarled trunk of
+this tree, as well as its size and silvery foliage, reminded us of the
+olive, but the bark resembles that of the birch. It reaches the greatest
+elevation of any tree on the globe. Then followed shrubby fuchsia,
+calceolaria, eupatoria, and red and purple gentians; around and on the
+Arenal, a uniform mantle of monocotyledonous plants, with scattered
+tufts of valeriana, viola, and geranium, all with rigid leaves in the
+characteristic rosettes of super-alpine vegetation; and on the
+porphyritic and trachytic sides of Chimborazo, lichens alone. Snow then
+covers the last effort of vegetable life.[15] The change in the
+architecture of the houses indicated, likewise, a change of altitude.
+The open bamboo huts, shingled with banana leaves, were followed by
+warmer _adobe_ houses, and these, in turn, by the straw hovels of the
+mountain-top, made entirely of the long, wiry grass of the paramos.
+
+[Footnote 15: According to Sir J. Hooker, among the flowers which adorn
+the slopes of the Himalayas, rhododendrons occupy the most prominent
+place, and primroses next. There are no orchids, neither red gentians,
+but blue. Organic life ceases 3000 feet lower than on the Andes; yet it
+is affirmed that flowering plants occur at the height of 18,460 feet,
+which is equivalent to the summit of Chimborazo in point of temperature!
+The polylepis (_P. racemosa_) is one of the _Sanguisorbace�_; in Quichua
+it is _Sachaquinoa_.]
+
+Leaving the Arenal, we rapidly descended by the usual style of
+road--stone stairs. But down we went, as all the goods for Quito, "the
+grand capital," have done since the Spanish Conquest. The old road from
+Beir�t to Damascus is royal in comparison. The general aspect of the
+eastern slope is that of a gray, barren waste, overgrown with _paja_;
+but now and then we crossed deep gulleys, whose sides were lined with
+mosses and sprinkled with calceolarias, lupines, etc. In our descent we
+had before us the magnificent Valley of Quito, and beyond it the eastern
+Cordillera. Below us was Riobamba, and far away to the right the deep
+gorge of the Pastassa. Nevertheless, this is one of the loneliest rides
+earth can furnish. Not a tree nor human habitation is in sight. Icy
+rivulets and mule-trains are the only moving objects on this melancholy
+heath. Even "Drake's Plantation Bitters," painted on the volcanic cliffs
+of Chimborazo, would be a relief.
+
+At last we reached our rude accommodations for the night. It was a
+solitary mud tambo, glorying in the euphonious name of Chuquipoyo. The
+court-yard was a sea of mud and manure, for this is the halting-place
+for all the caravans between Quito and the coast. Our room was a horrid
+hole, dark, dirty, damp, and cold, without a window or a fire. There was
+one old rickety bedstead, but as that belonged to the lady in our party,
+the rest betook themselves to benches, table, and floor. We filled our
+stomachs with an unpalatable potato soup containing cheese and eggs, and
+laid down--to wait for the morning. Grass is the only fuel here; but
+this is not the chief reason why it is so difficult to make good tea or
+cook potatoes at this wretched tambo. Water boils at 190�, or before it
+is fairly hot: it is well the potatoes are small. The muleteers slept
+with their beasts outside, though the night was fearfully cold, for
+Chuquipoyo lies on the frigid side of Chimborazo, at an elevation of
+over twelve thousand feet above the sea. As Johnson said to Boswell,
+"This is a dolorous place."
+
+Gladly we left this cheerless tambo, though a cold, heavy mist was
+falling as we rode northward, over the seemingly endless paramo of
+Sanancajas. Here, as throughout the highlands of Ecuador, ditches are
+used for fences; so that, should the traveler wander from the path, he
+finds himself stopped by an impassable gulf. In two hours and a half we
+reached Mocha, a lifeless pueblo under the shadow of Carguairazo. Slowly
+descending from our high altitude, we gradually entered a more congenial
+climate--the zone of wheat and barley, till, finally, signs of an
+eternal spring were all around us--ripening corn on one side, and
+blossoming peas on the other.
+
+Late in the afternoon the road led us through a sandy, sterile tract,
+till suddenly we came in sight of Ambato, beautifully situated in a deep
+ravine, eight thousand five hundred and fifty feet above the Pacific.
+The city ranks next to Quito in beauty. It is certainly an oasis, the
+green foliage of its numerous shade-trees and orchards contrasting with
+the barren hills around. It is two degrees warmer than Quito, and is
+famous for its fruit and fine climate. It is the Lynn of Ecuador, the
+chief articles of manufacture being boots and shoes--cheap, but of poor
+quality. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1698. The houses are built
+of sun-dried brick, and whitewashed. The streets, with gutters in the
+centre, are at right angles, and paved, and adorned with numerous
+cypress-looking trees, called _sauce_, a species of willow. The Plaza,
+which contains a useful if not ornamental fountain, presents a lively
+scene on Sunday, the great market-day. The inn is a fair specimen of a
+public house in Spanish America. Around the court-yard, where the beasts
+are fed, are three or four rooms to let. They are ventilated only when
+opened for travelers. The floor is of brick, but alive with fleas; the
+walls are plastered, but veiled with cobwebs. The furniture, of
+primitive make and covered with dust, consists of a chair or two, a
+table, and a bed of boards covered with a thin straw mat. There is not a
+hotel in Ecuador where sheets and towels are furnished. The landlords
+are seldom seen; the entire management of the concern is left to a
+slovenly Indian boy, who is both cook and hostler. No amount of bribery
+will secure a meal in less than two hours. Ten years ago there was not a
+posada in the country; now there is entertainment for man and beast at
+Guayaquil, Guaranda, Mocha, Ambato, Tacunga, Machachi, and Quito.
+Riobamba has a billiard saloon, but no inn.
+
+Leaving Ambato, we breakfasted at Cunchebamba, an Indian village of half
+a dozen straw huts. Thence the road for a long distance winds through
+vast deposits of volcanic _d�bris_, the only sign of vegetation being
+hedges of aloe and cactus. Arid hills and dreary plains, covered with
+plutonic rocks and pumice dust, tell us we are approaching the most
+terrible volcano on the earth. Crossing the sources of the Pastassa, we
+entered Latacunga,[16] situated on a beautiful plain at the foot of
+Cotopaxi, seven hundred feet higher than Ambato. Its average temperature
+is 59�. The population, chiefly Indians, numbers about fifteen thousand.
+It is the dullest city in Ecuador, without the show of enterprise or
+business. Not even grass grows in the streets--the usual sign of life in
+the Spanish towns. It is also one of the filthiest; and though it has
+been many times thoroughly shaken by earthquakes, and buried under
+showers of volcanic dust, it is still the paradise of fleas, which have
+survived every revolution. Ida Pfeiffer says that, after a night's rest
+in Latacunga, she awoke with her skin marked all over with red spots, as
+if from an eruptive disease. We can certify that we have been tattoed
+without the night's rest. The town has a most stupid and forlorn aspect.
+Half of it is in ruins. It was four times destroyed between 1698 and
+1797. In 1756 the Jesuit church was thrown down, though its walls were
+five feet thick. The houses are of one story, and built of pumice,
+widely different from the palaces and temples which are said to have
+stood here in the palmy days of the Incas. Cotopaxi stands threateningly
+near, and its rumbling thunder is the source of constant alarm.
+
+[Footnote 16: This is shortened in parlance to Tacunga. The full name,
+according to La Condamine, is _Llacta-cunga_, _llacta_ meaning country,
+and _cunga_, neck.]
+
+From Latacunga to Quito there is a very fine carriage road, the result
+of one man's administration--Se�or G. Garcia Moreno. For many miles it
+passes over an uncultivated plateau, strewn with volcanic fragments. The
+farms are confined to the slopes of the Cordilleras, and, as every where
+else, the tumbling haciendas indicate the increasing poverty of the
+owner. Superstition and indolence go hand in hand. On a great rock
+rising out of the sandy plain they show a print of the foot of St.
+Bartholomew, who alighted here on a visit--surely to the volcanoes, as
+it was long before the red man had found this valley. Abreast of
+Cotopaxi the road cuts through high hills of fine pumice
+inter-stratified with black earth, and rapidly ascends till it reaches
+Tiupullo, eleven thousand five hundred feet above the sea. This high
+ridge,[17] stretching across the valley from Cotopaxi to Iliniza, is a
+part of the great water-shed of the continent--the waters on the
+southern slope flowing through the Pastassa and Amazon to the Atlantic,
+those on the north finding their way to the Pacific by the Rio
+Esmeraldas. At this bleak place we breakfasted on punch and guinea-pig.
+
+[Footnote 17: Sometimes called _Chisinche_.]
+
+As soon as we began to descend, the glittering cone of Cotopaxi, and the
+gloomy plain it has so often devastated, passed out of view, and before
+us was a green valley exceedingly rich and well cultivated, girt by a
+wall of mountains, the towers of which were the peaks of Corazon and
+Rumi�agui. Loathsome lepers by the wayside alone disturbed the pleasing
+impression. Three hours more of travel brought us to the straggling
+village of Machachi, standing in the centre of the beautiful plain, at
+an altitude of nine thousand nine hundred feet. Nature designed this
+spot for a home of plenty and comfort, but the habitations of the
+wretched proprietors are windowless adobe hovels, thatched with dried
+grass, and notorious for their filth.
+
+We must needs make one more ascent, for the ridge of Tambillo hides the
+goal of our journey. The moment we reached the summit, views
+unparalleled in the Andes or any where else met our astonished vision
+whithersoever we looked. Far away to the south stretched the two
+Cordilleras, till they were lost in the mist which enshrouded Chimborazo
+and Tunguragua. Turning to the north, we beheld the city of Quito at our
+feet, and Pichincha and Antisana standing like gallant sentinels on
+either side of the proud capital. Beautiful were the towering mountains,
+and almost as delightful now are the memories of that hour. A broad,
+well-traveled road, gentlemen on horseback clad in rich ponchos, droves
+of Indians bowed under their heavy burdens, and long lines of laden
+donkeys hurrying to and fro, indicate our approach to a great city.
+Winding with the road through green pastures and fields of ripening
+grain, and crossing the Mach�ngara by an elegant bridge, we enter the
+city of the Incas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+     Early History of Quito.--Its Splendor under the Incas.--Crushed by
+     Spain.--Dying now.--Situation.--Altitude.--Streets.--Buildings.
+
+
+Quito is better known than Ecuador. Its primeval history, however, is
+lost in obscurity. In the language of Prescott, "the mists of fable have
+settled as darkly round its history as round that of any nation, ancient
+or modern, in the Old World." Founded, nobody knows when, by the kings
+of the Quitus, it was conquered about the year 1000 by a more civilized
+race, the Cara nation, who added to it by conquest and alliance. The
+fame of the region excited the cupidity of the Incas of Peru, and during
+the reign of Cacha (1475), Huayna-Capac the Great moved his army from
+Cuzco, and by the celebrated battle of Hatuntaqui, in which Cacha was
+killed, Quito was added to the realm of the Incas. Huayna-Capac made
+Quito his residence, and reigned there thirty-eight years--the most
+brilliant epoch in the annals of the city. At his death his kingdom was
+divided, one son, Atahuallpa,[18] reigning in Quito, and Huascar at
+Cuzco. Civil war ensued, in which the latter was defeated, and
+Atahuallpa was chosen Inca of the whole empire, 1532. During this war
+Pizarro arrived at Tumbez. Every body knows what followed. Strangled at
+Caxamarca, the body of Atahuallpa was carried to Quito, the city of his
+birth, in compliance with his dying wish, and buried there with imposing
+obsequies. Refounded by Benalcazar in 1534, Quito was created an
+imperial city by Charles V. seven years later. It formed part of Peru
+till 1710; then of Santa F� till 1722; and again of Peru till its
+independence. The power of Spain in South America was destroyed at the
+battle of Ayacucho, Dec. 9, 1824. In 1830 Venezuela separated from
+Colombia, and Ecuador followed the same year. The first Congress was
+held in Riobamba; but Quito has ever since been the political focus. The
+first president was General Flores.
+
+[Footnote 18: The son of his Quito love. The name was first written
+_Atauhuallpa_, meaning fortunate in war; after the fratricide, he was
+called _Atahuallpa_, or game-cock. He was the Boabdil of this occidental
+Granada. He is called traitor by Peruvian writers, and is not admitted
+by them into the list of their Incas.]
+
+Under the diadem of the Incas, Quito assumed a magnificence which it
+never saw before and has not displayed since. It was the worthy
+metropolis of a vast empire stretching from the equator to the desert of
+Atacama, and walled in by the grandest group of mountains in the world.
+On this lofty site, which amid the Alps would be buried in an avalanche
+of snow, but within the tropics enjoys an eternal spring, palaces more
+beautiful than the Alhambra were erected, glittering with the gold and
+emerald of the Andes. But all this splendor passed away with the sceptre
+of Atahuallpa. Where the pavilion of the Inca stood is now a gloomy
+convent, and a wheat-field takes the place of the Temple of the Sun.
+
+The colonial history of this favored spot is as lifeless as the history
+of Sahara. Not a single event occurred of which even Spain can be proud;
+not a monument was raised which reflects any credit upon the mother
+country. Every thing was prescribed by law, and all law emanated from a
+tribunal five thousand miles distant. There was no relation of private
+life with which the government did not interfere: what the colonist
+should plant and what trade he should follow; where he should buy and
+where he should sell; how much he should import and export; and where
+and when he should marry, were regulated by the "Council of the Indies"
+and the Inquisition. In the words of a native writer, "The great
+majority of the people knew nothing of sciences, events, or men. Their
+religion consisted of outward observances, and an imperfect knowledge of
+the papal bulls; their morality, in asceticism and devotion to their
+king; their philosophy, in the subtleties of Aristotle; their history,
+in the history of the mother country; their geography, in the maps of
+Spanish America and of Spain; their press, in what sufficed to print
+bill-heads and blank forms; their commerce, in an insignificant coasting
+trade; their ambition and highest aspirations, in titles of nobility;
+their amusements, in bull-fights. The arrival of a mail was an event of
+great moment, and with ringing of bells was received the _cajon de
+Espa�a_ which announced the health of the sovereigns. Thus, while Europe
+was passing through the stormy times of Louis XIV.; while the
+philosophical writings of the illustrious men of those times found their
+way into the remotest corners of the globe; while the English colonies
+of North America conquered their independence; while the Old World was
+drenched in blood to propagate the ideas which the French Revolution had
+proclaimed, the Presidency of Quito, walled in by its immense
+cordilleras and the ocean, and ruled by monkish ignorance and bigotry,
+knew as little of men and events as we now know of men and events in the
+moon."[19]
+
+[Footnote 19: _Geografia de la Rep�blica del Ecuador, por Dr.
+Villavicencio._ This work abounds with erroneous and exaggerated
+statements, but it is nevertheless a valuable contribution to Ecuadorian
+literature.]
+
+From an iron despotism which existed for three centuries, Quito passed
+to a state of unbridled licentiousness. Without any political experience
+whatever, the people attempted to lay the foundation of a new system of
+government and society. With head and hearts perverted by monkish
+superstition and Spanish tyranny, yet set on fire by the French
+Revolution, what did they know of liberty! Endless civil wars have
+followed independence. "Political ambition," says a late United States
+minister, "personal jealousies, impracticable theories, official
+venality, reckless disregard of individual rights and legal obligations,
+foolish meddling and empirical legislation, and an absolute want of
+political morality, form the principal features of their republican
+history."[20] To-day they tread on the dust of an ancient race whose
+government was in every respect a most complete contrast to their own.
+
+[Footnote 20: _Four Years among Spanish Americans, by Hon. F.
+Hassaurek_: a truthful work, to which we refer the reader for details,
+especially concerning Ecuadorian life and manners.]
+
+At the foot of volcanic Pichincha, only five hours' travel from its
+smoking crater, lies "the city above the clouds," "the navel of the
+world," "magnificent Quito." On the north is the plain of Rumibamba, the
+battle-field where Gonzalo Pizarro routed the first viceroy of Peru, and
+the scene, two centuries later, of the nobler achievements of La
+Condamine, which made it the classic ground of astronomy. On the
+southern edge of the city rises Panecillo, reminding one of Mount Tabor
+by its symmetrical form, and over-looking the beautiful and well-watered
+plain of Turubamba. On the east flows the Rio Mach�ngara, and just
+beyond it stand the Puengasi hills hiding the Chillo valley, while the
+weary sun goes early to rest behind the towering peaks of Pichincha. So
+encircled is this sequestered spot, the traveler, approaching by the
+Guayaquil road, sees only a part of it, and is disappointed; and even
+when standing on Panecillo, with the entire city spread out before him,
+he is not wholly satisfied. Buried between treeless, sombre sierras, and
+isolated from the rest of the world by impassable roads and gigantic
+Cordilleras, Quito appears to us of the commercial nineteenth century as
+useless as the old feudal towns perched on the mountains of Middle
+Europe. Not a chimney rises above the red-tiled roofs, telling of
+homely hearths beneath. No busy hum greets the ear; there are bugles
+instead of spindles, and jingling church bells in place of rattling
+carriages. The wandering eye does not look for a railroad or a
+telegraph, for even the highways, such as they are, seem deserted, and,
+save the music made for soldiers and saints, all is silent. The very
+mountains, too, with their snow-mantled heads, and their sides scarred
+by volcanic eruptions and ruptured by earthquake shocks, have a
+melancholy look. In the words of a great artist, "They look like a world
+from which not only the human, but the spiritual presences had perished,
+and the last of the archangels, building the great Andes for their
+monuments, had laid themselves down to eternal rest, each in his
+snow-white shroud."
+
+But let us enter. Passing the ruined chapel "Del Se�or del buen pasaje,"
+and crossing by a substantial stone bridge the little Mach�ngara
+hastening to pay tribute to the Pacific, we leave behind us the dirty,
+dilapidated suburbs of the capital. Soon we cross another bridge--the
+Bridge of Buzzards--spanning a deep ravine, and gallop through the Plaza
+de Santo Domingo. Very different are the sights and sounds from the stir
+and style of Central Park. The scene has a semi-oriental cast--half
+Indian, half Egyptian, as if this were the confluence of the Mara�on and
+Nile. Groups of men--not crowds, for there is plenty of elbow-room in
+Ecuador--in gay ponchos stand chatting in front of little shops, or lean
+against the wall to enjoy the sunshine; beggars in rags or sackcloth
+stretch forth their leprous hands for charity; monks in white, and
+canons in black, walk in the shade of immense hats; shoeless soldiers
+saunter to and fro; Indians from the mountains in every variety of
+costume cluster around heaps of vegetables for sale; women in red,
+brown, and blue frocks are peddling oranges and alligator pears, or
+bearing huge burdens on their heads; children, guiltless of clothing,
+and obtuse donkeys, wander whithersoever they will; and water-carriers,
+filling their jars at the fountain, start off on a dog-trot.
+
+[Illustration: Quito, from the North.]
+
+We cross the Plaza diagonally, pass down the Calle de San Fernando, up
+the Calle del Algodon, and through the busy Calle del Correo, till we
+reach the _Casa Frances_, opposite the mansion of the late General
+Flores. This is our hotel--owned by a Frenchman, but kept by an Indian.
+We ride under the low archway, bowing with ill grace, like all
+republicans unaccustomed to royalty, tie our beasts in the court-yard,
+ascend to our spacious quarters on the second floor, and, ordering
+coffee, seat ourselves in the beautiful balcony to talk of Quito and
+Quitonians.
+
+[Illustration: Water-carriers.]
+
+Quito, though not the highest city on the globe, is two thousand feet
+higher than the Hospice of Great St. Bernard on the Alps, which is the
+only permanent place of abode in Europe above six thousand five hundred
+feet. When Mr. Hassaurek was appointed United States Minister to
+Ecuador, he thanked Mr. Lincoln for conferring upon him the _highest_
+gift in his power. The mean result of our numerous observations with
+Green's standard barometer places the Grand Plaza nine thousand five
+hundred and twenty feet above the sea, or fifty feet lower than the
+calculation of Humboldt. Water boils at 194�.5. Cuzco and Potosi may
+surpass it in altitude, but there is not a city in the world which can
+show at once such a genial climate, such magnificent views, and such a
+checkered history. It is unique likewise in its latitude, lying only
+fifteen miles below the equator; no other capital comes within three
+hundred miles of the equinoctial line.
+
+[Illustration: Street in Quito.]
+
+Whatever may have been the plan of Quito in the days of Huayna-Capac, it
+is evident that the Spanish founders were guided more by the spurs of
+Pichincha than by astronomy. The streets make an angle of forty-five
+degrees with the meridian, so that not a single public building faces
+any one of the four cardinal points of the compass. Two deep ravines
+come down the mountain, and traverse the city from west to east. They
+are mostly covered by arches, on which the houses rest; but where they
+are open, they disclose as fit representatives of the place of torment
+as the Valley of Hinnom. The outline of the city is as irregular as its
+surface. It incloses one square mile. Twenty streets, all of them
+straiter than the apostolic one in Damascus, cross one another very
+nearly at right angles. None of them are too wide, and the walks are
+painfully narrow; but, thanks to Garcia Moreno, they are well paved. The
+inequality of the site, and its elevation above the Mach�ngara, render
+the drainage perfect.[21] The streets are dimly lighted by tallow
+candles, every householder being obliged to hang out a lantern at 7
+P.M., unless there is moonshine. The candles, however, usually expire
+about ten o'clock. There are three "squares"--Plaza Mayor, Plaza de San
+Francisco, and Plaza de Santo Domingo. The first is three hundred feet
+square, and adorned with trees and flowers; the others are dusty and
+unpaved, being used as market-places, where Indians and donkeys most do
+congregate. All the plazas have fountains fed with pure water from
+Pichincha.
+
+[Footnote 21: The following quotation, however, is true to the letter,
+and will apply equally well to Guayaquil and to Madrid--the mother of
+them both: "There is another want still more embarrassing in Quito than
+the want of hotels--it is the want of water-closets and privies, which
+are not considered as necessary fixtures of private residences. Men,
+women, and children, of all ages and colors, may be seen in the middle
+of the street, in broad daylight, making privies of the most public
+thoroughfares; and while thus engaged, they will stare into the faces of
+passers-by with a shamelessness that beggars description."--_Hassaurek_.]
+
+Few buildings can boast of architectural beauty, yet Quito looks
+palatial to the traveler who has just emerged from the dense forest on
+the coast, "crossing bridgeless rivers, floundering over bottomless
+roads, and ascending and descending immense mountains." He is astonished
+to find such elegant edifices and such a proud aristocracy in this lofty
+lap of the Andes. The Indian habitations which girdle the city have no
+more architectural pretensions than an Arab dwelling. They are low mud
+hovels, the scene within and without of dirt and disorder.
+
+As we approach the Grand Plaza, the centre of the city, the buildings
+increase in size, style, and finish. The ordinary material is adobe, not
+only because it is cheap, but also because it best resists earthquake
+shocks. Fear of a _terremoto_ has likewise led to a massiveness in
+construction which is slightly ludicrous when we see the poverty which
+it protects; the walls are often two or three feet thick. The ground
+floor is occupied by servants, whose rooms--small enough to be called
+niches--surround the paved court-yard, which is entered from the street
+by a broad doorway. Within this court is sometimes a fountain or
+flower-plot. Around it are arches or pillars supporting a gallery, which
+is the passage-way to the apartments of the second story. All the rooms
+are floored with large square bricks. With few exceptions, the only
+windows are folding glass doors leading to balconies overhanging the
+pavement. The tiled roofs project far over into the street, and from
+these project still farther uncouth water-spouts, such as used to be
+seen in Rio Janeiro, but have now been banished to the antiquarian
+museum. Only three or four private residences rise above two stories.
+The shops are small affairs--akin to the cupboards of Damascene
+merchants; half a dozen modern ladies can keep out any more customers.
+The door serves as entrance, exit, window, and show-case. The finest
+structures cluster around the plazas. Here are the public buildings,
+some of them dating back to the times of Philip II. They are modeled
+after the old Spanish style; there is scarcely a fragment of Gothic
+architecture. They are built of large brick, or a dark volcanic stone
+from Pichincha.
+
+[Illustration: Palacio de Gobierno--Capitol.]
+
+The Government House, which serves at once as "White House" and Capitol,
+is an imposing edifice fronting the Grand Plaza, and adorned with a fine
+colonnade. On its right rises the cathedral; on the left stands the
+unpretending palace of the nuncio. The former would be called beautiful
+were it kept in repair; it has a splendid marble porch, and a terrace
+with carved stone balustrade. The view above was taken from this
+terrace. The finest fa�ade is presented by the old Jesuit church, which
+has an elaborate front of porphyry. The Church of San Francisco, built
+by the treasures of Atahuallpa, discovered by an Indian named Catuna, is
+the richest. It is surmounted by two lofty towers, and the interior is a
+perfect blaze of gilding. The monastery attached to it is one of the
+largest in the world, but the greater part of it is in ruins, and one of
+the wings is used as a barrack. Those unsightly, unadorned convents,
+which cling to every church save the cathedral, have neutralized nearly
+all architectural effect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+     Population of
+     Quito.--Dress.--Manners.--Character.--Commerce.--Agriculture.
+     --Manufactures.--Arts.--Education.--Amusements.--Quito Ladies.
+
+
+Quitonians claim for their capital eighty thousand inhabitants; but when
+we consider that one fourth of the city is covered with ecclesiastical
+buildings, and that the dwelling-houses are but two stories high, we see
+that there is not room for more than half that number. From thirty
+thousand to forty thousand is the estimate of the venerable Dr. Jameson,
+who has resided here for a generation.[22] Census taking is as difficult
+as in Constantinople; the people hide themselves to escape taxation. The
+women far outnumber the men. The white population--a stiff aristocracy
+of eight thousand souls--is of Spanish descent, but not more than half a
+dozen can boast of pure blood. The coarse black hair, prominent
+cheek-bones, and low foreheads, reveal an Indian alliance. This is the
+governing class; from its ranks come those uneasy politicians who make
+laws for other people to obey, and hatch revolutions when a rival party
+is in power. They are blessed with fair mental capacity, quick
+perception, and uncommon civility; but they lack education and industry,
+energy and perseverance. Their wealth, which is not great, consists
+mainly in _haciendas_, yielding grain, cotton, and cattle. The Aguirre
+family is one of the noblest and wealthiest in the city; their mansion
+is on the Grand Plaza, facing the Capitol. The pure Indians of Quito
+number perhaps 10,000; not all those seen in the city are citizens, as
+many _serranos_, or mountaineers, come in to sell produce. They are the
+serfs that do the drudgery of the republic; they are the tillers of the
+soil, and beasts of burden. Many sell themselves for money in advance,
+and then are ever kept in debt. Excepting a few Zambos (the children of
+Indians and Negroes), and a very few foreigners and Negroes, the
+remainder, constituting the bulk of the population, are Cholos--the
+offspring of whites and Indians. They are not strictly half-breeds, for
+the Indian element stands out most prominent. Though a mixed race, they
+are far superior to their progenitors in enterprise and intelligence.
+They are the soldiers, artisans, and tradesmen who keep up the only
+signs of life in Quito. "I know not the reason," says Darwin, "but men
+of such origin seldom have a good expression of countenance." This may
+be true on the pampas, but Quito, where there is every imaginable
+mixture of Indian and Spaniard, is wonderfully free from ugly features.
+It may be owing to the more peaceful and civilized history of this
+mountain city.
+
+[Footnote 22: Spanish rhetoric is given to exaggeration. "All their
+geese are swans." A Peruvian assured us that Cuzco contained 200,000
+souls. It is, in fact, about as large as Quito; Gibbon says 20,000.]
+
+As to dress, black is the color of etiquette, but is not so national as
+in Madrid. The upper class follow _la mode de Paris_, gentlemen adding
+the classic cloak of Old Spain. This modern toga fits an Ecuadorian
+admirably; it favors habits of inactivity, preventing the arms from
+doing any thing, and covers a multitude of sins, especially pride and
+poverty. The _poncho_, so peculiar to the West Coast and to the Gauchos
+of Buenos Ayres, is a piece of cloth of divers colors, with a slit in
+the centre, through which the head is passed. It is the only variable
+article of the wardrobe. It is an excellent riding habit, and is made of
+heavy woolen for mountain travel, and of silk or cotton for warmer
+altitudes. No gentleman will be seen walking in the streets of Quito
+under a poncho. Hence citizens are divided into men with ponchos, and
+gentlemen with cloaks. The pa�uelon is the most essential article of
+female gear. It answers to the mantilla of the mother country, though it
+is not worn so gracefully as on the banks of the Tagus. Andean ladies
+are not troubled with the distressing fluctuations in the style of hats;
+a bonnet in Quito is as much out of place as a turban in New York. When
+the daughter of our late minister resident appeared in the cathedral
+with one, the innovation was the subject of severe remark. The Spanish
+hair is the glory of the sex. It is thick and black (red, being a
+rarity, is considered a beauty), and is braided in two long tresses. A
+silk dress, satin shoes, and fancy jewelry complete the visible attire
+of the belles of Quito.
+
+The ordinary costume of the Indians and Cholos consists of a coarse
+cotton shirt and drawers, and silk, cotton, or woolen poncho of native
+manufacture, the females adding a short petticoat, generally of a light
+blue or "butter-nut" color, belted around the waist with a figured
+woolen belt woven by themselves. The head, arms, legs, and feet are
+often bare, but, by those who can afford it, the head is covered with a
+straw or white felt broad-brim, and the feet protected by sandals,
+called _alpargates_, made of the fibres of the aloe. They are very fond
+of bracelets and necklaces. Infants are usually swathed from neck to
+feet with a broad strip of cloth, so that they look like live mummies.
+
+Quitonians put us to shame by their unequaled courtesy, cordiality, and
+good-nature, and are not far below the grave and decorous Castilian in
+dignified politeness.[23]
+
+[Footnote 23: "I must express my admiration at the natural politeness of
+almost every Chileno. We met, near Mendoza, a little and very fat
+negress, riding astride on a mule. She had a _go�tre_ so enormous that
+it was scarcely possible to avoid gazing at her for a moment; but my two
+companions almost instantly, by way of apology, made the common salute
+of the country by taking off their hats. Where would one of the lower or
+higher classes in Europe have shown such feeling politeness to a poor
+and miserable object of a degraded race?"--_Darwin's Naturalist's
+Voyage._]
+
+Rudeness, which some Northerners fancy is a proof of equality and
+independence, we never met with, and duels and street quarrels are
+almost unknown. We detected none of the touchy sensitiveness of the
+punctilious Spanish _hidalgos_. Their compliments and promises are
+without end; and, made in the magnificent and ceremonious language of
+Spain,[24] are overwhelming to a stranger. Thus a fair Quitonian sends
+by her servant the following message to another lady: "Go to the
+Se�orita Fulana de Tal, and tell her that she is my heart and the dear
+little friend of my soul; tell her that I am dying for not having seen
+her, and ask her why she does not come to see me; tell her that I have
+been waiting for her more than a week, and that I send her my best
+respects and considerations; and ask her how she is, and how her husband
+is, and how her children are, and whether they are all well in the
+family; and tell her she is my little love, and ask her whether she will
+be kind enough to send me that pattern which she promised me the other
+day."[25] This highly important message the servant delivers like a
+parrot, not omitting a single compliment, but rather adding thereto.
+
+[Footnote 24: The Spanish tongue is the manly son of the Latin, as the
+Italian is the fair daughter; a language in which, as Charles V. said,
+"God ought alone to be addressed in prayer." It is spoken in America
+with an Andalusian rather than Toledan pronunciation.]
+
+[Footnote 25: We are indebted to Mr. Hassaurek for this capital
+illustration. Every lady, married or unmarried, is addressed _Se�orita_,
+or Miss.]
+
+A newly-arrived foreigner is covered with promises: houses, horses,
+servants, yea, every thing is at his disposal. But, alas! the traveler
+soon finds that this ceremony of words does not extend to deeds. He is
+never expected to call for the services so pompously proffered. So long
+as he stays in Quito he will not lose sight of the contrast between big
+promise and beggarly performance. This outward civility, however, is not
+hypocritical; it is mere mechanical prattle; the speaker does not expect
+to be taken at his word. The love of superlatives and the want of good
+faith may be considered as prominent characteristics. "The readiness
+with which they break a promise or an agreement (wrote Colonel Hall
+forty years ago) can only be equaled by the sophistical ingenuity with
+which they defend themselves for having done so." The Quitonians, who
+are sensible of their shortcomings, have this standing apology: "Our
+vices we owe to Spain; our virtues to ourselves."[26]
+
+[Footnote 26: "When speaking of these countries, the manner in which
+they have been brought up by their unnatural parent, Spain, should
+always be borne in mind. On the whole, perhaps, more credit is due for
+what has been done, than blame for that which may be
+deficient."--_Darwin's Journal of Researches_, p. 158.]
+
+Such is the mutual distrust, partnerships are almost unknown; we do not
+remember a single commercial firm, save a few made up of brothers, or
+father and son. With this moral debility is joined the procrastinating
+spirit of the oriental. _Ma�ana_ (to-morrow), like the _Boukra_ of the
+Arabs, is the universal winding up of promises. And very often, if one
+promises a thing to-morrow, he means the day after that. It is
+impossible to start a man into prompt compliance; he will not commence a
+piece of work when you wish nor when he promises. No amount of cajolery,
+bribery, or threats will induce a Quitonian to do any thing or be any
+where in season. If there were a railroad in Ecuador, every body would
+be too late for the first train. There are only one or two watch-tinkers
+in the great city, and, as may be inferred, very few watches are in
+running order. As a consequence, the people have very little idea of
+time. But this is not the sole reason for their dilatoriness; they are
+indifferent. Nobody seems to want to make money (though all are in sad
+need of it); nobody is in a hurry; nobody is busy save the tailors, who
+manifest a commendable diligence. Contempt for labor, a Spanish
+inheritance, and lack of energy, are traits which stand out in _alto
+relievo_.
+
+One can form his own judgment of the spiritless people from the single
+statement which we have from Dr. Jameson, that during the last forty
+years not ten Quitonians have visited the grand crater of Pichincha,
+though it is possible to ride horseback to its very edge. Plenty of
+gentlemen by profession walk the streets and cathedral terrace, proud as
+a Roman senator under his toga, yet not ashamed to beg a cup of coffee
+at the door of a more fortunate fellow-citizen. Society is in a constant
+struggle between ostentation and want.
+
+Nature has done more for Ecuador than for Ecuadorians. She laid out this
+beautiful valley for an Elysian field; "de Quito al Cielo" (from Quito
+to Heaven) is not an empty adage; and it is painful to look upon
+tottering walls and impassable roads, upon neglected fields and an idle
+population--poor as poverty in the lap of boundless natural wealth. The
+only really live man in the republic is the president, Se�or G. Garcia
+Moreno, a man of wide views and great energy, standing in these respects
+head and shoulders above his fellow-citizens. Quito and Quito Valley owe
+nearly all their improvements to this one man.
+
+It is easy to say what would be the industry of a people who spend much
+of their time repeating traditions of treasures buried by the Incas, and
+stories of gold deposits in the mountains. Of commerce there is scarcely
+enough to deserve the name. Quito is an ecclesiastical city, and is
+nearly supported by Guayaquil. Without capital, without energy, without
+business habits, Quitonians never embark in grand commercial schemes
+and industrial enterprises. There is not a highway for commerce in any
+direction, only a natural path (called by the innocent natives a road),
+which rises to the altitude of fourteen thousand feet, by which the
+beasts of burden pick their way over the Cordillera. And this is open
+only six months in the year. Should a box designed for Quito arrive at
+Guayaquil at the beginning of the rainy season, it must tarry half a
+year till _Nature_ makes the road passable.
+
+The unstable condition of the country does not encourage great
+undertakings; all business is periodically paralyzed by revolution.
+Merchants generally buy their goods in Lima, to which city and Guayaquil
+the fabrics of England and France are brought by foreigners in foreign
+ships. The shops of Quito, as we have remarked, are very small, without
+windows, and with only one wooden door. The door is double, and is
+fastened by a ponderous padlock. They are open from 7 A.M. till sunset,
+excepting between nine and ten and between three and four, when the
+stores are closed for breakfast and dinner; the merchants never trusting
+their clerks, even when they have any, which is not usually the case.
+They have no fixed price, but get what they can. The majority know
+nothing of wholesale, and refuse to sell by the quantity, fearing a
+cheat. An Indian woman will sell you a real's worth of oranges any
+number of times, but she would object to parting with a dollar's
+worth--her arithmetic can not comprehend it.
+
+In the _portals_ or arcades of the Aguirre mansion and the nuncio's
+palace are the stalls of the haberdashers. Articles are not wrapped in
+paper; customers must get them home the best way they can. Ladies of the
+higher class seldom go out shopping, but send for samples. It is
+considered disgraceful to either sex to be seen carrying any thing
+through the streets of Quito. The common people buy only for immediate
+wants--a dose of medicine, or a handful of potatoes at a time. Nearly
+all liquids, kerosene as well as wine, are sold by the bottle.
+
+There was no bank in Quito in 1867, but an attempt has just been made to
+establish one. The paper money of Guayaquil is often at nine per cent.
+discount in the capital. The currency is silver adulterated with one
+third of copper. The smallest coin, the cal�, is worth about two and a
+half cents. Above that are medios (five cents), reals (ten cents), two,
+four, and eight reals. Eight reals make a soft dollar ($0 80); ten
+reals, a hard dollar ($1 00). There is no copper coin--oranges and
+loaves of bread are sometimes used to make change; and nearly all the
+gold in circulation are New Granada _condors_ and Peruvian _onzas_. Many
+of the silver pieces have large holes cut in the centre, so that they
+resemble rings. Government set the example (and the people followed) on
+the plea that it would prevent the exportation of coin. The plan has
+succeeded, for it does not pass out of the valley.
+
+Nearly the only sign of progress is the late introduction of the grape
+and silk-worm; and these give so much promise of success that the
+threadbare nobility have already begun to count their coming fortunes.
+Husbandry is more pastoral than agricultural. Thousands of cattle are
+raised on the paramos, but almost wholly for beef. "A dislike to milk
+(observes Humboldt), or at least the absence of its use before the
+arrival of Europeans, was, generally speaking, a feature common to all
+nations of the New Continent, as likewise to the inhabitants of China."
+Some cheese (mostly unpressed curd) and a little butter are made, but in
+the patriarchal style. Only one American churn is in operation; the
+people insist upon first boiling the milk and then stirring with a
+spoon. Custom is omnipotent here, and its effects hereditary. Milking is
+done at any hour of the day, or whenever milk is wanted. The operation
+is a formidable one to these bull-fighting people. Stopping at a
+hacienda near Pelil�o for a drink of milk, we were eye-witness of a
+comical sight. A mild-looking cow was driven up to the door; the woman,
+evidently the bravest member of the household, seized the beast by the
+horns; a boy tied the hind legs with a long rope, and held on to one end
+of it at a respectful distance; while the father, with outstretched
+arms, milked into a calabash.
+
+Agricultural machinery is not in use. The first threshing-machine Quito
+ever saw was made in 1867 by some California miners, but it remained
+unsold when we last saw it. The spade is not known; the nearest approach
+to it is a crowbar flattened at one end. Hoes are clumsy and awkward.
+Yankee plows are bought more as curiosities than for use. Many a crooked
+stick is seen scratching the land, as in Egypt, which the cattle drag by
+their horns. Sometimes a number of sharp-nosed hogs are tied together
+and let into a field, and driven from place to place till the whole is
+rooted up. Corn is planted by making holes in the ground with a stick,
+and dropping in the seed. The soil and climate of Ecuador, so infinitely
+varied, offer a home to almost every useful plant. The productions of
+either India could be naturalized on the lowlands, while the highlands
+would welcome the grains and fruits of Europe. But intertropical people
+do not subdue nature like the civilized men of the North; they only pick
+up a livelihood.
+
+Spanish Americans, like Castilians on the banks of the Tagus, have a
+singular antipathy to trees. When Garcia Moreno made a park of the dusty
+Plaza Mayor, he was ridiculed, even threatened. To plant a fruit or
+shade tree (a thing of foresight and forethought for others) in a land
+where people live for self, and from hand to mouth, is considered
+downright folly in theory and practice. A large portion of the valley,
+left treeless, is becoming less favorable for cultivation.
+
+Yet, as it is, the traveler is charmed by the emerald verdure of the
+coast, and by "evergreen Quito"--more beautiful than the hanging gardens
+of Babylon--suspended far above the ordinary elevation of the clouds. In
+the San Francisco market we find wheat, barley, maize, beans, peas,
+potatoes, cabbages, beets, salads, pine-apples, chirimoyas, guavas,
+oranges, lemons, pears, quinces, peaches, apricots, melons, and
+strawberries--the last all the year round. Most of these are exotics;
+the early discoverers found not a cereal grain of the Old World, not an
+orange or apple, no sugar-cane or strawberries.[27]
+
+[Footnote 27: The vase is still shown in which Father Rixi brought the
+first wheat from Europe. It was sown in what is now the San Francisco
+Plaza, the chief market-place of the city.]
+
+There is but little manufacturing industry in the interior of Ecuador,
+but much more than on the coast. The chief articles manufactured are
+straw hats, shoes, baskets, carpets, embroidery, tape, thread, ponchos,
+coarse woolen and cotton cloth, saddles, sandals, soap, sugar, cigars,
+aguardiente, powder, sweetmeats, carved images, paints, and pottery.
+Wines, crockery, glassware, cutlery, silks, and fine cloth are imported.
+There are three cotton mills in the country; one in Chillo (established
+by Se�ors Aguirre in 1842), another in Otovalo (built by Se�or Parija in
+1859), and a third in Cuenca (1861). The machinery of the Chillo factory
+came from England; that of Otovalo from Patterson, N.J. The latter was
+utterly destroyed in the late great earthquake, and the proprietor
+killed. The cotton is inferior to that of New Orleans; it is not "fat,"
+as mechanics say; the seeds yield only two per cent. of oil. But it is
+whiter than American cotton, though coarse, and can be used only for
+very ordinary fabrics. The average length is five eighths of an inch.
+One pod will produce on an average three pennyweights. The mills of
+Chillo and Otovalo consume 425,000 pounds annually. The first sugar-mill
+was erected by the Aguirres in 1840 at Nanegal.
+
+[Illustration: Indian Dwellings.]
+
+Quito is more than a century behind this age of steam and lightning. To
+form an adequate idea of the mechanic and fine arts in that "city of the
+kings," we must transport ourselves to the Saxon period of European
+civilization. Both the material and the construction of the houses would
+craze Sir Christopher Wren. With fine quarries close at hand, they must
+build with mud mixed with stones, or plastered on wattles, like the
+Druses of Mount Lebanon. Living on the equatorial line and on the
+meridian so accurately measured by the highest mathematics of France and
+Spain, Quitonians must needs leave out every right angle or straight
+line in the walls, and every square beam and rafter. Except on the grand
+road from Quito to Ambato, commenced by President Moreno, there is not a
+wheel-barrow to be seen; paving-stones, lime, brick, and dirt, are
+usually carried on human backs. Saint Crispin never had the fortitude to
+do penance in the shoes of Quito, and the huge nails which enter into
+the hoofs of the quadrupedants remind one of the Cyclops. There are not
+six carts in Quito. If you wish to move, you must coax a dozen Indians,
+who care little for your money or your threats. Horse-hire, peonage, and
+most mechanical work must be paid for in advance. Carriages--antique
+vehicles, of which there are two or three in the city--are drawn by
+mules. The first was introduced by Se�or Aguirre so late as 1859, and he
+was fined by the police for the privilege of riding in it. Quitonians
+are not a traveling people, and they are painfully ignorant of their own
+country. The most enterprising merchant ignores every thing but Quito
+and the road to Guayaquil.
+
+We can not praise the musical talent of Spanish Americans; their
+intonation is too nasal, while in their jumpings and chirpings they take
+after the grasshopper. A resident Englishman, who has traveled in many
+countries, and sings the songs of nearly every nation, told us he could
+not remember one of Ecuador. Pianos they have brought over the mountains
+at great expense; but they are more at home with the guitar. The
+embroidery and lace, wood carving and portrait painting of Quito, are
+commendable; but the grandeur of the Andes, like the beauty of the Alps,
+was never sketched by a native.
+
+Ecuador boasts of one University and eleven colleges; yet the people are
+not educated. Literature, science, philosophy, law, medicine, are only
+names. Nearly all young gentlemen are doctors of something; but their
+education is strangely dwarfed, defective, and distorted; and their
+knowledge, such as they have, is without power, as it is without
+practice. The University of Quito has two hundred and eighty-five
+students, of whom thirty-five are pursuing law, and eighteen medicine.
+There are eleven professors. They receive no fees from the students, but
+an annual salary of $300. The library contains eleven thousand volumes,
+nearly all old Latin, Spanish, and French works. The cabinet is a bushel
+of stones cast into one corner of a lumber-room, covered with dust, and
+crying out in vain for a man in the University to name them. The College
+of Tacunga has forty-five students; a fine chemical and philosophical
+apparatus, but no one to handle it; and a set of rocks from Europe, but
+only a handful from Ecuador. The College of Riobamba has four
+professors, and one hundred and twenty students. In the common schools,
+the pupils study in concert aloud, Arab fashion. There are four papers
+in the republic; two in Guayaquil, one in Cuenca, and one in Quito. _El
+Nacional_, of the capital, is an official organ, not a newspaper; it
+contains fourteen duodecimo pages, and is published occasionally by the
+Minister of the Interior. Like the _Gazeta_ of Madrid, it is one of the
+greatest satires ever deliberately published by any people on itself.
+There is likewise but one paper in Cuzco, _El Triumfo del Pueblo_.
+
+The amusements of Quito are few, and not very amusing. Indo-Castilian
+blood runs too slowly for merry-making. There are no operas or concerts,
+no theatres or lectures, no museums or menageries. For dramas they have
+revolutions; for menageries, bull-baitings. A bull-bait is not a
+bull-fight. There is no coliseum or amphitheatre; no _matador_ gives the
+scientific death-wound. Unlike their fraternity in the ring of Seville,
+where they are doomed to die, the animals are only doomed to be
+pothered; they are "scotched, not killed." They are teased and tormented
+by yelling crowds, barking dogs, brass bands, red ponchos, tail-pulling,
+fire-crackers, wooden lances, and such like. The Plaza de Toros is the
+Plaza de San Francisco. This sport is reserved for the most notable
+days in the calendar: Christmas, New Year's, Inauguration-day, and
+Independence-day--the 10th of August.
+
+Cock-fights come next in popularity, and are _bona fide_ fights. Often
+the roosters are so heroic that both leave their blood in the arena, and
+never crow again. Little knives are fastened to the natural spurs, with
+which the fowls cut each other up frightfully. The interesting scene
+takes place on Sundays and Thursdays, near the Church of Santa Catalina,
+and is regulated by a municipal tribunal. The admission fee of five
+cents, and the tax of two per cent. on bets, yield the city a monthly
+revenue of $100.
+
+Other pastimes are carnivals and masquerades. Carnival is observed by
+pelting one another with eggs and sprinkling with water. Whoever
+invented this prelude to Lent should be canonized. Masquerades occur
+during the holidays, when all classes, in disguise or fancy dress, get
+up a little fun at each other's expense. The monotony of social life is
+more frequently disturbed by fashionable funerals than by these
+amusements; and, as the principal families are inter-related, the rules
+of condolence keep the best part of society in mourning, and the best
+pianos and guitars silent for at least six months in the year.
+
+A word about the ladies of Quito. We concur in the remark of our
+minister, Mr. Hassaurek, that "their natural dignity, gracefulness, and
+politeness, their entire self-possession, their elegant but unaffected
+bearing, and the choiceness of their language, would enable them to make
+a creditable appearance in any foreign drawing-room." Their natural
+talents are of a high order; but we must add that the se�oras are
+uneducated, and are incapable of either great vices or great virtues.
+Their minds, like the soil of their native country, are fertile, but
+uncultivated; and their hearts, like the climate, are of a mean
+temperature. Prayer-books and French novels (imported, as wanted, for
+there is not a book-store in the city) are the alpha and the omega of
+their literature; Paris is considered the centre of civilization. They
+are comely, but not beautiful; Venus has given her girdle of fascination
+to few. Sensible of this, they paint.
+
+Holinski gives his impressions by contrasting the fair Quitonians with
+the fairer Guayaquilians: "Les yeux vifs et ardent, le pied fine et
+mignon, les teintes chaudes et dor�es" distinguish the latter. In the
+ladies of the high capital there is nothing of this: "Les yeux ne
+lancent pas de flammes, le pied est sans gentillesse, l'epiderme ne
+refl�te pas les rayons du soleil." The ladies on the coast take all
+possible pains to preserve the small size of the foot; a large foot is
+held in horror. Von Tschudi once overheard some ladies extolling in high
+terms the beauty of an English lady; all their praise, however, ending
+with this exclamation, "But what a foot! Good heavens! it is like a
+great boat!" Gibbon is continually talking of beautiful se�oras and
+se�oritas on the Andes; surely the lieutenant is in sport.[28]
+
+[Footnote 28: "The young ladies of Cuzco are, in general, very
+beautiful, with regular features, fresh olive complexions, bright eyes
+full of intelligence, furnished with long lashes, and masses of black
+hair plaited in two tails."--_Markham_.]
+
+The ladies of Quito give few entertainments for lack of ready money.
+They spend much of their time in needle-work and gossip, sitting like
+Turkish sultanas on divans or the floor. They do not rise at your
+entrance or departure. They converse in a very loud, unmusical voice. We
+never detected bashfulness in the street or parlor. They go to mass
+every morning, and make visits of etiquette on Sundays. They take more
+interest in political than in domestic affairs. Dust and cobwebs are
+unmistakable signs of indifference. Brooms are rarities; such as exist
+are besoms made of split stick. Since our return, we have sent to a
+Quitonian gentleman, by request, a package of broom-corn seed, which, we
+trust, will be the forerunner of a harvest of brooms and cleaner floors
+in the high city. Not only the lords, but also the ladies, are
+inveterate smokers. Little mats are used for spittoons.
+
+[Illustration: Washerwomen.]
+
+Perhaps Quitonian ladies have too many Indian servants about them to
+keep tidy; seven or eight is the average number for a family. These are
+married, and occupy the ground floor, which swarms with nude children.
+They are cheap, thievish, lazy, and filthy. No class, pure-blood or
+half-breed, is given to ablution, though there are two public baths in
+the city. Washerwomen repair to the Mach�ngara, where they beat the
+dirty linen of Quito over the smooth rocks. We remember but two or
+three table-cloths which entirely covered the table, and only one which
+was clean. There are but two daily meals; one does not feel the need of
+more; they are partaken at nine and three, or an hour earlier than in
+Guayaquil. When two unwashed, uncombed cooks bend over a charcoal fire,
+which is fanned by a third unkempt individual, and all three blinded by
+smoke (for there is no chimney), so that it is not their fault if
+capillaries and something worse are mingled with the stew, with onions
+to right of them, onions to left of them, onions in front of them, and
+_achote_ already in the pot in spite of your repeated anathemas and
+expostulations--_achote_, the same red coloring matter which the wild
+Indians use for painting their bodies and dyeing their cloth--and with
+several aboriginal wee ones romping about the kitchen, keen must be the
+appetite that will take hold with alacrity as the dishes are brought on
+by the most slovenly waiter imagination can body forth.[29] The aim of
+Ecuadorian cookery is to eradicate all natural flavor; you wouldn't know
+you were eating chicken except by the bones. Even coffee and chocolate
+somehow lose their fine Guayaquilian aroma in this high altitude, and
+the very pies are stuffed with onions. But the beef, minus the garlic,
+is most excellent, and the _dulce_ unapproachable.
+
+[Footnote 29: We noticed at Riobamba a custom which formerly prevailed
+also at Quito. As soon as the guests have finished, and before they have
+risen, the Indian waiter kneels devoutly down beside the table, and
+offers thanks in a very solemn, touching tone.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+     Ecuador.--Extent.--Government.--Religion.--A Protestant Cemetery in
+     Quito.--Climate.--Regularity of Tropical Nature.--Diseases on the
+     Highlands.
+
+
+The republic of Ecuador looks like a wedge driven into the continent
+between the Mara�on and the Putumayo. It has 1200 miles of Pacific
+coast, and an area of about two hundred thousand square miles, including
+the Gal�pagos Islands. Peru, however, claims the oriental half, drawing
+her northern boundary from Tumbez through Can�los and Archidona; and she
+is entitled to much of it, for she has established a regular line of
+steamers on the Mara�on, while the Quito government has not developed an
+acre east of the Andes. Ecuador is hung between and upon two
+cordilleras, which naturally divide it into three parts: the western
+slope, the Quitonian valley, and the Napo region. The fluvial system is
+mainly made up of the Napo, Pastassa, and Santiago, tributaries of the
+Mara�on, and the Mira, Esmeraldas, and Guayaquil, flowing westward into
+the Pacific. There are no lakes proper, but the natives enumerate
+fifty-five lagunes, the largest of which, Capucuy, is not over five
+miles long.
+
+Villavicencio tells the world that his country has a total population of
+1,308,042. But Dr. Jameson believes it does not exceed 700,000. The
+government is based on the Constitution of 1845, amended in 1853. The
+president is chosen by a plurality of votes, holds his office for four
+years, and has a salary of $12,000. He can not be re-elected,[30] nor
+can he exercise his functions more than twenty-five miles from the
+capital. But the law is often set aside by those in power. During the
+administration of Garcia Moreno, prominent citizens were shot or
+banished by his order, without trial by jury. To every plea for mercy
+the stern president replied, that as he could not save the country
+according to the Constitution, he should govern it according to his own
+views of public necessity.
+
+[Footnote 30: Since this was written, Garcia Moreno has been re-elected
+to the presidency and the Constitution revised.]
+
+Congress assembles on the 15th of September every other year, and
+consists of eighteen senators and thirty representatives. The chambers
+are small, and literally barren of ornament. The members sit in two rows
+facing each other, have no desks, and give an affirmative vote by a
+silent bow. Politics has less to do with principles and parties than
+with personalities. Often it has a financial aspect; and the natural
+expression on learning of a revolution is, "Somebody is out of money."
+The party in feathers its nest as fast as possible; there is scarcely a
+public officer who is not open to bribery. The party out plots a
+premature resurrection to power by the ladders of corruption, slander,
+and revolution.[31] Revolution has so rapidly followed revolution that
+history has ceased to count them; and it may be said of them what Milton
+wrote of the wars of the Saxon Heptarchy, "that they are not more worthy
+of being recorded than the skirmishes of crows and kites." The Grand
+Plaza, the heart where all the great arteries of circulation meet and
+diverge, is where the high tides of Quito affairs ebb and flow.
+
+[Footnote 31: Government has more than once paid its debts by
+repudiation. Congress lately voted to pay only seven per cent. of the
+claims against the state which are dated prior to a certain year. Among
+the sufferers is the venerable Dr. Jameson, a distinguished foreigner,
+who has served this country faithfully for forty years, first as
+assayer, then as director of the mint, and always by his scientific
+position.]
+
+The Supreme Court consists of five judges. Criminal cases only are tried
+by jury; and an attorney is not permitted to question a witness. There
+are no penitentiaries: second-class criminals are made to work for the
+public, while political offenders are banished to the banks of the Napo,
+or to Peru. Here, as in no other country, every man's house is his
+castle. No search-warrants are allowed; a policeman can be shot dead on
+the threshold. The person and property of a foreigner are safe; and no
+native in the employ of a foreigner can be taken by the government for
+military purposes. All, except pure Indians, can vote if over
+twenty-one, and can read and write. A man's signature is without value
+if it lacks his flourish--a custom of Spanish origin.
+
+The permanent army consists of two regiments. The soldiers are mostly
+half-breeds, and are generally followed by their wives. They are poorly
+paid; and as they are impressed into the service, they carry out the
+principle by helping themselves wherever they go. In marching, they have
+a quicker step than Northern soldiers. The chief expenditure of the
+republic is for the army, about $500,000; the next is for the payment of
+the national debt, $360,000. The foreign debt is �1,470,374. Ecuadorians
+claim a revenue of a million and a half, of which one half is from the
+custom-house, and one fiftieth from the post-office.
+
+One would suppose that the people who breathe this high atmosphere, and
+enjoy this delightful climate, and are surrounded by all that is truly
+grand and beautiful, would have some corresponding virtues. But we find
+that Nature, here as every where, has mingled base and noble elements.
+The lofty mountains, bearing in their steadfastness the seal of their
+appointed symbol--"God's righteousness is like the great
+mountains"--look down upon one of the lowest and most corrupt forms of
+republican government on earth;[32] their snowy summits preach sermons
+on purity to Quitonian society, but in vain; and the great thoughts of
+God written all over the Andes are unable to lift this proud capital out
+of the mud and mire of medi�val ignorance and superstition. The
+established religion is the narrowest and most intolerant form of
+Romanism. Mountains usually have a more elevating, religious influence
+than monotonous plains. The Olympian mythology of the Greek was far
+superior to the beastly worship on the banks of the Nile. And yet at the
+very feet of glorious Chimborazo and Pichincha we see a nation bowing
+down to little images of the rudest sculpture with a devotion that
+reminds us of the Middle Ages.
+
+[Footnote 32: Asking the late Chilian minister for his view of the rank
+of the different South American states, he gave us this order: Chile,
+Brazil, Argentine Republic, Venezuela, New Granada, Central America,
+Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador.]
+
+[Illustration: Ecclesiastics.]
+
+The belief is called _La Fe_, or the only true one. The oath of a
+Protestant is not regarded in courts of law. One fourth of Quito is
+covered by convents and churches. The convents alone number fifty-seven,
+and are very extensive, sometimes spreading over eight or nine acres.
+The Church revenue amounts to $800,000. There are more than four hundred
+priests, monks, and nuns in the capital. The native ecclesiastics are
+notorious for their ignorance and immorality. "It is a very common thing
+(says Dr. Terry) for a curate to have a whole flock of orphan nephews
+and nieces, the children of an imaginary brother." There is one
+ex-president who has the reputation of tying a spur on the leg of a
+game-cock better even than a curate. The imported Jesuits are the most
+intelligent and influential clergy. They control the universities and
+colleges, and education generally. Active and intellectual, though not
+learned, they have infused new life into the fat indolence of the
+Spanish system. Men of this world rather than the next, they have
+adopted a purely mundane policy, abjured the gloomy cowl, raised
+gorgeous temples, and say, "He that cometh unto us shall in no wise lose
+heaven." Their chief merit, however, is the discovery of the turkey and
+quinine.
+
+The Protestant in Quito is annoyed by an everlasting jingling of bells
+and blowing of bugles night and day. The latter are blown every third
+hour. The bells are struck by boys, not rung. A bishop, returning from a
+visit to London, was asked if there were any good bells in England.
+"Very fine," he replied, "but there is not a man there who knows how to
+ring them." Foreign machinery is sprinkled with holy water to neutralize
+the inherent heresy; but a miller, for example, will charge more for his
+flour after the baptism.
+
+Lotteries are countenanced by both Church and State, and in turn help
+support them; we saw one "grand scheme" carried out on the cathedral
+terrace and defended by bayonets.
+
+At half past nine in the morning all Quito is on its knees, as the great
+bell of the cathedral announces the elevation of the Host. The effect is
+astonishing. Riders stop their horses; foot-passengers drop down on the
+pavement; the cook lets go her dishes and the writer his pen; the
+merchant lays aside his measure and the artisan his tool; the
+half-uttered oath (_car�jo_!) dies on the lips of the Cholo; the arm of
+the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his donkey, is paralyzed; and the
+smart repartee of the lively donna is cut short. The solemn stillness
+lasts for a minute, when the bell tolls again, and all rise to work or
+play. Holidays are frequent. Processions led by a crucifix or wooden
+image are attractive sights in this dull city, simply because little
+else is going on. Occasionally a girl richly dressed to represent the
+humble mother of God is drawn about in a carriage, and once a year the
+figures of the Virgin belonging to different churches are borne with
+much pomp to the Plaza, where they bow to each other like automatons.
+
+"This is a bad country to live in, and a worse one to die in," said Dr.
+Jameson. But times have changed, even in fossil Quito. Through the
+efforts of our late minister, Hon. W.T. Coggeshall, the bigoted
+government has at last consented to inclose a quarter of an acre outside
+the city for the subterranean burial of heretics. The cemetery is on the
+edge of the beautiful plain of I�aquito, and on the right of the road
+leading to Gu�polo. "What a shame," said a Quitonian lady of position,
+"that there should be a place to throw Protestant dogs!"
+
+On St. Nathaniel's day died Colonel Phineas Staunton, Vice-Chancellor of
+Ingham University, New York. An artist by profession, and one of very
+high order, Colonel Staunton joined our expedition to sketch the glories
+of the Andes, but he fell a victim to the scourge of the lowlands one
+week after his arrival in Quito. We buried him at noon-day[33] in the
+new cemetery, "wherein was never man laid," and by the act consecrated
+the ground. Peace to his ashes; honor to his memory. That 8th of
+September, 1867, was a new day in the annals of Quito. On that day the
+imperial city beheld, for the first time in three centuries, the decent
+burial of a Protestant in a Protestant cemetery. Somewhere, mingled with
+the ashes of Pichincha, is the dust of Atahuallpa, who was buried in his
+beloved Quito at his own request after his murder in Caxamarca. But
+dearer to us is that solitary grave; the earth is yet fresh that covers
+the remains of one of nature's noblemen.
+
+[Footnote 33: This was a new thing under the sun. Quitonians "bury at
+dead of night, with lanterns dimly burning." The dirges sung as the
+procession winds through the streets are extremely plaintive, and are
+the most touching specimens of Ecuadorian music. The corpse, especially
+of a child, is often carried in a chair in a sitting posture. The
+wealthy class wall up their dead in niches on the side of Pichincha,
+hypothetically till the resurrection, but really for two years, when,
+unless an additional payment is made, the bones are thrown into a common
+pit and the coffin burnt. To prevent this, a few who can afford it
+embalm the deceased. One of the most distinguished citizens of Quito
+keeps his mummified father at his hacienda, and annually dresses him up
+in a new suit of clothes!]
+
+Turn we now to a more delightful topic than the politics and religion of
+Quito. The climate is perfect. Fair Italy, with her classic prestige and
+ready access, will long be the land of promise to travelers expatriated
+in search of health. But if ever the ancients had reached this Andean
+valley, they would have located here the Elysian Fields, or the seat of
+"the blessed, the happy, and long-lived" of Anacreon.[34] No torrid heat
+enervates the inhabitant of this favored spot; no icy breezes send him
+shivering to the fire. Nobody is sun-struck; nobody's buds are nipped by
+the frost. Stoves and chimneys, starvation and epidemics, are unknown.
+It is never either spring, summer, or autumn, but each day is a
+combination of all three. The mean annual temperature of Quito is 58�.8,
+the same as Madrid, or as the month of May in Paris. The average range
+in twenty-four hours is about 10�. The coldest hour is 6 A.M.; the
+warmest between 2 and 3 P.M. The extremes in a year are 45� and 70�;
+those of Moscow are-38� and 89�. It is a prevalent opinion that since
+the great earthquake of 1797 the temperature has been lower. "It was
+suddenly reduced (says the _Encycl. Metropolitana_) from 66� or 68� to
+40� or 45�"--a manifest error. The natives say that since the
+_terremote_ of 1859 the seasons have not commenced so regularly, nor are
+they so well defined; there are more rainy days in summer than before.
+It remains to be seen whether the late convulsion has affected the
+climate.
+
+[Footnote 34: In the mountain-town of Caxamarca, farther south, there
+were living in 1792 seven persons aged 114, 117, 121, 131, 132, 141, and
+147. One of them, when he died, left behind him eight hundred living
+descendants to mourn his loss. We confess, however, that we saw very few
+old persons in Quito. Foreigners outlive the natives, because they live
+a more regular and temperate life.]
+
+The mean diurnal variation of the barometer is only .084. So regular is
+the oscillation, as likewise the variations of the magnetic needle, that
+the hour may be known within fifteen minutes by the barometer or
+compass. Such is the clock-like order of Nature under the equator, that
+even the rains, the most irregular of all meteorological phenomena in
+temperate zones, tell approximately the hour of the day. The winds, too,
+have an orderly march--the ebb and flow of an aerial ocean. No wonder
+watch-tinkers can not live where all the forces in nature keep time.
+Nobody talks about the weather; conversation begins with benedictions or
+compliments.
+
+The greatest variations of the thermometer occur in autumn, and the
+greatest quantity of rain falls in April.[35] While on the western side
+of the Andes, south of the equator, the dry season extends from June to
+January, on the eastern side of the Cordillera the seasons are reversed,
+the rain lasting from March to November. The climate of the central
+valley is modified by this opposition of seasons on either side of it,
+as also by the proximity of snowy peaks. Nine such peaks stand around
+Quito within a circle of thirty miles. The prevailing winds in summer
+are from the northeast; in the winter the southwest predominate.
+
+[Footnote 35:
+
+The mean annual fall of rain at Quito is 70 inches.
+     "     "     "       "      Charleston is 45.9 inches.
+     "     "     "       "      New York is 42.23     "
+     "     "     "       "      Albany is 40.93       "
+     "     "     "       "      Montreal is 36        "
+     "     "     "       "      Madrid is 10.         "
+
+]
+
+There are only three small drug-stores in the great city of Quito. The
+serpent is used as the badge of apothecary art. Physicians have no
+offices, nor do they, as a general rule, call upon their patients. When
+an invalid is not able to go to the doctor, he is expected to die.
+Yellow fever, cholera, and consumption are unknown; while intermittent
+fevers, dysentery, and liver complaints, so prevalent on the coast, are
+uncommon. The ordinary diseases are catarrhal affections and typhoid
+fever. Cases of inflammation of the lungs are rare; more coughing may be
+heard during a Sunday service in a New England meeting-house than in six
+months in Quito. The diseases to which the monks of St. Bernard are
+liable are pulmonary, and the greater number become asthmatic. Asthma is
+also common in Quito, while phthisis increases as we descend to the sea.
+Individuals are often seen with a handkerchief about the jaws, or bits
+of plaster on the temples; these are afflicted with headache or
+toothache, resulting from a gratified passion for sweetmeats, common to
+all ages and classes. Digestive disorders are somewhat frequent
+(contrary to the theory in Europe), but they spring from improper food
+and sedentary habits. The _cuisine_ of the country does not tempt the
+stomach to repletion, and the climate is decidedly peptic. So the
+typhoid fever of Quito is due to filth, poor diet, and want of
+ventilation. Corpulency, especially among the men, is astonishingly
+rare.
+
+According to Dr. Lombard, mountain districts favor the development of
+diseases of the heart; and contagious diseases are not arrested by the
+atmosphere of lofty regions. This is true in Quito. But while nervous
+diseases are rare in the inhabited highlands of Europe, in Quito they
+are common. Sleep is said to be more tranquil and refreshing, and the
+circulation more regular at high altitudes; but our experience does not
+sustain this. Go�tre is quite common among the mountains. It is a sign
+of constitutional weakness, for the children of go�tred parents are
+usually deaf and dumb, and the succeeding generation idiots.
+Boussingault thinks it is owing to the lack of atmospheric air in the
+water; but why is it nearly confined to the women? In the southern
+provinces about Cuenca, cutaneous affections are quite frequent. In the
+highlands generally, scrofulous diseases are more common than in the
+plains. There are three hospitals for lepers; one at Cuenca with two
+hundred patients, one at Quito with one hundred and twelve patients, and
+one at Ambato. Near Riobamba is a community of dwarfs.
+
+D'Orbigny made a _post-mortem_ examination of some Indians from the
+highest regions, and found the lungs of extraordinary dimensions, the
+cells larger and more in number. Hence the unnatural proportion of the
+trunk, which is plainly out of harmony with the extremities. The
+expanded chest of the mountaineers is evidently the result of larger
+inspirations to secure the requisite amount of oxygen, which is much
+less in a given space at Quito than on the coast. This is an instance,
+observes Prichard, of long-continued habit, and the result of external
+agencies modifying the structure of the body, and with it the state of
+the most important functions of life. We tried the experiment of burning
+a candle one hour at Guayaquil, and another part of the same candle for
+the same period at Quito. Temperature at Guayaquil, 80�; at Quito, 62�.
+The loss at Guayaquil was 140 grains; at Quito, 114, or 26 grains less
+at the elevation of 9500 feet. Acoustics will also illustrate the
+thinness of the air. M. Godin found (1745) that a nine-pounder could not
+be heard at the distance of 121,537 feet; and that an eight-pounder at
+Paris, at the distance of 102,664 feet, was louder than a nine-pounder
+at Quito at the distance of 67,240 feet.
+
+According to Dr. Archibald Smith, the power of muscular exertion in a
+native of the coast is greatly increased by living at the height of
+10,000 feet. But it is also asserted by observing travelers that dogs
+and bulls lose their combativeness at 12,000 feet, and that hence there
+can never be a good bull-fight or dog-fight on the Sierras. This is
+literally true: the dogs seem to partake of the tameness of their
+masters. Cats do not flourish at all in high altitudes; and probably the
+lion, transplanted from the low jungle to the table-lands, would lose
+much of his ferocity. Still, cock-fights seem to prosper; and the battle
+of Pichincha was fought on an elevation of nearly 11,000 feet. Bolivar
+and the Spaniards, also, fought like tigers on the high plain of
+Junin.[36]
+
+[Footnote 36: Gibbon states that the temperature of the blood of a young
+bull in Cuzco was 100�; air, 57�. At the base of the Andes a similar
+experiment resulted in 101� for the blood, air 78�. The lieutenant
+jocosely adds: "The Spaniards have forced the hog so high up on the
+Andes that he suffers every time he raises his bristles, and dies out of
+place."--Puna has been attributed to the presence of arsenical vapor.]
+
+The sickness felt by some travelers at great elevations--violent
+headache and disposition to vomit--is called _veta_; and the difficulty
+of breathing from the rarity of the air is termed _puna_. Gerard
+complained of severe headache and depression of spirits at the height of
+15,000 feet on the Himalayas; Dr. Barry, in ascending Mont Blanc (15,700
+feet), speaks of great thirst, great dryness and constriction of skin,
+loss of appetite, difficult breathing, tendency to syncope, and utter
+indifference. Baron M�ller, in his ascent of Orizava (17,800 feet),
+found great difficulty in breathing, and experienced the sensation of a
+red-hot iron searing his lungs, and agonizing pains in the chest,
+followed by fainting-fits and torrents of blood from his mouth;
+Humboldt, in scaling Chimborazo, suffered from nausea akin to
+sea-sickness, and a flow of blood from the nose and lips; while Herndon,
+on the slope of Puy-puy (15,700 feet), said he thought his heart would
+break from his breast with its violent agitation. Though ascending the
+Andes to the height of 16,000 feet, and running up the last few rods, we
+experienced nothing of this except a temporary difficulty in
+respiration. We were exhilarated rather than depressed. The experience
+of Darwin on the Portillo ridge (14,000 feet) was only "a slight
+tightness across the head and chest." "There was some imagination even
+in this (he adds); for, upon finding fossil shells on the highest ridge,
+I entirely forgot the puna in my delight." De Saussure says truly: "The
+strength is repaired as speedily as it has been exhausted. Merely a
+cessation of movement for three or four minutes, without even seating
+one's self, seems to restore the strength so perfectly that, on resuming
+progress, one feels able to climb at a single stretch to the very peak
+of the mountain."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+     Astronomic Virtues of Quito.--Flora and Fauna of the Valley of
+     Quito.--Primeval Inhabitants of the Andes.--Quichua Indians.
+
+
+Quito, with a position unparalleled for astronomical purposes, has no
+observatory. The largest telescope in the city is about five feet long,
+but the astute professor of natural philosophy in the Jesuit College who
+has charge of it had not the most distant idea that an eclipse of the
+sun would occur on the 29th of August, and an eclipse of the moon
+fifteen days later. In ancient days this "holy city" had within it the
+Pillar of the Sun, which cast no shadow at noon, and a temple was built
+for the god of light. The title of the sovereign Inca was the Child of
+the Sun; but there was very little knowledge of astronomy, for, being
+the national religion, it was beyond the reach of scientific
+speculation.
+
+The atmosphere of Quito is of transparent clearness. Humboldt saw the
+poncho of a horseman with the naked eye at a horizontal distance of
+ninety thousand feet. The sky is of a dark indigo color; the azure is
+less blended with white because of the extreme dryness of the air. The
+stars stand out with uncommon brilliancy, and the dark openings between
+them the great German compared to "tubes through which we look into the
+remotest depths of space." It is true at Quito, as Humboldt noticed at
+Cumana, that the stars do not twinkle when they are more than fifteen
+degrees high; "the soft planetary light" of the stars overhead is not
+mere rhetoric.
+
+Living under the equatorial line, Quitonians enjoy the peculiar
+privilege of beholding the stars of both hemispheres, the guiding stars
+of Ursa Major as well as the Magellanic Clouds and Southern Cross, not
+omitting that black spot near the latter, "the unappropriated region in
+the skies reserved by Manager Bingham for deposed American presidents."
+
+The zodiacal light here appears in all its glory. This strange
+phenomenon has long puzzled philosophers, and they are still divided. It
+is generally considered to be produced by a continuous zone of
+infinitesimal asteroids. The majority place this zone beyond the orbit
+of the earth, and concentric with the sun. But Rev. George Jones, of
+Philadelphia, who has spent several years in observing this light,
+including eight months in Quito, considers it geocentric, and possibly
+situated between the earth and its satellite. At New York only a short
+pyramidal light, and this only at certain seasons, is to be seen; but
+here, an arch twenty degrees wide, and of considerable intensity, shoots
+up to the zenith, and Mr. Jones affirms that a complete arch is visible
+at midnight when the ecliptic is at right angles to the spectator's
+horizon. We have not been so fortunate as to see it pass the zenith; and
+Professor Barnard contends that it never does pass. We may remark that
+the main part of the zodiacal light shifts to the south side of the
+celestial equator as we cross the line. To us the most magnificent sight
+in the tropical heavens is the "Milky Way," especially near Sobieski's
+Shield, where it is very luminous. We observed that this starry tract
+divided at [Greek: a] Centauri, as Herschel says, and not at [Greek: b],
+as many maps and globes have it. The brightest stars in the southern
+hemisphere follow the direction of a great circle passing through
+[Greek: e] Orionis and [Greek: a] Crucis.
+
+Another thing which arrests the attention of the traveler is the
+comparatively well-defined boundary-line between day and night. The
+twilight at Quito lasts only an hour and a half; on the coast it is
+still shorter. Nor is there any "harvest moon," the satellite rising
+with nearly equal intervals of forty-eight minutes.
+
+From the stars we step down to the floral kingdom on the Andes, using as
+our ladder of descent the following sentence from Humboldt, at the age
+of seventy-five: "If I might be allowed to abandon myself to the
+recollections of my own distant travels, I would instance among the most
+striking scenes of nature the calm sublimity of a tropical night, when
+the stars--not sparkling, as in our Northern skies--shed their soft and
+planetary light over the gently heaving ocean; or I would recall the
+deep valleys of the Cordilleras, where the tall and slender palms pierce
+the leafy veil around them, and wave on high their feathery and
+arrow-like branches."
+
+Father Velasco praises Ecuador as "the noblest portion of the New
+World." Nature has doubtless gifted it with capabilities unsurpassed by
+those of any other country. Situated on the equinoctial line, and
+embracing within its limits some of the highest as well as lowest dry
+land on the globe, it presents every grade of climate, from the
+perpetual summer on the coast and in the Orient to the everlasting
+winter of the Andean summits, while the high plateau between the
+Cordilleras enjoys an eternal spring. The vegetable productions are
+consequently most varied and prolific. Tropical, temperate, and arctic
+fruits and flowers are here found in profusion, or could be successfully
+cultivated. As the Ecuadorian sees all the constellations of the
+firmament, so Nature surrounds him with representatives of every family
+of plants. There are places where the eye may embrace an entire zone,
+for it may look up to a barley-field and potato-patch, and down to the
+sugar-cane and pine-apple.
+
+Confining our attention to the Quito Valley, we remark that the whole
+region from Pichincha to Chimborazo is as treeless as Palestine. The
+densest forest is near Ba�os. The most common tree is the "Aliso"
+(_Betula acuminata_). Walnut is the best timber. There are no pines or
+oaks.[37] The slopes of the mountains, between twelve and fifteen
+thousand feet, are clothed with a shrub peculiar to the high altitudes
+of the Andes, called _Chuquiragua_. This is a very valuable shrub; the
+twigs are used for fuel, and the yellow buds as a febrifuge. The
+castor-oil-tree grows naturally by the road side, sometimes to the
+height of twelve feet.
+
+[Footnote 37: On the Himalayas are oaks, birches, pines, chestnuts,
+maples, junipers, and willows; no tree-ferns, bamboos, or palms.]
+
+A very useful as well as the most ordinary plant in the valley is the
+American aloe, or "Century Plant."[38] It is the largest of all herbs.
+Not naturally social, it imparts a melancholy character to the landscape
+as it rises solitary out of the arid plain. Most of the roads are fenced
+with aloe hedges. While the majority of tropical trees have naked stems
+with a crown of leaves on the top, the aloe reverses this, and looks
+like a great chandelier as its tall peduncle, bearing greenish-yellow
+flowers, rises out of a graceful cluster of long, thick, fleshy leaves.
+When cultivated, the aloe flowers in much less time than a century; but,
+exhausted by the efflorescence, it soon dies. Nearly every part serves
+some purpose; the broad leaves are used by the poorer class instead of
+paper in writing, or for thatching their huts; sirup flows out of the
+leaves when tapped, and, as they contain much alkali, a soap (which
+lathers with salt water as well as fresh) is also manufactured from
+them; the flowers make excellent pickles; the flower-stalk is used in
+building; the pith of the stem is used by barbers for sharpening razors;
+the fibres of the leaves and the roots are woven into sandals and sacks;
+and the sharp spines are used as needles. A species of yucca, resembling
+the aloe, but with more slender leaves and of a lighter green, yields
+the hemp of Ecuador.
+
+[Footnote 38: The _Agava Americana_ of botanists, _cabulla_ of
+Ecuadorians, _maguey_ of Venezuelans, and _metl_ of Mexicans. It is an
+interesting fact, brought to light by the researches of Carl Neuman,
+that the Chinese in the fifth century passed over to America by way of
+the Aleutian Islands, and penetrated as far south as Mexico, which they
+called the land of _fusung_, that being the celestial name of the aloe.
+Terzozomoc, the high-priest of the ancient Mexicans, gave aloe leaves,
+inscribed with sacred characters, to persons who had to journey among
+the volcanoes, to protect them from injury.]
+
+The "crack fruit" of Quito, and, in fact, of South America, is the
+chirimoya.[39] Its taste is a happy mixture of sweetness and acidity.
+Hanke calls it "a masterwork of Nature," and Markham pronounces it "a
+spiritualized strawberry." It grows on a tree about fifteen feet high,
+having a broad, flat top, and very fragrant flowers. The ripe fruit,
+often attaining in Peru the weight of sixteen pounds, has a thick green
+skin, and a snow-white pulp containing about seventy black seeds. Other
+pomological productions are alligator pears, guavas, guayavas,
+granadillas, cherries (a small black variety), peaches (very poor),
+pears (equally bad), plums, quinces, lemons, oranges (not native),
+blackberries, and strawberries (large, but flavorless).[40] The
+cultivation of the grape has just commenced. Of vegetables there are
+onions (in cookery, "the first, and last, and midst, and without end"),
+beets, carrots, asparagus, lettuce, cabbages, turnips, tomatoes
+(indigenous, but inferior to ours), potatoes (also indigenous, but much
+smaller than their descendants),[41] red peppers, peas (always picked
+ripe, while green ones are imported from France!), beans, melons,
+squashes, and mushrooms. The last are eaten to a limited extent; Terra
+del Fuego, says Darwin, is the only country in the world where a
+cryptogamic plant affords a staple article of food.
+
+[Footnote 39: Bollaert derives the name from _chiri_ (cold) and _muhu_
+(seed).]
+
+[Footnote 40: Dr. Jameson has found the following species of _Rubus_ in
+the valley of Quito: _macrocarpus_, _stipularis_, _glabratus_,
+_compactus_, _glaucus_, _ros�florus_, _loxensis_, _urtic�folius_,
+_floribundus_, and _nubigenus_. The common strawberry, _Fragaria
+vesca_, grows in the valley, as also the _Chilensis_.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Lieutenant Gilliss praises the potatoes of Peru, but we
+saw no specimens in Ecuador worthy of note. The "Irish potato" is a
+native of the Andes. It was unknown to the early Mexicans. It grows as
+far south on this continent as lat. 50�. The Spaniards carried the
+potato to Europe from Quito early in the sixteenth century. From Spain
+it traveled to Italy, Belgium, and Germany. Sir Walter Raleigh imported
+some from Virginia in 1586, and planted them on his estate near Cork,
+Ireland. It is raised in Asiatic countries only where Europeans have
+settled, and for their consumption. It is successfully grown in
+Australia and New Zealand, where there is no native esculent farinaceous
+root. Von Tschudi says there is no word in Quichua for potato. It is
+called _papa_ by the Napos.]
+
+The most important grains are barley, red wheat, and corn, with short
+ears, and elongated kernels of divers colors. Near the coast three crops
+of corn a year are obtained; at Quito it is of slower growth, but
+fuller. The sugar-cane is grown sparingly in the valley, but chiefly on
+the Pacific coast. Its home is Polynesia. Quito consumes about one
+hundred and fifty barrels of flour daily. The best sells for four
+dollars a quintal. The common fodder for cattle is alfalfa, an imported
+lucerne. There is no clover except a wild, worthless, three-leaved
+species (_Trifolium amabile_). Nearly all in the above list are
+cultivated for home consumption only, and many valuable fruits and
+vegetables which would grow well are unknown to Quitonians. As Bates
+says of the Brazilians, the incorrigible nonchalance and laziness of the
+people alone prevent them from surrounding themselves with all the
+luxuries of a temperate as well as tropical country.
+
+It would be an endless task to speak of the flowers. It must suffice to
+state that a _Synopsis Plantarum �quatoriensium_, the life-work of the
+venerable Professor Jameson, of the University of Quito, has just been
+published by the tardy government. Botanists will find in these two
+small volumes many new species unknown to American science, and others
+more correctly described by one who has dwelt forty years among the
+Andes. The last zone of vegetation nearest the snow-line consists
+chiefly of yellow-flowering _Composit�_. In fact, this family includes
+one fourth of the plants in the immediate vicinity of Quito. The next
+most numerous family is the _Labiat�_, and then follow _Leguminos�_ and
+_Gentians_. Although the _Rosace�_ is represented, there is not one
+species of the genus _Rosa_ not even in the whole southern hemisphere.
+The magnificent _Befaria_, found in the lower part of the valley, is
+called "the Rose of the Andes." Fuchsias may be considered
+characteristic of South America, since they are so numerous; only one or
+two kinds occur in any other part of the world. Flowers are found in
+Quito all the year round, but the most favorable months are December and
+May. Yellow is the predominating color. The higher the altitude, the
+brighter the hues of any given species. Thus the _Gentiana sedifolia_ is
+a small, light blue flower in the lowlands, but on the Assuay it has
+bright blue petals three times as large and sensitive. This accords with
+Herschel's statement: "The chemical rays of the spectrum are powerfully
+absorbed in passing through the atmosphere, and the effect of their
+greater abundance aloft is shown in the superior brilliancy of color in
+the flowers of Alpine regions."
+
+America is plainly the continent of vegetation; and wherever the
+vegetable element predominates, the animal is subordinated. We must not
+look, therefore, for a large amount or variety of animal life in the
+Ecuadorian forests. Time was when colossal megatheroids, mastodons, and
+glyptodons browsed on the foliage of the Andes and the Amazon; but now
+the terrestrial mammals of this tropical region are few and diminutive.
+They are likewise old-fashioned, inferior in type as well as bulk to
+those of the eastern hemisphere, for America was a finished continent
+long before Europe. "It seems most probable (says Darwin) that the North
+American elephants, mastodons, horse, and hollow-horned ruminants
+migrated, on land since submerged near Behring's Straits, from Siberia
+into North America, and thence, on land since submerged in the West
+Indies, into South America, where for a time they mingled with the forms
+characteristic of that southern continent, and have since become
+extinct."[42] The rise of the Mexican table-land split up the New World
+into two well-defined zoological provinces. A few species, as the puma,
+peccari, and opossum, have crossed the barrier; but South America is
+characterized by possessing a family of monkeys, the llama, tapir, many
+peculiar rodents, and several genera of edentates.
+
+[Footnote 42: _Journal of Researches_, p. 132.]
+
+The tapir, the largest native quadruped, is sometimes found on the
+mountains, but never descends into the Quito Valley. A link between the
+elephant and hog, its true home is in the lowlands. The tapir and
+peccari (also found on the Andean slopes) are the only indigenous
+pachyderms in South America, while the llama[43] and deer (both
+abounding in the valley) are the only native ruminants; there is not one
+native hollow-horned ruminant on the continent. The llama is the only
+native domesticated animal; indeed, South America never furnished any
+other animal serviceable to man: the horse, ox, hog, and sheep (two,
+four, and six-horned), are importations. Of these animals, which
+rendered such important aid in the early civilization of Asia and
+Europe, the genera even were unknown in South America four centuries
+ago; and to-day pure Indians with difficulty acquire a taste for beef,
+mutton, and pork. The llama is still used as a beast of burden; but it
+seldom carries a quintal more than twelve miles a day. The black bear of
+the Andes ascends as high as Mont Blanc, and is rarely found below three
+thousand five hundred feet. The puma, or maneless American lion, has an
+immense range, both in latitude and altitude, being found from Oregon to
+the Straits of Magellan, and nearly up to the limit of eternal snow. It
+is as cowardly as the jaguar of the lowlands is ferocious. It is a very
+silent animal, uttering no cry even when wounded. Its flesh, which is
+very white, and remarkably like veal in taste, is eaten in Patagonia.
+Squirrels, hares, bats (a small species), opossums, and a large
+guinea-pig (_Cuye del Monte_), are found in the neighborhood of Quito.
+
+[Footnote 43: The llama, or "mountain-camel" is a beautiful animal, with
+long, slender neck and fine legs, a graceful carriage, pointed ears,
+soft, restless eyes, and quivering lips. It has a gentle disposition;
+but when angry it will spit, and when hurt will shed tears. We have seen
+specimens entirely white; but it is generally dark brown, with patches
+of white. It requires very little food and drink. Since the introduction
+of horses, asses, and mules, the rearing of llamas has decreased. They
+are more common in Peru. The llama, gu�naco, alpaca, and vicu�a were
+"the four sheep of the Incas:" the first clothing the common people, the
+second the nobles, the third the royal governors, the fourth the Incas.
+The price of sheep's wool in Quito was formerly four cents a pound; it
+is now twelve.]
+
+As only about sixty species of birds are common to North and South
+America, the traveler from the United States recognizes few ornithic
+forms in the Valley of Quito. Save the hummers, beautiful plumage is
+rare, as well as fine songsters. But the moment we descend the Eastern
+Cordillera into the interior of the continent, we find the feathered
+race in robes of richest colors. The exact cause of this brilliant
+coloring in the tropics is still a problem. It can not be owing to
+greater light and heat, for the birds of the Gal�pagos Islands, directly
+under the equator, are dull.[44]
+
+[Footnote 44: Mr. Gould, however, holds that the difference of
+coloration is due to the different degrees of exposure to the sun's
+rays, the brilliantly-colored species being inhabitants of the edges of
+the forest. Birds from Ucayali, in the centre of the continent, are far
+more splendid than those which represent them in countries nearer the
+sea, owing to the clearer atmosphere inland. But it is a fact, at least
+exceptional to this theory, that the "Cock of the Rock" (Rupicola) on
+the western side of the Andes (Esmeraldas) is of a richer, deeper color
+than the same species on the eastern slope (Napo). In keeping with Mr.
+Gould's theory is the statement by Mr. Bates, that the most gaudy
+butterflies (the males) flutter in the sunshine.]
+
+The males, both of birds and butterflies, are the most gaudily dressed.
+In the highlands the most prominent birds are the condor and the
+humming-bird. These two extremes in size are found side by side on the
+summit of Pichincha. The condor appears in its glory among the mountains
+of Quito. Its ordinary haunt is at the height of Etna. No other living
+creature can remove at pleasure to so great a distance from the earth;
+and it seems to fly and respire as easily under the low barometric
+pressure of thirteen inches as at the sea-shore. It can dart in an
+instant from the dome of Chimborazo to the sultry coast of the Pacific.
+It has not the kingly port of the eagle, and is a cowardly robber: a
+true vulture, it prefers the relish of putrescence and the flavor of
+death. It makes no nest, but lays two eggs on a jutting ledge of some
+precipice, and fiercely defends them. The usual spread of wings is nine
+feet. It does not live in pairs like the eagle, but feeds in flocks like
+its loathsome relative, the buzzard. It is said to live forty days
+without food in captivity, but at liberty it is very voracious. The
+usual method of capture is to kill an old mare (better than horse, the
+natives say), and allow the bird to gorge himself, when he becomes so
+sluggish as to be easily lassoed. It is such a heavy sleeper, it is
+possible to take it from its roost. The evidences in favor of and
+against its acute smelling powers are singularly balanced. For reasons
+unknown, the condor does not range north of Darien, though it extends
+its empire through clouds and storms to the Straits of Magellan. In the
+Inca language it was called _cuntur_, and was anciently an object of
+worship. The condor, gallinazo, turkey-buzzard, and caracara eagle (says
+Darwin) "in their habits well supply the place of our carrion crows,
+magpies, and ravens--a tribe of birds widely distributed over the rest
+of the world, but entirely absent in South America." The condor appears
+on the gold coins of New Granada and Chile. Of _Trochilid�_ there are
+hosts. The valley swarms with these "winged jewels" of varied hues, from
+the emerald green of Pichincha to the white of Chimborazo. They build
+long, purse-like nests by weaving together fine vegetable fibres and
+lichens, and thickly lining them with silk-cotton. In this delicate
+cradle, suspended from a branch, the female lays two eggs, which are
+hatched in about twelve days. The eggs are invariably white, with one
+exception, those of a species on the Upper Amazon, which are spotted.
+The young have much shorter bills than their parents. The humming-bird
+is exclusively American: the nearest form in the Old World is the
+nectarinia, or sunbird. Other birds most commonly seen in the valley
+are: _Cyanocitta turcosa_ (Jay), _Poecilothraupis atrierissa_,
+_Pheuticus chrysogaster_, _Chlorospingus superciliaris_, _Buthraupis
+chloronata_, _Tanagra Darwini_, _Dubusia selysia_, _Buarremon
+latinuchus_, and _B. assimilis_. The only geese in the valley are a few
+imported from Europe by Se�or Aguirre, of Chillo, and these refuse to
+propagate.
+
+Reptiles are so rare in the highlands the class can hardly be said to be
+represented. During a residence of nearly three months in the Quito
+Valley we saw but one snake.[45] Nevertheless, we find the following
+sentence in such a respectable book as Bohn's Hand-book of Modern
+Geography: "The inhabitants of Quito are dreadfully tormented by
+reptiles, which it is scarcely possible to keep out of the beds!" Of
+frogs there are not enough to get up a choir, and of fishes there is
+but one solitary species, about a finger long.[46] The entomology of
+Quito is also brief, much to the satisfaction of travelers from the
+insectiferous coast. Musquitoes and bedbugs do not seem to enjoy life at
+such an altitude, and jiggers[47] and flies are rare. Fleas, however,
+have the hardihood to exist and bite in the summer months, and if you
+attend an Indian fair you will be likely to feel something "gently o'er
+you creeping." But fleas and lice are the only blood-thirsty animals, so
+that the great Valley of Quito is an almost painless paradise. Of
+beetles and butterflies there are a few species, the latter belonging
+for the most part to the familiar North American genera _Pyrameis_ and
+_Colias_. At Vinces, on the coast, we found the pretty brown butterfly,
+_Anartia Jatroph�_, which ranges from Texas to Brazil. A light-colored
+coleopter is eaten roasted by the inhabitants. The cochineal is raised
+in the southern part of the valley, particularly in Guananda, at the
+foot of Tunguragua, where the small, flat-leaved cactus (_Opuntia
+tuna_), on which, the insect feeds, is extensively cultivated. The male
+is winged, but the female is stationary, fixed to the cactus, and is of
+a dark brown color. It takes seventy thousand to make a pound, which is
+sold in the valley for from sixty cents to $3. The best cochineal comes
+from Teneriffe, where it was introduced from Honduras in 1835. The
+silk-worm is destined to work a revolution in the finances of Ecuador;
+Quito silk gained a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition. No bees are
+hived in the republic; the people seem to be content with treacle. The
+Italian species would undoubtedly thrive here. The bees of Ecuador, like
+all the bees of the New World, are inferior to those of the Old World.
+Their cells are not perfectly hexagonal, and their stings are
+undeveloped. They are seldom seen feeding on flowers. Mollusca in the
+Quito Valley are not great in number or variety. They belong principally
+to the genera _Bulimus_, _Cyclostoma_, and _Helix_. The first is as
+characteristic of the Southern Continent as _Helix_ of the North and
+_Achatina_ of Africa.
+
+[Footnote 45: _Herpetodryas carinatus_, which we observed also at
+Guayaquil and on the Mara�on. We procured two or three species from the
+natives, and several new forms from Pallatanga, on the west slope.]
+
+[Footnote 46: _Antelopus l�vis_ at Ambato, and _A. longirostris_, a new
+species from Antisana Hacienda, were the only frogs noticed. The little
+fish is _Pimelodes cyclopum_ (pre�adilla of the Spaniards, _imba_ of the
+Indians), the same that was thrown out in the eruptions of Imbabura and
+Caraguairazo.]
+
+[Footnote 47: The jigger, chigoe, or nigua (_Pulex penetrans_ of
+science) is a microscopic flea, that buries itself under the skin and
+lays a myriad eggs; the result is a painful tumor. Jiggers are almost
+confined to sandy places.]
+
+From the animal creation we mount by a short step to the imbruted
+Indian. When and by whom the Andes were first peopled is a period of
+darkness that lies beyond the domain of history. But geology and
+arch�ology are combining to prove that Sorata and Chimborazo have looked
+down upon a civilization far more ancient than that of the Incas, and
+perhaps coeval with the flint-flakes of Cornwall, and the shell-mounds
+of Denmark. On the shores of Lake Titicaca are extensive ruins which
+antedate the advent of Manco Capac, and may be as venerable as the
+lake-dwellings of Geneva. Wilson has traced six terraces in going up
+from the sea through the province of Esmeraldas toward Quito; and
+underneath the living forest, which is older than the Spanish invasion,
+many gold, copper, and stone vestiges of a lost population were found.
+In all cases these relics are situated below high-tide mark, in a bed of
+marine sediment, from which he infers that this part of the country
+formerly stood higher above the sea. If this be true, vast must be the
+antiquity of these remains, for the upheaval and subsidence of the coast
+is exceedingly slow.
+
+Philology can aid us little in determining the relations of the primeval
+Quitonians, for their language is nearly obscured by changes introduced
+by the Caras, and afterward by the Incas, who decreed that the Quichua,
+the language of elegance and fashion three hundred years ago, should be
+the universal tongue throughout the empire.[48] Quichua is to-day spoken
+from the equator to 28� S. (except by the Aymar� people), or by nearly a
+million and a half. We found it used, corrupted, however, by Spanish, at
+the month of the Napo. There are five dialects, of which the purest is
+spoken in Cuzco, and the most impure in Quito. The Indians of the
+northern valley are descendants of the ancient Quitus, modified by Cara
+and Peruvian blood. They have changed little since the invasion of
+Pizarro. They remember their glory under the Incas, and when they steal
+any thing from a white man, they say they are not guilty of theft, as
+they are only taking what originally belonged to them. Some see in their
+sacred care of Incarial relics a lingering hope to regain their
+political life. We noticed that the pure mountaineers, without a trace
+of Spanish adulteration, wore a black poncho underneath, and we were
+informed by one well acquainted with their customs that this was in
+mourning for the Inca. We attended an Indian masquerade dance at
+Machachi, which seemed to have an historical meaning. It was performed
+in full view of that romantic mountain which bears the name of the last
+captain of Atahuallpa. There is a tradition that after the death of his
+chief, Rumi�agui burned the capital, and, retiring with his followers to
+this cordillera, threw himself from the precipice. The masquerade at
+Machachi was evidently intended to keep alive the memory of the Incas.
+Three Indians, fantastically adorned with embroidered garments, plumed
+head-dresses, and gold and silver tinsel, representing Atahuallpa and
+his generals, danced to music of the rudest kind, one individual
+pounding on a drum and blowing on a pipe at the same time. Before them
+went three clowns, or _diablos_, with masks, fit caricatures of the
+Spaniards. Like all other Indian feasts, this ended in getting gradually
+and completely drunk. During the ceremony a troop of horsemen, gayly
+dressed, and headed by one in regimentals with a cocked hat, galloped
+twice around the Plaza, throwing oranges at the people; after which
+there was a bull-bait.
+
+[Footnote 48: "History (says Prescott) furnishes few examples of more
+absolute authority than such a revolution in the language of an empire
+at the bidding of a master." The pronunciation of Quichua requires a
+harsh, explosive utterance. Gibbon says the sound of it to him resembled
+Welsh or Irish; that of Aymar�, English. The letters _b_, _d_, _f_, _g_,
+and _o_ are wanting in the ancient tongue of Quito; _p_ was afterward
+changed to _b_, _t_ to _d_, _v_ to _f_, _c_ to _g_, and _u_ to _o_: thus
+Chim-pu-razu is now Chimborazo. A few words bear a striking analogy to
+corresponding Sanscrit words; as _Ynti_, the Inca for sun, and _Indra_,
+the Hindoo god of the heavens.]
+
+The features of the Quichuans have a peculiar cast, which resembles, in
+D'Orbigny's opinion, no other American but the Mexican, and some
+ethnologists trace a striking similarity to the natives of Van Diemen's
+Land. They have an oblong head (longitudinally), somewhat compressed at
+the sides and occiput; short and very slightly arched forehead;
+prominent, long, aquiline nose, with large nostrils; large mouth, but
+not thick lips; beautiful enduring teeth; short chin, but not receding;
+cheek-bones not prominent; eyes horizontal, and never large; eyebrows
+long; thick, straight, coarse, yet soft jet black hair; little or no
+beard; a long, broad, deep, highly-arched chest; small hands and feet;
+short stature, seldom reaching five feet, and the women still shorter; a
+mulatto color (olive-brown says D'Orbigny, bronze says Humboldt), and a
+sad, serious expression. Their broad chests and square shoulders remind
+one of the gorilla; but we find that, unlike the anthropoid ape, they
+have very weak arms; their strength lies in their backs and legs. They
+have shrewdness and penetration, but lack independence and force. We
+never heard one sing.[49] Always submissive to your face, taking off
+his hat as he passes, and muttering, "Blessed be the altar of God," he
+is nevertheless very slow to perform. Soured by long ill treatment, he
+will hardly do any thing unless he is compelled. And he will do nothing
+well unless he is treated as a slave. Treat him kindly, and you make him
+a thief; whip him, and he will rise up to thank you and he your humble
+servant. A certain curate could never trust his Indian to carry
+important letters until he had given him twenty-five lashes. Servile and
+timid, superstitious and indolent, the Quichuans have not half the
+spirit of our North American Indians. It has passed into a proverb that
+"the Indian lives without shame, eats without repugnance, and dies
+without fear." Abject as they are, however, they are not wholly without
+wit. By a secret telegraph system, they will communicate between Quito
+and Riobamba in one hour. When there was a battle in Pasto, the Indians
+of Riobamba knew of it two hours after, though eighty leagues distant.
+
+[Footnote 49: Their favorite musical instrument is the _rondador_, a
+number of reeds of different lengths tied in a row. The "plaintive
+national songs" which Markham heard at Cuzco are not sung in Ecuador.]
+
+The civilization of South America three centuries ago was nearly
+confined to this Andean family, though they had attained only to the
+bronze period. In the milder character of their ancient religion and
+gentleness of disposition they are strongly distinguished from the
+nations that encircled the vale of Anahuac, the centre of civilization
+on the northern continent. But little of this former glory is now
+apparent. The Incas reached an astronomical knowledge which astonished
+the Spaniards, but the Quichuans of to-day count vaguely by moons and
+rains. Great is the contrast between the architecture of this century
+and that in the days of Huayna-Capac. There are few Incarial relics,
+however, in the Valley of Quito, for the Incas ruled there only half a
+century. The chief monuments are the tolas or mounds (mostly at
+Cuenca), containing earthen vessels and bronze hatchets and earrings;
+the _Inga-pirrca_, or oval fortress, and the _Intihuaicu_, or temple of
+the sun, near Ca�ar; the _Inga-chungana_, a massive stone resembling a
+sofa, where the Inca reposed to enjoy the delightful prospect over the
+Valley of Gul�n; and remnants of causeways and roads.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+     Geological History of South America.--Rise of the Andes.--Creation
+     of the Amazon.--Characteristic Features of the Continent.--Andean
+     Chain.--The Equatorial Volcanoes.
+
+
+Three cycles ago an island rose from the sea where now expands the vast
+continent of South America. It was the culminating point of the
+highlands of Guiana. For ages this granite peak was the solo
+representative of dry land in our hemisphere south of the Canada hills.
+In process of time, a cluster of islands rose above the thermal waters.
+They were the small beginnings of the future mountains of Brazil,
+holding in their laps the diamonds which now sparkle in the crown of Dom
+Pedro II. Long protracted eons elapsed without adding a page to the
+geology of South America. The Creator seems to have been busy elsewhere.
+Decorating the north with the gorgeous flora of the carboniferous
+period, till, in the language of Hugh Miller, "to distant planets our
+earth must have shone with a green and delicate ray," he rubbed the
+picture out, and ushered in the hideous reptilian age, when monstrous
+saurians, footed, paddled, and winged, were the lords of this lower
+world. All the great mountain chains were at this time slumbering
+beneath the ocean. The city of New York was sure of its site; but huge
+dinotheria wallowed in the mire where now stand the palaces of Paris,
+London, and Vienna.
+
+At length the morning breaks upon the last day of creation, and the fiat
+goes forth that the proud waves of the Pacific, which have so long
+washed the table-lands of Guiana and Brazil, shall be stayed. Far away
+toward the setting sun the white surf beats in long lines of foam
+against a low, winding archipelago--the western outline of the coming
+continent. Fierce is the fight for the mastery between sea and land,
+between the denuding power of the waves and the volcanic forces
+underneath. But slowly--very slowly, yet surely--rises the long chain of
+islands by a double process; the submarine crust of the earth is
+cooling, and the rocks are folded up as it shrivels, while the molten
+material within, pressed out through the crevices, overflows and helps
+to build up the sea-defiant wall. A man's life would be too short to
+count even the centuries consumed in this operation. The coast of Peru
+has risen eighty feet since it felt the tread of Pizarro: supposing the
+Andes to have risen at this rate uniformly and without interruption,
+seventy thousand years must have elapsed before they reached their
+present altitude. But when we consider that, in fact, it was an
+intermittent movement--alternate upheaval and subsidence--we must add an
+unknown number of millennia.
+
+Three times the Andes sank hundreds of feet beneath the ocean level, and
+again were slowly brought up to their present height. The suns of
+uncounted ages have risen and set upon these sculptured forms, though
+geologically recent, casting the same line of shadows century after
+century. A long succession of brute races roamed over the mountains and
+plains of South America, and died out ages ere man was created. In those
+pre-Adamite times, long before the Incas ruled, the mastodon and
+megatherium, the horse and the tapir, dwelt in the high valley of Quito;
+yet all these passed away before the arrival of the aborigines: the wild
+horses now feeding on the pampas of Buenos Ayres were imported from
+Europe three hundred and thirty-three years ago.[50]
+
+[Footnote 50: At Paita, the most western point of South America, there
+is a raised beach three hundred feet high. The basal slate and sandstone
+rocks, dipping S. of E., are covered by conglomerate, sand, and a
+gypseous formation, containing shells of living species. Additional to
+those described by D'Orbigny we found here _Cerithium l�viuscula_,
+_Ostrea gallus_, and _Ampullina Ortoni_, as determined by W.M. Gabb,
+Esq., of Philadelphia. Darwin found shells in Chile 1300 feet above the
+sea, covered with marine mud. President Loomis, of Lewisburg University,
+Pa., informs the writer, that in 1853, after nearly a day's ride from
+Iquique, he came to a former sea-beach. "It furnished abundant specimens
+of _Patell�_ and other shells, still perfect, and identical with others
+that I had that morning obtained at Iquique with the living animal
+inhabiting them." This beach is elevated 2500 feet above the Pacific.
+The same observer says that near Potosi there is one uninterrupted mass
+of lava, having a columnar structure, not less than one hundred miles in
+length, fifty miles wide, and eight hundred feet thick. It overlies a
+bed of saliferous sandstone which has been worked for salt. Fifty feet
+within a mine, and in the undisturbed rock which forms its roof, the
+doctor found fragments of dicotyledonous trees with the bark on,
+undecomposed, uncharred, and fibrous.]
+
+And now the Andes[51] stand complete in their present gigantic
+proportions, one of the grandest and most symmetrical mountain chains in
+the world. Starting from the Land of Fire, it stretches northward and
+mounts upward until it enters the Isthmus of Panama, where it bows
+gracefully to either ocean, but soon resumes, under another name, its
+former majesty, and loses its magnificence only where the trappers chase
+the fur-bearing animals over the Arctic plains. Nowhere else does Nature
+present such a continuous and lofty chain of mountains, unbroken for
+eight thousand miles, save where it is rent asunder by the Magellanic
+Straits, and proudly tossing up a thousand pinnacles into the region of
+eternal snow. Nowhere in the Old World do we see a single well-defined
+mountain chain, only a broad belt of mountainous country traversing the
+heart of the continent.
+
+[Footnote 51: The name Andes is often derived from _anta_, an old
+Peruvian word signifying metal. But Humboldt says: "There are no means
+of interpreting it by connecting it with any signification or idea; if
+such connection exist, it is buried in the obscurity of the past."
+According to Col. Tod, the northern Hindoos apply the name Andes to the
+Himalayan Mountains.]
+
+The moment the Andes arose, the great continental valley of the Amazon
+was sketched out and moulded in its lap. The tidal waves of the Atlantic
+were dashing against the Cordilleras, and a legion of rivulets were
+busily plowing up the sides into deep ravines; the sediment produced by
+this incessant wear and tear was carried eastward, and spread out
+stratum by stratum, till the shallow sea between the Andes and the
+islands of Guiana and Brazil was filled up with sand and clay. Huge
+glaciers (thinks Agassiz), afterward descending, moved over the inclined
+plane, and ground the loose rock to powder.[52] Eddies and currents,
+throwing up sand-banks as they do now, gradually defined the limits of
+the tributary streams, and directed them into one main trunk, which
+worked for itself a wide, deep bed, capable of containing its
+accumulated flood. Then and thus was created the Amazon.
+
+[Footnote 52: On this point see Chapter XVII.]
+
+In South America Nature has framed her works on a gigantic scale. Where
+else combined do we see such a series of towering mountains, such a
+volume of river-water, and such wide-spreading plains? We have no proper
+conception of Andine grandeur till we learn that the top of the tallest
+mountain in North America is nearly a mile beneath the untrodden dome of
+Chimborazo; nor any just view of the vast dimensions of the Amazonian
+Valley till we find that all the United States could be packed in it
+without touching its boundaries; nor any adequate idea of the Amazon
+itself till we ascertain that it drains a million square miles more than
+the Mississippi.
+
+South America is a triangular continent, with its axis, the Andes, not
+central, as in Europe, but lying on its extreme western edge, and in
+harmony with the well-known law that the highest mountains and the
+grandest volcanoes face the broadest ocean. The highlands of Brazil and
+Guiana have neither volcanic nor snow-clad peaks.[53] Like all the dry
+land which first appeared, these primitive mountains on the Atlantic
+border trend east and west. The result of this position is a triple
+river system--the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata, draining three immense
+plains--the llanos of Venezuela, the sylvas of Brazil, and the pampas of
+the Argentine Republic. The continuity and extent of these vast
+depressions are more remarkable even than the height and length of the
+mountain chains.[54]
+
+[Footnote 53: "The interior plateau of Brazil (says Dr. Lund) is
+composed of horizontal strata of the transition period, which are
+nowhere covered with the secondary or tertiary formations." The highest
+point in Brazil is 5755 feet. Darwin speaks of "some ancient submarine
+volcanic rocks (in the province of La Plata) worth mentioning, from
+their rarity on this eastern side of the continent." With the exception
+of the coast of Venezuela, the eastern system is little exposed to
+earthquakes.]
+
+[Footnote 54: These three plains constitute four fifths of all South
+America east of the Andes. The west slope of the Ecuadorian Andes is
+about 275 feet per mile; on the east it is 125 feet.]
+
+Such are the characteristic features of South America; they are not
+repeated in any other continent.[55] Not one feature could be changed
+without destroying those peculiarities of soil and climate which so
+remarkably distinguish South America. Its position on the equator places
+it in the path of the vapory trade winds, which continually sweep over
+it westward till they strike the Andes, which, like a great condenser,
+roll a thousand streams eastward again to feed the mighty Amazon. So
+effectual is that barrier, not a drop of moisture passes it, and the
+trade wind is not felt again on the Pacific till you are one hundred
+and fifty miles from the coast. Were the Andes on the Atlantic side,
+South America would be turned into a vast Sahara. As it is, the interest
+which attaches to this continent, save a few relics of the Incas, is
+exclusively that of pure nature. Nowhere does Nature affect us more
+deeply with the feeling of her grandeur; nowhere does she exhibit wilder
+freaks or more startling contrasts; nowhere do we find such a theatre
+for the free development of vegetable and animal life.
+
+[Footnote 55: There is, however, a striking coincidence between the
+mountain and river systems of the northern and southern continents of
+this hemisphere. Thus,
+
+The Andes represent the Rocky Mountains,
+ "  Highland of Guiana represent the Canadian Mountains.
+ "     "        Brazil     "         Appalachian  "
+ "              Amazon     "         Saskatchewan.
+ "              La Plata   "         Mississippi.
+ "              Orinoco    "         Mackenzie.
+
+]
+
+The long and lofty chain of the Andes is certainly one of the grandest
+results of the plications and uplifts of the earth's crust. While the
+waves of the Pacific, from Panama to Patagonia, submissively kiss the
+feet of the Andes, and the showers that swell the Amazon fall within
+sight of the mariner on that peaceful ocean, the Rocky Mountains are
+situated five hundred miles from the sea. The space west of the Andes
+does not contain 20,000 square leagues, while the country east of it
+equals 424,600. While the compact Andes have an average width of only
+sixty miles,[56] the straggling mountain system beyond the Mississippi
+has the breadth of the Empire State; but the mean elevation of the
+latter would scarcely reach the bottom of the Quito Valley. The
+mountains of Asia may surpass the Cordilleras in height, but, situated
+beyond the tropics, and destitute of volcanoes, they do not present that
+inexhaustible variety of phenomena which characterizes the latter. The
+outbursts of porphyry and trachytic domes, so characteristic of the high
+crests of the Cordilleras, impart a physiognomy quite distinct from that
+presented by the mountains of Europe. The Andes offer, in the least
+space, the greatest possible variety of impressions.[57] There is near
+Huanca, Peru, a coal-bed lifted up to the enormous height of 14,700
+feet, and on the side of Chimborazo there is a salt spring 13,000 feet
+above the sea. Marine shells have not been found in Europe above the
+summit of the Pyrenees, or 11,700 feet; but the Andes can show some a
+thousand feet higher. A strange sight, to see shells once crawling on
+the bottom of the ocean now resting at an elevation twice the height of
+Mount Washington!
+
+[Footnote 56: The width of the chain south of the equator varies with
+that of the continent.]
+
+[Footnote 57: "No mountains which I have seen in Hungary, Saxony, or the
+Pyrenees are as irregular as the Andes, or broken into such alternate
+substances, manifesting such prodigious revolutions of nature."--_Helms_.
+"More sublime than the Alps by their _ensemble_, the Andes lack those
+curious and charming details of which Nature has been so lavish in the
+old continent."--_Holinski_.]
+
+Beneath the Southern Cross, out of a sea perpetually swept by fearful
+gales, rise the rocky hills of Terra del Fuego. It is the starting-point
+of that granite chain which winds around the earth in a majestic curve,
+first northwesterly to the Arctic Sea, thence by the Aleutian and
+Japanese Isles to Asia, crossing the Old World southwesterly from China
+to South Africa.
+
+Skirting the bleak shores of Patagonia in a single narrow sierra, the
+Andes enter Chile, rising higher and higher till they culminate in the
+gigantic porphyritic peak of Aconcagua. At the boundary-line of Bolivia,
+the chain, which has so far followed a precise meridional direction,
+turns to the northwest, and, at the same time, separates into two
+Cordilleras, inclosing the great table-land of Desaguadero. This
+wonderful valley, the Thibet of the New World, has four times the area
+of New York State, and five times the elevation of the Catskill Mountain
+House. At one end of the valley, perched above the clouds, is silvery
+Potosi, the highest city in the world; at the other stands the once
+golden capital of Cuzco. Between them is Lake Titicaca[58] (probably an
+ancient crater), within which is an island celebrated as the cradle of
+the strange empire of Peru, which, though crushed by Pizarro in its
+budding civilization, ranks as the most extraordinary and extensive
+empire in the annals of American history. The Cordillera, of which
+Sahama, Sorata, and Illimani are the pinnacles, so completely inclose
+this high valley that not a drop of water can escape except by
+evaporation. At the silver mines of Pasco the Andes throw off a third
+cordillera, and with this triple arrangement and a lower altitude, enter
+the republic of Ecuador. There they resume the double line, and surpass
+their former magnificence. Twenty volcanoes, presided over by the
+princely Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a sublime congregation of
+mountains surrounding the famous valley of Quito. In New Granada there
+is a final and unique display of Andine grandeur: the Cordilleras
+combine just above the equator into one dizzy ridge, and then spread out
+like a fan, or, rather, like the graceful branches of the palm. One
+sierra bends to the east, holding in its lap the city of Bogota, and,
+rolling off a thousand streams to swell the Orinoco, terminates in the
+beautiful mountains of Caracas; the central range culminates in the
+volcanic Tolima,[59] but is soon lost in the Caribbean Sea; the western
+chain turns to the left, humbling itself as it threads the narrow
+isthmus, and expands into the level table-land of Mexico. You may cross
+Mexico from ocean to ocean in a carriage, but no wheeled vehicle ever
+crossed South America.
+
+[Footnote 58: This lake is the largest fresh-water accumulation in South
+America. It has diminished within the historic period. Its surface is
+12,795 feet above the Pacific, or higher than the highest peaks of the
+Pyrenees.]
+
+[Footnote 59: This is the loftiest summit of the Andes in the northern
+hemisphere, being 18,200 feet. It is also remarkable for being situated
+farther from the sea (120 miles) than any other active volcano.]
+
+[Illustration: Profiles of Ecuadorian Volcanoes
+
+10,000 ft. Chimborazo.
+
+10,000 ft. Cotopaxi.
+
+10,000 ft. Caraguairazo.
+
+10,000 ft. Pichincha.
+
+]
+
+We will now speak more particularly of the Andes of the equator. The
+mountain chain is built up of granite, gneissoid, and schistose rocks,
+often in vertical position, and capped with trachyte and porphyry.[60]
+Large masses of _solid_ rock are rarely seen; every thing is cracked,
+calcined, or triturated. While in Bolivia the Eastern Cordillera shows a
+succession of sharp, ragged peaks, in contrast with the conical summits
+of the Cordillera of the coast, there is no such distinction in the
+Andes of the equator.[61] The Eastern Cordillera has a greater mean
+height, and it displays more volcanic activity. Twenty volcanic
+mountains surround the valley, of which twelve are in the oriental
+chain. Three of the twenty are now active (Cotopaxi, Sangai, and
+Pichincha), and five others are known to have erupted since the Conquest
+(Chiles, Imbabura, Guamani, Tunguragua, and Quirotoa). The truncated
+cone of Cotopaxi, the jagged, Alpine crest of ruined Altar, and the dome
+of Chimborazo, are the representative forms of the volcanic summits. The
+extinct volcanoes usually have double domes or peaks, while the active
+peaks are slender cones. Antisana and Cayambi are fashioned after
+Chimborazo, though the latter is table-topped rather than convex;
+Caraguairazo, Quirotoa, Iliniza, Sincholagua, Rumi�agui, and Corazon,
+resemble Altar; Tunguragua, Sangai, Llanganati, Cotocach�, Chiles, and
+Imbabura, imitate Cotopaxi; Pichincha, Atacatzo, and Guamani are
+irregular. The Ecuadorian volcanoes have rarely ejected liquid lava, but
+chiefly water, mud, ashes, and fragments of trachyte and porphyry.
+Cotopaxi alone produces pure, foam-like pumice, and glossy,
+translucent obsidian.[62] The paucity of quartz, and the absence of
+basalt, are remarkable. Some of the porphyroids are conglomerate, but
+the majority are true porphyries, having a homogeneous base. Dr. T.
+Sterry Hunt calls them porphyroid trachytes. They have a black, rarely
+reddish, vitreous, or impalpable base, approaching obsidian, with a
+specific gravity of 2.59 in pure specimens, and holding crystals or
+crystalline grains of glassy feldspar, and sometimes of pyroxene and
+hematite. They differ from the Old World porphyries in containing no
+quartz, and seldom mica.[63] D'Orbigny considers the porphyries of the
+Andes to have been ejected at the close of the cretaceous period, and
+formed the first relief of the Cordillera. The prevalence of trachyte
+shows that the products have cooled under feeble pressure.
+
+[Footnote 60: "As a general rule, whenever the mass of mountains rises
+much above the limit of perpetual snow, the primitive rocks disappear,
+and the summits are trachyte or trappean porphyry."--_Humboldt_. In
+general, "the great Cordilleras are formed of innumerable varieties of
+granites, gneiss, schists, hornblende, chloritic slates, porphyries,
+etc., and these rocks alternate with each other in meridional bands,
+which in the ridges frequently present the appearance of a radiated or
+fan-shaped structure, and under the plains are more or less
+vertical."--_Evan Hopkins, F.G.S_.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Von Tschudi makes the incorrect statement that "throughout
+the whole extent of South America there is not a single instance of the
+Western Cordillera being intersected by a river." Witness the
+Esmeraldas.]
+
+[Footnote 62: It is a singular fact that true trachyte, pumice, and
+obsidian are wanting in the volcanic Gal�pagos Islands, only 700 miles
+west of Pichincha.]
+
+[Footnote 63: As many of the crystals are partly fused, or have round
+angles, the porphyries were probably formed by the melting of a
+crystalline rock, the base becoming fused into a homogeneous material,
+while the less fusible crystals remain imbedded.--_Dr. Hunt_.]
+
+From the deluges of water lately thrown out have resulted deep furrows
+in the sides; and from the prevalence of the east wind, which is always
+met by the traveler on the crest of either Cordillera, there is a
+greater accumulation of ashes, and less snow on the west slope. Cotopaxi
+is a fine example of this. In Pichincha, Altar, and Rumi�agua, however,
+the western wall is lowest, apparently broken down.[64] There is no
+synchronism in the eruptions of Cotopaxi and Pichincha. These volcanoes
+must have independent reservoirs, for the former is 3000 feet higher
+than the latter, and only thirty miles distant. The reputed eruptions of
+Pichincha are dated 1534, 1539, 1566, 1575, 1588, and 1660; that of 1534
+resting on the assertions of Checa, Garcilazo, and Herrera, indorsed by
+Humboldt. Excepting the traditional eruption in 1534, which probably is
+confounded with that of Pichincha, Cotopaxi did not open till 1742; then
+followed the eruptions of 1743, 1744, 1746, 1766, 1768, 1803, 1851, and
+1855. We must mention, however, that, since the recent awakening of
+Pichincha, Cotopaxi has been unusually silent. There is also a
+remarkable coincidence (which may not be wholly accidental) in the
+renewed activity of Pichincha, and the great eruption of Mauna Loa, both
+occurring in March, 1868. It is generally believed by the natives that
+Cotopaxi and Tunguragua are sympathetic.
+
+[Footnote 64: In the Gal�pagos volcanoes the south wall is lowest, while
+the craters in Mexico and Sandwich Islands are lowest on the northeast.]
+
+There are fifty-one volcanoes in the Andean chain. Of these, twenty
+girdle the Valley of Quito, three active, five dormant, and twelve
+extinct.[65] Besides these are numerous mountain peaks not properly
+volcanic. Nowhere on the face of the earth is there such a grand
+assemblage of mountains. Twenty-two summits are covered with perpetual
+snow, and fifty are over ten thousand feet high.[66]
+
+[Footnote 65: The altitudes of the most important Ecuadorian volcanoes
+are:
+
+WESTERN CHAIN.
+_Chimborazo_, 21,420 feet (Humboldt).
+_Caraguairazo_, 19,183 feet (Humboldt).
+  It is variously estimated from 15,673
+  feet to 19,720 feet; 18,000 feet is
+  not far from the truth.
+_Iliniza_, 17,370 feet (Wisse); 16,300
+  (Hall).
+_Cotocach�_, 16,440 feet (Humboldt);
+  16,409 (Wisse).
+_Pichincha_, 15,922 feet (Humboldt);
+  15,827 (Orton).
+
+EASTERN CHAIN.
+_Cayambi_, 19,648 feet (Humboldt);
+  19,358 (Wisse).
+_Antisana_, 19,148 feet (Humboldt);
+  19,279 (Wisse).
+_Cotopaxi_, 18,880 feet (Humboldt);
+  18,862 (Wisse).
+_Altar_, 17,400 feet.
+_Sangai_, 17,120 feet (Wisse).
+_Tunguragua_, 16,579 feet (Humboldt).
+_Sincholagua_, 16,434 feet (Humboldt).
+
+]
+
+[Footnote 66: The snow limit at the equator is 15,800 feet. No living
+creature, save the condor, passes this limit; naked rocks, fogs, and
+eternal snows mark the reign of uninterrupted solitude. The following is
+the approximate limit of perpetual snow in different latitudes:
+
+ 0�          15,800 feet.
+27�          18,800  "
+33�          12,780  "
+40�           8,300 feet.
+54�           3,700  "
+70�           3,300  "
+
+The limit appears to descend more rapidly going south of the equator
+than in going north.]
+
+All of these would be visible from a single stand-point--the summit of
+Cotopaxi. The lofty peaks shoot up with so much method as almost to
+provoke the theory that the Incas, in the zenith of their power, planted
+them as signal monuments along the royal road to Cuzco. The eastern
+series is called the _Cordillera real_, because along its flank are the
+remnants of the splendid highway which once connected Quito and the
+Peruvian capital.[67] It can also boast of such tremendous volcanoes as
+Cotopaxi and Sangai. The Western Cordillera contains but one active
+volcano; but then it can point to peerless Chimborazo and the deep
+crater of Pichincha. These twenty volcanic mountains rise within a space
+only two hundred miles long and thirty miles wide. It makes one tremble
+to think of the awful crevice over which they are placed.[68]
+
+[Footnote 67: We traveled over a portion of this ancient road in going
+from Riobamba to Cajabamba. It is well paved with cut blocks of dark
+porphyry. It is not graded, but partakes of the irregularity of the
+country. Designed, not for carriages, but for troops and llamas, there
+are steps when the ascent is steep.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Grand as the Andes are, how insignificant in a general
+view! How slightly they cause our globe to differ from a perfect sphere!
+Cotopaxi constitutes only 1/1100 of the earth's radius; and on a globe
+six feet in diameter, Chimborazo would be represented by a grain of sand
+less than 1/20 of an inch in thickness.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+     The Volcanoes of Ecuador.--Western
+     Cordillera.--Chimborazo.--Iliniza.--Corazon.--Pichincha.--Descent
+     into its Crater.
+
+
+Coming up from Peru through the cinchona forests of Loja, and over the
+barren hills of Assuay, the traveler reaches Riobamba, seated on the
+threshold of magnificence--like Damascus, an oasis in a sandy plain,
+but, unlike the Queen of the East, surrounded with a splendid retinue of
+snowy peaks that look like icebergs floating in a sea of clouds.
+
+On our left is the most sublime spectacle in the New World. It is a
+majestic pile of snow, its clear outline on the deep blue sky describing
+the profile of a lion in repose. At noon the vertical sun, and the
+profusion of light reflected from the glittering surface, will not allow
+a shadow to be cast on any part, so that you can easily fancy the figure
+is cut out of a mountain of spotless marble. This is Chimborazo--yet not
+the whole of it--you see but a third of the great giant. His feet are as
+eternally green as his head is everlastingly white; but they are far
+away beneath the bananas and cocoa-palms of the Pacific coast.
+
+Rousseau was disappointed when he first saw the sea; and the first
+glimpse of Niagara often fails to meet one's expectations. But
+Chimborazo is sure of a worshiper the moment its overwhelming grandeur
+breaks upon the traveler. You feel that you are in the presence-chamber
+of the monarch of the Andes. There is sublimity in his kingly look, of
+which the ocean might be proud.
+
+    "All that expands the spirit, yet appals,
+    Gathers around this summit, as if to show
+    How earth may pierce to heaven, yet leave vain man below."
+
+Well do we remember our disappointment as we stood before that wonder of
+the world--St. Peter's. We mounted the pyramid of steps and looked up,
+but were not overcome by the magnificence. We read in our guide-book
+that the edifice covers eight acres, and to the tip-top of the cross is
+almost five hundred feet; that it took three hundred and fifty years and
+twelve successive artists to finish it, and an expenditure of
+$50,000,000, and now costs $30,000 per annum to keep it in repair; still
+we did not appreciate its greatness. We pushed aside the curtain and
+walked in--walked a day's journey across the transept and up and down
+the everlasting nave, and yet continued heterodox. We tried hard to
+believe it was very vast and sublime, and knew we ought to feel its
+grandeur, but somehow we did not. Then we sat down by the Holy of
+Holies, and there we were startled into a better judgment by the
+astounding fact that the Cathedral of St. Paul--the largest edifice in
+Great Britain--could stand upright, spire, dome, body, and all, inside
+of St. Peter's! that the letters of the inscription which run around the
+_base_ of the dome, though apparently but an inch, are in reality six
+feet high! Then, for the first time, the scales fell from our eyes; the
+giant building began to grow; higher and higher still it rose, longer
+and deeper it expanded, yet in perfect proportions; the colossal
+structure, now a living temple, put on its beautiful garments and the
+robe of majesty. And that dome! the longer we looked at it the vaster it
+grew, till finally it seemed to be a temple not made with hands; the
+spacious canopy became the firmament; the mosaic figures of cherubim and
+seraphim were endowed with life; and as we fixed our eyes on the zenith
+where the Almighty is represented in glory, we thought we had the vision
+of Stephen. Long we gazed upward into this heaven of man's creation, and
+gazed again till we were lost in wonder.
+
+But the traveler needs no such steps to lift him up to the grand
+conception of the divine Architect as he beholds the great white dome of
+Chimborazo. It looks lofty from the very first. Now and then an expanse
+of thin, sky-like vapor would cut the mountain in twain, and the dome,
+islanded in the deep blue of the upper regions, seemed to belong more to
+heaven than to earth. We knew that Chimborazo was more than twice the
+altitude of Etna. We could almost see the great Humboldt struggling up
+the mountain's side till he looked like a black speck moving over the
+mighty white, but giving up in despair four thousand feet below the
+summit. We see the intrepid Bolivar mounting still higher; but the hero
+of Spanish-American independence returns a defeated man. Last of all
+comes the philosophic Boussingault, and attains the prodigious elevation
+of nineteen thousand six hundred feet--the highest point reached by man
+without the aid of a balloon; but the dome remains unsullied by his
+foot. Yet none of these facts increase our admiration. The mountain has
+a tongue which speaks louder than all mathematical calculations.
+
+There must be something singularly sublime about Chimborazo, for the
+spectator at Riobamba is already nine thousand feet high, and the
+mountain is not so elevated above him as Mont Blanc above the vale of
+Chamoun�, when, in reality, that culminating point of Europe would not
+reach up even to the snow-limit of Chimborazo by two thousand feet.[69]
+It is only while sailing on the Pacific that one sees Chimborazo in its
+complete proportions. Its very magnitude diminishes the impression of
+awe and wonder, for the Andes on which it rests are heaved to such a
+vast altitude above the sea, that the relative elevation of its summit
+becomes reduced by comparison with the surrounding mountains. Its
+altitude is 21,420 feet, or forty-five times the height of Strasburg
+Cathedral; or, to state it otherwise, the fall of one pound from the top
+of Chimborazo would raise the temperature of water 30�. One fourth of
+this is perpetually covered with snow, so that its ancient name,
+Chimpurazu--the mountain of snow--is very appropriate.[70] It is a
+stirring thought that this mountain, now mantled with snow, once gleamed
+with volcanic fires. There is a hot spring on the north side, and an
+immense amount of d�bris covers the slope below the snow-limit,
+consisting chiefly of fine-grained, iron-stained trachyte and coarse
+porphyroid gray trachyte; very rarely a dark vitreous trachyte.
+Chimborazo is very likely not a solid mountain: trachytic volcanoes are
+supposed to be full of cavities. Bouguer found it made the plumb-line
+deviate 7" or 8".
+
+[Footnote 69: But Chimborazo is steeper than the Alp-king; and steepness
+is a quality more quickly appreciated than mere massiveness. "Mont Blanc
+(says a writer in _Frazer's Magazine_) is scarcely admired, because he
+is built with a certain regard to stability; but the apparently reckless
+architecture of the Matterhorn brings the traveler fairly on his knees,
+with a respect akin to that felt for the leaning tower of Pisa, or the
+soaring pinnacles of Antwerp."]
+
+[Footnote 70: "White Mountain" is the natural and almost uniform name of
+the highest mountains in all countries: thus Himalaya, Mont Blanc,
+Hocmus, Sierra Nevada, Ben Nevis, Snowdon, Lebanon, White Mountains of
+United States, Chimborazo, and Illimani.]
+
+The valleys which furrow the flank of Chimborazo are in keeping with its
+colossal size. Narrower, but deeper than those of the Alps, the mind
+swoons and sinks in the effort to comprehend their grim majesty. The
+mountain appears to have been broken to pieces like so much thin crust,
+and the strata thrown on their vertical edges, revealing deep, dark
+chasms, that seem to lead to the confines of the lower world. The
+deepest valley in Europe, that of the Ordesa in the Pyrenees, is 3200
+feet deep; but here are rents in the side of Chimborazo in which
+Vesuvius could be put away out of sight. As you look down into the
+fathomless fissure, you see a white fleck rising out of the gulf, and
+expanding as it mounts, till the wings of the condor, fifteen feet in
+spread, glitter in the sun as the proud bird fearlessly wheels over the
+dizzy chasm, and then, ascending above your head, sails over the dome of
+Chimborazo.[71] Could the condor speak, what a glowing description could
+he give of the landscape beneath him when his horizon is a thousand
+miles in diameter. If
+
+    "Twelve fair counties saw the blaze from Malvern's lonely height,"
+
+what must be the panorama from a height fifteen times higher!
+
+[Footnote 71: Humboldt's statement that the condor flies higher than
+Chimborazo has been questioned; but we have seen numbers hovering at
+least a thousand feet above the summit of Pichincha. Baron M�ller, in
+his ascent of Orizaba, saw two falcons flying at the height of full
+18,000 feet; Dr. Hooker found crows and ravens on the Himalayas at
+16,500 feet; and flocks of wild geese are said to fly over the peak of
+Kintschinghow, 22,756 feet.]
+
+Chimborazo was long supposed to be the tallest mountain on the globe,
+but its supremacy has been supplanted by Mount Everest in Asia, and
+Aconcagua in Chile.[72] In mountain gloom and glory, however, it still
+stands unrivaled. The Alps have the avalanche, "the thunderbolt of
+snow," and the glaciers, those icy Niagaras so beautiful and grand. Here
+they are wanting.[73] The monarch of the Andes sits motionless in calm
+serenity and unbroken silence. The silence is absolute and actually
+oppressive. The road from Guayaquil to Quito crosses Chimborazo at the
+elevation of fourteen thousand feet. Save the rush of the trade wind in
+the afternoon, as it sweeps over the Andes, not a sound is audible; not
+the hum of an insect, nor the chirp of a bird, nor the roar of the puma,
+nor the music of running waters. Mid-ocean is never so silent. You can
+almost hear the globe turning on its axis. There was a time when the
+monarch deigned to speak, and spoke with a voice of thunder, for the
+lava on its sides is an evidence of volcanic activity. But ever since
+the morning stars sang together over man's creation, Chimbo has sat in
+sullen silence, satisfied to look "from his throne of clouds o'er half
+the world." There is something very suggestive in this silence of
+Chimborazo. It was once full of noise and fury; it is now a _completed_
+mountain, and thunders no more. How silent was Jesus, a completed
+character! The reason we are so noisy is that we are so full of wants;
+we are _unfinished_ characters. Had we perfect fullness of all things,
+the beatitude of being without a want, we should lapse into the eternal
+silence of God.
+
+[Footnote 72: Mount Everest is 29,000 feet, and Aconcagua 23,200.
+Schlagintweit enumerates thirteen Himalayan summits over 25,000 feet,
+and forty-six above 20,000. We have little confidence in the estimates
+of the Bolivian mountains. Chimborazo has nearly the same latitude and
+altitude as the loftiest peak in Africa, Kilima Njaro.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Humboldt ascribes the absence of glaciers in the Andes to
+the extreme steepness of the sides, and the excessive dryness of the
+air. Dr. Loomis, above quoted, mentions indications of glacial
+action--moraines, and polished and striated rocks--on the crest of the
+Cordillera, between Peru and Bolivia, lat. 21� S.]
+
+Chimborazo is a leader of a long train of ambitious crags and peaks; but
+as he who comes after the king must not expect to be noticed, we will
+only take a glimpse of these lesser lights as we pass up the Western
+Cordillera, and then down the Eastern.
+
+The first after leaving the monarch is Caraguairazo. The Indians call it
+"the wife of Chimborazo." They are separated only by a very narrow
+valley. One hundred and seventy years ago the top of this mountain fell
+in, and torrents of mud flowed out containing multitudes of fishes. It
+is now over seventeen thousand feet high, and is one of the most Alpine
+of the Quitonian volcanoes, having sharp pinnacles instead of the smooth
+trachytic domes--usually double domes--so characteristic of the Andean
+summits. And now we pass in rapid succession numerous picturesque
+mountains, some of them extinct volcanoes, as Iliniza, presenting two
+pyramidal peaks, the highest seventeen thousand feet above the sea, and
+Corazon, so named from its heart-shaped summit, till we reach Pichincha,
+whose smoking crater is only five miles distant in a straight line from
+the city of Quito, or eleven by the traveled route.
+
+The crown of this mountain presents three groups of rocky peaks. The
+most westerly one is called Rucu-Pichincha, and alone manifests
+activity. To the northeast of Rucu is Guagua-Pichincha, a ruined flue of
+the same fiery furnace; and between the two is Cundur-guachana.[74]
+Pichincha is the only volcano in Ecuador which has not a true
+cone-crater. Some violent eruption beyond the reach of history or
+tradition has formed an enormous funnel-shaped basin 2500 feet deep,[75]
+1500 in diameter at the bottom, and expanding upward to a width of three
+fourths of a mile. It is the _deepest_ crater on the globe. That of
+Kilauea is 600 feet; Orizaba, 500; Etna, 300; Hecla, 100. Vesuvius is a
+portable furnace in comparison. The abyss is girt with a ragged wall of
+dark trachyte, which rises on the inside at various angles between 45�
+and perpendicularity. As we know of but one American besides the members
+of our expedition (Mr. Farrand, a photographer) who has succeeded in
+entering the crater of this interesting volcano, we will give a brief
+sketch of our visit.
+
+[Footnote 74: Pichincha, in the Inca language, signifies "the boiling
+mountain;" Rucu means old; Guagua, young; and Cundur-guachana, the
+condor's nest.]
+
+[Footnote 75: More accurately, 2527 feet; Wisse and Moreno made it
+2460.]
+
+[Illustration: Crater of Pichincha.]
+
+Leaving Quito in the afternoon by the old arched gateway at the foot of
+Panecillo, and crossing a spur of the mountain, we stopped for the night
+at the Jesuit hacienda, situated in the beautiful valley of Lloa, but
+nearly ruined by the earthquake of 1859. On the damp walls of this
+monastery, perched 10,268 feet above the ocean, we found several old
+paintings, among them a copy of the _Visitation_ by Rubens. The sunset
+views in this heart of the Andes were surpassingly beautiful. Mounting
+our horses at break of day, and taking an Indian guide, we ascended
+rapidly, by a narrow and difficult path, through the forest that belts
+the volcano, up to the height of 12,000 feet, emerging gradually into a
+thicket of stunted bushes, and then entered the dreary paramo. Splendid
+was the view of the Eastern Cordillera. At least six dazzling white
+volcanoes were in sight just across the Valley of Quito, among them
+table-topped Cayambi, majestic Antisana, and princely Cotopaxi, whose
+tapering summit is a mile above the clouds. Toiling upward, we reached
+the base of the cone, where vegetation ceased entirely; and, tying our
+horses to some huge rocks that had fallen from the mural cliff above,
+started off on hands and feet for the crater. The cone is deeply covered
+with sand and cinders for about two hundred feet, and the sides are
+inclined at an angle of about 35�. At ten o'clock we reached the brim of
+the crater, and the great gulf burst suddenly into view. We can never
+forget the impression made upon us by the sight. We speak of many things
+here below as awful, but that word has its full meaning when carried to
+the top of Pichincha. There you see a frightful opening in the earth's
+crust nearly a mile in width and half a mile deep, and from the dark
+abyss comes rolling up a cloud of sulphurous vapors. Monte Somma in the
+time of Strabo was a miniature; but this crater is on the top of a
+mountain four times the height of the Italian volcano. Imagination finds
+it difficult to conceive a spectacle of more fearful grandeur or such
+solemn magnificence. It well accords with Milton's picture of the
+bottomless pit. The united effect of the silence and solitude of the
+place, the great depth of the cavity, the dark precipitous sides, and
+the column of smoke standing over an unseen crevice, was to us more
+impressive than thundering Cotopaxi or fiery Vesuvius. Humboldt,
+after standing on this same brink, exclaimed, "I have never beheld a
+grander or more remarkable picture than that presented by this volcano;"
+and La Condamine compared it to "the Chaos of the poets." Below us are
+the smouldering fires which may any moment spring forth into a
+conflagration; around us are black, ragged cliffs--fit boundary for this
+gateway to the infernal regions. They look as if they had just been
+dragged up from the central furnace of the earth. Life seems to have
+fled in terror from the vicinity; even lichens, the children of the bare
+rocks, refuse to clothe the scathed and beetling crags. For some
+moments, made mute by the dreadful sight, we stood like statues on the
+rim of the mighty caldron, with our eyes riveted on the abyss below,
+lost in contemplating that which can not be described. The panorama from
+this lofty summit is more pleasing, but equally sublime. Toward the
+rising sun is the long range of the Eastern Cordillera, hiding from our
+view the great valley of the Amazon. To right and left are the peaks of
+another procession of august mountains from Cotocach� to Chimborazo. We
+are surrounded by the great patriarchs of the Andes, and their speaker,
+Cotopaxi, ever and anon sends his muttering voice over the land. The
+view westward is like looking down from a balloon. Those parallel ridges
+of the mountain chain, dropping one behind the other, are the gigantic
+staircase by which the ice-crowned Chimborazo steps down to the sea. A
+white sea of clouds covers the peaceful Pacific and the lower parts of
+the coast. But the vapory ocean, curling into the ravines, beautifully
+represents little coves and bays, leaving islands and promontories like
+a true ocean on a broken shore. We seem raised above the earth, which
+lies like an opened map below us; we can look down on the upper surface
+of the clouds, and, were it night, down too upon the lightnings.
+
+The crater of Pichincha has a sharp, serrated edge, which, happily for
+Quito, is broken down on the west side, so that in the next eruption the
+volcano will doubtless pour its contents into the wilds of Esmeraldas.
+The highest pinnacle is 15,827 feet; so that the mountain just enters
+the region of perpetual winter. Water boils at 185�. The summit is
+generally bare, though snow is always found in the clefts of the rocks.
+It is not compact or crystalline, but resembles a conglomerate of little
+hailstones.[76] Out of the mingled snow and pumice-dust rise a few
+delicate flowers, particularly the violet _Sida Pichinchensis_, the same
+which we had observed on the side of Chimborazo. Think of gay flowers a
+thousand feet higher than the top of Mont Blanc!
+
+[Footnote 76: The snow on the top of Mont Blanc is like dry dust; in
+Lapland, in open places, it consists of hexagonal crystals, and is
+called by the inhabitants "sand-snow." The French and Spanish
+mathematicians, Bouguer, La Condamine, and Ulloa, in their story of
+ascending Pichincha, give a long and dreadful account of their
+sufferings from cold and rarefied air: "whilst eating, every one was
+obliged to keep his plate over a chafing-dish of coals, to prevent his
+food from freezing." The traveler nowadays finds only a chilling wind.
+This rise of temperature, coupled with the fact that La Condamine
+(1745), Humboldt (1802), Boussingault (1831), and Wisse (1863) give to
+Quito a decreasing altitude, inclines us to believe, with Boussingault,
+that the Andes are sinking. Since the activity of the volcano in 1868,
+the summit has been so warm that the snow has totally disappeared.
+Ice-cream has in consequence risen in price in Quito, as snow must be
+brought from Sincholagua, four days' journey.]
+
+The first to reach the brink of the crater were the French Academicians
+in 1742. Sixty years after, Humboldt stood on the summit. But it was not
+till 1844 that any one dared to enter the crater. This was accomplished
+by Garcia Moreno, now President of Ecuador, and Sebastian Wisse, a
+French engineer. Humboldt pronounced the bottom of the crater
+"inaccessible, from its great depth and precipitous descent." We found
+it accessible, but exceedingly perilous. The moment we prepared to
+descend our guide ran away. We went on without him, but when halfway
+down were stopped by a precipice.
+
+On the 22d of October, 1867, we returned to Pichincha with another
+guide, and entered the crater by a different route. Manuel, our Indian,
+led us to the south side, and over the brink we went. We were not long
+in realizing the danger of the undertaking. Here the snow concealed an
+ugly fissure or covered a treacherous rock (for nearly all the rocks are
+crumbling); there we must cross a mass of loose sand moving like a
+glacier down the almost vertical side of the crater; and on every hand
+rocks were giving way, and, gathering momentum at each revolution, went
+thundering down, leaping over precipices, and jostling other rocks,
+which joined in the race, till they all struck the bottom with a deep
+rumbling sound, shivered like so many bombshells into a thousand pieces,
+and telling us what would be our fate it we made a single misstep. We
+followed our Indian in single file, keeping close together, that the
+stones set free by those in the rear might not dash those below from
+their feet; feeling our way with the greatest caution, clinging with our
+hands to snow, sand, rock, tufts of grass, or any thing that would hold
+for a moment; now leaping over a chasm, now letting ourselves down from
+rock to rock; at times paralyzed with fear, and always with death
+staring us in the face; thus we scrambled for two hours and a half, till
+we reached the bottom of the crater.
+
+Here we found a deeply-furrowed plain, strewn with ragged rocks, and
+containing a few patches of vegetation, with half a dozen species of
+flowers. In the centre is an irregular heap of stones, two hundred and
+sixty feet high by eight hundred in diameter. This is the cone of
+eruption--its sides and summit covered with an imposing group of vents,
+seventy in number, all lined with sulphur and exhaling steam, black
+smoke, and sulphurous gas. The temperature of the vapor just within the
+fumarole is 184�, water boiling beside it at 189�. The central vent, or
+chimney, gives forth a sound like the violent bubbling of boiling water.
+As we sat on this fiery mount, surrounded by a circular rampart of
+rocks, and looked up at the immense towers of dark dolerite which ran up
+almost vertically to the height of twenty-five hundred feet above us,
+musing over the tremendous force which fashioned this awful
+amphitheatre--spacious enough for all the gods of Tartarus to hold high
+carnival--the clouds which hung in the thin air around the crest of the
+crater pealed forth thunder after thunder, which, reverberating from
+precipice to precipice, were answered by the crash of rocks let loose by
+the storm, till the whole mountain seemed to tremble like a leaf. Such
+acoustics, mingled with the flash of lightning and the smell of
+brimstone, made us believe that we had fairly got into the realm of
+Pluto. It is the spot where Dante's _Inferno_ ought to be read.
+
+Finishing our observations, and warming our dinner over the steaming
+crevices, we prepared to ascend. The escape from this horrid hole was
+more perilous than the entrance, and on reaching the top we sang, with
+grateful hearts, to the tune of "Old Hundred,"
+
+     "Praise God, from whom all blessings flow."
+
+We doubt whether that famous tune and glorious doxology were ever sung
+so near to heaven.
+
+The second line,
+
+     "Praise him all creatures here below,"
+
+had a strange meaning fifteen thousand feet high.
+
+There have been five eruptions of Pichincha since the Conquest. The last
+was in 1660; that of 1566 covered Quito three feet deep with ashes and
+stones, while boiling water and bitumen descended in torrents. In 1867
+the column of smoke did not rise above the crest of the crater, but the
+volcano has lately been showing signs of activity, such as it has not
+exhibited since the last grand eruption two centuries ago. On the 19th
+of March, 1868, detonations were audible at Quito, and three days after
+there were more thunderings, with a great column of vapor visible from
+Chillo, twelve miles to the east. These phenomena were accompanied by an
+unusual fall of rain. Since the great earthquake of August 16th,
+Pichincha has continued to send forth dense columns of black smoke, and
+so much fine sand that it is not possible to reach the crater. The solid
+products of Pichincha since the Conquest have been chiefly pumice,
+coarse-grained and granular trachyte, and reddish porphyroid trachyte.
+The roads leading to Quito cut through hills of pumice-dust. On the
+plain of I�aquito and in the valley of Esmeraldas are vast erratic
+blocks of trachyte, some containing twenty-five cubic yards, having
+sharp angles, and in some cases a polished, unstriated surface. M. Wisse
+does not consider them to have been thrown out of Pichincha, as La
+Condamine and others have judged. It is true, as he says, that they
+could not have come out of the present cone at a less angle than 45�,
+for they would have hit the sides of the high rocky rampart and rolled
+back again; and at a higher angle they would not have reached their
+present location. But we see no reason why they could not be the upper
+portion of the solid trachyte cone blown into the air at the great
+eruption which cleared out this enormous crater. There is a _rumipamba_,
+or "field of stones," around each of the Quitonian volcanoes.
+
+Leaving Pichincha, we travel northward along the battlemented Andes,
+passing by the conical mountains of Yana-urcu and Cotocach�. Yana-urcu,
+or "black mountain," is a mass of calcined rocks. Cotocach� (from
+_cota_? and _cach�_, salt) is always snow-clad. On its side is Cuycocha,
+one of the highest lakes in the world (10,200 feet), and formed by the
+subsidence of a part of the volcano.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+     The Volcanoes of Ecuador.--Eastern
+     Cordillera.--Imbabura.--Cayambi.--Antisana.--Cotopaxi.--Llanganati.
+     --Tunguragua.--Altar.--Sangai.
+
+
+Near the once busy city of Otovalo, utterly destroyed in the late
+earthquake, the two Cordilleras join, and, turning to the right, we go
+down the eastern range. The first in order is Imbabura,[77] which poured
+forth a large quantity of mud, with thousands of fishes, seven years
+before the similar eruption of Caraguairazo. At its feet is the
+beautiful lake of San Pablo, five miles in circumference, and very deep.
+It contains the little black fish (_Pimelodes cyclopum_) already
+referred to as the only species in the valley, and the same that was
+cast out by Imbabura and Caraguairazo. Next comes the square-topped
+Cayambi--the loftiest mountain in this Cordillera, being nineteen
+thousand five hundred feet. It stands exactly on the equator, a colossal
+monument placed by the hand of Nature to mark the grand division of the
+globe. It is the only snowy spot, says Humboldt, which is crossed by the
+equator. Beautiful is the view of Cayambi from Quito, as its enormous
+mass of snow and ice glows with crimson splendor in the farewell rays of
+the setting sun. No painter's brush could do justice to the prismatic
+tints which hover around the higher peaks. But this flood of glory is
+soon followed by the pure whiteness of death. "Like a gigantic ghost
+shrouded in sepulchral sheets, the mountain now hovers in the background
+of the landscape, towering ghastly through the twilight until darkness
+closes upon the scene."
+
+[Footnote 77: From _imba_ (fish), and _bura_, to produce. Its name can
+not be older than 1691, unless the mountain made similar eruptions
+before. It has frequently ejected water.]
+
+Ten miles farther south is the bare-headed Guamani range, over which
+passes the road to the wild Napo country.[78] The view from the crest is
+magnificent; but, like every grand panorama, eludes description. As we
+look eastward over the beginnings of the mighty forest which stretches
+unbroken to the Atlantic, the vast ridges, trending north and south, and
+decreasing in height as they increase in distance, seem like the waves
+of a great ocean rolling toward the mountains.
+
+[Footnote 78: The culminating point of Guamani is _Sara-urcu_, a volcano
+which threw out a vast quantity of ashes in 1843 and 1856.]
+
+Near by stands Antisana in his snowy robe. This volcano ranks next to
+Chimborazo in dignity. It has a double dome, and an elevation of 19,000
+feet. Snow of Dian purity covers it for over 3000 feet; but, judging
+from the enormous streams of lava on its sides, it must have been a
+fierce volcano in ages past. The lava streams are worthy of the great
+mountain from which they flowed. One of them (called "Volcan d'Ansango")
+is ten miles long and five hundred feet deep, with an average slope of
+15�. It is a magnificent sight, as seen from the surrounding paramo--a
+stream of dark, ragged rocks coming down out of the clouds and snows
+which cover the summit. The representative products of Antisana are a
+black, cellular, vitreous trachyte, a fine-grained, tough porphyroid
+trachyte, and a coarse reddish porphyroid trachyte. An eruption, as late
+as 1590, is recorded in _Johnston's Phys. Atlas_. Humboldt saw smoke
+issuing from several openings in March, 1802.
+
+We ascended this volcano to the height of sixteen thousand feet. On its
+side is the celebrated hacienda of Antisana, which, more than sixty
+years ago, sheltered the great Humboldt from the sleet and rain and
+blast of this lofty region. It was a welcome refuge to us, for we had
+well nigh perished with cold on the dreary paramo. It is one of the
+highest human habitations in the world, being thirteen thousand three
+hundred feet above the sea, or a thousand feet higher than the Peak of
+Teneriffe.[79] The mean temperature is the same as that of Quebec, so
+that thirteen thousand feet in elevation at the equator is equal to 47�
+in latitude.[80] Here is an extensive corral, inclosing thousands of
+cattle, owned by a rheumatic old gentleman, Se�or Valdevieso, who
+supplies the beef-market of Quito.[81] A desire for beef has alone
+brought man and his beast to this chilly altitude. It is difficult to
+get a quart of milk, and impossible to find a pound of butter at this
+hacienda. The predominant colors of the cattle are red and black. They
+feed on the wild paramo grass, and the beef is not only remarkably
+cheap, but superior in quality. The lasso is used in catching the
+animals, but not so skillfully as by the Gauchos of Rio Plata. It is a
+singular fact that cattle have followed men over the whole earth, from
+the coast of Africa to the highlands of Antisana. The same species is
+attacked by crocodiles and condors.
+
+[Footnote 79: M. d'Abbadie professes to have visited a village in
+Abyssinia (Arquiage) which is 12,450 feet above the sea. Potosi stands
+13,500 feet.]
+
+[Footnote 80: This agrees with Humboldt's calculation that a difference
+of elevation of 278 feet produces the same effect on the annual
+temperature as a change of one degree of latitude. According to the
+experiments of Captain Pullen, the minimum temperature of the great
+depths of the ocean 35�, and it commences soon after passing 12,000
+feet.]
+
+[Footnote 81: The great d�p�ts of cattle in Ecuador are at the two
+extremes of elevation, the lowlands of St. Elena and the highlands of
+Antisana. On the slope of Cayambi is another extensive cattle estate.]
+
+The atmospheric pressure is here so small that they frequently bleed at
+the nose and mouth when hunted. We have already given our experience in
+ascending high altitudes. We may add that while the pulse of
+Boussingault beat 106 pulsations at the height of 18,600 feet on
+Chimborazo, ours was 87 at 16,000 feet on Antisana. De Saussure says
+that a draught of liquor which would inebriate in the lowlands no
+longer has that effect on Mont Blanc. This appears to be true on the
+Andes; indeed, there is very little drunkenness in Quito. So the higher
+we perch our inebriate asylums, the better for the patients.
+
+Near the hacienda is a little lake called Mica, on which we found a
+species of grebe, with wings so short it could not fly. Its legs, also,
+seem fitted only for paddling, and it goes ashore only to lay its eggs.
+It peeps like a gosling. Associated with them were penguins (in
+appearance); they were so shy we could not secure one. The query is, How
+came they there? Was this a centre of creation, or were the fowls
+upheaved with the Andes? They could not have flown or walked to this
+lofty lake, and there are no water-courses leading to it; it is
+surrounded with a dry, rolling waste, where only the condor lives. We
+turn to Darwin for an answer.[82]
+
+[Footnote 82: The grebe is considered by Messrs. Cassin and Lawrence to
+be the _Podiceps occipitalis_, Lisson (_P. calipareus et Chilensis_ of
+Garnot), which occurs in large flocks on the coast of Chile and in the
+Straits of Magellan. It is quite different from the _P. micropterus_ of
+Lake Titicaca. At Morococha, Peru, 15,600 feet above the sea, Herndon
+found snipes and ducks.]
+
+The ragged Sincholagua[83] and romantic Rumi�agui follow Antisana, and
+then we find ourselves looking up at the most beautiful and most
+terrible of volcanoes. This is the far-famed Cotopaxi, or more properly
+Cutu-pacsi, meaning "a brilliant mass." Humboldt calls it the most
+regular and most picturesque of volcanic cones. It looks like a huge
+truncated cone rising out of the Valley of Quito, its sides deeply
+furrowed by the rivers of mud and water which have so often flowed out.
+The cone itself is about six thousand feet high. The east side is
+covered with snow, but the west is nearly bare, owing to the trade
+winds, which, sweeping across the continent, carry the ashes westward.
+Cotopaxi is the loftiest of active volcanoes, though its grand eruptions
+are a century apart, according to the general rule that the higher a
+volcano the less frequent its eruptions, but all the more terrible when
+they do occur. Imagine Vesuvius on the summit of Mont Blanc, and you
+have the altitude of Cotopaxi.
+
+[Footnote 83: In Brigham's _Notes on the Volcanic Phenomena of the
+Hawaiian Islands_, this volcano is put down as active, but there has
+been no eruption in the memory of man. Its lithology is represented in
+our collection by porous, gray, granular trachyte, fine-grained, compact
+trachyte, and dark porphyroid trachyte. The derivation of Sincholagua is
+unknown, Rumi�agui means the face of a rock, Cotopaxi, Sincholagua, and
+Rumi�agui, and Cotopaxi, Pichincha, and Guamani, form equilateral
+triangles.]
+
+The top just reaches the middle point of density in the atmosphere, for
+at the height of three miles and a half the air below will balance that
+above. The crater has never been seen by man; the steepness of the sides
+and the depth of the ashes covering them render it inaccessible. The
+valiant Col. Hall tried it with scaling ladders, only to fail. The
+telescope reveals a parapet of scoria on the brim, as on Teneriffe.
+Humboldt's sketch of the volcano, so universally copied, is overdrawn.
+It makes the slope about 50�, while in truth it is nearer 30�. The
+apical angle is 122� 30'.[84]
+
+[Footnote 84: MM. Zurcher and Margalli make the slope 55�! and Guzman,
+69� 30'!! The slope of Mauna Loa is 6� 30'; of Etna, 9�; of Teneriffe,
+12� 30'; of Vesuvius, 35�. While cinder-cones may have an angle of 40�,
+lava-cones seldom exceed 10�.]
+
+Cotopaxi is slumbering now; or, as Mr. Coan says of Hilo, it is "in a
+state of solemn and thoughtful suspense." The only signs of life are the
+deep rumbling thunders and a cloud of smoke lazily issuing from the
+crater.[85] Sometimes at night the smoke looks like a pillar of fire,
+and fine ashes and sand often fall around the base, to the great
+annoyance of the farmers. On the south side is a huge rock of porphyry,
+called the Inca's Head. Tradition has it that this was the original
+summit of the volcano, torn off and hurled down by an eruption on the
+very day Atahuallpa was murdered by Pizarro. The last great eruption
+occurred in 1803, though so late as 1855 it tossed out stones, water,
+and sand. Heaps of ruins, piled up during the lapse of ages, are
+scattered for miles around the mountain, among them great boulders
+twenty feet square. In one place (Quinchevar) the accumulation is 600
+feet deep. Between Cotopaxi and Sincholagua are numerous conical hills
+covering the paramo, reminding one of the mud volcanoes of Jorullo.
+
+[Footnote 85: Even this has now (August, 1869) ceased, save an
+occasional grumble, and the Tacungans are trembling with fear of another
+eruption.]
+
+Pumice and trachyte are the most common rocks around this mountain, and
+these are augitic or porphyroid. Obsidian also occurs, though not on the
+immediate flank, but farther down near Chillo. In plowing, thousands of
+pieces as large as "flints" are turned up. The natives know nothing
+about their origin or use; the large specimens were anciently polished
+and used for mirror. But Cotopaxi is the great pumice-producing volcano.
+The new road up the valley cuts through a lofty hill formed by the
+successive eruptions; the section, presenting alternate layers of mud,
+ashes, and pumice, is a written history of the volcano.[86] The cone
+itself is evidently composed of similar beds super-imposed, and holding
+fragments of porphyry and trachyte. What is Vesuvius, four thousand feet
+high, to Cotopaxi, belching forth fire from a crater fifteen thousand
+feet higher, and shooting its contents three thousand feet above its
+snow-bound summit, with a voice of thunder heard six hundred miles!
+
+[Footnote 86: Compare the following sections:
+
+COTOPAXI (near Tiupullo).
+Soil                                        1 ft. 0 in.
+Fine yellow pumice                          5  "  0  "
+Compact black ashes, with seams of pumice  10  "  0  "
+Fine yellow pumice                          1  "  6  "
+Compact black ashes                        12  "  0  "
+Fine yellow pumice                          2  "  0  "
+Compact black ashes, with seams of pumice.
+
+VESUVIUS (at Pompeii).
+Soil                                        3 ft. 0 in.
+Brown incoherent tuff                       1  "  6  "
+Small scori� and white lapilli              0  "  3  "
+Brown earthy tuff                           4  "  9  "
+Whitish lapilli                             0  "  1  "
+Gray solid tuff                             0  "  3  "
+Pumice and white lapilli                    0  "  3  "
+
+]
+
+Leaving this terrible "safety-valve" to the imprisoned fires under our
+feet, we travel along the wooded flanks and savage valleys of the
+Llanganati Mountains, whose lofty blue ridge is here and there pointed
+with snow.[87] It is universally believed that the Incas buried an
+immense quantity of gold in an artificial lake on the sides of this
+mountain during the Spanish invasion, and many an adventurous expedition
+has been made for it. The inhabitants will tell you of one Valverde, a
+Spaniard, who, from being very poor, had suddenly become very rich,
+which was attributed to his having married an Indian girl whose father
+showed him where the treasure was hidden, and accompanied him on various
+occasions to bring away portions of it; and that Valverde returned to
+Spain, and on his death-bed bequeathed the secret of his riches to the
+king. But since Padre Longo suddenly disappeared while leading an
+expedition, the timid Ecuadorians have been content with their
+poverty.[88]
+
+[Footnote 87: Immediately south of Cotopaxi, the Cordillera consists of
+paramos sown with lakes and morasses, and is rarely covered with snow.
+Llanganati is probably from _ll�nga_, to touch: they touch the sources
+of nearly all the Ecuadorian rivers.]
+
+[Footnote 88: The story is doubtless due to the fact that the eastern
+streams, which issue from the foot of this cordillera, are auriferous.]
+
+And now we have reached the perfect cone of Tunguragua, the rival of
+Cotopaxi in symmetry and beauty.[89] It stands 16,500 feet above the
+Pacific, its upper part covered with a splendid robe of snow, while the
+sugar-cane grows in the romantic town of Ba�os, 10,000 feet below the
+summit. A cataract, 1500 feet high, comes down at three bounds from the
+edge of the snow to the warm valley beneath; and at Ba�os a hot
+ferruginous spring and a stream of ice-water flow out of the volcano
+side by side. Here, too, the fierce youth of the Pastassa, born on the
+pumice slopes of Cotopaxi, dashes through a deep tortuous chasm and down
+a precipice in hot haste, as if conscious of the long distance before it
+ere it reaches the Amazon and the ocean. Tunguragua was once a
+formidable mountain, for we discovered a great stream of lava reaching
+from the clouds around the summit to the orange-groves in the valley,
+and blocking up the rivers which tumble over it in beautiful cascades.
+It has been silent since 1780; but it can afford to rest, for then its
+activity lasted seven years.[90]
+
+[Footnote 89: From Tung�ri, the ankle-joint, alluding to its apical
+angle. It is a little steeper than Cotopaxi, having a slope of 38�.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Spruce asserts that he saw smoke issuing from the western
+edge in 1857; and Dr. Terry says that in 1832 smoke ascended almost
+always from the summit. Dr. Taylor, of Riobamba, informs the writer that
+smoke is now almost constantly visible. The characteristic rock is a
+black vitreous trachyte resembling pitchstone, but anhydrous.]
+
+Close by rises beautiful Altar, a thousand feet higher. The Indians call
+it Capac-urcu, or the "Chief." They say it once overtopped Chimborazo;
+but, after a violent eruption, which continued eight years, the walls
+fell in. Its craggy crest is still more Alpine than Caraguairazo; eight
+snowy peaks shoot up like needles into the sky, and surround an altar to
+whose elevated purity no mortal offering will ever attain. The trachyte
+which once formed the summit of this mountain is now spread in fragments
+over the plain of Riobamba.
+
+Leaving this broken-down volcano, but still the most picturesque in the
+Andes, we travel over the rough and rugged range of Cubillin, till our
+attention is arrested by terrific explosions like a naval broadside, and
+a column of smoke that seems to come from the furnace of the Cyclops. It
+is Sangai, the most active volcano on the globe. From its unapproachable
+crater, three miles high, it sends forth a constant stream of fire,
+water, mud, and ashes.[91]
+
+[Footnote 91: La Condamine (1742) adds "sulphur and bitumen."]
+
+No intermission has been noticed since the Spaniards first saw it three
+hundred years ago. Stromboli is the only volcano that will compare with
+it. Its ashes are almost always falling on the city of Guayaquil, one
+hundred miles distant, and its explosions, generally occurring every
+hour or two, are sometimes heard in that city. Wisse, in 1849, counted
+267 explosions in one hour.
+
+We have now completed the series. What an array of snow-clad peaks wall
+in the narrow Valley of Quito--Nature's Gothic spires to this her
+glorious temple! If ever there was a time when all these volcanoes were
+active in concert, this secluded vale must have witnessed the most
+splendid pyrotechnics conceivable. Imagine fifty mountains as high as
+Etna, three of them with smoking craters, standing along the road
+between New York and Washington, and you will have some idea of the ride
+down this gigantic colonnade from Quito to Riobamba. If, as Ruskin says,
+the elements of beauty are in proportion to the increase of mountainous
+character, Ecuador is artistically beautiful to a high degree.
+
+Here, amid these Plutonic peaks, are the energies of volcanic action
+best studied. The constancy of the volcanic fires is a striking fact.
+First we have the deluges of submarine lavas, which were poured out long
+before the Andes lifted their heads above the waters; then alternate
+porphyritic strata, feldspathic streams, and gypseous exhalations; then,
+at a later day, floods of basaltic lava; next the old tertiary
+eruptions; and, lastly, the vast accumulations of boulders, gravel,
+ashes, pumice, and mud of the present day, spread over the Valley of
+Quito and the west slope of the Cordilleras to an unknown depth beneath
+the sea. The incessant eruptions of Sangai, and the frequent
+earthquakes, show that the subterranean energy which heaved the Andes is
+not yet expended.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+     The Valley of Quito.--Riobamba.--A Bed of "Fossil Giants."--Chillo
+     Hacienda.--Otovalo and Ibarra.--The Great Earthquake of 1868.
+
+
+The Valley of Quito has about the same size and shape as the basin of
+Salt Lake, but it is five thousand feet higher.[92] The two cordilleras
+inclosing it are tied by the mountain-knots of Assuay and Chisinchi, so
+that the valley is subdivided into three basins, those of Cuenca,
+Ambato, and Quito proper, which increase in beauty and altitude as we
+travel north. There are several subordinate transversal dikes and some
+longitudinal ridges, but all the basins lie parallel to the axes of the
+cordilleras--a characteristic feature of the Andes. The deep valleys on
+the outside flanks are evidently valleys of erosion, but the basins
+between the cordilleras were created with them.
+
+[Footnote 92: Compare the table-lands in the Old World:
+
+Thibet            11,500 feet.
+South Africa       6,000   "
+Mysore (India)     2,880   "
+Spain              2,240   "
+Bavaria            1,770   "
+
+]
+
+The first is fifty miles long. It contains the cities of Loja and
+Cuenca,[93] the former distinguished for its cinchona forests, the
+latter for Inca graves and mines of precious metals. The middle basin
+(130 miles in length) is covered with vast quantities of volcanic
+d�bris, the outpourings of Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, and Altar, on one side,
+and of Chimborazo and Caraguairazo on the other. Nothing relieves the
+barrenness of the landscape but hedges of century plant, cactus, and
+wild heliotrope, which border the roads. Whirlwinds of sand are often
+seen moving over the plain. The mean temperature is 61�.5. Here exist,
+we can not say thrive, the cities of Riobamba, Ambato, and Tacunga,
+already noticed. Riobamba,[94] properly Rayobamba, the plain of
+lightning, was founded at the beginning of this century, or shortly
+after the destruction of the old city. Excepting the ecclesiastical
+buildings, the houses are of one story, built of stone plastered with
+mud, sometimes of adobe or bamboo, and the windows are grated like those
+of a prison. As in all Spanish-American towns, the main church fronts
+the great Plaza where the weekly fairs are held. Save on fair-day, the
+city is lifeless. Nothing is exported to the coast except a few eggs and
+fowls, lard and potatoes. Such is the power of habit, an Indian will
+take a hen to Bodegas and sell it for four reals (50 cents) when he
+could get three for it in Riobamba, and six on the road. Another
+instance of this dogged adherence to custom was related to us by Dr.
+Taylor: The Indians were accustomed to bring the curate of a certain
+village a bundle of alfalfa every day. A new curate, having no use for
+so much, ordered them not to bring any more. He was besieged by five
+hundred of his wild parishioners, and had he not been a powerful man,
+they would have killed him. They told him they were accustomed to bring
+the curate that much of alfalfa, and should continue.
+
+[Footnote 93: The altitude of Loja is 6768 feet; of Cuenca, 8640 feet.]
+
+[Footnote 94: According to Villavicencio, _Rio_ (or _Rie_) is Quichua
+for road; _bamba_ is plain.]
+
+Old Riobamba (Cajabamba) is situated twelve miles to the west. This has
+been the scene of some of the most terrible paroxysms that over shook
+the Andes. In 1797 a part of Mount Cicalfa was thrown down, crushing the
+city at its foot; hills arose where valleys existed; rivers
+disappeared, and others took their places; and the very site of the
+city was rent asunder. The surviving inhabitants could not tell where
+their houses had stood, and property was so mingled that litigation
+followed the earthquake. Judging from the numerous sculptured columns
+lying broken and prostrate throughout the valley, the city must have had
+a magnificence now unknown in Ecuador. Around a coat of arms (evidently
+Spanish) we read these words: _Malo mori quam fedari_, "I would rather
+die than be disgraced." In the spring of 1868 another convulsion caused
+a lake to disappear and a mountain to take its place.
+
+Near Pun�n, seven miles southwest of Riobamba, we discovered in a deep
+ravine numerous fossil bones, belonging chiefly to the mastodon, and
+extinct species of the horse, deer, and llama. They were imbedded in the
+middle of an unstratified cliff, four hundred feet high, of very compact
+silt or trachytic clay, free from stones, and resting on a hard
+quartzoze sandstone. In the bed of the stream which runs through the
+ravine (charged with nitrate of soda) are some igneous rocks. The bones
+were drifted to this spot and deposited (many of them in a broken state)
+in horizontal layers along with recent shells. We have, then, this
+remarkable fact, that this high valley was tenanted by elephantine
+quadrupeds, all of which passed away before the arrival of the human
+species, and yet while the land, and probably the sea also, were peopled
+with their present molluscan inhabitants. This confirms the statement of
+Mr. Lyell, that the longevity of mammalian species is much inferior to
+that of the testacea. It is interesting to speculate on the probable
+climate and the character of the vegetation in this high valley when
+these extinct mammifers lived. The great pachyderm would have no
+difficulty in thriving at the present day at Quito, on the score of
+temperature or altitude. The mammoth once flourished in Siberia; and
+Gibbon met an elephant on the high table-lands of Bolivia that had
+walked over the Cordillera at the pass of Antarangua, sixteen thousand
+feet above the sea. Darwin thinks that the climate of the Cordilleras
+has changed since the pleistocene period. "It is a marvelous fact in the
+history of mammalia (says this naturalist) that in South America a
+native horse should have lived and disappeared, to be succeeded in after
+ages by the countless herds descended from the few introduced with the
+Spanish colonists."
+
+The high ridge of Chisinchi, stretching across the great plateau from
+Cotopaxi to Iliniza, separates the evergreen Valley of Quito from the
+arid and melancholy valleys of Cuenca and Ambato. It rolls out like a
+rich carpet of emerald verdure between the towering mountains of
+Pichincha and Antisana, Cotacachi and Cayambi. This was the centre of
+the most ancient native civilization after that of Titicaca. Here, while
+the darkness of the Middle Ages was settling over Europe, dwelt the
+Quitus, whose origin is lost in the mists of fable. Then, while Peter
+the Hermit was leading his fanatic host against the Saracens, the Cara
+nation waged a more successful crusade, and supplanted the Quitus. Here,
+too, in the bloody days of Pizarro, reigned, and was buried, the last of
+the Incas, ill-fated Atahuallpa. To him, indeed, it was a more
+delightful spot than the vale of Vilcamayu--the paradise of Peru.
+
+The Puengasi Hills, running through the valley from north to south,
+partially divide the capital and its vicinity from the charming Valley
+of Chillo, spread out at the foot of Antisana. Here is the venerable
+hacienda of Chillo, where Humboldt and Bonpland resided for some time.
+It is owned by the Aguirres, who are grand-nephews of Don Carlos
+Montufar, the companion of the famous travelers. The hacienda contains
+two valuable paintings--an original "Crucifixion" by Titian, and a
+portrait of the great German from life, as he appeared in 1803. This
+latter relic interested us exceedingly, and, through the kindness of Sr.
+Aguirre, we were allowed to photograph it. It represents Humboldt in his
+prime, a traveler on the Andes, dressed after the court-fashion of
+Berlin; very different from the usual portrait--an old man in his
+library, his head, thinly covered with gray hair, resting on his bosom.
+
+[Illustration: Humboldt in 1802.]
+
+Thirty miles north of Quito, near the volcanic Imbabura, is the ruined
+city of Otovalo, a thousand feet lower than the capital. It was well
+built, and contained 7000 inhabitants. Quichua was the prevailing
+language. Its chief trade was in saddles, ponchos, straw hats, and
+fruit. Here was the cotton factory, or _quinta_, of Sr. Pareja. Three
+miles from Otovalo was the enterprising Indian village of Cotocach�, at
+the mountain of the same name. It was noted for its hand-loom products.
+A heap of ruins now marks the locality. It is a doomed spot, suffering
+more than any other town in 1859.
+
+Four miles northwest of Otovalo was the city of Ibarra, picturesquely
+seated on a plain 2000 feet lower than Quito, and surrounded with
+orchards and gardens. It numbered nearly 10,000 souls. It was not a
+commercial place, but the residence of landed proprietors. The
+neighborhood produced cotton, sugar, and fruit. A league distant was
+Carranqui, the birthplace of Atahuallpa. And, finally, the great valley
+fitly terminates in the plain of Atuntaqui,[95] where the decisive
+battle was fought which ushered in the reign of the Incas.
+
+[Illustration: Ibarra.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Atuntaqui received its name from the big drum which was
+kept here in the days of Huayna-Capac, to give the war-signal.]
+
+This northern province of Imbabura was the focus of the late terrible
+earthquake. At half past one on Sunday morning, August 16, 1868, with
+scarcely a premonitory sign (save a slight trembling at 3 P.M. the
+previous day), there was an upheaving of the ground, and then one
+tremendous shock and rocking of the earth, lasting one minute. In that
+brief moment the rich and flourishing province became a wilderness, and
+"Misericordia!" went up, like tho sound of many waters, from ten
+villages and cities. Otovalo, Ibarra, Cotocach�, and Atantaqui are
+heaps of ruins. At Otovalo 6000 perished. After the first shock, not a
+wall a yard high remained. Houses, in some instances, seemed to have
+been cut from their foundation, and thrown ten feet distant. The large
+stone fountain in the Plaza was thrown many yards. The cotton factory,
+which was built on the edge of a ravine, was by one stroke reduced to
+fragments. Such was the force of the concussion, the looms smashed each
+other, the carding-machines were thrown on their sides, and the roof,
+with part of the machinery, was found in the river below. The proprietor
+was killed. Throughout this whole region roads were broken up, and vast
+chasms created crossing the country in all directions. One is 2000 yards
+long, 500 yards broad, and 80 yards deep. Large fissures were opened on
+the sides of Cotocach� and Imbabura, from which issued immense torrents
+of water, mud, and bituminous substances, carrying away and drowning
+hundreds of cattle. A caravan of mules going to Chillo with cotton-bales
+was found four days after grazing on a narrow strip of land, on each
+side of which was a fearful chasm, while the muleteers were killed.
+
+At Quito comparatively little damage was done. Fifteen lives were lost,
+and the churches, convents, and many private houses are in a state of
+dilapidation. Domes and arches, which are much used because of the
+scarcity of timber, were first to fall.
+
+In the fierceness of the shock, and the extent of the territory shaken,
+the earthquake of August, 1868, is without a parallel in the New World.
+The destruction of life (50,000 officially reported in Ecuador alone)
+has not been equaled in any other earthquake during this century. The
+tremor was felt over four republics, and from the Andes to the Sandwich
+Islands. The water-wave was felt on the coast of New Zealand sixteen
+hours after it had set a United States gunboat, on the sand-hills of
+Arica. In some respects it is surpassed only by the Lisbon earthquake,
+which reached from Sweden to the West Indies, and from Barbary to
+Scotland. The loss of property seems to have been greatest in Peru, and
+the loss of life greatest in Ecuador. The commotion seemed to be most
+violent along the Western Cordillera, though it was felt even on the
+Napo.
+
+There are few places where the crust of our planet is long at rest.
+Brazil, Egypt, Russia, and Greenland are comparatively free from
+earthquakes. But had we delicate instruments scattered throughout the
+world, upheaval and subsidence would doubtless be detected in every part
+of the so-called _terra firma_. The sea, and not the land, is the true
+image of stability.
+
+    "Time writes no wrinkle on thy azure brow:
+    Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now."
+
+Earthquakes have occurred in every period of geological history, and are
+independent of latitude. The first well-known earthquake came in the
+year 63, and shattered Pompeii and Herculaneum sixteen years before they
+were overwhelmed by the first recorded eruption of Vesuvius. The most
+celebrated earthquake, and perhaps the most terrible manifestation of
+force during the human period, was in 1755. The shock, which seemed to
+originate in the bed of the Atlantic, pervaded one twelfth of the
+earth's surface. Unhappy Lisbon stood in its path.
+
+An earthquake is a vertical vibration, having an undulatory progression.
+An example of the simple bounding movement occurred in 1797, when the
+city of Riobamba, in the Quito Valley, was buried under part of a
+mountain shaken down by the violent concussion, and men were tossed
+several hundred feet. We saw one massive structure which had nearly
+turned a somersault. The ordinary vibrations seldom exceed two feet in
+height. The wave-movement has a rate of from twenty to thirty miles a
+minute, depending on the elasticity of the rock and the elevations on
+the surface. When two undulations cross each other, a rotatory or
+twisting motion is produced. The waves are generally transmitted along
+the lines of primary mountain chains, which are doubtless seated on a
+fracture. The Lisbon waves moved from southwest to northeast, or
+parallel to the mountain system of the Old World; those of the United
+States, in 1843, ran parallel to the volcanic chain in Mexico. In South
+America they roll along the Andes. That of 1797 left its tracks along a
+westerly line from Tunguragua through Pelil�o and Gu�no. It is a little
+singular, that while the late trembling at Quito seemed to come from the
+north, the great shock in Peru preceded that in Ecuador by three days.
+Though the origin of earthquakes is deep-seated, the oscillation is
+mostly superficial, as deep mines are little disturbed. The most damage
+is done where the sedimentary plains abut against the hard, upturned
+strata of the mountains. The shock is usually brief. That of Caracas
+lasted fifty seconds, that of Lisbon six minutes; but Humboldt witnessed
+one in South America which continued a quarter of an hour.
+
+Several hypotheses have been advanced to account for earthquakes. Rogers
+ascribes them to billowy pulsations in the molten matter upon which the
+flexible crust of the earth floats. Mallet thinks they may be viewed as
+an uncompleted effort to establish a volcano. Dana holds that they are
+occasioned by the folding up of the rocks in the slow process of cooling
+and consequent contraction of the earth's crust. In this process there
+would occur enormous fractures to relieve the tension; tilted strata
+would slip, and caverns give way. All this no doubt takes place; but the
+sudden, paroxysmal heavings incline us to refer the cause to the same
+eruptive impulse which makes Vesuvius and Cotopaxi discharge pent-up
+subterranean vapor and gas. The most destructive earthquakes occur when
+the overlying rocks do not break and give vent to the imprisoned gas.
+There is some connection between volcanoes and earthquakes; the former
+are, to a certain extent, "safety-valves." The column of smoke from the
+volcano of Pasto suddenly disappeared just before the great earthquake
+at Riobamba. In the spring of 1868 Pichincha and Cotopaxi showed signs
+of increasing activity, but in the summer became quiet again. Cotocach�
+and Sangai, 200 miles apart, were awaked simultaneously; the former,
+silent for centuries, sent forth dense masses of earth and volcanic
+matter to a distance of many miles, covering thousands of acres; the
+latter thundered every half hour instead of hourly, as before. Still,
+the greatest earthquakes do not occur in the vicinity of active
+volcanoes. Lisbon and Lima (where, on an average, forty-five shocks
+occur annually, and two fearful ones in a century) are far distant from
+any volcanic vent; likewise Northern India, South Africa, Scotland, and
+the United States.
+
+An earthquake is beyond the reach of calculation. Professor Perrey, of
+Dijon, France, is endeavoring to prove that there is a periodicity in
+earthquakes, synchronous with that in the tides of the ocean, the
+greatest number occurring at the time of new and full moon.[96] If this
+theory be sustained, we must admit the existence of a vast subterranean
+sea of lava. But all this is problematical. Earthquakes appear
+independently of the geology of a country, though the rate of undulation
+is modified by the mineral structure. Earthquake waves seem to move more
+rapidly through the comparatively undisturbed beds of the Mississippi
+Valley than through the contorted strata of Europe. Meteorology is
+unable to indicate a coming earthquake, for there is no sure prophecy in
+sultry weather, sirocco wind, and leaden sky. The Lisbon shock came
+without a warning. Sudden changes of the weather, however, often occur
+after an earthquake. Since the great convulsion of 1797 the climate of
+the Valley of Quito is said to be much colder. A heavy rain often
+follows a violent earthquake in Peru.
+
+[Footnote 96: Professor Quinby, of the University of Rochester, has, at
+our request, calculated the position of the moon at the late earthquake:
+"August 16th, 1868, 1 A.M., the moon was on meridian 137� 21' east of
+that of Quito, or 42� 30' past the lower meridian of Quito, assuming the
+longitude of Quito west of Greenwich to be 79�, which it is very nearly.
+This is but little after the vertex of the tidal wave should have passed
+the meridian of Quito, on the supposition that the interior of the earth
+is a liquid mass. The age of the moon at that time was 27.36 days,
+_i.e._, it was only about two days before new moon." At the time of the
+earthquake, 8 A.M., March 22, 1859, the moon was on meridian 25� 48'
+east of that of Quito, and was 17.6 days old. Shocks have since
+occurred, March 20th at 3 A.M., and April 10th at 8 A.M., 1869.]
+
+No amount of familiarity with earthquakes enables one to laugh during
+the shock, or even at the subterranean thunders which sound like the
+clanking of chains in the realm of Pluto. All animated nature is
+terror-stricken. The horse trembles in his stall; the cow moans a low,
+melancholy tune; the dog sends forth an unearthly yell; sparrows drop
+from the trees as if dead; crocodiles leave the trembling bed of the
+river and run with loud cries into the forest; and man himself becomes
+bewildered and loses all capacity. When the earth rocks beneath our feet
+(the motion resembling, in the words of Darwin, "that felt by a person
+skating over thin ice which bends under the weight of his body"),
+something besides giddiness is produced. We feel our utter
+insignificance in the presence of a mysterious power that shakes the
+Andes like a reed. But more: there is an awful sensation of insecurity.
+"A moment (says Humboldt) destroys the illusion of a whole life: our
+deceptive faith in the repose of nature vanishes, and we feel
+transported, as it were, into a region of unknown destructive forces." A
+judgment day seems impending, and each moment is an age when one stands
+on a world convulsed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+     "The Province of the Orient," or the Wild Napo Country.--The Napos,
+     Zaparos, and J�varos Indians.--Preparations to cross the Continent.
+
+
+On the eastern slope of the Ecuadorian Andes, between the Mara�on and
+its tributary the Putumayo, lies the Napo country. This almost unknown
+region has the area of New York and New England together. The government
+of Quito, by a sonorous decree in 1854, baptized it "La Provincia del
+Oriente." Peru likewise claims it, but neither republic has done any
+thing to colonize it. A dense primeval forest, broken only by the
+rivers, covers the whole territory, and is the home of wild races
+untouched by civilization.[97] There is not a road in the whole
+province. A footpath, open only in the dry season, and barely passable
+then, connects Quito and the Rio Napo. Congress lately promised to put
+Can�los in communication with the capital; but the largest villages in
+this vast and fertile region--Archidona, Can�los, and Mac�s--still
+remain isolated from the outer world.[98] Ecuador once appointed a
+functionary under the high-sounding title of "Governor of the Orient,"
+with a salary of $700; but now the Indians are not troubled with any
+higher official than an alcalde.
+
+[Footnote 97: The boundary-line between Ecuador and Peru is about as
+indefinite as the eastern limit of Bolivia, Brazilians claiming "as far
+west as the cattle of the empire roam."]
+
+[Footnote 98: Quito might be made more accessible on the Atlantic than
+on the Pacific side. But Ecuadorians dote on Guayaquil, and refuse to
+connect themselves directly with the great nations of the East. We
+believe there is a glorious future for Quito, when it will once more
+become a city of palaces. But it will not come until a road through the
+wilderness and a steamer on the Napo open a short communication with the
+wealth of Amazonia and the enterprise of Europe.]
+
+The country is very thinly inhabited. The chief tribes are the
+semi-Christianized Napos (sometimes called Quijos), dwelling on the
+north bank of the Napo; the peaceful but uncivilized Zaparos, living
+between the Napo and Pastassa, and the warlike J�varos, spread over the
+unexplored region between the Pastassa and Santiago.
+
+These oriental tribes would probably be assigned by D'Orbigny to the
+Antisian branch of the Alpine races of South America. Dwelling amid the
+darkness of primeval forests, and on the gloomy banks of mountain
+torrents, they have acquired modifications of character, physical and
+moral, which distinguish them from the natives of the high and open
+regions, or the steaming lowlands of the Amazon. In color, however, they
+do not appear to us to be entitled to the name of "white men;" they
+approach nearer to the bronze complexion of the Quichuans than the
+yellow cast of the Brazilians. We see no evidence of that "bleaching
+process" resulting from a life under the dense canopy of foliage of
+which the learned French naturalist speaks, neither did we perceive the
+force of his statement that the color of the South American bears a very
+decided relation to the humidity of the atmosphere.
+
+The features of the Napo Indians are Quichuan, especially the low
+forehead, squarely-built face, and dull expression; but in stature they
+exceed the mountaineers. From a skull in our possession we take the
+following measurements, adding for comparison the dimensions of an
+ancient Peruvian cranium in Dr. Morton's collection:
+
+                                 Napo.              Peruvian.
+
+Longitudinal diameter            6-1/2   in.         6.1 in.
+Parietal        "                5-3/8   "           6.  "
+Frontal         "                4       "           4.7 "
+Vertical        "                4-1/2   "           5.5 "
+Capacity                        83-1/64 cub. in.    83 cub. in.
+Facial angle                    70�                 81�
+
+From this it will be seen that the capacity of this individual Napo is 8
+cubic inches greater than the average bulk (75 cubic inches) of the old
+Peruvians; a trifle less than the average North American (84); 10 cubic
+inches less than the European (94); and the same as the average
+Polynesian and native African. He has a rounded head, somewhat prominent
+vertex, not an excessive protuberance of brain behind--a line through
+the meatus dividing it into very nearly equal parts; but a narrow front
+as viewed from above, small vertical diameter, quadrangular orbits,
+vertical teeth, and low facial angle. These characters place him between
+the Toltecan and the more barbarous tribes of the New World.
+
+The Napos are nominally subject to the Ecuadorian government, which is
+represented by three or four petty alcaldes; but the Jesuit
+missionaries, who have established a bishopric and three curacies,
+generally control affairs--spiritual, political, and commercial. The
+Indians of each village annually elect one of their number governor, who
+serves without salary, and whose only show of authority is a
+silver-headed cane about four feet long. He is attended by half a dozen
+"justices," whose duty it is to supply the curate, alcalde, and any
+traveling _blanco_ who may happen to be in town with daily food at a
+reasonable rate.
+
+The religion of the Napos is a mixture of Paganism and Christianity. In
+common with all the other orient tribes, they believe in good and evil
+principles, and in metempsychosis. They swear in the name of the devil.
+They bury their dead horizontally, in a coffin made of a part of a
+canoe, with a lid of bamboo. They are very kind to the aged. Monogamy is
+the rule: the usual age of wedlock is sixteen or seventeen. The parents
+negotiate the marriage, and the curate's fee is one castellano ($3.50).
+When a person dies they hold an Irish "wake" over the body, and then
+take the widow to the river and wash her. They have seven semi-religious
+feasts in a year. To us they appeared to be nothing more than
+meaningless drunken frolics. Attired in their best, with head-dresses
+consisting of a circlet of short, richly-colored feathers from the
+breast of the toucan, surmounted with the long tail-feathers of the
+macaw, and with necklaces of beads, seeds, and monkeys' teeth, they keep
+up a constant monotonous tapping on little drums, and trot around a
+circle like dogs on a treadmill, stopping only to drink chicha. This is
+kept up for three weeks, when they all start off, with wives and
+children, for the forest to hunt monkeys for meat.
+
+Chicha, the favorite drink of all the Andean Indians, is here brewed
+from yuca, not from corn and barley as in the Quito Valley. So true is
+it, as Humboldt remarks, that almost every where man finds means of
+preparing some kind of beverage from the vegetable kingdom. The
+Chilotans, Darwin informs us, make chicha from a species of _Bromelia_.
+In every zone, too, we find nations in a low degree of civilization
+living almost exclusively upon a single animal or plant. Thus the
+Laplander has his reindeer, the Esquimaux his seal, the Sandwich
+Islander his tara-root, the Malay his sago-palm, the Napo Indian his
+yuca.
+
+Yuca is the staple food in this region. It is more commonly roasted, but
+is sometimes ground into flour. The manufacture of chicha is primitive,
+and not a little disgusting. A "bee," usually old women, sit around a
+wooden trough; each one takes a mouthful of yuca root, and, masticating
+it, throws it into the trough. The mass is then transferred to large
+earthen jars containing water, and left to ferment. The liquor is
+slightly acid, but not intoxicating unless taken in excess. This is done
+on feast-days, when the poor Indian keeps his stomach so constantly
+distended for weeks that the abdominal protrusion is not only
+unsightly, but alarming to a stranger. Chicha-drinking is a part of the
+worship of these simple aborigines. They seem to think that the more
+happy they make themselves while paying their devotions to the Creator,
+the better he is satisfied. The Jesuits have found it impossible to
+change this method of praise. Here, as among all rude nations, an
+ancient custom is one half the religion. In eating meat (usually monkey,
+sea-cow, and peccari), we observed that they did not tear or bite it,
+but, putting one end of a long piece in the mouth, cut off what they
+could not get in, as Darwin noticed among the Fuegians. They keep no
+domestic animals except fowls.
+
+As to dress, they make use of a coarse cotton cloth, called _lienzo_,
+woven by the more enlightened Indians of Quito, dyeing it a dull brown
+by means of achote juice. The men wear a strip of this around the loins,
+and the women a short skirt. On feast-days, or when musquitoes are
+thick, the men add a little poncho and pantaloons. They do not properly
+tattoo, but color the skin with achote or anatto. This substance, which
+serves so many purposes in this part of the world, is the red powder
+which covers the seeds contained in the prickly bur of the _Bixa
+orellana_. The pigment is an article of commerce on the Amazon, and is
+exported to Europe, where it is used for coloring butter, cheese, and
+varnish. They have no fixed pattern; each paints to suit his fancy.
+Usually, however, they draw horizontal bands from the month to the ears,
+and across the forehead; we never saw curved lines in which higher
+savages, like the Tahitians, tattoo.
+
+The Napos have the provoking apathy of all the New World aborigines. As
+Humboldt observed of another tribe, "their poverty, stoicism, and
+uncultivated state render them so rich and so free from wants of every
+kind, that neither money nor other presents will induce them to turn
+three steps out of their ways." They maintain a passive dignity in their
+bearing not seen in the proudest pope or emperor. They seldom laugh or
+smile, even under the inspiration of chicha, and months of intercourse
+with them did not discover to us the power of song, though Villavicencio
+says they do sometimes intone fragments of prose in their festival
+orgies. They manifest little curiosity, and little power of mimicry, in
+which wild men generally excel the civilized.[99] The old Spartans were
+never so laconic. In conversation each says all he has to say in three
+or four words till his companion speaks, when he replies in the same
+curt, ejaculatory style. A long sentence, or a number of sentences at
+one time, we do not remember of hearing from the lips of a Napo
+Indian.[100]
+
+[Footnote 99: All savages appear to possess to an uncommon degree the
+power of mimicry.--_Darwin_.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Gibbon observes of his Indian paddlers on the Marmor�:
+"They talk very little; they silently pull along as though they were
+sleeping, but their eyes are wandering all the time in every
+direction."]
+
+The women do most of the work, while their lazy lords drink up the
+chicha and swing in their hammocks, or possibly do a little
+hunting.[101] They catch fish with bone hooks, seines, spears, and by
+poisoning the water with _barbasco_.[102] This last method is quite
+common throughout equatorial America. Mashing the root, they throw it
+into the quiet coves of the river, when almost immediately the fish rise
+to the surface, first the little fry and then the larger specimens. The
+poison seems to stupefy rather than kill, for we observed that some
+individuals behaved in a most lively manner shortly after they were
+caught. The Indians drink the water with impunity.
+
+[Footnote 101: Some of these feminines, however, have a method of
+retaliation which happily does not exist further north. They render
+their husbands idiotic by giving them an infusion of _floripondio_, and
+then choose another consort. We saw a sad example of this near Riobamba,
+and heard of one husband who, after being thus treated, unconsciously
+served his wife and her new man like a slave. _Floripondio_ is the seed
+of the _Datura sanguinea_, which is allied to the poisonous _stramonium_
+used by the priests of Apollo at Delphi to produce their frantic
+ravings.]
+
+[Footnote 102: _Jacquinia armillaris_, an evergreen bush. The Indians on
+the Tapajos use a poisonous liana called _timb�_ (_Paullinia pinnata_).]
+
+The Napos are not brave; their chief weapons for hunting are spears of
+chonta wood, and blowpipes (_bodaqueras_) made of a small palm having a
+pith, which, when removed, leaves a polished bore, or of two separate
+lengths of wood, each scooped out with patient labor and considerable
+skill by means of the incisor teeth of a rodent. The whole is smeared
+with black wax, a mouth-piece fitted to the larger end, and a sight made
+of bone imbedded in the wax. Through this tube, about ten feet long,
+they blow slender arrows cut from the leaf-stalks of a palm. These are
+winged with a tuft of silk-cotton (common cotton would be too heavy),
+and poisoned with _urar�_, of which we shall speak hereafter. This
+noiseless gun is universally used on the Upper Amazon.[103]
+
+[Footnote 103: It is there called _zarabatana_ or _gravatana_; by the
+Peruvians _pucuna_. It corresponds to the _sumpitan_ of Borneo. It is
+difficult to recognize the use of the blow-gun, but the natives will
+kill at the distance of 150 feet. One which we brought home sent the
+slender arrow through the panel of a door.]
+
+The Zaparos in physiognomy somewhat resemble the Chinese, having a
+middle stature, round face, small eyes set angularly, and a broad, flat
+nose. Their language is of simple construction, but nasal and guttural.
+They have no words for numbers above three, but show their fingers;
+above ten they know nothing. They take to themselves single names, not
+double. They reckon time by moons and the ripening of certain fruits.
+Their name for God is Pi�tzo, but we could not learn that it conveyed
+any distinct idea. They believe the evil spirit, "Mungia," is a black
+spectre dwelling in the woods. They think the souls of the good and
+brave enter beautiful birds and feed on delicious fruits, while cowardly
+souls become dirty reptiles. Polygamy is common. They bury in the
+sitting posture, with the hammock of the deceased wrapped around him.
+The very old men are buried with the mouth downward. They make use of a
+narcotic drink called _Ayahuasca_, which produces effects similar to
+those of opium. The Zaparos are pacific and hospitable, but there is
+little social life among them; they never cluster into large villages,
+but inhabit isolated ranchos. Nomadic in their habits, they wander along
+the banks of the Napo, between the Andes and the Mara�on. They
+manufacture, from the twisted fibre of the chambiri-palm,[104] most of
+the twine and hammocks seen in Eastern Ecuador. Their government is
+patriarchal.
+
+[Footnote 104: This thorny palm is called _tucum_ in Brazil. The fibres
+of the budding top are used. A woman will twist a hundred yards of twine
+a day, and make a living by selling hammocks for twenty-five cents a
+piece.]
+
+The J�varos, or "Red Indians" _par excellence_, are the most numerous
+and the most spirited of the oriental tribes. They are brave and
+resentful, yet hospitable and industrious. While the Napos and Zaparos
+live in rude, often temporary huts of split bamboo, the warlike J�varos
+erect houses of hard wood with strong doors. Blood relations live
+together on the communal principle, the women keeping the rear half of
+the house, which is divided by a partition. Many J�varos approach the
+Caucasian type, the beard and lighter skin hinting a percentage of
+Spanish blood; for this tribe was never conquered by the Incas, nor did
+it brook Spanish avarice and cruelty, but in one terrible conflict
+(1599) the intruder was swept out of existence. The wives of the El
+Dorado adventurers spent the rest of their days in the harems of the
+J�varos. These Indians have the singular custom and art of compressing
+the heads of their notable captives; taking off the skin entire and
+drying it over a small mould, they have a hideous mummy which preserves
+all the features of the original face, but on a reduced scale."[105]
+They also braid the long black hair of their foes into girdles, which
+they wear as mementoes of their prowess. They use chonta-lances with
+triangular points, notched and poisoned, and shields of wood or hide.
+They have a telegraphic system which enables them to concentrate their
+forces quickly in time of war; large drums are placed on the tops of the
+hills, and a certain number of strokes, repeated along the line, rapidly
+convey intelligence to the most distant habitation.
+
+[Footnote 105: Bates (ii., 132) speaks of a similar custom among the
+ancient Mundurucus: "They used to sever the head with knives made of
+broad bamboo, and then, after taking out the brain and fleshy parts,
+soak it in bitter vegetable oils, and expose it several days over the
+smoke of a fire, or in the sun."]
+
+An odd custom prevails among these wild Indians when an addition is made
+to the family circle. The woman goes into the woods alone, and on her
+return washes herself and new-born babe in the river; then the husband
+immediately takes to his bed for eight days, during which time the wife
+serves him on the choicest dainties she can procure.[106] They have also
+the unique practice of exchanging wives. The J�varo speech is sonorous
+and energetic. They do not use salt; so that they distinguish the Napo
+tribes as the "Indians who eat salt." The chief articles manufactured by
+them are cotton goods and blowpipes. They trade mostly at Can�los and
+Mac�s, generally purchasing iron implements, such as hatchets and
+knives.
+
+[Footnote 106: A like custom existed among some Brazilian and Guiana
+tribes. It also prevailed to some extent among the ancient Cantabrians
+and Corsicans, the Congos and Tartars, and in the Southern French
+provinces.]
+
+Can�los consists of about seventy families of Quichua-speaking Indians,
+and lies on the south bank of the Bobonaza. A trail connects it with
+Ba�os, at the foot of Tunguragua. Can�los was founded in 1536, and
+derives its name from its situation in the Can�la, or American cinnamon
+forest. The bark of the tree has the flavor of the Ceylon aromatic;
+but, according to Dr. Taylor, it is cassia. Mac�s, in the days of
+Spanish adventure a prosperous city under the name of "Sevilla de Oro,"
+is now a cluster of huts on the banks of the Upano. Its trade is in
+tobacco, vanilla, canela, wax, and copal. The Spaniards took the trouble
+to transplant some genuine cinnamon-trees from Ceylon to this locality,
+and they flourished for a time.
+
+On the 30th of October we left Quito on our march across the continent,
+by the way of the Napo wilderness. The preparations for our departure,
+however, commenced long before that date. To leave Quito in any
+direction is the work of time. But to plunge into that _terra incognita_
+"el Oriente," where for weeks, perhaps months, we should be lost to the
+civilized world and cut off from all resources, east or west, demanded
+more calculation and providence than a voyage round the world.
+
+We were as long preparing for our journey to the Amazon as in making it.
+In the first place, not a man in Quito could give us a single item of
+information on the most important and dangerous part of our route.
+Quitonians are not guilty of knowing any thing about trans-Andine
+affairs or "oriental" geography. From a few petty traders who had, to
+the amazement of their fellow-citizens, traversed the forest and reached
+the banks of the Napo, we gleaned some information which was of service.
+But on the passage down the Napo from Santa Rosa to the Mara�on, a
+distance of over five hundred miles, nobody had any thing to say except
+the delightful intelligence that in all probability, if we escaped the
+fever, we would be murdered by the savages. The information we received
+was about as definite and reliable as Herndon obtained respecting any
+tributary to the Lower Amazon: "It runs a long way up: it has rapids;
+savages live upon its banks; every thing grows there." From M. Gillette,
+a Swiss gentleman trading at Par� in Moyabamba hats, we learned about
+the movements of the Peruvian steamer on the Mara�on; but how long it
+would take us to cross the mountains and the forest, and descend the
+river, we must find out by trial.
+
+The commissary department was of primal importance. As, from all we
+could learn, we could not depend upon obtaining supplies from the
+Indians or with our guns,[107] it was necessary to take provisions to
+last till we should reach the Mara�on. But how long we should be in the
+forest and on the river, or what allowance to make for probable delays,
+it was impossible to prophesy. The utmost caution and forethought were
+therefore needed, for to die of starvation in the wilderness was, for
+all practical purposes, equivalent to falling into the hands of
+cannibals. As it turned out, however, we made a most fortunate hit, for
+on arriving at Pebas--the first village on the Mara�on--we found we had
+just enough solid food left to have one grand jubilee dinner.
+
+[Footnote 107: The scarcity of game is well illustrated by the fate of
+Pizarro and his comrades. In returning from their expedition to the Napo
+country, they nearly perished with hunger, living on lizards, dogs,
+horses, saddles, sword-belts, etc., and reached Quito looking more like
+spectres than men.]
+
+For the benefit of future travelers, and for the curiosity of others, we
+give the bill of fare we provided for this journey--stomachs, five;
+time, forty-two days:
+
+Flour           100 lbs.
+Corn meal        27  "
+Pea flour        30  "
+Mashka           47  "
+Crackers        100  "
+Rice             50  "
+Sugar            90  "
+Chocolate        25  "
+Dried meat[108]  47  "
+Salt             10  "
+Lard             10  "
+Cream tartar   1-1/2 "
+Soda              1  "
+Tea               2  "
+Ham              10  "
+Tamarinds         9  "
+Eggs            170.
+Anisado      pts. 5.
+
+[Footnote 108: "Jerked beef," as it is called in South America, consists
+of thin strips cut off the carcass after skinning and dried in the sun.
+The butchers do not distinguish between sirloin and round.]
+
+To this we added by purchase from the Indians a few chickens and eggs,
+five gallons of sirup, and a peck of rice; and on the river we helped
+ourselves to a little wild game, as fish, peccari, deer, and turtles'
+eggs. But these made only a drop in the commissary bucket; had we
+depended upon finding provisions on the road, we must have perished from
+sheer hunger. Game, in the dry season, is exceedingly scarce. Our
+provisions were packed in kerosene cans, a part of which were soldered
+up to keep out moisture (for the Valley of the Napo is a steaming
+vapor-bath) and to keep out the hands of Indians. More than once have
+these treacherous yet indispensable guides robbed the white man of his
+food, and then left him to his fate; we lost not a pound by theft. A
+four-gallon keg of aguardiente,[109] from which we dealt out half a gill
+daily to each man, kept our Indians in good humor.
+
+[Footnote 109: This is the rum of the Andes, corresponding to the
+_casha�a_ of Brazil. It is distilled from sugar-cane. When
+double-distilled and flavored with anise, it is called _anisado_.]
+
+As we must ascend to the cold altitude of fifteen thousand feet, and
+then descend to the hot Valley of the Amazon, we were obliged to carry
+both woolen and cotton garments, besides rubber ponchos to shield them
+from the rain by day, and to form the first substratum of our bed at
+night. Two suits were needed in our long travel afoot through the
+forest; one kept dry for the nightly bivouac, the other for day service.
+At the close of each day's journey we doffed every thread of our wearing
+apparel, and donned the reserved suit, for we were daily drenched either
+from the heavens above or by crossing swollen rivers and seas of mud.
+Then, too, as boots would not answer for such kind of travel, we must
+take _alpargates_, a native sandal made of the aloe fibre, and of these
+not a few, for a pair would hardly hold together two days. Two bales of
+_lienzo_, besides knives, fish-hooks, thread, beads, looking-glasses,
+and other trinkets, were also needed; for the Napo Indians must be paid
+in such currency. There _lienzo_, not gold and silver, is the cry. On
+this we made a small but lawful profit, paying in Quito eighteen cents
+per yard, and charging on the river twenty-five.
+
+An extensive culinary apparatus, guns and ammunition, taxidermal and
+medicinal chests, physical instruments, including a photographic
+establishment, rope, macheta, axe, saw, nails, candles, matches, and a
+thousand _et c�tera_, completed our outfit. Among the essential _et
+c�tera_ were generous passports and mandatory letters from the President
+of Ecuador and the Peruvian Charg� d'Affaires, addressed to all
+authorities on the Napo and the Mara�on. They were obligingly procured
+for us by Se�or Hurtado, the Chilian minister (then acting for the
+United States), through the influence of a communication from our own
+government, and were of great value to the expedition.[110]
+
+[Footnote 110: The following is a copy of the President's order:
+
+     REPUBLICA DEL ECUADOR
+
+Ministeria de Estado        }             Quito � 18 de Octubre,}
+en el Despacho del Interior.}             de 1807.              }
+
+     APERTORIA.
+
+     A las autoridades del transito hasta el Napo, i � los demas
+     empleados civiles i militares de la provincia del Oriente:
+
+     El Sor. James Orton, ciudadano de los EE. UU. de Am�rica, profesor
+     de la Universidad de Rochester en Nueva-York, i jefe de una
+     comision cientifica del Instituto de Smithsonian de Washington, v�
+     � la provincia de Oriente con el objeto de esplorarla en
+     cumplimiento de su encargo. S.E. el Presidenta de la Rep�blica
+     ordena � U.U. presten al espresado Sor. Orton i su comitiva cuantas
+     consideraciones merecen sus personas, i los ausilios i co-operacion
+     que necesiten para verificar su viaje i hacer sus estudios i
+     observaciones.
+
+     Dios gue. � U.U.
+
+     R. CARVAJAL.
+
+]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+     Departure from Quito.--Itulcachi.--A Night in a
+     Bread-tray.--Crossing the
+     Cordillera.--Guamani.--Papallacta.--Domiciled at the
+     Governor's.--An Indian Aristides.--Our Peon Train.--In the
+     Wilderness.
+
+
+Forty miles east-southeast of Quito, on the eastern slope of the Eastern
+Cordillera, and on the western edge of the great forest, is the Indian
+village of Papallacta. From the capital to this point there is a path
+just passable for horses; but thence to the Napo travelers must take to
+their feet. Through the intervention of the curate of Papallacta, who
+has great influence over his wild people, but who has wit enough to
+reside in Quito instead of his parish, we engaged the Indian governor to
+send over thirteen beasts and three peons to carry our party and baggage
+to Papallacta. Wednesday morning the quadrupeds were at the door of our
+hotel, five of them _bestias de silla_. These horses, judging by size,
+color, shape, and bony prominences, were of five different species. The
+saddles, likewise, differed from one another, and from any thing we had
+ever seen or desired to see. One of them was so narrow and deep none of
+us could get into it; so, filling up the cavity with blankets, we took
+turns in riding on the summit. By noon, October 30th, we had seen our
+Andean collections in the hands of arrieros bound for Guayaquil, whence
+they were to be shipped by way of Panama to Washington, and our baggage
+train for Napo headed toward the rising sun. So, mounting our jades, we
+defiled across the Grand Plaza and through the street of St. Augustine,
+and down the Carniceria to the Alameda, amid the _vivas_ and _adeos_ of
+our Quitonian friends, who turned out to see the largest expedition
+that ever left the city for the wild Napo country since the days of
+Pizarro. Few there were who expected to hear of our safe arrival on the
+shores of the Atlantic.
+
+Crossing the magnificent plain of I�aquito, we reached in an hour the
+romantic village of Gu�pulo. Here is an elegant stone church dedicated
+to the Virgin of Guadaloupe, to which the faithful make an annual
+pilgrimage. Thence the road led us through the valley of the
+Guaillabamba (a tributary to the Esmeraldas), here and there blessed
+with signs of intelligent life--a mud hut, and little green fields of
+cane and alfalfa, and dotted with trees of wild cherry and myrtle, but
+having that air of sadness and death-like repose so inseparable from a
+Quitonian landscape. The greater part of this day's ride was over a
+rolling country so barren and dreary it was almost repulsive. What a
+pity the sun shines on so much useless territory!
+
+Just before sunset we arrived at Itulcachi, a great cattle estate at the
+foot of the eastern chain of mountains. The hacienda had seen better
+days, and was poorly fitted to entertain man or beast. The major-domo,
+however, managed to make some small potato soup, and find us shelter for
+the night. In the room allotted us there were three immense
+kneading-troughs and two bread-boards to match, for a grist-mill and
+bakery were connected with the establishment. In default of beds, we
+made use of this furniture. Five wiser men have slept in better berths,
+but few have slept more soundly than we did in the bread-trays of
+Itulcachi.
+
+The following day we advanced five miles to Tablon, an Indian hamlet on
+the mountain side. Here we waited over night for our cargo train, which
+had loitered on the road. This was the only spot in South America where
+we found milk to our stomachs' content; Itulcachi, with its herds of
+cattle, did not yield a drop. Our dormitory was a mud hovel, without an
+aperture for light or ventilation, and in this dark hole we all slept on
+a heap of barley. Splendid was the view westward from Tablon. Below us
+were the beautiful valleys of Chillo and Puembo, separated by the
+isolated mountain of Ilal�; around them, in an imposing semicircle,
+stood Cayambi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Corazon, Iliniza, Rumi�agui,
+Cotopaxi, Sincholagua, and Antisana. As the sun went down in his glory
+behind the western range, the rocky head of Pichincha stood out in bold
+relief, and cast a long shadow over the plain. At this halting-place we
+made the mortifying discovery that the bare-legged Indian who had
+trotted by our side as a guide and body-servant, and whom we had ordered
+about with all the indifference of a surly slaveholder, was none other
+than his Excellency Eugenio Mancheno, governor of Papallacta! After this
+we were more respectful.
+
+The next morning, our baggage having come up, we pushed up the mountain
+through a grand ravine, and over metamorphic rocks standing on their
+edges with a wavy strike, till we reached a polylepis grove, 12,000 feet
+above the sea. We lunched under the wide-spreading branches of these
+gnarled and twisted trees, which reminded us of the patriarchal olives
+in the Garden of Gethsemane, and then, ascending over the monotonous
+paramo, we stood at the elevation of 15,000 feet on the narrow summit of
+the Guamani ridge. Some priest had been before us and planted a cross by
+the roadside, to guide and bless the traveler on his way.
+
+Of the magnificent prospect eastward, over the beginning of the
+Amazonian Valley, which this lofty point commands, we have already
+spoken. There was a wild grandeur in the scene--mountain behind
+mountain, with deep intervening valleys, all covered with one thick,
+unbroken mass of foliage. A tiny brook, the child of everlasting snows
+still higher up, murmured at our feet, as if to tell us that we were on
+the Atlantic slope, and then dashed into the great forest, to lose
+itself in the mighty Amazon, and be buried with it in the same ocean
+grave. The trade-wind, too, came rushing by us fresh from that sea of
+commerce which laves the shores of two worlds. Guamani gave us also our
+finest view of Antisana, its snow-white dome rising out of a wilderness
+of mountains, and presenting on the north side a profile of the human
+face divine.
+
+And now we rapidly descended by a steep, narrow path, and over paramo
+and bog, to a little tambo, where we had the luxury of sleeping on a bed
+of straw. Here we made the acquaintance of two Indians from the Napo,
+who were on the way to Quito with the mail--probably half a dozen
+letters. A strip of cloth around the loins, and a short cape just
+covering the shoulders, were all their habiliments. We noticed that they
+never sat down, though a bench was close by them; they would squat for
+an hour at a time. The day following we took our last horseback ride in
+South America. It was short, but horrible. Through quagmire and swamp,
+and down a flight of rocky stairs, in striking imitation of General
+Putnam's famous ride--over rocks, too, made wondrously slippery by a
+pitiless rain, but which our unshod Indian horses descended with great
+dexterity, only one beast and his rider taking a somerset--thus we
+traveled two hours, reaching Papallacta at 11 A.M.
+
+We put up at the governor's. This edifice, the best in town, had sides
+of upright poles stuccoed with mud, a thatched roof, and ground floor,
+on which, between three stones, a fire was built for cookery and
+comfort. Three or four earthen kettles, and as many calabashes and
+wooden spoons, were the sum total of kitchen utensils. A large flat
+stone, with another smaller one to rub over it, was the mill for
+grinding corn; and we were astonished to see how quickly our hostess
+reduced the grains to an impalpable meal. The only thing that looked
+like a bed was a stiff rawhide thrown over a series of round poles
+running lengthwise. This primitive couch, and likewise the whole house,
+the obsequious governor gave up to us, insisting upon sleeping with his
+wife and little ones outside, though the nights were cold and
+uncomfortable. Parents and children were of the earth, earthy--unwashed,
+uncombed, and disgustingly filthy. We found the governor one day taking
+lice for his lunch. Sitting behind his little boy, he picked out the
+little parasites with his nails, and crushed them between his teeth with
+a look of satisfaction. Eating lice is an old Indian custom, and
+universal in the Andes. In Inca times it was considered an infallible
+remedy against sore eyes. We have seen half a dozen women sitting on the
+ground in a row, picking out vermin from each other's heads. We thought
+the arrangement was a little unfair, for the first in the series had no
+lice to eat, and the animals were left to roam undisturbed in the
+capillary forest of the last.
+
+Papallacta is a village of thirty dwellings, situated in a deep valley
+on the north slope of Antisana, nearly surrounded by an amphitheatre of
+sandstone and basaltic precipices. Here, too, is the terminus of the
+fourth great lava stream from the volcano; it is not mentioned by
+Humboldt. Papallacta is a thousand feet higher than Quito, yet
+vegetation is more tropical. Its name signifies "the potato country,"
+but not a potato could we find here. Though Mancheno was governor, he
+was not really the greatest man in Papallacta. This was Carlos
+Caguatijo; he was the ruling man, for he could read, write, and speak
+Spanish, while the governor knew nothing but Quichua. Carlos, moreover,
+was a good man; he had an honest, Quaker-like air about him, and his
+face reminded us of George Washington's. In all his transactions we
+noticed no attempt to prevaricate or deceive; what he promised he
+performed to the letter. It was refreshing to meet one such upright soul
+in Ecuador, though we found him not of Caucasian blood, nor dwelling
+under the tiled roofs of the proud capital. The old man was the
+spiritual father of Papallacta, and, in the absence of the curate,
+officiated in the little church. With him, therefore, and not with our
+host the governor, we negotiated for peons to take us through the
+wilderness.
+
+The journey from Papallacta to the Napo occupied us thirteen days,
+including four days of rest. It was performed on foot, for the "road" is
+a trail. But the untraveled reader can have little idea of a trail in a
+tropical forest: fording bridgeless rivers, wading through interminable
+bogs, fens, marshes, quagmires, and swamps, and cutting one's way
+through dense vegetation, must be done to be understood. Half the year
+there is no intercourse between Quito and its Oriental province, for the
+incessant heavy rains of summer swell every rivulet into a furious
+torrent, and the path is overgrown and rendered impassable even by an
+Indian. The only time for travel is between November and April, for
+then, though it rains nearly every day, the clouds drop down in showers,
+not floods. But even then the traveler must sometimes wait two or three
+weeks beside a swollen river in imminent danger of starving, and
+throughout the journey entertain the comforting prospect that his
+Indians may eat up his provisions to lighten their load, or suddenly
+desert him as they did Dr. Jameson. There are other routes across South
+America much more feasible than the one we chose; these will be
+described in Chapter XXIII. But they all yield in interest to this
+passage along the equatorial line, and especially in the line of
+history. Who has not heard of Gonzalo Pizarro and his fatal yet famous
+expedition into "the land of cinnamon?" How he was led farther and
+farther into the wilderness by the glittering illusions of an El
+Dorado,[111] till the faithless Orellana, deserting him, floated down
+the Napo and made the magnificent discovery of the mighty Amazon.
+Gonzalo, "who was held to be the best lancer that ever went to these
+countries--and all confess that he never showed his back to the
+enemy"--returned to Quito with a few survivors to tell a tale of almost
+unparalleled suffering. A century elapsed (1530-1637) before any one
+ascended from Par� to Quito by way of the Rio Napo; this was
+accomplished by Pedro Teixeira.
+
+[Illustration: Napo Peon.]
+
+[Footnote 111: The king of this fabulous land was said to wear a
+magnificent attire fragrant with a costly gum, and sprinkled with gold
+dust. His palace was of porphyry and alabaster, and his throne of
+ivory.]
+
+An Indian will carry three arrobas (seventy-five pounds) besides his own
+provisions, his provisions for the journey consisting of about
+twenty-five pounds of roasted corn and barley-meal. The trunk or bundle
+is bound to his back by withes, which pass across the forehead and
+chest; a poncho or a handful of leaves protects the bare back from
+chafing. All our luggage (amounting to nearly fifteen hundred pounds)
+was divided and packed to suit this method of transportation, so that we
+required twenty Indians. So many, however, of the right kind--for they
+must be athletic young men to endure the fatigues of such a
+journey--could not be furnished by the little village of Papallacta, so
+we were obliged to wait a few days till more Indians could be summoned
+from a neighboring town. When these arrived, the little world of
+Papallacta, men, women, and children, assembled in front of the
+governor's house, while Don Carlos sat by our side on a raised seat by
+the doorway. A long parley ensued, resulting in this: that we should pay
+one hundred Ecuadorian dollars for the transfer of our baggage to
+Archidona; while Carlos solemnly promised for the young men that they
+should start the next morning, that they should arrive at Archidona
+within a stipulated time, and that they should not depend upon us for an
+ounce of food. The powerful influence of the curate, which we had
+secured, and the proclamation from the president, which Carlos read
+aloud in the ears of all the people, together with the authoritative
+charge of Carlos himself, had the desired effect; not a transportation
+company in the United States ever kept its engagement more faithfully
+than did these twenty peons--and this, too, though we paid them in
+advance, according to the custom of the country. Upon a blanket spread
+at our feet the money was counted out, and Carlos slowly distributed it
+with a grave and reverend air, to every Indian five dollars.[112]
+
+[Footnote 112: We give below the autograph of this wisest man in all the
+Oriente: "Recibio del Se�or James Orton la suma de centos (100) pesos
+por vente (20) peones hasta Archidona.
+
+[Illustration: reproduction of a signature is here]
+
+"Papallacta, 4 Nov., 1867."]
+
+Tuesday morning, November 5th, the peons promptly shouldered their
+burdens, and we, shod with _alpargates_, and with Alpine staff in hand
+(more needed here than in Switzerland), followed after, leaving the
+governor to sleep inside his mansion, and to eat his lice unmolested. On
+a little grassy knoll just outside the town our train halted for a
+moment--the Indians to take their fill of chicha, and bid their friends
+good-by, and we to call the roll and take an inventory. Our leader was
+Isiro, a bright, intelligent, finely-featured, stalwart Indian. He could
+speak Spanish, and his comrades acknowledged his superiority with marked
+deference. Ten women and children followed us for two days, to relieve
+the men of their burdens. Their assistance was not needed in the latter
+part of the journey, for our keen appetites rapidly lightened the
+provision cans. Starting again, we plunged at once into the forest,
+taking a northeasterly course along the left bank of a tributary to the
+Coca. The ups and downs of this day's travel of twelve miles were
+foreshadowings of what might come in our "views afoot" in South America.
+We encamped at a spot the Indians called Maspa. Herndon says: "The
+(Peruvian) Indians take no account of time or distance; they stop when
+they get tired, and arrive when God pleases."[113] But our Napo
+companions measured distance by hours quite accurately, and they always
+traveled as far as we were willing to follow. In ten minutes they built
+us a booth for the night; driving two crotchets into the ground, they
+joined them with a ridge-pole, against which they inclined a number of
+sticks for rafters. These they covered with palm-leaves, so adroitly put
+together that our roof was generally rain-proof. After ablution and an
+entire change of garments, we built a fire, using for fuel a green tree
+called _sindicaspi_ (meaning the wood that burns), a special provision
+in these damp forests where every thing is dripping with moisture. The
+fall of a full-grown tree under the strokes of a Yankee axe was a marvel
+in the eyes of our Indians. Our second day's journey was far more
+difficult than the first, the path winding up steep mountains and down
+into grand ravines, for we were crossing the outlying spurs of the
+Eastern Cordillera. Every where the track was slippery with mud, and
+often we sank two feet into the mire. How devoutly we did wish that the
+Ecuadorian Congress was compelled to travel this horrid road once a
+year! At 10 o'clock we reached a lone habitation called Guila, where
+wooden bowls are made for the Quito market. Here we procured a fresh
+Indian to take the place of one of our peons who had given out under his
+burden. We advanced this day sixteen miles in ten hours, sleeping under
+an old bamboo hut beside a babbling brook bearing the euphonious name of
+Pachamama.
+
+[Footnote 113: "Distance is frequently estimated by the time that a man
+will occupy in taking a chew of coca," or 37-1/2 minutes.--_Herndon_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+     Baeza.--The Forest.--Crossing the
+     Cosanga.--Curi-urcu.--Archidona.--Appearance, Customs, and Belief
+     of the Natives.--Napo and Napo River.
+
+
+Eight hours' hard travel from Pachamama brought us to Baeza. This
+"Antigua Ciudad," as Villavicencio calls it, was founded in 1552 by Don
+Egilio Ramirez D�valos, and named after the quite different spot where
+Scipio the Younger routed Asdrubal a thousand years before. It consists
+of two habitations, the residence of two families of Tumbaco Indians,
+situated in a clearing of the forest on the summit of a high ridge
+running along the right bank of the Coca. This point, about one hundred
+miles east of Quito, is important in the little traffic of the Oriente.
+All Indian trains from the capital to the province pass through Baeza,
+where the trail divides; one branch passing on easterly to San Jos�, and
+thence down through Abila and Loreto to Santa Rosa; the other leading to
+the Napo through Archidona. Here we rested one day, taking possession of
+one half of the larger hut--a mere stockade with a palm-leaf roof,
+without chairs, chimney, or fire-place, except any place on the floor.
+We swung our hammocks, while our Indians stretched themselves on the
+ground beneath us. The island of Juan Fernandez is not a more isolated
+spot than Baeza. A dense forest, impenetrable save by the trails,
+stretches away on every side to the Andes and to the Atlantic, and
+northerly and southerly along the slope of the entire mountain chain.
+The forest is such an entangled mass of the living and the fallen, it is
+difficult to say which is the predominant spirit--life or death. It is
+the cemetery, as well as the birthplace, of a world of vegetation. The
+trees are more lofty than on the Lower Amazon, and straight as an
+arrow, but we saw none of remarkable size. A perpetual mist seems to
+hang on the branches, and the dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults,
+which the sunlight never enters. The soil and air are always cool, and
+never dry. Every thing is penetrated with dampness. All our watches
+stopped, and remained immovable till we reached Par�. It is this
+constant and excessive humidity which renders it so difficult to
+transport provisions or prepare an herbarium. The pending branches of
+moss are so saturated with moisture that sometimes the branches are
+broken off to the peril of the passing traveler. Yet the climate is
+healthy. The stillness and gloom are almost painful; the firing of a gun
+wakes a dull echo, and any unlooked-for noise is startling. Scarce a
+bird or a flower is to be seen in these sombre shades. Nearly the only
+signs of animal life visible thus far were insects, mostly butterflies,
+fire-flies, and beetles. The only quadruped seen on our journey to the
+Napo was a long-tailed marten caught by the Indians. The silence is
+almost perfect; its chief interruption is the crashing fall of some old
+patriarch of the forest, overcome by the embrace of loving parasites
+that twine themselves about the trunk or sit upon the branches. The most
+striking singularity in these tropical woods is the host of lianas or
+air-roots of epiphytous plants, which hang down from the lofty boughs,
+straight as plumb-lines, some singly, others in clusters; some reaching
+half way to the ground, others touching it and striking their rootlets
+into the earth. We found lianas over one hundred feet long. Sometimes a
+toppling tree is caught in the graceful arms of looping _sip�s_, and
+held for years by this natural cable. It is these dead trunks, standing
+like skeletons, which give a character of solemnity to these primeval
+woods. The wildest disorder is seen along the mountain torrents, where
+the trees, prostrated by the undermining current, lie mingled with huge
+stones brought down by the force of the water. In many places the crowns
+of stately monarchs standing on the bank interlock and form a sylvan
+arch over the river.
+
+We left Baeza by the southerly trail for Archidona. From Papallacta we
+had traveled east, or parallel to the streams which flow down from the
+mountains. We were now to cross them (and their name is legion), as also
+the intervening ridges; so that our previous journey was nothing to that
+which followed. Sometimes we were climbing up an almost vertical ascent,
+then descending into a deep, dark ravine, to ford a furious river; while
+on the lowlands the path seemed lost in a jungle of bamboos, till our
+Indian "bushwhackers" opened a passage with their machetas, and we crept
+under a low arcade of foliage. This day we enjoyed something unusual in
+our forest trail--a distant view. The path brought us to the verge of a
+mountain, whence we could look down on the savage valley of the Cosanga
+and upward to the dazzling dome of Antisana; it was our farewell view of
+that glorious volcano. At the distance of twelve miles from Baeza we
+reached the banks of the Rio Cosanga, camping at a spot called
+Chiniplaya. This is the river so much dreaded by Indians and whites
+traversing the Napo wilderness. It is fearfully rapid--a very Tigris
+from its source to its junction with the Coca. The large, smooth
+boulders strewn along its bed show its power. Here, sixty miles from its
+origin in the glaciers of Antisana, it is seventy-five feet wide, but in
+the wet season it is one hundred yards. The day following we threaded
+our difficult way, a _via dolorosa_, fifteen miles up the left bank of
+the Cosanga, where we crossed and camped on the opposite side. The
+Indians had thrown a log over the deepest part of the river, and the
+rest we forded without much danger; but that very night the rain raised
+the river to such a magnitude that the little bridge was carried off.
+Had we been one day later, we might have waited a week on the other side
+of the impassable gulf. Between this point where we forded and
+Chiniplaya, fifteen miles below, the barometer indicated a fall of five
+hundred feet. The roar of the rushing waters is like that of the sea. In
+the beautiful language of Darwin (_Journal_, p. 316): "The sound spoke
+eloquently to the geologist; the thousands and thousands of stones,
+which, striking against each other, made the one dull, uniform sound,
+were all hurrying in one direction. It was like thinking on time, when
+the minute that now glides past is irrecoverable. So was it with these
+stones. The ocean is their eternity, and each note of that wild music
+told of one more step toward their destiny."
+
+On account of the heavy rain and the sickness of a peon, whom finally we
+were obliged to leave behind, we rested one day; but on the morrow we
+traveled fourteen miles, crossing the lofty Guacamayo ridge,[114]
+fording at much risk the deep Cochachimbamba, and camping at a spot (the
+Indians have a name for almost any locality in the forest) called
+Guayusapugaru. The next day we must have advanced twenty miles, besides
+crossing the furious Hondachi. This river was very much swollen by the
+rains, and it was only by the aid of a rope that we made the passage.
+One stout Indian was carried down stream, but soon recovered himself.
+
+[Footnote 114: Humboldt speaks of this as an active volcano, "from which
+detonations are heard almost daily." We heard nothing. It is possible
+that he meant Guamani.]
+
+As we had lowered our altitude since leaving Papallacta seven thousand
+feet, the climate was much warmer, and vegetation more prolific. Nowhere
+else between the Andes and the Atlantic did we notice such a majestic
+forest. The tree-ferns, ennobled by the tropical sun and soil, have a
+palm-like appearance, but with rougher stems and a usual height of fifty
+feet. Plants akin to our "scouring rush" rise twenty-five feet. We saw
+to-day the "water tree," or _huadhuas_ of the natives, a kind of bamboo,
+which sometimes yields between the joints two quarts of clear,
+taste-less water. Late in the evening we reached an old rancho called
+_Curi-urcu_ ("the mountain of gold"); but we had traveled so far ahead
+of our cargo-train we did not see it again till the next morning. We
+were obliged, therefore, to sleep on the ground in our wet clothes, and
+put up with hard commons--half parched corn, which our Indian guides
+gave us, and unleavened cakes or flour-paste baked on the coals. Thence,
+after a short day's journey of ten miles, we arrived at Archidona, by a
+path, however, that was slippery with a soft yellow clay. We were a
+sorry-looking company, soaked by incessant rains, exhausted by
+perspiration, plastered with mud, tattered, and torn; but we were kindly
+met by the Jesuit bishop, who took us to his own habitation, where one
+Indian washed our feet, and another prepared a most refreshing drink of
+_guayusa_ tea. We then took up our quarters at the Government House,
+opposite the bishop's, sojourning several days on account of our swollen
+feet, and also on account of a swollen river which ran between us and
+the Napo. Here we made a valuable collection of birds, lizards, fishes,
+and butterflies.
+
+Archidona is situated in a beautiful plain on the high northern bank of
+the Misagualli, two thousand feet above the Atlantic. The site is a
+cleared spot in the heart of an almost boundless forest; and it was a
+relief, not easily conceived, to emerge from beneath the dense leafy
+canopy into this open space and look up to the sky and to the snowy
+Andes. The climate is uniform and delightful, the mean annual
+temperature being seventy-seven degrees. Sand-flies, however, resembling
+our "punkies," abound; and the natives are constantly slapping their
+naked sides, eating the little pests as the Papallactans do their
+lice.[115] Archidona is the largest village in the Napo country,
+containing about five hundred souls. The houses are of split bamboo and
+palm-thatch, often hid in a plantation of yuca and plantain. The central
+and most important structure is the little church; its rude belfry,
+portico, chancel, images, and other attempts at ornament remind us of
+the fitting words of Mrs. Agassiz, that "there is something touching in
+the idea that these poor, uneducated people of the forest have cared to
+build themselves a temple with their own hands, lavishing upon it such
+ideas of beauty and taste as they have, and bringing at least their best
+to their humble altar." Founded by D�valos in 1560, Archidona has been a
+missionary station for two hundred years. The people are child-like and
+docile, but the bishop confessed there was no intellectual advance.
+Every morning and evening, at the tinkling of a little bell, all
+Archidona assembled in the open porch, where the bishop taught them to
+sing and pray. It was a novel sight to see these children of the forest
+coming out of the woods on all sides and running up to the temple--for
+these natives, whenever they move, almost invariably go on a run. The
+men are tall and slim and of a dark red color, and their legs are bent
+backward at the knees. The governor was the only portly individual we
+saw. The women are short, with high shoulders, and are very timid; they
+seldom stand erect, and with the knees bent forward they run sneakingly
+to church. Their eyes have a characteristic, soft, drooping look. They
+carry their babes generally on the hip; not on the back, as in Quito.
+The men are hatless, shirtless, and shoeless; their only garments are
+short drawers, about six inches long, and little ponchos, both of
+lienzo, dyed a dark purple with achote--the red seeds of the bixa, which
+the cooks of Quito use to color their soups. All paint their bodies with
+the same pigment. The women wear a frock reaching from the waist to the
+knees; it is nothing more than a yard or two of lienzo wound around the
+body. The Archidonians are the most Christianized of all the Napo
+Indians, but they can not be called religious. Their rites (they can
+hardly be said to have a creed) are the _a_, _b_, _c_, of Romanism,
+mingled with some strange notions--the relics of a lost paganism. They
+are very superstitious, and believe, as before remarked, in the
+transmigration of souls. Maniacs they think are possessed by an evil
+demon, and therefore are treated with great cruelty. Negroes (of whom a
+few specimens have come up the Napo from Brazil) are held to be under
+the ban of the Almighty, and their color is ascribed to the singeing
+which they got in the flames of hell. They do not believe in disease;
+but, like the Mundurucus on the Tapajos, say that death is always caused
+by the sorceries of an enemy. They usually bury in the church or in the
+tambo of the deceased. Celibacy and polygamy, homicide and suicide, are
+rare.
+
+[Footnote 115: The Chasuta Indians, Herndon says, eat musquitoes that
+they catch on their bodies with the idea of restoring the blood which
+the insect has abstracted.]
+
+The only sign of industry in Archidona is the manufacture of pita thread
+from the aloe. It is exported to Quito on human backs. The inhabitants
+also collect copal at the headwaters of the Hondachi, and use it for
+illumination. It can be bought in Archidona for three or four cents a
+pound. The gum exudes from a lofty leguminous tree having an oak-like
+bark. It resembles the anim� of Madagascar rather than the copal of
+India, which flows from an entirely different tree. Guayusa, or "Napo
+tea," is another and celebrated production of Archidona. It is the large
+leaf of a tall shrub growing wild. An infusion of guayusa, like the
+_mat�_ of Paraguay (which belongs to the same genus _Ilex_), is so
+refreshing it supplies for a long time the place of food. The Indians
+will go to Quito on this beverage alone, its virtues being similar to
+those of _coca_, on the strength of which the posts of the Incas used to
+travel incredible distances. It is by no means, however, such a
+stimulant. It is a singular fact, observes Dr. Jameson, that tea,
+coffee, cacao, mat�, and guayusa contain the same alkaloid caffeine. The
+last, however, contains only one fifteenth as much of the active
+principle as tea, and no volatile oil. Herndon found guayusa on the
+Ucayali.
+
+At Archidona we took a new set of peons for Napo, as the Papallactans do
+not travel farther. The distance is sixteen miles, and the path is
+comparatively good, though it crosses two rivers, the Misagualli and
+Tena. On this journey we found the only serpent seen since leaving
+Quito. This solitary specimen was sluggish and harmless, but exceedingly
+beautiful. It was the _Amphisboena fuliginosa_, or "slow-worm." It
+lives in the chambers of the Sa�ba ants. We met a procession of these
+ants, each carrying a circular piece of a leaf vertically over its head.
+These insects are peculiar to tropical America, and are much dreaded in
+Brazil, where they soon despoil valuable trees of their foliage. They
+cut the leaves with their scissor-like jaws, and use them to thatch the
+domes at the entrance of their subterranean dwellings.
+
+At Napo we took possession of the governor's house. Each village in the
+Napo province was obliged to build an edifice of split bamboo for that
+dignitary; and, as he no longer exists, they are left unoccupied. They
+generally stand on the highest and best site in the town, and are a
+god-send to travelers. Immediately on our arrival, the Indian governor
+and his staff of justices called to see what we wanted, and during our
+stay supplied us with chickens, eggs, plantains, yucas, and fuel. His
+excellency would always come, silver-headed cane in hand, though the
+justices had only six eggs or a single fowl to bring us. The alcalde
+also paid us his respects. He is an old blanco (as the whites are
+called), doing a little traffic in gold dust, lienzo, and pita, but is
+the highest representative of Ecuador in the Napo country. Here, too, we
+met, to our great delight, Mr. George Edwards, a native of Connecticut,
+who has settled himself, probably for life, in the depths of this
+wilderness. He was equally rejoiced to see the face and hear the speech
+of a countryman. His industry and upright character have won for him the
+respect and good-will of the Indians, and he is favorably known in
+Quito. The government has given him a tract of land on the Yusupino, two
+miles west of Napo village. Here he is cultivating vanilla, of which he
+has now three thousand plants, and also his patience, for six years
+elapse after transplanting before a pod appears. He has been so long in
+the country (thirteen years) his English would now and then run off into
+Spanish or Quichua.
+
+Napo is prettily situated on the left bank of the Rio Napo, a dense
+forest inclosing it on every side. The maximum number of inhabitants is
+eighty families; but many of these are in town only in festival seasons.
+It was well for us that we reached the Napo during the feasts; otherwise
+we might not have found men enough to man our canoes down the river.
+There are three or four blancos, petty merchants, who follow the old
+Spanish practice of compulsory sales, forcing the Indians to take
+lienzo, knives, beads, etc., at exorbitant prices, and making them pay
+in gold dust and pita. This kind of commerce is known under the name of
+_repartos_. It is hard to find an Indian whose gold or whose labor is
+not claimed by the blancos. The present and possible productions of this
+region are: bananas, plantains, yucas,[116] yams, sweet potatoes, rice,
+beans, corn, lemons, oranges, chirimoyas, anonas (a similar fruit to the
+preceding), pine-apples, palm cabbages, guavas, guayavas, castor-oil
+beans, coffee, cacao, cinnamon, India-rubber, vanilla (two kinds),[117]
+chonta-palm nuts, sarsaparilla, contrayerva (a mint), tobacco (of
+superior quality), and guayusa; of woods, balsam, red wood, Brazil wood,
+palo de cruz, palo de sangre, ramo caspi, quilla caspi, guayacan (or
+"holy wood," being much used for images), ivory palm, a kind of ebony,
+cedar, and aguana (the last two used for making canoes); of dyewoods,
+sarne (dark red), tinta (blue), terriri, and quito (black); of gums,
+estoraque (a balsam) and copal, besides a black beeswax, the production
+of a small (Trigona) bee, that builds its comb in the ground; of
+manufactures, pita, hammocks, twine, calabashes, aguardiente (from the
+plantain), chicha (from the yuca),[118] sugar and molasses (from the
+cane, which grows luxuriantly), and manati-lard; of minerals, gold dust.
+The gold, in minute spangles, is washed down by the rivers at flood
+time, chiefly from the Llanganati Mountains. The articles desired in
+exchange are lienzo, thread, needles, axes, hoes, knives, fish-hooks,
+rings, medals, crosses, beads, mirrors, salt, and poison. Quito nearly
+monopolizes the trade; though a few canoes go down the Napo to the
+Mara�on after salt and poison. The salt comes from near Chasuta, on the
+Huallaga;[119] the _urari_ from the Ticuna Indians. It takes about
+twenty days to paddle down to the Mara�on, and three months to pole up.
+The Napo is navigable for a flat-bottomed steamer as far as Santa
+Rosa,[120] and it is a wonder that Anglo-Saxon enterprise has not put
+one upon these waters. The profits would be great, as soon as commercial
+relations with the various tribes were established.[121] Four yards of
+coarse cotton cloth, for example, will exchange for one hundred pounds
+of sarsaparilla. _Urari_ is sold at Napo for its weight in silver. By a
+decree of the Ecuadorian Congress, there will be no duty on foreign
+goods entering the Napo for twenty years. The Napo region, under proper
+cultivation, would yield the most valuable productions of either
+hemisphere in profusion. But agriculture is unknown; there is no word
+for plow. The natives spend most of their time in idleness, or feasting
+and hunting. Their weapons are blow-guns and wooden spears; our guns
+they call by a word which signifies "thunder and lightning." Laying up
+for the future or for commerce is foreign to their ideas. The houses are
+all built of bamboo tied together with lianas, and shingled with leaves
+of the sunipanga palm. The Indians are peaceful, good-natured, and idle.
+They seldom steal any thing but food. Their only stimulants are chicha,
+guayusa, and tobacco. This last they roll up in plantain leaves and
+smoke, or snuff an infusion of it through the nose from the upper bill
+of a toucan. "The Peruvians (says Prescott, quoting Garcilasso) differ
+from every other Indian nation to whom tobacco was known by using it
+only for medicinal purposes in the form of snuff." There is no bread on
+the Napo; the nearest approach to flour is yuca starch. There are no
+clocks or watches; time is measured by the position of the sun. The mean
+temperature at Napo village is about one degree warmer than that of
+Archidona. Its altitude above the sea is 1450 feet. The nights are cool,
+and there are no musquitoes; but sand-flies are innumerable. Jiggers
+also have been seen. There are no well-defined wet and dry seasons; but
+the most rain falls in May, June, and July. The lightning, Edwards
+informed us, seldom strikes. Dysentery, fevers, and rheumatism are the
+prevailing diseases; and we saw one case of go�tre. But the climate is
+considered salubrious. Few twins are born; and there are fewer children
+than in Archidona--a difference ascribed by some to the exposure of the
+Napo people in gold washing; by others to the greater quantity of
+guayusa drunk by the Archidonians.
+
+[Footnote 116: Sometimes called _yuca dulce_, or sweet yuca, to
+distinguish it from the _yuca brava_, or wild yuca, the mandioca of the
+Amazon, from which farina is made. The yuca is the beet-like root of a
+little tree about ten feet high. It is a good substitute for potatoes
+and bread.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Vanilla belongs to the orchid family, and is the only
+member which possesses any economical value. It is a graceful climber
+and has a pretty star-like flower.]
+
+[Footnote 118: In Peru, the liquor made from yuca is called _masato_.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Rock-salt is found on both sides of the Andes. "The
+general character of the geology of these countries would rather lead to
+the opinion that its origin is in some way connected with volcanic heat
+at the bottom of the sea."--Darwin's _Observations_, pt. iii., p. 235.]
+
+[Footnote 120: "The Napo (Herndon was told) is very full of sand-banks,
+and twenty days from its mouth (or near the confluence of the Curaray)
+the men have to get overboard and drag the canoes!"--_Report_, p. 229.]
+
+[Footnote 121: The chief difficulty throughout the Upper Amazon is in
+getting the Indians to concentrate along the bank. But honorable dealing
+would accomplish this in time.]
+
+The Napo is the largest river in the republic. From its source in the
+oriental defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua to its embouchure at the
+Mara�on, its length is not far from eight hundred miles, or about twice
+that of the Susquehanna.[122] From Napo village to the mouth of the
+river our barometer showed a fall of a thousand feet. At Napo the
+current is six miles an hour; between Napo and Santa Rosa there are
+rapids; and between Santa Rosa and the Mara�on the rate is not less than
+four miles an hour. At Napo the breadth is about forty yards; at Coca
+the main channel is fifteen hundred feet wide; and at Camindo it is a
+full Spanish mile. Below Coca the river throws out numerous canals,
+which, isolating portions of the forest-clad lowlands, create numerous
+picturesque islands. Around and between them the river winds, usually
+making one bend in every league. The tall trees covering them are bound
+together by creeping plants into a thick jungle, the home of capybaras
+and the lair of the jaguar. The islands, entirely alluvial, are
+periodically flooded, and undergo a constant round of decay and
+renovation. Indeed, the whole river annually changes its channel, so
+that navigation is somewhat difficult. The Indians, on coming to a fork,
+were frequently at a loss to know which was the main channel. Then, too,
+the river is full of snags and _plaias_, or low, shelving sand-banks,
+rising just above the water-level--the resort of turtles during the egg
+season. It was interesting to trace the bed of the river as we floated
+down; on the rapid slope of the Cordilleras rushing over or rolling
+along huge boulders, which farther on were rapidly reduced in size,
+till, in time, boulders were broken into pebbles, pebbles turned into
+sand, and sand reduced to impalpable mud.[123] The _plaias_ are not
+auriferous. Below Coca there is a wilderness of lagunes, all connected
+with the river, the undisturbed retreat of innumerable water-fowl. The
+only spot on the Napo where the underlying rocks are exposed is near
+Napo village. There it is a dark slate, gently dipping east. Farther
+west, in fact, throughout this side of the Andes, the prevailing rock is
+mica-schist. But the entire Napo country is covered with an alluvial
+bed, on the average ten feet thick.
+
+[Footnote 122: Its actual source is the Rio del Valle, which runs
+northward through the Valle Vicioso. Its longest tributary, the Curaray,
+rises only a few miles to the south in the Cordillera de los Mulatos.
+The two rivers run side by side 4� of longitude before meeting. Coca,
+the northern branch, originates in the flanks of Cayambi. The Napo and
+its branches are represented incorrectly in every map we have examined.
+The Aguarico is confounded with the Santa Maria and made too long, and
+the Curaray is represented too far above the mouth of the Napo. There
+are no settlements between Coca and Camindo.]
+
+[Footnote 123: From specimens of sand which we obtained at different
+points in descending the river, we find that at Coca it contains 17.5
+per cent. of pure quartz grains, the rest being colored dark with
+augite: at the mouth of the Napo there is 50 per cent. of pure quartz,
+the other half being light-colored and feldspathic.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+     Afloat on the Napo.--Down the Rapids.--Santa Rosa and its mulish
+     Alcalde.--Pratt on Discipline.--Forest Music.--Coca.--Our Craft and
+     Crew.--Storm on the Napo.
+
+
+We embarked November 20th on our voyage down the river. It is no easy
+matter to hire or cajole the Indians for any service. Out of feast-time
+they are out of town, and during the festival they are loth to leave, or
+are so full of chicha they do not know what they want. We first woke up
+the indolent alcalde by showing him the President's order, and then used
+him to entice or to compel (we know not his motive power) eight Indians,
+including the governor, to take us to Santa Rosa. We paid them about
+twenty-four yards of lienzo, the usual currency here. They furnished
+three canoes, two for baggage and one covered with a palm-leaf awning
+for ourselves. The canoes were of red cedar, and flat-bottomed; the
+paddles had oval blades, to which short, quick strokes were given
+perpendicularly to the water entering and leaving. But there was little
+need of paddling on this trip.
+
+The Napo starts off in furious haste, for the fall between Napo village
+and Santa Rosa, a distance of eighty miles, is three hundred and fifty
+feet. We were about seven hours in the voyage down, and it takes seven
+days to pole back. The passage of the rapids is dangerous to all but an
+Indian. As Wallace says of a spot on the Rio Negro, you are bewildered
+by the conflicting motions of the water. Whirling and boiling eddies
+burst as if from some subaqueous explosion; down currents are on one
+side of the canoe, and an up current on the other; now a cross stream
+at the bows and a diagonal one at the stern, with a foaming Scylla on
+your right and a whirling Charybdis on the left. But our nervousness
+gave way to admiration as our popero, or pilot, the sedate governor,
+gave the canoe a sheer with the swoop of his long paddle, turning it
+gracefully around the corner of a rock against which it seemed we must
+be dashed, and we felt like joining in the wild scream of the Indians as
+our little craft shot like an arrow past the danger and down the rapids,
+and danced on the waters below.
+
+In four hours we were abreast the little village of Aguano; on the
+opposite bank we could see the tambos of the gold washers. At 5 P.M. we
+reached the deserted site of Old Santa Rosa, the village having been
+removed a few years ago on account of its unhealthy location. It is now
+overgrown with sour orange and calabash trees, the latter bearing large
+fruit shells so useful to the Indians in making pilches or cups. In
+pitch darkness and in a drizzling rain we arrived at New Santa Rosa, and
+swung our hammocks in the Government House.
+
+Santa Rosa, once the prosperous capital of the Provincia del Oriente,
+now contains about two hundred men, women, and children. The town is
+pleasantly situated on the left bank of the river, about fifteen feet
+above the water level. A little bamboo church, open only when the
+missionary from Archidona makes his annual visit, stood near our
+quarters. The Indians were keeping one of their seven feasts in a hut
+near by, and their drumming was the last thing we heard as we turned
+into our hammocks, and the first in the morning. The alcalde, Pablo
+Sandoval, is the only white inhabitant, and he is an Indian in every
+respect save speech and color. His habitation is one of the largest
+structures on the Napo; the posts are of chonta-palm, the sides and roof
+of the usual material--split bamboo and palm leaves. It is embowered in
+a magnificent grove of plantains and papayas. In the spacious vestibule
+is a bench, on which the Indian governor and his staff seat themselves
+every morning to confer with the alcalde. In one corner stands a table
+(the only one we remember seeing on the Napo); on the opposite side are
+heaped up jars, pots, kettles, hunting and fishing implements, paddles,
+bows and arrows. Between the posts swing two chambiri hammocks. From
+Santa Rosa to Par� the hammock answers for chair, sofa, _t�te-�-t�te_,
+and bed. When a stranger enters, he is invited to sit in a hammock; and
+at Santa Rosa we were always presented with a cup of guayusa; in Brazil
+with a cup of coffee. Sandoval wore nothing but shirt and pantaloons;
+the dignity of the barefooted functionary was confined to his Spanish
+blood. He had lived long among the Zaparos; and from him, his daughter,
+and a Zaparo servant, we obtained much valuable information respecting
+that wild and little-known tribe.
+
+[Illustration: Papaya-tree.]
+
+At Santa Rosa we procured Indians and canoes for the Mara�on. This was
+not easily done. The Indians seemed reluctant to quit their feasts and
+go on such a long voyage, and the alcalde was unwilling they should go,
+and manufactured a host of lies and excuses. He declared there was but
+one large canoe in town, and that we must send to Suno for another, and
+for men to man it. There were indeed few Indians in Santa Rosa, for
+while we were disputing a largo number went off with shoutings down the
+river, to spend weeks in the forest hunting monkeys.[124] It was a
+stirring sight to see these untamed red men in the depths of the Napo
+wilderness starting on a monkey crusade; but it was still more stirring
+to think of paddling our own canoe down to Brazil. After some time lost
+in word-fighting, we tried the virtues of authority. We presented the
+president's order, which commanded all civil and military powers on the
+Napo to aid, and not to hinder, the expedition; then we put into his
+hand an official letter from the alcalde of Napo (to whom Pablo was
+subordinate), which, with a flourish of dignified Spanish, threatened
+Santa Rosa with the doom of Sodom and Gomorrah if any impediment was
+placed in our way.
+
+[Footnote 124: Monkeys form an article of food throughout tropical
+America. The meat is tough, but keeps longer than any other in that
+climate. The Indians told Gibbon that "the tail is the most delicate
+part when the hair is properly singed."]
+
+To all this Edwards, who had kindly accompanied us down the river thus
+far, added, with frightful gestures, that he purposed to report him to
+the Quito government. After this bombardment Sandoval was another man,
+and the two canoes and four Indians we wanted were forthcoming. We had
+to wait, however, two days for the Indians to prepare their chicha for
+the journey and to cover the canoes with palm awnings. The price of a
+canoe for the Mara�on is twenty-five varas of lienzo, and the same for
+each Indian. Unfortunately we had only fifty varas left; but, through
+the influence of the now good-natured alcalde, we induced the Indians to
+take the balance in coin. After many delays, we put our baggage into
+one canoe, and ourselves into the other, and pushed off into the rapid
+current of the Napo. We had three styles of valediction on leaving. Our
+Indian quartet, after several last drinks of chicha, bade their friends
+farewell by clasping hands, one kissing the joined hands, and then the
+other. Sandoval muttered _adios_ in reply to ours, meaning, no doubt,
+good riddance, while we shouted a hearty good-bye to Edwards as he
+pushed his way up stream to continue his lonely but chosen Indian life
+on the banks of the Yusupino.
+
+The Napo at Santa Rosa runs at least five miles an hour, and we were
+soon picking our way--now drifting, now paddling--through a labyrinth of
+islands and snags. The Indians, so accustomed to brutal violence from
+the hands of the whites, had begged of us, before our departure, that we
+would not beat them. But shortly after we left, one of them, who was
+literally filled with chicha, dropped his paddle and tumbled into a heap
+at the bottom of the canoe, dead drunk. Pratt, our gigantic Mississippi
+boatman, whom we had engaged at Quito as captain and cook down the
+river, and who was an awful Goliath in the eyes of the red-skins, seized
+the fellow and gave him a terrible shaking, the like of which was never
+seen or heard of in all Napo. At once the liquor left the muddled brain
+of the astonished culprit, and, taking his paddle, he became from that
+hour the best of the crew. This was the only case of discipline on the
+voyage. Always obsequious, they obeyed us with fear and trembling. None
+of them could speak Spanish, so we had provided ourselves with a
+vocabulary of Quichua. But some English words, like the imperative
+_paddle_! were more effective than the tongue of the Incas. Indeed, when
+we mixed up our Quichua with a little Anglo-Saxon, they evidently
+thought the latter was a terrible anathema, for they sprang to their
+places without delay.
+
+In seven hours we arrived at Suno, a collection of half a dozen palm
+booths, five feet high, the miserable owners of which do a little
+fishing and gold-washing. They gave us possession of their largest hut,
+in which they had been roasting a sea-cow, and the stench was
+intolerable. Nevertheless, one of our number bravely threw down his
+blanket within, and went to sleep; two swung their hammocks between the
+trees, and the rest slept in the canoe. Here, for the first time since
+leaving Guayaquil, we were tormented by musquitoes. Bats were also quite
+numerous, but none of them were blood-thirsty; and we may add that
+nowhere in South America were we troubled by those diabolical imps of
+imaginative travelers, the leaf-nosed species. So far as our experience
+goes, we can say, with Bates, that the vampire, so common on the Amazon,
+is the most harmless of all bats. It has, however, a most hideous
+physiognomy. A full-grown specimen will measure twenty-eight inches in
+expanse of wing. Bates found two species on the Amazon--one black, the
+other of a ruddy line, and both fruit-eaters.
+
+The nocturnal music of these forests is made by crickets and tree-toads.
+The voice of the latter sounds like the cracking of wood. Occasionally
+frogs, owls, and goat-suckers croak, hoot, and wail. Between midnight
+and 3 A.M. almost perfect silence reigns. At early dawn the animal
+creation awakes with a scream. Pre-eminent are the discordant cries of
+monkeys and macaws. As the sun rises higher, one musician after another
+seeks the forest shade, and the morning concert ends at noon. In the
+heat of the day there is an all-pervading rustling sound, caused by the
+fluttering of myriad insects and the gliding of lizards and snakes. At
+sunset parrots and monkeys resume their chatter for a season, and then
+give way to the noiseless flight of innumerable bats chasing the
+hawk-moth and beetle. There is scarcely a sound in a tropical forest
+which is joyous and cheering. The birds are usually silent; those that
+have voices utter a plaintive song, or hoarse, shrill cry. Our
+door-yards are far more melodious on a May morning. The most common
+birds on the Napo are macaws, parrots, toucans, and ciganas. The
+parrots, like the majority in South America, are of the green type. The
+toucan, peculiar to the New World, and distinguished by its enormous
+bill, is a quarrelsome, imperious bird. It is clumsy in flight, but
+nimble in leaping from limb to limb. It hops on the ground like a robin,
+and makes a shrill yelping--_pia-po-o-co_. Ecuadorians call it the
+_predicador_, or preacher, because it wags its head like a priest, and
+seems to say, "God gave it you." The feathers of the breast are of most
+brilliant yellow, orange, and rose colors, and the robes of the royal
+dames of Europe in the sixteenth century were trimmed with them. The
+cigana or "gypsy" (in Peru called "chansu") resembles a pheasant. The
+flesh has a musky odor, and it is for this reason, perhaps, that they
+exist in such numbers throughout the country. The Indians never eat
+them. In no country as in the Amazonian Valley is there such a variety
+of insects; nowhere do we find species of larger size or greater beauty.
+It is the richest locality for butterflies; Bates found twelve hundred
+species in Brazil alone, or three times as many as in all Europe. The
+splendid metallic-blue, and the yellow and transparent-winged, are very
+abundant on the Napo; some rise high in the air; others, living in
+societies, look like fluttering clouds. Moths are comparatively rare.
+The most conspicuous beetle on the river is a magnificent green species
+(_Chrysophora chrysochlora_), always found arboreal, like the majority
+of tropical coleopters; they look like emerald gems clinging to the
+branches. There are two kinds of bees, the black and yellow, which the
+Napos name respectively _cushillo mishke_ (monkey honey) and _sara
+mishke_ (corn honey). It is singular these Indians have no term for
+bees, but call them honey, and distinguish them by their color. The
+black species is said to make the most honey, and the yellow the best.
+The quadrupeds of the Oriente are few and far between in the dry season.
+Not a sloth nor armadillo did we see. But when the rains descend the
+wilderness is a menagerie of tigers and tapirs, pumas and bears, while a
+host of reptiles, led by the gigantic boa, creep forth from their
+hiding-places. The most ferocious carnivores are found in the mountains,
+and the most venomous serpents haunt the lowlands. Darwin says that we
+ought not to expect any closer similarity between the organic beings on
+the opposite sides of the Andes than on the opposite shores of the
+ocean. We will remark that we obtained a peccari, a number of birds not
+accustomed to high flights, and five reptilian species, on the Pacific
+slope, identical with species found on the Napo.
+
+Breakfasting on fried yucas, roasted plantains, fish, and guayusa, we
+set sail, arriving at Coca at 2 P.M. This little village, the last we
+shall see till we come within sight of the Amazon, is beautifully
+located on the right bank, twenty-five feet above the river, and
+opposite the confluence of the Rio Coca. Though founded twenty years
+ago, it contains only five or six bamboo huts, a government-house,
+church, alcalde's residence, and a _trapiche_ for the manufacture of
+aguardiente and sirup from the cane.[125] The alcalde was a worthless
+blanco, who spent most of his time swinging in a hammock slung between
+the posts of his veranda, and playing with a tame parrot when not drunk
+or asleep. This spot is memorable in history. Pizarro having reached it
+from Quito by way of Baeza and the Coca, halted and built a raft or
+canoe (Prescott says a brig), in which Orellana was sent down the river
+to reconnoitre, but who never returned. Up to this point the Napo has an
+easterly course; but after receiving the Coca, it turns to the
+southeast. We remained here two days to construct a more comfortable
+craft for our voyage to the Amazon, a distance of at least five hundred
+miles. The canoe is the only means of navigation known to the Indians.
+But the idea of spending fifteen days cooped, cribbed, and cramped in a
+narrow canoe, exposed to a tropical sun and furious rains, was
+intolerable.
+
+[Illustration: Trapiche.]
+
+[Footnote 125: The _trapiche_ or sugar-mill of the Andes is a rude
+affair. The cane is pressed between cogged wooden cylinders worked by
+bullocks, and the juice is received in troughs made of hollowed logs.]
+
+Our Santa Rosa canoes were about thirty feet long. These were placed
+about five feet apart and parallel, and then firmly secured by bamboo
+joists. Over these we spread a flooring of split bamboo, and planted
+four stout chonta sticks to support a palm-thatched roof. A rudder (a
+novel idea to our red-skinned companions), and a box of sand in the
+stern of one of the boats for a fire-place, completed our rig. The
+alcalde, with a hiccough, declared we would be forever going down the
+river in such a huge craft, and the Indians smiled ominously. But when
+our gallant ship left Coca obediently to the helm, and at the rate of
+six miles an hour when paddles and current worked together, they shouted
+"_bueno_!" Our trunks and provision-cans were arranged along the two
+sides of the platform, so that we had abundance of from for exercise by
+day and for sleeping under musquito-tents at night. A little canoe,
+which we bought of the alcalde, floated alongside for a tender, and was
+very serviceable in hunting, gathering fuel, etc. In the
+"forecastle"--the bows of the large canoes which projected beyond our
+cabin--sat three Indians to paddle. The fourth, who was the governor of
+Santa Rosa, we honored with the post of steersman; and he was always to
+be seen on the poop behind the kitchen, standing bolt upright, on the
+alert and on the lookout. On approaching any human habitation, the
+Indians blew horns to indicate that they came as friends. These horns
+must have come from Brazil, as there are no bovines on the Napo.
+Whenever they enter an unknown lagune they blow their horns also to
+charm the _yacu-mama_, or mother-of-waters, as they call the imaginary
+serpent.
+
+At different points down the river they deposited pots of chicha for
+use on their return. The mass breeds worms so rapidly, however, as
+Edwards informed us, that after the lapse of a month or two it is a
+jumble of yuca scraps and writhing articulates. But the owner of the
+heap coolly separates the animal from the vegetable, adds a little
+water, and drinks his chicha without ceremony. During leisure hours the
+Indians busied themselves plaiting palm leaves into ornaments for their
+arms and heads. Not a note did they whistle or sing. Yet they were
+always in good humor, and during the whole voyage we did not see the
+slightest approach to a quarrel. At no time did we have the least fear
+of treachery or violence.
+
+The Napos are not savages. Their goodness, however, as Bates says of the
+Cuc�ma tribe, consists more in the absence of active bad qualities than
+in the possession of good ones. Of an apathetic temperament and dull
+imagination, we could not stir them into admiration or enthusiasm by any
+scientific wonder; the utmost manifestation of surprise was a cluck with
+the tongue.[126] Upon presenting the governor with a vest, he
+immediately cut off the buttons, and, dividing the cloth into four
+parts, shared it with his fellows.[127] When it rained they invariably
+took off their ponchos, but in all our intercourse with these wild men
+we never noticed the slightest breach of modesty. They strictly
+maintained a decent arrangement of such apparel as they possessed. A
+canoe containing a young Indian, his bride, and our governor's wife and
+babe, accompanied us down to the Mara�on. They were going after a load
+of salt for Sandoval. The girl was a graceful paddler, and had some
+well-founded pretensions to beauty. Her coarse, black hair was simply
+combed back, not braided into plaits as commonly done by the Andean
+women. All, both male and female, painted their faces with achote to
+keep off the sand-flies.
+
+[Illustration: Our Craft on the Napo.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Bates says the Mundurucus express surprise by making a
+clicking sound with their teeth, and Darwin observes that the Fuegians
+have the habit of making a chuckling noise when pleased.]
+
+[Footnote 127: The like perfect equality exists among the Fuegian
+tribes. "A piece of cloth given to one is torn into shreds and
+distributed, and no one individual becomes richer than
+another."--_Darwin_.]
+
+Pratt managed the helm (the governor could not work the Yankee notion)
+and the kitchen. At Santa Rosa we had added to our Quito stock of
+provisions some manati-lard (bottled up in a joint of a bamboo) and
+sirup, and at Coca we took in three fowls, a bag of rice, and a bunch of
+bananas. So we fared sumptuously every day. We left Coca on Thanksgiving
+Day, November 28th, and to imitate our distant friends, we sacrificed an
+extra meal--fricasseed chicken, jerked beef, boiled yucas, bananas,
+oranges, lemonade, and guayusa. Favored by a powerful current and the
+rhythmic paddling of our Santa Rosans, we made this day sixty miles; but
+our average daily run was fifty miles. The winds (doubtless the trades)
+were almost unchangeably from the east; but an occasional puff would
+come from the northwest, when we relieved our paddlers by hoisting a
+blanket for a sail. Six o'clock was our usual hour of departure, and ten
+or twelve hours our traveling time, always tying up at a plaia or
+island, of which there are hosts in the Napo, but never to the main
+land, for fear of unfriendly Indians and the still more unwelcome tiger.
+Our crew encamped at a respectful though hailing distance.
+
+On the second day from Coca we were caught in a squall, and to save our
+roof we ran ashore. Nearly every afternoon we were treated to a shower,
+accompanied by a strong wind, but seldom by thunder and lightning,
+though at Coca we had a brilliant thunder-storm at night. They always
+came after a uniform fashion and at a regular hour, so that we learned
+when to expect them. About noon the eastern horizon would become
+suddenly black, and when this had spread to the zenith we heard the
+rush of a mighty wind sweeping through the forest, and the crash of
+falling trees, and then down fell the deluge. The Indians have a saying
+that "the path of the sun is the path of the storm." These storm-clouds
+moved rapidly, for in half an hour all was quiet on the Napo. At Quito,
+two hundred miles west, the usual afternoon shower occurs two hours
+later. To-day we enjoyed our last glimpse of the Andes. Far away across
+the great forest we had traversed we could see the beautiful cone of
+Cotopaxi and the flat top of Cayambi standing out in proud pre-eminence.
+Long will it be ere we forget this farewell view of the magnificent
+Cordillera.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+     Sea-Cows and Turtles' Eggs.--The Forest.--Peccaries.--Indian Tribes
+     on the Lower Napo.--Anacondas and Howling Monkeys.--Insect
+     Pests.--Battle with Ants.--Barometric Anomaly.--First View of the
+     Amazon,--Pebas.
+
+
+The thirtieth of November was an exciting day on the monotonous Napo. We
+fell in with numerous sea-cows sporting in the middle of the stream.
+They were greatly disturbed by the sight of our huge craft, and, lifting
+their ugly heads high out of the water, gave a peculiar snort, as if in
+defiance, but always dived out of sight when fired upon. The sea-cow is
+called _vaca marina_ by the Spaniards, _peixe boy_ by the Brazilians,
+and _manati_ in the West Indies. It has no bovine feature except in its
+upper lip. The head and skin remind one of a large seal. In many
+respects it may be likened to a hippopotamus without tusks or legs. It
+has a semicircular flat tail, and behind the head are two oval fins,
+beneath which are the breasts, which yield a white milk. The flesh
+resembles pork, with a disagreeable, fishy flavor.
+
+To-day we anchored at several plaias to hunt turtles' eggs. Our Indians
+were very expert in finding the nests. Guided approximately by the
+tracks of the _tortugas_, as the turtles are called, they thrust a stick
+into the sand, and wherever it went down easily they immediately
+commenced digging with their hands, and invariably "struck" eggs. In
+four nests, whose contents we counted, there were one hundred and
+thirty-two, one hundred and fourteen, one hundred and twelve, and
+ninety-seven; but we have heard of one hundred and sixty eggs in a
+single nest. The turtles lay in the night, and in pits about two feet
+deep, which they excavate with their broad, webbed paws. The eggs are
+about an inch and a half in diameter, having a thin, leathery shell, a
+very oily yolk, and a white which does not coagulate. The Indians ate
+them uncooked. We used them chiefly in making corn griddles.
+
+Here, as throughout its whole course, the Napo runs between two walls of
+evergreen verdure. On either hand are low clay banks (no rocks are
+visible), and from these the forest rises to a uniform height of seventy
+or eighty feet. It has a more cheerful aspect than the sombre, silent
+wilderness of Baeza. Old aristocrats of the woods are overrun by a gay
+democracy of creepers and climbers, which interlace the entire forest,
+and, descending to take root again, appear like the shrouds and stays of
+a line-of-battle ship. Monkeys gambol on this wild rigging, and mingle
+their chatter with the screams of the parrot. Trees as lofty as our oaks
+are covered with flowers as beautiful as our lilies. Here are orchids of
+softest tints;[128] flowering ferns, fifty feet high; the graceful
+bamboo and wild banana; while high over all countless species of palm
+wave their nodding plumes. Art could not arrange these beautiful forms
+so harmoniously as nature has done.
+
+[Footnote 128: Some orchid is in flower all the year round. The finest
+species is the _odontoglossum_, having long, chocolate-colored petals,
+margined with yellow. "Such is their number and variety (wrote Humboldt)
+that the entire life of a painter would be too short to delineate all
+the magnificent Orchide� which adorn the recesses of the deep valleys of
+the Peruvian Andes." For many curious facts respecting the structure of
+these flowers, see Darwin's _Fertilization of Orchids_.]
+
+[Illustration: Hunting Turtles' Eggs]
+
+The tropics, moreover, are strangers to the uniformity of association
+seen in temperate climes. We have so many social plants that we speak of
+a forest of oaks, and pines, and birches; but there variety is the law.
+Individuals of the same species are seldom seen growing together.
+Every tree is surrounded by strangers that seemingly prefer its room
+to its company; and, such is the struggle for possession of the soil, it
+is difficult to tell to which stem the different leaves and flowers
+belong. The peculiar charm of a tropical forest is increased by the
+mystery of its impenetrable thicket. Within that dense, matted
+shrubbery, and behind that phalanx of trees, the imagination of the
+traveler sees all manner of four-footed beasts and creeping things.
+Tropical vegetation is of fresher verdure, more luxuriant and succulent,
+and adorned with larger and more shining leaves than the vegetation of
+the north. The leaves are not shed periodically--a character common, not
+only to the equator, but also to the whole southern hemisphere. Yet
+there is a variety of tints, though not autumnal. The leaves put on
+their best attire while budding instead of falling--passing, as they
+come to maturity, through different shades of red, brown, and green. The
+majority of tropical trees bear small flowers. The most conspicuous
+trees are the palms, to which the prize of beauty has been given by the
+concurrent voice of all ages. The earliest civilization of mankind
+belonged to countries bordering on the region of palms. South America,
+the continent of mingled heat and moisture, excels the rest of the world
+in the number and perfection of her palms. They are mostly of the
+feathery and fan-like species; the latter are inferior in rank to the
+former. The peculiarly majestic character of the palm is given not only
+by their lofty stems, but also in a very high degree by the form and
+arrangement of their leaves. How diverse, yet equally graceful, are the
+aspiring branches of the jagua and the drooping foliage of the cocoa,
+the shuttlecock-shaped crowns of the ubuss� and the plumes of the
+jupati, forty feet in length. The inflorescence always springs from the
+top of the trunk, and the male flowers are generally yellowish. Unlike
+the oak, all species of which have similar fruit, there is a vast
+difference in the fruits of the palm: compare the triangular cocoa-nut,
+the peach-like date, and grape-like assai. The silk-cotton tree is the
+rival of the palm in dignity; it has a white bark and a lofty flat
+crown. Among the loveliest children of Flora we must include the mimosa,
+with its delicately pinnated foliage, so endowed with sensibility that
+it seems to have stepped out of the bounds of vegetable life. The
+bamboo, the king of grasses, forms a distinctive feature in the
+landscape of the Napo, frequently rising eighty feet in length, though
+not in height, for the fronds curve downward. Fancy the airy grace of
+our meadow grasses united with the lordly growth of the poplar, and you
+have a faint idea of bamboo beauty.
+
+The first day of winter (how strangely that sounds under a vertical
+sun!) was Sunday; but it was folly to attempt to rest where punkies were
+as thick as atoms, so we floated on. It was only by keeping in mid-river
+and moving rapidly enough to create a breeze through our cabin, that
+life was made tolerable. A little after noon we were again obliged to
+tie up for a storm. Not a human being nor a habitation have we seen
+since leaving Coca; and to-day nothing is visible but the river, with
+its islands, and plains, and the green palisades--the edges of the
+boundless forest. Not a hill over one hundred feet high are we destined
+to see till we reach Obidos, fifteen hundred miles eastward. Were it not
+for the wealth of vegetation--all new to trans-tropical eyes--and the
+concerts of monkeys and macaws, oppressively lonely would be the sail
+down the Napo between its uninhabited shores. But we believe the day,
+though distant, will come when its banks will be busy with life. Toward
+evening three or four canoes pulled out from the shore and came
+alongside. They were filled with the lowest class of Indians we have
+seen in South America. The women were nearly nude; the man (there was
+only one) had on a sleeveless frock reaching to the knees, made from the
+bark of a tree called _llanchama_. All were destitute of eyebrows; their
+hair was parted in the middle, and their teeth and lips were dyed black.
+They had rude pottery, peccari meat, and wooden lances to sell. Like all
+the Napo Indians, they had a weakness for beads, and they wore necklaces
+of tiger and monkey teeth. They were stupid rather than brutal, and
+probably belonged to a degraded tribe of the great Zaparo family. With
+Darwin, "one's mind hurries back over past centuries, and then asks,
+could our progenitors have been men like these?--men whose very signs
+and expressions are less intelligible to us than those of the
+domesticated animals; men who do not possess the instinct of those
+animals, nor yet appear to boast of human reason, or, at least, of arts
+consequent on that reason. I do not believe it is possible to describe
+or paint the difference between savage and civilized man. It is the
+difference between a wild and tame animal; and part of the interest in
+beholding a savage is the same which would lead every one to desire to
+see the lion in his desert, the tiger tearing his prey in the jungle, or
+the rhinoceros wandering over the wild plains of Africa."
+
+On the morrow our falcon-eyed Indians whispered "_cuche_" long before we
+saw any thing.[129] Williams went ashore and came upon a herd of
+peccaries, killing two. The peccari is a pugnacious, fearless animal. It
+is not frightened by the noise of fire-arms, and when wounded is a
+dangerous foe; but captured when young, it is easily tamed. It has a
+higher back than the domestic hog, and cleanlier habits; an odoriferous
+gland on the loins, and three-toed hind feet. We preserved the skins for
+science and a ham for the table; the rest we gave to our crew and
+fellow-voyagers, who devoured every thing, even the viscera. They sat
+up late that night, around their camp-fire, cooking peccari meat: part
+they parboiled in a pot, and some they roasted, skewered on sticks which
+slanted over the flames; the rest they cured with smoke, for lack of
+salt. The meat, though rank, is palatable, but not equal to macaw, which
+we served up the next day.[130]
+
+[Footnote 129: In the Quichua of Quito the peccari is called _saino_.]
+
+[Footnote 130: The Uaupes on the Napo, according to Wallace, will not
+eat peccari meat. "Meat putrifies in this climate (of the Tapajos) in
+less than twenty-four hours, and salting is of no use unless the pieces
+are cut in thin slices and dried immediately in the sun."--_Bates_.]
+
+We had now passed the mouth of the Aguarico, leaving behind us the
+Christian Quitus and the peaceful Zaparos. Henceforth the right bank of
+the Napo is inhabited by the Mazanes and Iquitos; while on the left are
+the wilder Santa Marias, Anguteros, Oritos, and Orejones. The Orejones,
+or "Big Ears," enlarge those appendages to such an extent that they are
+said to lie down on one ear and cover themselves with the other. This
+practice is now going out of fashion. These Indians received their name,
+Orejones, or Oregones, from the Spaniards, on account of this singular
+custom of inserting disks of wood in the ears to enlarge them; the like
+practice prevailed among the tribes on the Columbia River, Oregon. They
+trade in hammocks, poisons, and provisions. The Anguteros, or Putumayos,
+have a bad reputation. They are reported to have killed and robbed
+sarsaparilla traders coming up stream. Nevertheless, we kept watch only
+one night during the voyage, though we always anchored to an island, and
+between Coca and the Amazon we did not see twenty-five men. Equally rare
+were the savage brutes--not a jaguar showed himself, and only one
+anaconda. The anaconda, or water-boa (_Eunectes murinus_[131]), is
+larger and more formidable than the boa-constrictor which lives on the
+land. It has a hideous appearance, broad in the middle, and tapering
+abruptly at both ends. We did not learn from the natives that anacondas
+over twenty feet long had been seen on the Napo, but specimens twice
+that size are found on the Amazon. Land boas do not often exceed fifteen
+feet in length.
+
+[Footnote 131: The specific name was strangely given for its habit, when
+young, of darting upon mice. Anaconda is a Ceylonese word.]
+
+[Illustration: A Howler.]
+
+Gangs of the large howling monkeys often entertained us with their
+terrific, unearthly yells, which, in the truthful language of Bates,
+"increased tenfold the feeling of inhospitable wildness which the forest
+is calculated to inspire." They are of a maroon color (the males wear a
+long red beard), and have under the jaw a bony go�tre--an expansion of
+the os hyoides--by means of which they produce their loud, rolling
+noise. They set up an unusual chorus whenever they saw us, scampering to
+the tops of the highest trees, the dams carrying the young upon their
+backs. They are the only monkeys which the natives have not been able to
+tame. Vast numbers of screaming parrots and macaws flew over our heads,
+always going in pairs and at a great height. Groups of "gypsy-birds"
+were perched on the trees overhanging the river, and black ducks,
+cormorants, and white cranes floated on the water or stalked along the
+plaias.
+
+But one form of life superabounded. From the rising of the sun to the
+going down thereof clouds of ubiquitous sand-flies filled our cabin,
+save when the wind was high. As soon as the sand-flies ceased, myriads
+of musquitoes began their work of torture, without much preparatory
+piping, and kept it up all night.[132] These pests were occasionally
+relieved or assisted by piums--minute flies that alight unnoticed, and
+squatting close to the skin, suck their fill of blood, leaving dark
+spots and a disagreeable irritation. Our hands were nearly black with
+their punctures. We also made the acquaintance of the mont�ca, a large
+black fly whose horny lancets make a gash in the flesh, painless but
+blood-letting. All these insects are most abundant in the latter part of
+the rainy season, when the Mara�on is almost uninhabitable. The
+apostrophe of Midshipman Wilberforce was prompted by sufferings which we
+can fully appreciate: "Ye greedy animals! I am ashamed of you. Can not
+you once forego your dinner, and feast your mind with the poetry of the
+landscape?" Right welcome was the usual afternoon squall, which sent
+these pests "kiting" over the stern.
+
+[Footnote 132: Sand-flies are called by the natives _musquitoes_, and
+what we call musquitoes they call _sancudos_.]
+
+On Wednesday we fell in with a petty sarsaparilla trader, with two
+canoes, bound for the Mara�on. He was sick with fever. Sarsaparilla
+(written _salsaparrilha_ in Brazil, and meaning "bramble vine") is the
+root of a prickly, climbing plant found throughout the whole Amazonian
+forest, but chiefly on dry, rocky ground. On the morning of the seventh
+day from Coca we passed the mouth of the Curaray, the largest tributary
+of the Napo. It rises on the slopes of the Llanganati mountains, and is
+considered auriferous. It is probably derived from _curi_, gold. Seeing
+a hut on the banks, we sent an Indian to purchase provisions; he
+returned with a few yucas and eggs. The day following we were attacked
+from a new quarter. Stopping to escape a storm, a party went ashore to
+cut down a tree of which we desired a section. It fell with its top in
+the river, just above our craft; when lo! to our consternation, down
+came countless hosts of ants (_Ecitons_). Myriads were, of course, swept
+down stream, but myriads more crawled up the sides of our canoes, and in
+one minute after the tree fell our whole establishment, from hold to
+roof, was swarming with ants. We gave one look of despair at each other,
+our provisions and collections, and then commenced a war of
+extermination. It was a battle for life. The ants, whose nest we had so
+suddenly immersed in the Napo, refused to quit their new lodgings. As we
+were loosely dressed, the tenacious little creatures hid themselves
+under our clothing, and when plucked off would leave their heads and
+jaws sticking in the skin. At last the deck was cleared by means of
+boots, slippers, and towels; but, had the ants persevered, they might
+have taken possession of the boat.
+
+To-day we saw a high bank (called in Quichua _pucaurcu_, or red hill)
+consisting of fine laminated clays of many colors--red, orange, yellow,
+gray, black, and white. This is the beginning of that vast deposit which
+covers the whole Amazonian Valley. It rests upon a bed of lignite, or
+bituminous shale, and a coarse, iron-cemented conglomerate. The latter
+is not visible on the Napo, but crops out particularly at Obidos and
+Par�. The Indians prepare their paints from these colored clays.
+
+Our Santa Rosans seemed to have little tact in fishing; still their
+spears and our hooks gathered not a few representatives of ichthyic life
+in the Napo. The species most common belong to the genus _Pimelodus_,
+or catfish tribe. Below tho Curaray the sand bars yielded turtles' eggs
+of a different kind from those found above, the _tracaj�_. They were
+smaller and oval, and buried only six or eight inches deep, thirty in a
+nest.
+
+December 9.--Passed early this morning the mouth of the Mazan; four huts
+at the junction. To-day we noticed the anomaly first observed by
+Herndon. From Papallacta to the Curaray the rise of the mercury was
+regular, but on the lower Napo there were great fluctuations. At one
+time both barometer and boiling apparatus, with which we made daily and
+simultaneous observations, unanimously declared that our canoes were
+gliding up stream, though we were descending at the rate of five miles
+an hour. The temperature is decidedly lower and the winds are stronger
+as we near the Amazon.
+
+December 10.--Our last day on the Napo. In celebration of the event we
+killed a fine young doe as it was crossing the river. It closely
+resembled the Virginia deer. At 9 A.M. the Indians shouted in their
+quiet way--"_Mara�on_!" It was as thrilling as _Thalatta_ to Xenophon's
+soldiers. We were not expecting to reach it till night, being deceived
+by Villavicencio's map, which, in common with all others, locates the
+Curaray and Mazan too far to the north. We halted for an hour at
+Camindo, a little fishing hamlet claimed by Peru, and then hastened to
+get our first sight of the Amazon. With emotions we can not express, we
+gazed upon this ocean-stream. The march of the great river in its silent
+grandeur is sublime. In its untamed might it rolls through the
+wilderness with a stately, solemn air, showing its awful power in
+cutting away the banks, tearing down trees, and building up islands in a
+day. Down the river we can look till the sky and water meet as on the
+sea, while the forest on either hand dwindles in the perspective to a
+long black line. Between these even walls of ever-living green the
+resistless current hurries out of Peru, sweeps past the imperial guns of
+Tabatinga into Brazil, and plows its way visibly two hundred miles into
+the Atlantic.
+
+At a small island standing where the Napo pays tribute to the monarch of
+rivers, mingling its waters with the Huallaga and Ucayali, which have
+already come down from the Peruvian Andes, we bade adieu to our captain
+and cook, who, in the little canoe, paddled his way westward to seek his
+fortune in Iquitus. At this point the Mara�on (for so the natives call
+the Upper Amazon) does not appear very much broader than the Napo; but
+its depth is far greater, and there are few sand-bars.[133] The water is
+always of a turbid yellow; while the Napo, though muddy during our
+voyage, is usually clear. The forest, moreover, on the banks of the
+Mara�on, is not so striking as on the tributary. The palms are not so
+numerous, and the uniform height of the trees gives a monotonous,
+sea-like horizon.
+
+[Footnote 133: Herndon makes the mouth of the Napo 150 yards broad, and
+the soundings six or seven fathoms. This is not a fair representation;
+for the Napo, like all the other tributaries, empties its waters by
+several mouths. At Camindo, five miles above the confluence, the Napo is
+certainly a mile wide.]
+
+We arrived at Pebas December 12, ten hours after leaving the mouth of
+the Napo, and a month and a half from Quito. The first individual we met
+addressed us in good English, and proved to be Mr. Hauxwell of birds and
+insects, who has resided thirty years on the Amazon. His house, the
+largest and best in town, though but a roofed stockade, was generously
+placed at our disposal, and the fatted calf--an immense turtle--was
+immediately killed. To us, after the transit of the Andes and the
+dangers and hardships of the wilderness and the river, it seemed as if
+we had reached the end of our journey, though we were over two thousand
+miles from the Atlantic. Pebas is situated on a high clay bluff beside
+the Ambiyacu, a mile above its entrance into the Mara�on. Excepting Mr.
+Hauxwell, the Peruvian governor, and two or three other whites, the
+inhabitants are Indians of the Orejones and Yagua tribes. The
+exportations are hammocks, sarsaparilla, palo de cruz, and urar�. Palo
+de cruz is the very hard, dark-colored wood of a small leguminous tree
+bearing large pink flowers. Urar� is the poison used by all the
+Amazonian Indians; it is made by the Ticunas on the Putumayo, by boiling
+to a jelly the juices of certain roots and herbs, chiefly of the
+_Strychnos toxifera_, though it does not contain any trace of
+strychnine. Tipped with urar�, the needle-like arrow used in blow-guns
+will kill an ox in twenty minutes and a monkey in ten. "We have reason
+to congratulate ourselves (wrote the facetious Sidney Smith) that our
+method of terminating disputes is by sword and pistol, and not by these
+medicated pins." But the poison appears to be harmless to man and other
+salt-eating animals, salt being an antidote.[134] We were not troubled
+with sand-flies after leaving the plaias of the Napo, but the musquitoes
+at Pebas were supernumerary. Perhaps, however, it was a special
+gathering on our account, for the natives have a notion that just before
+the arrival of a foreigner the musquitoes come in great numbers.
+
+[Footnote 134: Urar� is mentioned by Raleigh. Humboldt was the first to
+take any considerable quantity to Europe. The experiments of Virchau and
+M�nster make it probable that it does not belong to the class of tetanic
+poisons, but that its particular effect is to take away the power of
+voluntary muscular movement, while the involuntary functions of the
+heart and intestines still continue. See _Ann. de Chim. et de Phys._, t.
+xxxix., 1828, p. 24; and Sch�mberg's _Reisen in Britisch Guiana_, th.
+i., s. 441. The frightful poison, _tieut�_ of India, is prepared from a
+Java species of _strychnos_.]
+
+Many of the Indians are disfigured by dark blotches on the skin, the
+effect of a cutaneous disease very prevalent in Central Amazonia. Here
+we first noticed the singular habit among the children of eating clay.
+This habit is not confined to the Otomacs on the Oronoco, nor to Indians
+altogether; for negroes and whites have the same propensity--Mr.
+Hauxwell found it impossible to restrain his own children. Bates
+ascribes the morbid craving to the meagre diet. This may be true to some
+extent, but it is certainly strange that the extraordinary desire to
+swallow earth (chiefly unctuous clays) is found only in the tropics,
+where vegetation is so rank and fruit so abundant.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+     Down the Amazon.--Steam on the Great River.--Loreto.--San
+     Antonio.--Tabatinga.--Brazilian Steamers.--Scenery on the
+     Amazon.--Tocant�ns.--Fonte Boa.--Ega.--Rio Negro.--Man�os.
+
+
+We left Pebas for Tabatinga in the Peruvian steamer "Morona," Captain
+Raygado. Going up to Jerusalem by railroad, or ascending the Nile by a
+screw whisking the sacred waters, is not so startling as the sight of a
+steamer in the heart of South America. There is such a contrast between
+the primeval wildness of the country and the people and this triumph of
+civilized life; and one looks forward to the dazzling future of this
+great valley, when the ships of all nations will crowd the network of
+rivers for the gold and perfumes, the gems and woods of this western
+Ophir. The natives call the steamer the "devil's boat," or "big canoe;"
+but they manifest little curiosity. Our Napo Indians were evidently
+afraid of it, and stood afar off. The first steamers that broke the deep
+solitude of the Mara�on were the "Huallaga" and "Tirado," brought out in
+1853 by Dr. Whittemore, for Peru. They were built in New York, of
+Georgia pine, costing Peru $75,000, and reflected no credit on the
+United States; they lie rotting near Nauta. Peru has now two iron
+steamers of London make--the "Morona" and "Pastassa"--besides two
+smaller craft for exploring the tributaries. These steamers are for
+government service, but three more are building in England with
+passenger accommodations. The "Morona" has a tonnage of five hundred,
+and an engine of one hundred and fifty horse-power. The engineers are
+English, and the cook is a Chinaman. She makes monthly trips between
+Yurimaguas, on the Huallaga River, and Tabatinga, on the Brazilian
+frontier. Her rate down stream is eighteen miles an hour, and from
+eleven to twelve against the current. These steamers do not pay expenses
+at present; but they preserve the authority of Peru on the Mara�on, and
+supply with material the government works at Iquitos. They also do a
+little commerce, taking down sarsaparilla and Moyabamba hats, and
+bringing up English dry-goods. There were not half a dozen passengers on
+board.
+
+The only towns of any consequence west of Pebas are Iquitos, Nauta, and
+Yurimaguas. Peru claims them--in fact, all the villages on the Mara�on.
+Iquitos is the most thriving town on the Upper Amazon. It is situated on
+an elevated plain on the left bank of the river, sixty miles above the
+mouth of the Napo. In Herndon's time it was "a fishing village of 227
+inhabitants;" it now contains 2000. Here are the government iron-works,
+carried on by English mechanics. In 1867 there were six engineers, two
+iron-molders, two brass-molders, two coppersmiths, three blacksmiths,
+three pattern-makers, two boiler-makers, five shipwrights, three
+sawyers, besides bricklayers, brick-makers, carpenters, coopers, etc.;
+in all forty-two. All the coal for the furnaces is brought from
+England--the lignite on the banks of the Mara�on is unfit for the
+purpose. A floating dock for vessels of a thousand tons has just been
+built. Nauta lies on the north bank of the Mara�on, opposite the
+entrance of the Ucayali. Its inhabitants, about 1000, trade in fish,
+sarsaparilla, and wax from Ucayali. Yurimaguas is the port of Moyabamba,
+a city of 10,000 souls, six days' travel southwest. This vast eastern
+slope, lying on the branches of the Mara�on, is called the Monta�a of
+Peru. It is a region of inexhaustible fertility, and would yield ample
+returns to energy and capital. The villages are open to foreign
+commerce, free of duty; but at present the voice of civilized man is
+seldom heard, save on the main fluvial highway between Moyabamba and the
+Brazilian frontier. The Portuguese are the most adventurous traders. The
+value of imports to Peru by the Amazonian steamers during 1867 was
+$324,533; of exports, $267,748.
+
+In two hours and a half we arrive at Maucallacta, or "Old Town," an
+Indian village on the right bank of the river. Here our passports were
+vis�d by the Peruvian governor, and the steamer wooded up. One of the
+hands on the "Morona" was Manuel Medina, a mameluco, who was employed by
+Bates and Agassiz in their explorations. We left at noon of the
+following day, and anchored for the night off Caballococha, for the
+Peruvian steamers run only in the daytime. Caballococha, or
+"Horse-lake," is a Ticuna town, situated on a level tract of light loam,
+closely surrounded by the dense forest, and beside a ca�o of clear water
+leading to a pretty lake. Ecuador claims this town, and likewise all the
+settlements on the Mara�on; but her learned geographer, Villavicencio,
+with characteristic ignorance of the country, has located it on the
+_north_ bank of the river!
+
+We passed in the afternoon the little tug "Napo," having on board
+Admiral Tucker, the rebel, who, with some associates, is exploring the
+tributaries of the Upper Amazon for the Peruvian government. They had
+just returned from a voyage of two hundred and fifty miles up the
+Javar�. One of the party had a tame tiger-cat in his arms. We arrived at
+Loreto early the next morning. This village of twenty houses and a
+church is prettily situated on the left bank, with a green slope in
+front. It is the most easterly town of Peru on the Amazon. Here resides
+Mr. Wilkens, the Brazilian consul, of German birth, but North American
+education. The inhabitants are Peruvians, Portuguese, Negroes, and
+Ticuna Indians. The musquitoes hold high carnival at this place. In two
+hours we were at San Antonio, a military post on the Peruvian frontier,
+commanded by a French engineer, Manuel Charon, who also studied in the
+United States. One large building, and a flag-staff on a high bluff of
+red clay, were all that was visible of San Antonio; but the "Morona"
+brought down a gang of Indians (impressed, no doubt) to build a fort for
+twenty guns. The site is in dispute, a Brazilian claiming it as private
+property. The white barracks of Tabatinga, the first fortress in Brazil,
+are in plain sight, the voyage consuming but twenty minutes. Between San
+Antonio and Tabatinga is a ravine, on either side of which is a white
+pole, marking the limits of the republic and the empire.
+
+Tabatinga has long been a military post, but, excepting the government
+buildings, there are not a dozen houses. Numerous Indians, however, of
+the Ticuna tribe, dwell in the neighboring forest. The commandante was O
+Illustrissimo Se�or Tenente Aristides Juste Mavignier, a tall, thin,
+stooping officer, dressed in brown linen. He received us with great
+civility, and tendered a house and servant during our stay in port. We
+preferred, however, to accept the hospitalities of the "Morona" till the
+arrival of the Brazilian steamer. Se�or Mavignier was commandante of
+Man�os when visited by Agassiz, and presented the Professor with a
+hundred varieties of wood. With the like courtesy, he gave us a
+collection of reptiles, all of them rare, and many of them new species.
+He showed us also a live raposa, or wild dog, peculiar to the Amazon,
+but seldom seen. Tabatinga stands on an eminence of yellow clay, and is
+defended by twelve guns. The river in front is quite narrow, only about
+half a mile wide. Here our passports, which had been signed at
+Maucallacta and Loreto, were indorsed by the commandante. They were
+afterward examined at Ega, Man�os, and Par�. The mean temperature of
+Tabatinga we found to be 82�.[135] Some rubber and salt fish are
+exported, but nothing of consequence is cultivated. Grapes, the people
+say, grow well, but are destroyed by the ants. The only fruit-trees we
+noticed were the mama� (in Spanish, papaya), arac�, and ab�o. The
+papaw-tree bears male and female flowers on different trees, and hence
+receives the name of _papaya_ or _mama�_, according to one's view of the
+pre-eminence of the sex. The juice of this tree is used by the ladies of
+the West Indies as a cosmetic, and by the butchers to render the
+toughest meat tender. The fruit is melon-shaped, and of an orange-yellow
+color. Vauquelin discovered in it _fibrine_, till lately supposed to be
+confined to the animal kingdom.
+
+[Footnote 135: According to Lieutenant Azevedo, the latitude of
+Tabatinga is 4� 14' 30"; longitude, 70� 2' 24"; magnetic variation, 6�
+35' 10" N.E.]
+
+The Peruvian steamers connect at Tabatinga with the Brazilian line.
+There are eight imperial steamers on the Amazon: the "Icamiaba," running
+between Tabatinga and Man�os; the "Tapajos" and "Belem," plying between
+Man�os and Par�; the "Inca" and "Man�os," between Obidos and Par�;
+besides two steamers on the Tocant�ns, one between Par� and Chares, and
+projected lines for the Negro, Tapajos, and Madeira. The captains get a
+small salary, but the perquisites are large, as they have a percentage
+on the freight. One captain pocketed in one year $9000.
+
+We embarked, December 12, on the "Icamiaba," which promptly arrived at
+Tabatinga. The commander, formerly a lieutenant in the Imperial Navy,
+and for twelve years a popular officer on the Upper Amazon, was a
+polished gentleman, but rigid disciplinarian. As an example of
+Brazilian etiquette, we give his full address from one of our letters of
+introduction:
+
+              "Ilmo. Sr. Capn. de Fragata
+          Nuno Alvez Pereira de Mello Cardozo,
+               Digno Commandante de Vapor
+                       Icamiaba."
+
+The "Icamiaba" was an iron boat of four hundred and fifty tons, with two
+engines of fifty horse-power each. The engineer was an Austrian, yet the
+captain gave his orders in English, though neither could speak the
+language. The saloon, with berths for twenty-five passengers, was above
+deck, and open at both ends for ventilation. The passengers, however,
+usually swung their hammocks on the upper deck, which was covered by an
+awning. This was a delightfully breezy and commanding position; and
+though every part of the steamer was in perfect order, this was
+scrupulously neat. Here the table was spread with every tropical luxury,
+and attentively served by young men in spotless attire. Happy the
+traveler who sits at the table of Commandante Cardozo. The refreshment
+hours were: Coffee as soon as the passengers turned out of their
+hammocks, and sometimes before; breakfast at ten, dinner at five, and
+tea at eight. Live bullocks, fowls, and turtles were kept on board, so
+that of fresh meat, particularly beef (the first we had tasted since
+leaving Quito), there was no lack. At breakfast we counted nine
+different courses of meat. The Peruvian steamers are limited to turtle
+and salt fish. Rice and farina are extensively used in Brazil, but we
+saw very little tapioca. Farina is the flour of the country, and is
+eaten in hard, dry grains; it will not keep in any other form. It can
+not be very nutritious, as it contains little gluten. All bread and
+butter are imported from the United States and England. The captains of
+Brazilian steamers are their own stewards; and in the midst of other
+business in port, they stop to negotiate for a chicken, or a dozen
+eggs, with an Indian or Negro. The "Icamiaba" left Tabatinga with only
+three first-class passengers, besides our own party. On no Amazon
+steamer did we meet with a lady passenger. Madame Godin, who came down
+the river from the Andes, and Mrs. Agassiz, who ascended to Tabatinga,
+were among the few ladies who have seen these upper waters. But how
+differently they traveled! one on a raft, the other on the beautiful
+"Icamiaba."
+
+Between Tabatinga and Teff�, a distance of five hundred miles, is
+perhaps the most uncivilized part of the main river. Ascending, we find
+improvements multiply as we near the mountains of Peru; descending, we
+see the march of civilization in the budding cities and expanding
+commerce culminating at Grand Par�. The scenery from the deck of an
+Amazonian steamer, if described, appears monotonous. A vast volume of
+smooth, yellow water, floating trees and beds of aquatic grass, low,
+linear-shaped, wooded islets, a dark, even forest--the shores of a
+boundless sea of verdure, and a cloudless sky occasionally obscured by
+flocks of parrots: these are the general features. No busy towns are
+seen along the banks of the Middle Amazon; only here and there a palm
+hut or semi-Indian village half buried in the wilderness. We agree with
+Darwin (speaking of the Plata), that "a wide expanse of muddy water has
+neither grandeur nor beauty." The real grandeur, however, of a great
+river like this is derived from reflecting upon its prospective
+commercial importance and its immense drainage. A lover of nature,
+moreover, can never tire of gazing at the picturesque grouping and
+variety of trees, with their mantles of creeping plants; while a little
+imagination can see in the alligators, ganoid fishes, sea-cows, and tall
+gray herons, the ichthyosaurus, holoptychius, dinotherium, and
+brontozoum of ancient days. Here and there the river is bordered with
+low alluvial deposits covered with feathery-topped arrow-grass and
+amphibious vegetation; but generally the banks are about ten feet high
+and magnificently wooded; they are abrupt, and land-slides are frequent.
+
+A few minutes after leaving Tabatinga we passed the mouth of the Javar�,
+which forms the natural boundary between Peru and Brazil. Henceforth the
+river loses the name of Mara�on, and is called Solimoens, or, more
+commonly, simply Amazon. We were ten hours in reaching San Paulo, a
+wretched Ticuna village of five hundred souls, built on a grassy
+table-land nearly one hundred feet high. Steps have been cut in the
+slippery clay bluff to facilitate the ascent. Swamps lie back of the
+town, rendering it unhealthy. "On damp nights (says the Naturalist on
+the Amazon) the chorus of frogs and toads which swarm in weedy
+back-yards creates such a bewildering uproar that it is impossible to
+carry on a conversation in doors except by shouting."
+
+In ten hours more we had passed the Putumayo and entered the Tunant�ns,
+a sluggish, dark-colored tributary emptying into the Amazon about two
+hundred miles below the Javar�.[136] On the bank of white earth, which
+strongly contrasts with the tinted stream, is a dilapidated hamlet of
+twenty-five hovels, built of bamboo plastered with mud and whitewashed.
+We saw but one two-storied house; and all have ground-floors and
+double-thatched roofs. The inhabitants are semi-civilized Shum�na and
+Pass� Indians and half-breeds; but in the gloomy forest which hugs the
+town live the wild Caish�nas. The atmosphere is close and steaming, but
+not hot, the mercury at noon standing at 83�. The place is alive with
+insects and birds. The nights on the Amazon were invariably cool; on
+the Lower Amazon, cold, so that we required a heavy blanket.
+
+[Footnote 136: Herndon says (p. 241), "the Tunant�ns is about fifty
+yards broad, and seems deep with a considerable current."]
+
+[Illustration: Kitchen on the Amazon.]
+
+Taking on board wood, beeves, turtles, salt fish, and water-melons, we
+left at half past 2 P.M. The Brazilian steamers run all night, and with
+no slackening of speed. At one o'clock we were awakened by a cry from
+the watch, "Stop her!" And immediately after there was a crash; but it
+was only the breaking of crockery caused by the sudden stoppage. The
+night was fearfully dark, and for aught we knew the steamer was running
+headlong into the forest. Fortunately there was no collision, and in a
+few minutes we were again on our way, arriving at Fonte Boa at 4 A.M.
+This little village stands in a palm grove, on a high bank of
+ochre-colored sandy clay, beside a slue of sluggish black water, eight
+miles from the Amazon.[137] The inhabitants, about three hundred, are
+ignorant, lazy mamelucos. They dress like the majority of the
+semi-civilized people on the Amazon: the men content with shirt and
+pantaloons, the women wearing cotton or gauze chemises and calico
+petticoats. Fonte Boa is a museum for the naturalist, but the
+headquarters of musquitoes, small but persistent. Taking in a large
+quantity of turtle-oil, the "Icamiaba" turned down the ca�o, but almost
+immediately ran aground, and we were two hours getting off. These yearly
+shifting shoals in the Amazon can not be laid down in charts, and the
+most experienced pilots often run foul of them. In twelve hours we
+entered the Teff�, a tributary from the Bolivian mountains. Just before
+reaching the Great River it expands into a beautiful lake, with a white,
+sandy beach. On a grassy slope, stretching out into the lake, with a
+harbor on each side of it, lies the city of Ega. A hundred palm-thatched
+cottages of mud and tiled frame houses, each with an inclosed orchard of
+orange, lemon, banana, and guava trees, surround a rude church, marked
+by a huge wooden crucifix on the green before it, instead of a steeple.
+Cacao, assa�, and pupunha palms rise above the town, adding greatly to
+its beauty; while back of all, on the summit of the green slope, begins
+the picturesque forest, pathless, save here and there a faint hunter's
+track leading to the untrodden interior. The sheep and cattle grazing on
+the lawn, a rare sight in Alto Amazonas, gives a peaceful and inviting
+aspect to the scene. The inhabitants, numbering about twelve hundred,
+are made up of pure Indians, half-castes, negroes, mulattoes, and
+whites. Ega (also called Teff�) is the largest and most thriving town
+between Man�os and Iquitos, a distance of twelve hundred miles. It is
+also one of the oldest settlements on the river, having been founded
+during the English revolution, or nearly two centuries ago. Tupi is the
+common idiom. The productions of the country are cacao, sarsaparilla,
+Brazil nuts, bast for caulking vessels, copaiba balsam, India-rubber,
+salt fish, turtle-oil, manati, grass hammocks, and tiles. Bates
+calculates the value of the annual exports at nearly forty thousand
+dollars. The "Icamiaba" calls here twice a month; besides which there
+are small schooners which occupy about five months in the round trip
+between Ega and Par�. "The place is healthy (writes the charming
+Naturalist on the Amazon), and almost free from insect pests; perpetual
+verdure surrounds it; the soil is of marvelous fertility, even for
+Brazil; the endless rivers and labyrinths of channels teem with fish and
+turtle; a fleet of steamers might anchor at any season of the year in
+the lake, which has uninterrupted water communication straight to the
+Atlantic. What a future is in store for the sleepy little tropical
+village!" Here Bates pursued butterflies for four years and a half, and
+Agassiz fished for six months.
+
+[Footnote 137: Smyth says the town gets its name from the clearness of
+the water; but Herndon found it muddy, and, to our eyes, it was dark as
+the Negro.]
+
+[Illustration: Natives on the Middle Amazon.]
+
+Ega is the half-way point across the continent, but its exact altitude
+above the sea is unknown. Herndon's boiling apparatus gave two thousand
+feet, and, what is worse, the lieutenant believed it. Our barometer made
+it one hundred feet; but as our instrument, though perfect in itself,
+behaved _very_ strangely on the Middle Amazon, we do not rely on the
+calculation. The true height is not far from one hundred and twenty-five
+feet, or one fifth the elevation of the middle point in the North
+American continent.[138] Taking on board salt fish, turtle-oil, and
+tiles, we left Ega two hours after midnight, reaching Coary at noon.
+The Amazon began to look more like a lake than a river, having a width
+of four or five miles. Floating gulls and rolling porpoises remind one
+of the sea. Coary is a huddle of fifteen houses, six of them plastered
+without, whitewashed, and tiled. It is situated on a lake of the same
+name--the expanded outlet of a small river whose waters are dark brown,
+and whose banks are low and covered with bushes. Here we took in turtles
+and turtle-oil, Brazil nuts and cocoa-nuts, rubber, salt fish, and wood;
+and, six hours after leaving, more fish and rubber were received at
+Cudaj�. Cudaj� is a lonely spot on the edge of an extensive system of
+back-waters and lakes, running through a dense unexplored forest
+inhabited by M�ra savages.
+
+[Footnote 138: For a discussion of the barometric perturbations on the
+Amazon, see _American Journal of Science_ for Sept., 1868.]
+
+At three in the afternoon of Christmas, seventy-four hours' running time
+from Tabatinga, we entered the Rio Negro. Strong is the contrast between
+its black-dyed waters and the yellow Amazon. The line separating the two
+rivers is sharply drawn, the waters meeting, not mingling. Circular
+patches of the dark waters of the Negro are seen floating like oil amid
+the turbid waters of the Amazon. The sluggish tributary seems to be
+dammed up by the impetuous monarch. The banks of the latter are low,
+ragged, perpendicular beds of clay, covered with a bright green foliage;
+the Negro is fringed with sandy beaches, with hills in the background
+clothed with a sombre, monotonous forest containing few palms or
+leguminous trees. Musquitoes, piums, and montucas never trouble the
+traveler on the inky stream. When seen in a tumbler, the water of the
+Negro is clear, but of a light-red color; due, undoubtedly, to vegetable
+matter. The visible mouth of the river at this season of the year
+(December) is three miles wide, but from main-land to main-land it can
+not be less than twenty.
+
+[Illustration: A Siesta.]
+
+In forty minutes after leaving the Amazon we arrived at Man�os. This
+important city lies on the left bank of the Negro, ten miles from its
+mouth and twenty feet above high-water level. The site is very uneven,
+and consists of ferruginous sandstone. There was originally a fort here,
+erected by the Portuguese to protect their slave-hunting expeditions
+among the Indians on the river--hence the ancient name of Barra. On the
+old map of Father Fritz (1707) the spot is named _Taromas_. Since 1852
+it has been called Man�os, after the most warlike tribe. Some of the
+houses are two-storied, but the majority are low adobe structures, white
+and yellow washed, floored and roofed with tiles, and having green doors
+and shutters. Every room is furnished with hooks for hanging hammocks.
+We did not see a bed between Quito and New York except on the steamers.
+The population, numbering two thousand,[139] is a mongrel
+set--Brazilians, Portuguese, Italians, Jews, Negroes, and Indians, with
+divers crosses between them. Laziness is the prominent characteristic. A
+gentleman offered an Indian passing his door twenty-five cents if he
+would bring him a pitcher of water from the river, only a few rods
+distant. He declined. "But I will give you fifty cents." Whereupon the
+half-clothed, penniless aboriginal replied: "I will give you a dollar to
+bring me some."[140] While every inch of the soil is of exuberant
+fertility, there is always a scarcity of food. It is the dearest spot on
+the Amazon. Most of the essentials and all of the luxuries come from
+Liverpool, Lisbon, and New York. Agriculture is at a discount on the
+Amazon. Brazilians will not work; European immigrants are traders;
+nothing can be done with Indians; and negroes are few in number, the
+slave-trade being abolished, emancipation begun, and the Paraguayan war
+not ended. A laboring class will ever be a desideratum in this tropical
+country. With a healthy climate,[141] and a situation at the juncture
+of two great navigable rivers, Man�os is destined to become the St.
+Louis of South America. In commercial advantages it is hardly to be
+surpassed by any other city in the world, having water communication
+with two thirds of the continent, and also with the Atlantic. It is now
+the principal station for the Brazilian line of steamers. Here all goods
+for a higher or lower point are reshipped. The chief articles of export
+are coffee (of superior quality), sarsaparilla, Brazil nuts, piassaba,
+and fish. The Negro at this point is really five or six miles wide, but
+the opposite shore is masked by low islands, so that it appears to be
+but a mile and a half.
+
+[Footnote 139: Official returns for 1848 give 3614; Bates (1850) reckons
+3000.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Darwin met a similar specimen in Banda Oriental: "I asked
+two men why they did not work. One gravely said the days were too long;
+the other that he was too poor."]
+
+[Footnote 141: It is, however, one of the warmest spots on the river.
+The average temperature, according to Azevedo and Pinto, is only 79.7�;
+but the highest point readied on the Amazon in 1862 (87.3�) was at
+Man�os, and the extraordinary height of 95� has been noted there.]
+
+The country around Man�os is quite romantic for the Amazonian Valley.
+The land is undulating and furrowed by ravines, and the vegetation
+covering it is marvelously rich and diversified. In the forest, two
+miles from the city, there is a natural curiosity celebrated by all
+travelers from Spix and Martius down. A rivulet coming out of the
+wilderness falls over a ledge of red sandstone ten feet high and fifty
+feet broad, forming a beautiful cascade. The water is cool, and of a
+deep orange color. The foundation of a fine stone cathedral was laid in
+Man�os fourteen years ago, but this generation is not likely to witness
+the dedication. Life in this Amazonian city is dull enough: commerce is
+not brisk, and society is stiff; balls are about the only amusements. On
+Sunday (the holiday) every body who can afford it comes out in Paris
+fashions. There are carts, hut no coaches. We called upon the President
+at his "Palace"--an odd term for a two-storied, whitewashed edifice. His
+excellency received us with less formality and more cordiality than we
+expected to find in the solemn officials of the empire. The first glance
+at the reception-room, with the four chairs for visitors set in two
+lines at right angles to the chair of state, promised cold etiquette;
+but he addressed us with considerable familiarity and evident good-will.
+We found, however, that his authority was quite limited, for a written
+order which he gave us for a subordinate did not receive the slightest
+consideration. At the house of a Jew named Levy we met a party of
+Southerners, Captains Mallory, Jones, Sandedge, and Winn, commanded by
+Dr. Dowsing, who, since "the late onpleasantness," as Nasby calls it,
+have determined to settle in this country. The government grants them
+twenty square leagues of land on any tributary, on condition that they
+will colonize it. They were about to start for the Rio Branco on an
+exploring tour.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+     Down the Amazon.--Serpa.--Villa Nova.--Obidos.--Santarem.--A Colony
+     of Southerners.--Monte Al�gre.--Porto do Moz.--Leaving the
+     Amazon.--Breves.--Par� River.--The City of Par�.--Legislation and
+     Currency.--Religion and Education.--Nonpareil Climate.
+
+
+At 10 P.M. we left Man�os in the "Tapajos," an iron steamer of seven
+hundred tons. We missed the snow-white cleanliness and rigid regularity
+of the "Icamiaba," and Captain Jos� Antunes Rodrigues de Oliveira
+Catramby was quite a contrast to Lieutenant Nuno. There were only five
+first-class passengers besides ourselves (and four of these were
+"dead-heads"), though there were accommodations for sixty-four. Between
+Man�os and Par�, a distance of one thousand miles, there were fourteen
+additions. Passing the mouth of the Madeira, the largest tributary to
+the Amazon, we anchored thirty miles below at Serpa, after nine hours'
+sailing. Serpa is a village of ninety houses, built on a high bank of
+variegated clay, whence its Indian name, _Ita-coatiara_, or painted
+rock. It was the most animated place we had seen on the river. The town
+is irregularly laid out and overrun with weeds, but there is a busy tile
+factory, and the port was full of canoes, montarias, and cubertas. The
+African element in the population began to show itself prominently here,
+and increased in importance as we neared Par�. The Negroes are very
+ebony, and are employed as stevedores. The Indians are well-featured,
+and wear a long gown of bark-cloth reaching to the knees.
+
+Taking on board rubber and salt fish, the "Tapajos" steamed down stream,
+passing the perpendicular pink-clay cliffs of Cararauc�, arriving in
+ten hours at Villa Nova,[142] one hundred and fifty miles below Serpa.
+Villa Nova is a straggling village of mud huts standing on a
+conglomerate bank. The trade is chiefly in rubber, copaiba, and fish.
+The location is healthy, and in many respects is one of the most
+desirable places on the river. Here the Amazon begins to narrow, being
+scarcely three miles wide; but the channel, which has a rocky bed, is
+very deep. One hundred miles from Villa Nova is Obidos, airily situated
+on a bluff of pink and yellow clay one hundred feet above the river. The
+clay rests on a white calcareous earth, and this on red sandstone. It is
+a picturesque, substantially-built town, with a population, mostly
+white, engaged in raising cacao and cattle. Cacao is the most valuable
+product on the Amazon below Villa Nova. The soil is fertile, and the
+surrounding forest is alive with monkeys, birds, and insects, and
+abounds with precious woods and fruits. Obidos is blessed with a church,
+a school, and a weekly newspaper, and is defended by thirty-two guns.
+This is the Thermopyl� of the Amazon, the great river contracting to a
+strait not a mile in width, through which it rushes with tremendous
+velocity. The depth is forty fathoms, and the current 2.4 feet per
+second. As Bates remarks, however, the river valley is not contracted to
+this breadth, the southern shore not being continental land, but a low
+alluvial tract subject to inundation. Back of Obidos is an eminence
+which has been named _Mount Agassiz_ in honor of the Naturalist. There
+is no mountain between it and Cotopaxi save the spurs from the Eastern
+Cordillera. Five miles above the town is the mouth of the Trombetas,
+where Orellana had his celebrated fight with the fabulous Amazons.
+
+[Footnote 142: Otherwise called, on Brazilian maps, Villa Bella da
+Imperatriz.]
+
+[Illustration: Santarem.]
+
+Adding to her cargo wood, hides, horses, and Paraguayan prisoners
+(short, athletic men), the "Tapajos" sailed for Santarem. The river
+scenery below Obidos loses its wild and solitary character, and is
+relieved with scattered habitations, factories, and cacao plantations.
+We arrived at Santarem in seven hours from Obidos, a distance of fifty
+miles. This city, the largest on the Amazon save Par�, stands on a
+pretty slope at the mouth of the Rio Tapajos, and five hundred miles
+from the sea.[143] It mainly consists of three long-rows of whitewashed,
+tiled houses, girt with green gardens. The citizens, made up of
+Brazilians, Portuguese, mulattoes, and blacks, number about two thousand
+five hundred. The surrounding country, which is an undulating campo,
+with patches of wood, is sparsely inhabited by Tapajocos. Cattle estates
+and cacao plantations are the great investments, but the soil is poor.
+Considerable sarsaparilla of superior quality, rubber, copaiba, Brazil
+nuts, and farina come down the Tapajos. The climate is delightful, the
+trade-winds tempering the heat and driving away all insect pests.
+Leprosy is somewhat common among the poorer class. At Santarem is one of
+the largest colonies which migrated from the disaffected Gulf States for
+Brazil. One hundred and sixty Southerners pitched their tents here. Many
+of them, however, were soon disgusted with the country, and, if we are
+to believe reports, the country was disgusted with them. On the 1st of
+January, 1868, only seventy-five remained. The colony does not fairly
+represent the United States, being made up in great part of the "roughs"
+of Mobile. A few are contented and are doing well. Amazonia will be
+indebted to them for some valuable ideas. Bates says: "Butter-making is
+unknown in this country; the milk, I was told, was too poor." But these
+Anglo-Saxon immigrants have no difficulty in making butter. Santarem
+sends to Par� for sugar; but the cavaliers of Alabama are proving that
+the sugar-cane grows better than in Louisiana, attaining the height of
+twenty feet, and that it will yield for ten or twelve years without
+transplanting or cultivation. It is not, however, so sweet or juicy as
+the Southern cane. Some of the colonists are making tapioca and casha�a
+or Brazilian rum; others have gone into the pork business; while one,
+Dr. Jones, expects to realize a fortune burning lime. Here we met the
+rebel ex-General Dobbins, who had been prospecting on the Tapajos River,
+but had not yet located himself.
+
+[Footnote 143: Herndon makes Santarem 460 miles from the Negro, and 650
+from the sea. Bates calls it 400 miles from the Atlantic, and nearly 50
+from Obidos.]
+
+Below Santarem the Amazon vastly increases in width; at one point the
+southern shore was invisible from the steamer. The waves often run very
+high. At 10 A.M., eight hours from Santarem, we entered the romantic
+port of Monte Al�gre. The road from the river to the village, just
+visible inland, runs through a pretty dell. Back of the village, beyond
+a low, swampy flat, rise the table-topped blue hills of Almeyrim. It was
+an exhilarating sight and a great relief to gaze upon a mountain range
+from three hundred to one thousand feet high, the greatest elevations
+along the Amazon east of the Andes. Agassiz considers these singular
+mountains the remnants of a plain which once filled the whole valley of
+the Amazon; but Bates believes them to be the southern terminus of the
+high land of Guiana. Their geological constitution--a pebbly
+sandstone--favors the Professor's theory. The range extends ninety miles
+along the north bank of the river, the western limit at Monte Al�gre
+bearing the local name of Serra Erer�. Mount Agassiz, at Obidos, is a
+spur of the same table-land. The Amazon is here about five miles wide,
+the southern shore being low, uninhabited, and covered with coarse
+grass. Five schooners were anchored in the harbor of Monte Al�gre, a
+sign of considerable trade for the Amazon. The place exports cattle,
+cacao, rubber, and fish.
+
+In four hours we reached Prayinha, a dilapidated village of forty
+houses, situated on a low, sandy beach. The chief occupation is the
+manufacture of turtle-oil. In ten hours more we were taking in wood at
+Porto do Moz, situated just within the mouth of the Xing�, the last
+great tributary to the Amazon. Dismal was our farewell sail on the great
+river. With the highlands came foul weather. We were treated to frequent
+and furious showers, accompanied by a violent wind, and the atmosphere
+was filled with smoke caused by numerous fires in the forest. Where the
+Xing� comes in, the Amazon is ten miles wide, but it is soon divided by
+a series of islands, the first of which is Grand Island. Twenty miles
+below Porto do Moz is Gurup�, where we took in rubber. The village,
+nearly as inanimate as Pompeii, consists of one street, half deserted,
+built on an isolated site. Forty miles below Gurup� we left the Amazon
+proper, turning to the right down a narrow channel leading into the
+river Par�. The forest became more luxuriant, the palms especially
+increasing in number and beauty. At one place there was a forest of
+palms, a singularity, for trees of the same order are seldom associated.
+The forest, densely packed and gloomy, stands on very low, flat banks of
+hard river mud. Scarcely a sign of animal life was visible; but, as we
+progressed, dusky faces peered out of the woods; little shanties
+belonging to the _seringeros_, or rubber-makers, here and there broke
+the solitude, and occasionally a large group of half-clad natives
+greeted us from the shore. A labyrinth of channels connects the Amazon
+with the Par�; the steamers usually take the Tajapur�. This natural
+canal is of great depth, and from fifty to one hundred yards in width;
+so that, hemmed in by two green walls, eighty feet-high, we seemed to
+be sailing through a deep gorge; in some places it was so narrow it was
+nearly overarched by the foliage. One hundred and twenty-five miles from
+Gurup� is Breves, a busy little town on the southwest corner of the
+great island of Maraj�. The inhabitants, mostly Portuguese, are engaged
+in the rubber trade; the Indians in the vicinity manufacture fancy
+earthen-ware and painted cuyas or calabashes.
+
+Soon after leaving Breves we entered the Par� River, which suddenly
+begins with the enormous width of eight miles. It is, however, shallow,
+and contains numerous shoals and islands. It is properly an estuary,
+immense volumes of fresh water flowing into it from the south. The tides
+are felt through its entire length of one hundred and sixty miles, but
+the water is only slightly brackish. It has a dingy orange-brown color.
+A narrow blue line on our left, miles away, was all that was visible, at
+times, of the island of Maraj�; and as we passed the broad mouth of the
+Tocant�ns, we were struck with the magnificent sea-like expanse, for
+there was scarcely a point of mainland to be seen.
+
+[Illustration: Par�.]
+
+At 4 P.M., eighteen hours from Breves, we entered the peaceful bay of
+Goajara, and anchored in front of the city of Par�. Beautiful was the
+view of the city from the harbor in the rays of the declining sun. The
+towering spires and cupolas, the palatial government buildings, the long
+row of tall warehouses facing a fleet of schooners, ships, and steamers,
+and pretty white villas in the suburbs, nestling in luxuriant gardens,
+were to us, who had just come down the Andes from medi�val Quito, the
+_ultima thule_ of civilization. We seemed to have stepped at once from
+the Amazon to New York or London. We might, indeed, say _ne plus ultra_
+in one respect--we had crossed the continent, and Par� was the terminus
+of our wanderings, the end of romantic adventures, of privations and
+perils. We were kindly met on the pier by Mr. James Henderson, an
+elderly Scotchman, whom a long residence in Par�, a bottomless fund of
+information, and a readiness to serve an Anglo-Saxon, have made an
+invaluable cicerone. We shot through the devious, narrow streets to the
+Hotel Diana, where we made our toilet, for our habiliments, too, had
+reached their _ultima thule_. As La Condamine said on his arrival at
+Quito: "_Je me trouvai hors d'�tat de paroitre en public avec d�cence_."
+
+The same year which saw Shakspeare carried to his grave beside the Avon
+witnessed the founding of Par�, or, speaking more respectfully, of Santa
+Maria de Bel�m do Gram Par�. The city stands on a low elbow of land
+formed by the junction of the rivers Guam� and Par�, seventy-five miles
+from the ocean. The great forest comes close up to the suburbs; and, in
+fact, vegetation is so rapid the city fathers have a hard struggle to
+keep the jungle out of the streets. The river in front is twenty miles
+wide, but the vast expanse is broken by numerous islets. Ships of any
+size will float within, one hundred and fifty yards of the shore. All
+passengers and goods are landed by boats at the custom-house wharf. The
+city is regularly laid out, there are several public squares, and many
+of the streets, especially in the commercial part, are well paved.
+Magnificent avenues, lined with silk-cotton trees, cocoa-palms, and
+almonds, lead out to beautiful _rocinhas_, or country residences, of one
+story, but having spacious verandas. The President's house, built in the
+Italian style, whose marble staircase is a wonder to Brazil; the six
+large churches, including the cathedral, after patterns from Lisbon; the
+post-office, custom-house, and convent-looking warehouses on the
+mole--these are the most prominent buildings. The architecture is
+superior to that of Quito. The houses, generally two-storied, are
+tiled, plastered, and whitewashed or painted; the popular colors are
+red, yellow, and blue. A few have porcelain facing. The majority have
+elegant balconies and glass windows, but not all the old projecting
+lattice casements have disappeared. Some of the buildings bear the marks
+of the cannonading in the Revolution of 1835. Instead of bedrooms and
+beds, the largest apartments and verandahs have hooks in the wall for
+hammocks. A carpeted, cushioned room is seldom seen, and is out of place
+in the tropics. Coaches and gas are supplanting ox-carts and candles.
+There are two hotels, but scant accommodations for travelers. Beef is
+almost the only meat used; the fish are poor and dear; the oysters are
+horrible. Bananas, oranges, and coffee are the best native productions
+on the table.
+
+[Illustration: Fruit Peddlers.]
+
+The population of Par� is thirty-five thousand, or double what it was
+when Wallace and Bates entered it twenty years ago. It is the largest
+city on the largest river in the world, and the capital of a province
+ten times the size of New York State. The enterprising, wealthy class
+consists of Portuguese and pure Brazilians, with a few English, Germans,
+French, and North Americans. The multitude is an amalgamation of
+Portuguese, Indian, and Negro. The diversity of races, and the mingled
+dialects of the Amazon and Europe, make an attractive street scene. Side
+by side we see the corpulent Brazilian planter, the swarthy Portuguese
+trader, the merry Negro porter, and the apathetic Indian boatman. Some
+of the more recent offspring are dressed _� la Adam_ before the fall;
+numbers wear only a shirt or skirt; the negro girls who go about the
+streets with trays of sweetmeats on their heads are loosely yet prettily
+dressed in pure white, with massive gilded chains and earrings; but the
+middle and upper classes generally follow Paris fashions. The mechanic
+arts are in the hands of free Negroes and Indians, mulattoes and
+mamelucos.[144] Commerce is carried on almost exclusively by Portuguese
+and other foreigners. Dry-goods come chiefly from England and France;
+groceries from Portugal; flour and hardware from the United States. The
+principal exports are rubber, cacao, coffee,[145] sugar, cotton, Brazil
+nuts, sarsaparilla, vanilla, farina, copaiba, tobacco, rum, hides, fish,
+parrots, and monkeys.[146] Par� exceeds in the number of its indigenous
+commodities any other port in the world, but the trade at present is
+insignificant when we consider the vast extent and resources of the
+country. The city can never have a rival at the mouth of the Amazon, and
+is destined to become a great emporium. But Brazilian legislation stands
+in the way. Heavy import duties are charged--from 35 to 45 per cent.;
+and on the 1st of January, 1868, it was ordered that 15 per cent. must
+be paid in English gold. The consequence has been that gold has risen
+from 28 to 30 above par, creating an additional tax. Exportation is
+equally discouraging. There is a duty of nine per cent. to be paid at
+the custom-house, and seven per cent. more at the consulado. But this
+is not the sum total. Those who live outside of the province of Par�,
+say above Obidos, must first pay an import of thirteen per cent. to get
+their produce into Par�. For example: up the river crude rubber can be
+bought for twenty-five cents a pound; the trader pays twenty-five cents
+an arroba (thirty-two pounds) for transportation to Par� from Santarem,
+exclusive of canoe hire and shipping; thirteen per cent. duty in
+entering Par�, ten per cent. to the commission merchant, and sixteen per
+cent. more as export tax; making a total loss on labor of about fifty
+per cent. Brazil abounds with the most valuable woods in the world, but
+is prevented from competing with other nations by this system of
+self-strangulation. In 1867 the import duty on timber was twelve per
+cent. Though situated on the edge of a boundless forest, Par� consumes
+large quantities of North American pine. There is not a grist-mill on
+the Amazon, and only two or three saw-mills. A dozen boards of red cedar
+(a very common timber) costs 60$000 per thousand (about thirty dollars)
+at Santarem. There is no duty on goods going to Peru. The current money,
+besides foreign gold, consists of copper coins and imperial treasury
+notes. The basis of calculation is the imaginary _rey_, equivalent to
+half a mill. The coins in use are the vintem (twenty reys), answering to
+our cent, the half vintem, and double vintem. The currency has so
+fluctuated in value that many of the pieces have been restamped. Fifty
+vintems make a _milrey_, expressed thus: 1$000. This is the smallest
+paper issue. Unfortunately, the notes may suddenly fall below par. As a
+great many counterfeits made in Portugal are in circulation, the
+government recalls the issue which has been counterfeited, notifying
+holders, by the provincial papers, that all such bills must be exchanged
+for a new issue within six months. Those not brought in at the end of
+that period lose ten per cent. of their value, and ten per cent. for
+each following month, until the value of the note is _nil_. The result
+has been that many persons trading up the river have lost heavily, and
+now demand hard money. Change is very scarce in Par�.
+
+[Footnote 144: We are inclined to doubt the assertion of Mansfield that
+Paraguay is the only country in eastern South America with an
+industrious peasantry.]
+
+[Footnote 145: Brazil yields more than one half the quantity of coffee
+consumed by the world. That of Cear� is the best.]
+
+[Footnote 146: In January, 1868, the current prices were as follows:
+
+Refined Sugar, per arroba $3 00
+Rice                       1 40
+Cacao                      3 20
+Coffee                     3 50
+Farina                       75
+Tapioca                    3 00
+Pure rubber               11 50
+Plassaba cord              6 50
+Tobacco                    1 50
+Sarsparilla               11 50
+
+The Brazilian arroba is seven pounds heavier than the Spanish.]
+
+The province of Par� is governed by a president chosen at Rio, and every
+four years sends representatives to the Imperial Parliament. The
+Constitution of Brazil is very liberal; every householder, without
+distinction of race or color, has a vote, and may work his way up to
+high position. There are two drawbacks--the want of intelligence and
+virtue in the people, and the immense staff of officials employed to
+administer the government. There are also many formalities which are not
+only useless, but a hinderance to prosperity. Thus, the internal trade
+of a province carried on by Brazilian subjects is not exempt from the
+passport system. A foreigner finds as much trouble in getting his
+passport _en r�gle_ in Par� as in Vienna. The religion of Par� is
+Romish, and not so tolerant as in Rio. We arrived during _festa_. (When
+did a traveler enter a Portuguese town on any other than a feast day?)
+That night was made hideous with rockets, fire-crackers, cannon, and
+bells. "Music, noise, and fireworks," says Wallace, "are the three
+essentials to please a Brazilian populace." The most celebrated shrine
+in Northern Brazil is Our Lady of Nazareth. The little chapel stands
+about a mile out of the city, and is now rebuilding for the third time.
+The image is a doll about the size of a girl ten years old, wearing a
+silver crown and a dress of blue silk glittering with golden stars.
+Hosts of miracles are attributed to Our Lady, and we were shown votive
+offerings and models of legs, arms, heads, etc., etc., the grateful _in
+memoriam_ of wonderful cures, besides a boat whose crew were saved by
+invoking the protection of Mary. The facilities for education are
+improving. There are several seminaries in Par�, of which the chief is
+the _Lyceo da Capital_. Too many youths, however, as in Quito, are
+satisfied with a little rhetoric and law. The city supports four
+newspapers.
+
+Par�enses may well be proud of their delightful climate. Wallace says
+the thermometer ranges from 74� to 87�; our observation made the mean
+annual temperature 80.2�. The mean daily temperature does not vary more
+than two or three degrees. The climate is more equable than that of any
+other observed part of the New World.[147] The greatest heat is reached
+at two o'clock, but it is never so oppressive as in New York. The
+greater the heat, the stronger the sea-breeze; and in three hundred out
+of three hundred and sixty-five days, the air is farther cooled by an
+afternoon shower. The rainiest month is April; the dryest, October or
+November. Lying in the delta of a great river, in the middle of the
+tropics, and half surrounded by swamps, its salubrity is remarkable. We
+readily excuse the proverb, "_Quem vai para Par� para_" ("He who goes to
+Par� stops there"); and we might have made it good, had we not been
+tempted by the magnificent steamer "South America," which came up from
+Rio on the way to New York. On the moonlit night of the 7th of January,
+when the ice-king had thrown his white robes over the North, we turned
+our backs upon the glimmering lights of Par�, and noiselessly as a canoe
+glided down the great river. As the sun rose for the last time to us
+upon the land of perpetual verdure, our gallant ship was plowing the
+mottled waters on the edge of the ocean--mingled yellow patches of the
+Amazon and dark streaks from the Par� floating on the Atlantic green.
+Far behind us we could see the breakers dashing against the Braganza
+Banks; a moment after Cape Magoary dropped beneath the horizon, and with
+it South America vanished from our view.
+
+[Footnote 147: "The traveler, in going from the equator toward the
+tropics, is less struck by the decrease of the mean annual temperature
+than by the unequal distribution of heat in different parts of the
+year."--_Humboldt_. The great German fixes the mean temperature of the
+equator at 81.5�; Brewster, at 82.8�; Kirwan, 83.9�; Atkinson, 84.5�.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+     The River Amazon.--Its Source and Magnitude.--Tributaries and
+     Tints.--Volume and Current.--Rise and
+     Fall.--Navigation.--Expeditions on the Great River.
+
+
+Near the silver mines of Cerro Pasco, in the little Lake of Lauricocha,
+just below the limit of perpetual winter, rises the "King of
+Waters."[148] For the first five hundred miles it flows northerly, in a
+continuous series of cataracts and rapids, through a deep valley between
+the parallel Cordilleras of Peru. Upon reaching the frontier of Ecuador,
+it turns to the right, and runs easterly two thousand five hundred miles
+across the great equatorial plain of the continent.[149] No other river
+flows in the same latitude, and retains, therefore, the same climatic
+conditions for so great a distance. The breadth of the Amazon, also, is
+well proportioned to its extraordinary length. At Tabatinga, two
+thousand miles above its mouth, it is a mile and a half wide; at the
+entrance of the Madeira, it is three miles; below Santarem, it is ten;
+and if the Par� be considered a part of the great river, it fronts the
+Atlantic one hundred and eighty miles. Brazilians proudly call it the
+Mediterranean of the New World. Its vast expanse, presenting below
+Teff� magnificent reaches, with blank horizons, and forming a barrier
+between different species of animals; its system of back channels,
+joining the tributaries, and linking a series of lagunes too many ever
+to be named; its network of navigable waters stretching over one third
+of the continent; its oceanic fauna--porpoises and manatis, gulls and
+frigate-birds--remind the traveler of a great inland sea, with endless
+ramifications, rather than a river. The side-channels through the
+forest, called by the Indians _igarap�s_, or canoe-paths, are one of the
+characteristic features of the Amazon.[150] They often run to a great
+distance parallel to the great river, and intersecting the tributaries,
+so that one can go from Santarem a thousand miles up the Amazon without
+once entering it. These natural highways will be of immense advantage
+for inter-communication.
+
+[Illustration: Igarap�, or Canoe-path.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Herndon gives, for the altitude of Cerro Pasco, 13,802
+feet; Rivero, 14,279. The lieutenant thus describes his first view from
+the rough hills surrounding this birthplace of the greatest of rivers:
+"I can compare it to nothing so fitly as looking from the broken and
+ragged edges of a volcano into the crater beneath."]
+
+[Footnote 149: From Lauricocha to its mouth, the Amazon, following the
+main curves, is 2740 miles long, as estimated by Bates; in a straight
+line, 2050; from Par� to the head of the Ucayali, 3000. From north to
+south the tributaries stretch 1720 miles.]
+
+[Footnote 150: _Igarap�_ is sometimes limited to a creek filled with
+back-water; _paranamirim_ is the proper term for a narrow arm of the
+main river; and _furos_ are the diminutive mouths of the tributaries.]
+
+But extraordinary as is this network of natural canals, the tributaries
+of the Amazon are still more wonderful. They are so numerous they appear
+on the map like a thousand ribbons streaming from a main mast, and many
+of the obscure affluents, though large as the Hudson, are unknown to
+geography. From three degrees north to twenty degrees south, every river
+that flows down the eastern slope of the Andes is a contributor--as
+though all the rivers between Mexico and Mount Hooker united their
+waters in the Mississippi. While the great river of the northern
+continent drains an area of one million two hundred thousand square
+miles, the Amazon (not including the Tocant�ns) is spread over a million
+more, or over a surface equal to two thirds of all Europe. Let us
+journey around the grand trunk and take a glimpse of the main branches.
+
+The first we meet in going up the left bank is the Rio Negro. It rises
+in the Sierra Tunuhy, an isolated mountain group in the llanos of
+Colombia, and enters the Amazon at Man�os, a thousand miles from the
+sea. The upper part, down to the parallel of one degree north, has a
+very rapid current; at San Gabriel are the first rapids in ascending;
+between San Gabriel and Barcellos the rate is not over two or three
+miles per hour; between Barcellos and Man�os it is a deep but sluggish
+river, and in the annual rise of the Amazon its waters are stagnant for
+several hundred miles up, or actually flow back. Its extreme length is
+twelve hundred miles, and its greatest breadth is at Barcellos, where it
+is twelve or fifteen miles. Excepting this middle section, the usual
+breadth of the Negro below the equatorial line is about one mile. It is
+joined to the Orinoco by the navigable Cassiquiari,[151] a natural canal
+three fourths of a mile wide, and a portage of only two hours divides
+the head of its tributary, the Branco, from the Essequibo of Guiana. The
+Negro yields to commerce coffee, cacao, farina, sarsaparilla, Brazil
+nuts, pitch, piassaba, and valuable woods. The commerce of Brazil with
+Venezuela by the Rio Negro amounted in 1867 to $22,000, of which $9000
+was the value of imports. The principal villages above Man�os are San
+Miguel and Moroa (which contain about fifty dwellings each), Tireguin,
+Barcellos, Toma, San Carlos, Coana, San Gabriel, and Santa Isabel.
+
+[Footnote 151: The Cassiquiari belongs indifferently to both river
+systems, the level being so complete at one point between them as to
+obliterate the line of water-shed.--_Herschel_.]
+
+The next great affluent is the Japur�. It rises in the mountains of New
+Granada, and, flowing southeasterly a thousand miles, enters the Amazon
+opposite Ega, five hundred miles above Man�os. Its principal mouth is
+three hundred feet wide, but it has a host of distributing channels, the
+extremes of which are two hundred miles apart. Its current is only three
+quarters of a mile an hour, and it has been ascended by canoes five
+hundred miles. A natural canal like the Cassiquiari is said to connect
+it with the Orinoco. The products of the Japur� are sarsaparilla,
+copaiba, rubber, cacao, farina, Brazil nuts, moira-pir�nga--a hard,
+fine-grained wood of a rich, cherry-red color--and carajur�, a brilliant
+scarlet dye.
+
+Parallel to the Japur� is the Putumayo or Iss�. Its source is the Lake
+of San Pablo, at the foot of the volcano of Pasto; its mouth, as given
+by Herndon, is half a mile broad, and its current two and three fourths
+miles an hour.
+
+Farther west are the Napo and Pastassa, starting from the volcanoes of
+Quito. The former is nearly seven hundred miles long, navigable five
+hundred. The latter is an unnavigable torrent. One of its branches, the
+Topo, is one continued rapid; "of those who have fallen into it, only
+one has come out alive." Another, the Patate, rises near Iliniza, runs
+through the plain to a little south of Cotopaxi, receives all streams
+flowing from the eastern side of the western Cordillera from Iliniza to
+Chimborazo, and unites near Tunguragua with the Chambo, which rises near
+Sanga�. Castelnau and Bates saw pumice floating on the Amazon; it was
+probably brought from Cotopaxi by the Pastassa.
+
+Crossing the Mara�on, and going eastward, we first pass the Huallaga, a
+rapid river of the size of the Cumberland, coming down the Peruvian
+Andes from an altitude of eight thousand six hundred feet, and entering
+the great river nearly opposite the Pastassa. Its mouth is a mile wide,
+and for a hundred miles up its average depth is three fathoms. In July,
+August, and September the steamers are not able to ascend to Yurimaguas.
+Canoe navigation begins at Tinga Maria, three hundred miles from Lima.
+The fertile plain through which the river flows is very attractive to an
+agriculturist. Cotton is gathered six months after sowing, and rice in
+five months. At Tarapoto a large amount of cotton-cloth is woven for
+export.
+
+The next great tributary from the south is the Ucayali. This magnificent
+stream originates near ancient Cuzco, and has a fall of .87 of a foot
+per mile, and a length nearly equal to that of the Negro. For two
+hundred and fifty miles above its mouth it averages half a mile in
+width, and has a current of three miles an hour. At Sarayacu it is
+twenty feet deep. The Ucayali is navigable for at least seven hundred
+miles. The "Morona," a steamer of five hundred tons, has been up to the
+entrance of the Pachit�a in the dry season, a distance of six hundred
+miles, and in the wet season ascended that branch to Mayro. A small
+Peruvian steamer has recently ascended the Tambo to within sixty miles
+of Fort Ramon, or seven hundred and seventy-three miles from Nauta.
+
+Leaving the Ucayali, we pass by six rivers rising in the unknown lands
+of Northern Bolivia: the Javar�, navigable by steam for two hundred and
+fifty miles; the sluggish Jutah�, half a mile broad and four hundred
+miles long; the Juru�, four times the size of our Connecticut, and
+navigable nearly its entire length; the unhealthy, little-known Teff�
+and Coary; and the Purus, a deep, slow river, over a thousand miles
+long, and open to navigation half way to its source. Soldan and Pinto
+claim to have ascended the Javar�, in a steamer, about one thousand
+miles, and it is said Chandlers went up the Purus one thousand eight
+hundred miles. The Teff� is narrow, with a strong current. Of all these
+six rivers, the Purus is the most important. It is probably the
+Amaru-mayu, or "serpent-river," of the Incas, and its affluents enjoy
+the privilege of draining the waters of those beautiful Andes which
+formed the eastern boundary of the empire of Manco Capac, and
+fertilizing the romantic valley of Paucar-tambo, or "Inn of the Flowery
+Meadow." The banks of this noble stream are now held by the untamable
+Chunchos; but the steam-whistle will accomplish what the rifle can not.
+The Purus communicates with the Madeira, proving the absence of rapids
+and of intervening mountains.
+
+Sixty miles below the confluence of the Negro, the mighty Madeira, the
+largest tributary of the Amazon, blends its milky waters with the turbid
+king of rivers. It is about two thousand miles in length; one branch,
+the Beni, rising near Lake Titicaca, drains the fertile valleys of
+Yungus and Apollo, rich in cinchona, chocolate, and gold; the Marmor�
+springs from the vicinity of Chuquisaca, within fifteen miles of a
+source of the Paraguay, traversing the territory of the brave and
+intelligent Moxos; while the Itinez washes down the gold and diamonds of
+Matto Grosso. Were it not for the cascade four hundred and eighty miles
+from its mouth, large vessels might sail from the Amazon into the very
+heart of Bolivia. When full, it has a three-mile current, and at its
+junction with the Amazon it is two miles wide and sixty-six feet deep.
+Five hundred miles from its mouth it is a mile wide and one hundred feet
+deep. It contains numerous islands, and runs in a comparatively straight
+course. It received its name from the vast quantity of drift-wood often
+seen floating down. The value of Brazilian commerce with Bolivia by the
+Madeira was, in 1867, $43,000.[152]
+
+[Footnote 152: In the map of Friar Fritz, published in 1707, the Madeira
+is one of the most insignificant of the tributaries, and the Ucayali and
+Putumayo are the largest.]
+
+At Santarem the Amazon receives another great tributary, the Tapajos (or
+Rio Preto, as the Portuguese call it), a thousand miles long, and, for
+the last eighty miles, from four to twelve miles in breadth. It rises
+amid the glittering mines of Matto Grosso, only twenty miles from the
+headwaters of the Rio Plata, and flows rapidly down through a
+magnificent hilly country to the last cataract, which is one hundred and
+sixty miles above Santarem, and is the end of navigation to sailing
+vessels. Thence to the Amazon it has little current and no great depth.
+From Santarem to Diamantino it is about twenty-six days' travel. Large
+quantities of sarsaparilla, rubber, tonka beans, mandioca, and guarana
+are brought down this river.
+
+Parallel to the Tapajos, and about two hundred miles distant, flows the
+Xing�. It rises in the heart of the empire, has the length of the Ohio
+and Monongahela, and can be navigated one hundred and fifty miles. This
+is the last great tributary of the Amazon proper; if, however, we
+consider the Par� as only one of the outlets of the great river, we may
+then add to the list the grand Tocant�ns.[153] This splendid river has
+its source in the rich province of Minas (the source, also, of the San
+Francisco and Uruguay), not six hundred miles from Rio Janeiro--a region
+possessing the finest climate in Brazil, and yielding diamonds and
+rubies, the sapphire, topaz and opal, gold, silver, and petroleum. The
+Tocant�ns is sixteen hundred miles long, and ten miles broad at its
+mouth; but, unfortunately, rapids commence one hundred and twenty miles
+above Camet�. The Araguaia, its main branch, is, according to Castelnau,
+one mile wide, with a current of three fourths of a mile an hour.
+
+[Footnote 153: We are inclined to hold, with Bates and others, that the
+Par� River is not, strictly speaking, one of the mouths of the Amazon.
+"It is made to appear so on many of the maps in common use, because the
+channels which connect it with the main river are there given much
+broader than they are in reality, conveying the impression that a large
+body of water finds an outlet from the main river into the Par�. It is
+doubtful, however, if there be any considerable stream of water flowing
+constantly downward through these channels. There is a great contrast in
+general appearance between the Par� and the main Amazon. In the former
+the flow of the tide always creates a strong current upward, while in
+the Amazon the turbid flow of the mighty stream overpowers all tides,
+and produces a constant downward current. The color of the water is
+different; that of the Par� being of a dingy orange-brown, while the
+Amazon has an ochreous or yellowish-clay tint. The forests on their
+banks have a different aspect. On the Par�, the infinitely diversified
+trees seem to rise directly out of the water, the forest-frontage is
+covered with greenery, and wears a placid aspect; while the shores of
+the main Amazon are encumbered with fallen trunks, and are fringed with
+a belt of broad-leaved grasses."--_Naturalist on the Amazon_, i., p.
+3-5.]
+
+Here are six tributaries, all of them superior to any river in Europe,
+outside of Russia, save the Danube, and ten times greater than any
+stream on the west slope of the Andes. While the Arkansas joins the
+Mississippi four hundred miles above New Orleans, the Madeira, of equal
+length, enters the Amazon nine hundred miles from Par�. But, vast as are
+these tributary streams, they seem to make no impression on the Amazon;
+they are lost like brooks in the ocean. Our ideas of the magnitude of
+the great river are wonderfully increased when we see the Madeira coming
+down two thousand miles, yet its enormous contribution imperceptible
+half way across the giant river; or the dark waters of the Negro
+creeping along the shore, and becoming undistinguishable five miles from
+its mouth. Though the Amazon carries a larger amount of sediment than
+any other river, it has no true delta, the archipelago in its mouth
+(for, like our own St. Lawrence, it has its Bay of a Thousand Isles) not
+being an alluvial formation, but having a rocky base. The great island
+of Maraj�, in physical configuration, resembles the mainland of Guiana.
+The deltoid outlet is confined to the tributaries, nearly all of them,
+like "the disembogning Nile," emptying themselves by innumerable
+embouchures. To several tributaries the Amazon gives water before it
+receives their tribute. Thus, by ascending the Negro sixty miles, we
+have the singular spectacle of water pouring in from the Amazon through
+the Guariba Channel.
+
+The waters of this great river system are of divers tints. The Amazon,
+as it leaps from the Andes, and as far down as the Ucayali, is blue,
+passing into a clear olive-green; likewise the Pastassa, Huallaga,
+Tapajos, Xing�, and Tocant�ns. Below the Ucayali it is of a pale,
+yellowish olive; the Madeira,[154] Purus, Juru�, Jutah�, Javar�,
+Ucayali, Napo, I�a, and Japur� are of similar color. The Negro, Coary,
+and Teff� are black. Humboldt observes that "a cooler atmosphere, fewer
+musquitoes, greater salubrity, and absence of crocodiles, as also of
+fish, mark the region of these black rivers." This is not altogether
+true. The Amazon throughout is healthy, being swept by the trade-winds.
+The branches, which are not so constantly refreshed by the ocean
+breezes, are occasionally malarious; the "white-water" tributaries,
+except when they have a slack current in the dry season, have the best
+reputation, while intermittent fevers are nearly confined to the
+dark-colored streams. Much of the sickness on these tropical waters,
+however, is due to exposure and want of proper food rather than to the
+climate. The river system of South America will favorably compare, in
+point of salubrity, with the river system of its continental
+neighbor.[155]
+
+[Footnote 154: The Madeira has often a milky color which it receives
+from the white clay along its banks.]
+
+[Footnote 155: The average temperature of the water in the Lower Amazon
+is 81�, that of the air being a little less. The temperature of the
+Huallaga at Yurimaguas was 75� when the air was 88� in the shade; in
+another experiment both the river and air were 80�. The Mara�on at
+Iquitos was 79� when the air was 90�. At the mouth of the Juru�, Herndon
+found both water and air 82�. In the tropics the difference between the
+temperature of the water and air is proportionally less than in high
+latitudes.]
+
+As we might expect, the volume of the Amazon is beyond all parallel.
+Half a million cubic feet of water pour through the narrows of Obidos
+every second, and fresh water may be taken up from the Atlantic far out
+of sight of land. The fall of the main easterly trunk of the Amazon is
+about six and a half inches per mile, equivalent to a slope of 21'--the
+same as that of the Nile, and one third that of the Mississippi. Below
+Jaen there are thirty cataracts and rapids; at the Pongo de Manseriche,
+at the altitude of 1164 feet (according to Humboldt), it bids adieu to
+mountain scenery. Between Tabatinga and the ocean the average current is
+three miles an hour. It diminishes toward Par�, and is every where at a
+minimum in the dry season; but it always has the "swing" of an ocean
+current.
+
+Though not so rapid as the Mississippi, the Amazon is deeper. There are
+seven fathoms of water at Nauta (2200 miles from the Atlantic), eleven
+at Tabatinga, and twenty-seven on the average below Mand�os.[156]
+
+[Footnote 156: The assertion of the _Ency. Metropolitana_, that "its
+current has great violence and rapidity, and its depth is unfathomable,"
+must be received with some allowance.]
+
+The Amazon and its branches are subject to an annual rise of great
+regularity. It does not take place simultaneously over the whole river,
+but there is a succession of freshets. At the foot of the Andes the rise
+commences in January; at Ega it begins about the end of February.
+Coinciding with this contribution from the west, the October rains on
+the highlands of Bolivia and Brazil swell the southern tributaries,
+whose accumulated floods reach the main stream in February; and the
+latter, unable to discharge the avalanche of waters, inundates a vast
+area, and even crowds up the northern tributaries. As the Madeira,
+Tapajos, and Purus subside, the Negro, fed by the spring rains in Guiana
+and Venezuela, presses downward till the central stream rolls back the
+now sluggish affluents from the south. There is, therefore, a rhythmical
+correspondence in the rise and fall of the arms of the Amazon, so that
+this great fresh-water sea sways alternately north and south; while the
+onward swell in the grand trunk is a progressive undulation eastward. As
+the Cambridge Professor well says: "In this oceanic river the tidal
+action has an annual instead of a daily ebb and flow; it obeys a larger
+orb, and is ruled by the sun and not the moon." As the southern
+affluents have the greatest volume, the Amazon receives its largest
+accession after the sun has been in the southern hemisphere. The rise is
+gradual, increasing to one foot per day. One lowland after another sinks
+beneath the flood; the forest stands up to its middle in the water, and
+shady dells are transformed into navigable creeks.[157] Swarms of
+turtles leave the river for the inland lakes; flocks of wading birds
+migrate to the banks of the Negro and Orinoco to enjoy the cloudless sky
+of the dry season; alligators swim where a short time before the jaguar
+lay in wait for the tapir; and the natives, unable to fish, huddle in
+their villages to spend the "winter of their discontent." The Lower
+Amazon is at its minimum in September or October. The rise above this
+lowest level is between seven and eight fathoms. If we consider the
+average width of the Amazon two miles, we shall have a surface of at
+least five thousand square miles raised fifty feet by the inundation. An
+extraordinary freshet is expected every sixth year.
+
+[Footnote 157: The flooded lands are called _gapos_.]
+
+The Atlantic tide is perceptible at Obidos, four hundred and fifty miles
+above Par�, and Bates observed it up the Tapajos, five hundred and
+thirty miles distant. The tide, however, does not flow up; there is only
+a rising and falling of the waters--the momentary check of the great
+river in its conflict with the ocean. The "bore," or _piror�co_, is a
+colossal wave at spring tide, rising suddenly along the whole width of
+the Amazon to a height of twelve or fifteen feet, and then collapsing
+with a frightful roar.
+
+The Amazon presents an unparalleled extent of water communication. So
+many and far reaching are its tributaries, it touches every country on
+the continent except Chile and Patagonia. South America is well nigh
+quartered by its river system: the Amazon starts within sixty miles of
+the Pacific; the Tapajos and Madeira reach down to the La Plata; while
+the Negro mingles its waters with those of the Orinoco. The tributaries
+also communicate with each other by intersecting canals, so numerous
+that central Amazonia is truly a cluster of islands. Wagons and
+railroads will be out of the question for ages hence in this aquatic
+basin. No other river runs in so deep a channel to so great a distance.
+For two thousand miles from its month there are not less than seven
+fathoms of water. Not a fall interrupts navigation on the main stream
+for two thousand five hundred miles; and it so happens that while the
+current is ever east (for even the ocean can not send up its tide
+against it), there is a constant trade-wind westward, so that navigation
+up or down has always something in its favor. As a general rule, the
+breeze is not so strong during the rise of the river. There are at least
+six thousand miles of navigation for large vessels. It was lately said
+that the Mississippi carries more vessels in a month, and the
+Yang-tse-Kiang in a day, than the Amazon all the year round. But this is
+no longer true. Steamers already ascend regularly to the port of
+Moyabamba, which is less than twenty days' travel from the Pacific
+coast. The Amazon was opened to the world September 7, 1867; and the
+time can not be far distant when the exhaustless wealth of the great
+valley--its timber, fruit, medicinal plants, gums, and dye-stuffs--will
+be emptied by this great highway into the commercial lap of the
+Atlantic; when crowded steamers will plow all these waters--yellow,
+black, and blue--and the sloths and alligators, monkeys and jaguars,
+toucans and turtles, will have a bad time of it.
+
+Officially free to the world, the great river is, however, for the
+present practically closed to foreign shipping, as it is difficult to
+compete with the Brazilian steamers. For, by the contract which lasts
+till 1877, the company is allowed an annual subsidy of $4,000,000, which
+has since been increased by 250 milreys per voyage. In 1867 the steamers
+and sailing vessels on the Amazon were divided as follows, though it
+must be remembered that few of the foreign ships, excepting Portuguese,
+ascended beyond Par�:
+
+Nationality.     No.    Tonnage
+United States    37     39,901-1/2
+Brazil           49     28,639
+England          52     13,276-1/2
+Portugal         24      7,871
+France           18      5,344
+Prussia           4        889-1/2
+Holland           3        538
+Denmark           2        525
+Holstein          3        498
+Norway            1        135
+Spain             1         90
+
+The vessels carrying the stars and stripes exported from Par� to the
+value of 3,235,073$950, or eight times the amount carried by Brazilian
+craft, and 50,000 milreys more than England. While, therefore, the
+Imperial Company has the monopoly of trade on the Amazon, our ships
+distribute one third of the products to the world. The United States is
+the natural commercial partner with Brazil; for not only is New York the
+half-way house between Par� and Liverpool, but a chip thrown into the
+sea at the mouth of the Amazon will float close by Cape Hatteras. The
+official value of exports from Par� in 1867 was 9,926,912$557, or about
+five millions of dollars, an increase of one million over 1866.
+
+The early expeditions into the Valley of the Amazon, in search of the
+"Gilded King," are the most romantic episodes in the history of Spanish
+discovery. To the wild wanderings of these worshipers of gold succeeded
+the more earnest explorations of the Jesuits, those pioneers of
+geographical knowledge. Pinzon discovered the mouth of the river in
+1500; but Orellana, who came down the Napo in 1541, was the first to
+navigate its waters. Twenty years later Aguirre descended from Cuzco; in
+1637, Texeira ascended to Quito by the Napo; Cabrera descended from Peru
+in 1639; Juan de Palacios by the Napo in 1725; La Condamine from Jaen in
+1744, and Madame Godin by the Pastassa in 1769. The principal travelers
+who preceded us in crossing the continent this century were Mawe (1828),
+Poeppig (1831), Smyth (1834), Von Tschudi (1845), Castelnau (1846),
+Herndon and Gibbon (1851), and Marcoy (1867), who came down through
+Peru, and a Spanish commission (Almagro, Spada, Martinez, and Isern),
+who made the Napo transit in 1865. To Spix and Martius (1820), Bates and
+Wallace (1848-1857), Azevedo and Pinto (1862-1864), and Agassiz (1865),
+the world is indebted for the most scientific surveys of the river in
+Brazil.
+
+Such is the Amazon, the mightiest river in the world, rising amid the
+loftiest volcanoes on the globe, and flowing through a forest
+unparalleled in extent. "It only wants (wrote Father Acu�a), in order to
+surpass the Ganges, Euphrates, and the Nile in felicity, that its source
+should be in Paradise." As if one name were not sufficient for its
+grandeur, it has three appellations: Mara�on, Solimoens, and Amazon; the
+first applied to the part in Peru, the second to the portion between
+Tabatinga and Man�os, and the third to all below the Rio Negro.[158] We
+have no proper conception of the vast dimensions of the thousand-armed
+river till we sail for weeks over its broad bosom, beholding it
+sweeping disdainfully by the great Madeira as if its contribution was of
+no account, discharging into the sea one hundred thousand cubic feet of
+water per second more than our Mississippi, rolling its turbid waves
+thousands of miles exactly as it pleases,--plowing a new channel every
+year, with tributaries twenty miles wide, and an island in its mouth
+twice the size of Massachusetts.
+
+[Footnote 158: The upper part of the Mara�on, from its source to Jaen,
+is sometimes called the Tunguragua. Solimoens is now seldom heard; but,
+instead, Middle Amazon, or simply Amazon. The term Alto Amazonas or High
+Amazon is also applied to all above the Negro. Mara�on, says Velasco,
+derives its name from the circumstance that a soldier, sent by Pizarro
+to discover the sources of the Rio Piura, having beheld the mighty
+stream from the neighborhood of Jaen, and, astonished to behold a sea of
+fresh water, exclaimed, _"Hac mare an non?"_ Orellana's pretended fight
+with a nation of female warriors gave rise to the Portuguese name of the
+river, Amazonas (anglicized Amazon), after the mythical women in
+Cappadocia, who are said to have burnt off their right breasts that they
+might use the bow and javelin with more skill and force, and hence their
+name, [Greek: Amazones] from [Greek: a] and [Greek: mazos]. Orellana's
+story probably grew out of the fact that the men wear long tunics, part
+the hair in the middle, and, in certain tribes, alone wear ornaments.
+Some derive the name from the Indian word _amassona_, boat-destroyer.
+The old name, Orellana, after the discoverer, is obsolete, as also the
+Indian term Parana-tinga, or King of Waters. In ordinary conversation it
+is designated as _the_ river, in distinction from its tributaries. "In
+all parts of the world (says Hamboldt), the largest rivers are called by
+those who dwell on their banks, _The River_, without any distinct and
+peculiar appellation."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+     The Valley of the Amazon.--Its Physical
+     Geography.--Geology.--Climate.--Vegetation.
+
+
+From the Atlantic shore to the foot of the Andes, and from the Orinoco
+to the Paraguay, stretches the great Valley of the Amazon. In this vast
+area the United States might be packed without touching its boundaries.
+It could contain the basins of the Mississippi, the Danube, the Nile,
+and the Hoang-Ho. It is girt on three sides by a wall of mountains: on
+the north are the highlands of Guiana and Venezuela; on the west stand
+the Andes; on the south rise the table-lands of Matto Grosso. The valley
+begins at such an altitude, that on the western edge vegetation differs
+as much from the vegetation at Par�, though in the same latitude, as the
+flora of Canada from the flora of the West Indies.
+
+The greater part of the region drained by the Amazon, however, is not a
+valley proper, but an extensive plain. From the mouth of the Napo to the
+ocean, a distance of eighteen hundred miles in a straight line, the
+slope is one foot in five miles.[159] At Coca, on the Napo, the altitude
+is 850 feet, according to our observations; at Tinga Maria. on the
+Huallaga, it is 2200 according to Herndon; at the junction of the Negro
+with the Cassiquiari, it is 400 according to Wallace; at the mouth of
+the Marmor�, it is 800 according to Gibbon; at the Pongo de Manseriche,
+below all rapids, it is 1160 according to Humboldt; and at the junction
+of Araguaia with the Tocant�ns, it is 200 according to Castelnau. These
+barometrical measurements represent the basin of the Amazon as a shallow
+trough lying parallel to the equator, the southern side having double
+the inclination of the northern, and the whole gently sloping eastward.
+Farthermore, the channel of the great river is not in the centre of the
+basin, but lies to the north of it: thus, the hills of Almeyrim rise
+directly from the river, while the first falls on the Tocant�ns, Xing�,
+and Tapajos are nearly two hundred miles above their mouths; the rapids
+of San Gabriel, on the Negro, are one hundred and seventy-five miles
+from the Amazon, while the first obstruction to the navigation of the
+Madeira is a hundred miles farther from the great river.
+
+[Footnote 159: Professor Agassiz gives the average slope as hardly more
+than a foot in ten miles, which is based on the farther assertion that
+the distance from Tabatinga to the sea-shore is more than 2000 miles in
+a straight line. The distance is not 1600, or exactly 1500, from
+Par�.--See _A Journey in Brazil_, p. 349.]
+
+Of the creation of this valley we have already spoken. No region on the
+face of the globe of equal extent has such a monotonous geology. Around
+the rim of the basin are the outcroppings of a cretaceous deposit; this
+rests on the hidden mezozoic and pal�ozoic strata which form the ribs of
+the Andes. Above it, covering the whole basin from New Granada to the
+Argentine Republic,[160] are the following formations: first, a
+stratified accumulation of sand; second, a series of laminated clays, of
+divers colors, without a pebble; third, a fine, compact sandstone;
+fourth, a coarse, porous sandstone, so ferruginous as to resemble bog
+iron-ore. This last was, originally, a thousand feet in thickness, but
+was worn down, _perhaps_, in some sudden escape of the pent-up waters
+of the valley. The table-topped hills of Almeyrim are almost the sole
+relics.[161] Finally, over the undulating surface of the denuded
+sandstone an ochraceous, unstratified sandy clay was deposited.
+
+[Footnote 160: Messrs. Myers and Forbes found this red clay on the
+Negro, most abundantly near Barcellos; also in small quantities on the
+Orinoco above Maipures. The officers of the "Morona" assured us that the
+same formation was traceable far up the Ucayali and Huallaga. This clay
+from the Amazon, as examined microscopically by Prof. H. James Clark,
+contains fragments of gasteropod shells and bivalve casts. The red earth
+of the Pampas, according to Ehrenberg, contains eight fresh-water to one
+salt-water animalcule.]
+
+[Footnote 161: "On the South American coast, where tertiary and
+supra-tertiary beds have been extensively elevated, I repeatedly noticed
+that the uppermost beds were formed of coarser materials than the lower;
+this appears to indicate that, as the sea becomes shallower, the force
+of the waves or currents increased."--Darwin's _Observations_, pt. ii.,
+131. "Nowhere in the Pampas is there any appearance of much superficial
+denudation."--Pt. iii., 100.]
+
+It is a question to what period this great accumulation is to be
+assigned. Humboldt called it "Old Red Sandstone;" Martius pronounced it
+"New Red;" Agassiz says "Drift"--the glacial deposit brought down from
+the Andes and worked over by the melting of the ice which transported
+it.[162] The Professor farther declares that "these deposits are
+fresh-water deposits; they show no sign of a marine origin; no
+sea-shells nor remains of any marine animal have as yet been found
+throughout their whole extent; tertiary deposits have never been
+observed in any part of the Amazonian basin." This was true up to 1867.
+Neither Bates, Wallace, nor Agassiz found any marine fossil on the banks
+of the great river. But there is danger in building a theory on negative
+evidence. These explorers ascended no farther than Tabatinga. Two
+hundred miles west of that fort is the little Peruvian village of Pebas,
+at the confluence of the Ambiyacu. We came down the Napo and Mara�on,
+and stopped at this place. Here we discovered a fossiliferous bed
+intercalated between the variegated clays so peculiar to the Amazon. _It
+was crowded with marine tertiary shells!_ This was Pebas _vs_.
+Cambridge. It was unmistakable proof that the formation was not drift,
+but tertiary; not of fresh, but salt water origin. The species, as
+determined by W.M. Gabb, Esq., of Philadelphia, are: _Neritina pupa,
+Turbonilla minuscula_, _Mesalia Ortoni_, _Tellina Amazonenis_, _Pachydon
+obliqua_, and _P. tenua_.[163] All of these are new forms excepting the
+first, and the last is a new genus. It is a singular fact that the
+_Neritina_ is now living in the West India waters, and the species found
+at Pebas retains its peculiar markings. So that we have some ground for
+the supposition that not many years ago there was a connection between
+the Caribbean Sea and the Upper Amazon; in other words, that Guiana has
+only very lately ceased to be an island. There is no mountain range on
+the water-shed between the Orinoco and the Negro and Japur�, but the
+three rivers are linked by natural canals.[164] Interstratified with the
+clay deposit are seams of a highly bituminous lignite; we traced it from
+near the mouth of the Curaray on the Rio Napo to Loreto on the Mara�on,
+a distance of about four hundred miles. It occurs also at Iquitos. This
+is farther testimony against the glacial theory of the formation of the
+Amazonian Valley. The paucity of shells in such a vast deposit is not
+astonishing. It is as remarkable in the similar accumulation of reddish
+argillaceous earth, called "Pampean mud," which overspreads the Rio
+Plata region.[165] Some of the Pampa shells, like those at Pebas, are
+proper to brackish water, and occur only on the highest banks. The
+Pampean formation is believed by Mr. Darwin to be an estuary or delta
+deposit. We will mention, in this connection, that silicified wood is
+found at the head waters of the Napo; the Indians use it instead of
+flint (which does not occur there) in striking a light. Darwin found
+silicified trees on the same slope of the Andes as the Uspallata Pass.
+
+[Footnote 162: _A Journey in Brazil_, p. 250, 411, 424. Again, in his
+Lecture before the Lowell Institute, 1866: "These deposits could not
+have been made by the sea, nor in a large lake, as they contain no
+marine nor fresh-water fossils."]
+
+[Footnote 163: These interesting fossils are figured and described in
+the _Am. Journal of Conchology_.]
+
+[Footnote 164: "The whole basin between the Orinoco and the Amazon is
+composed of granite and gneiss, slightly covered with d�bris. There is a
+total absence of sedimentary rocks. The surface is often bare and
+destitute of soil, the undulations being only a few feet above or below
+a straight line."--Evan Hopkins, in _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc_., vol. vi.]
+
+[Footnote 165: See Darwin on the absence of extensive modern
+conchiferous deposits in South America, _Geological Observations_, pt.
+iii., ch. v.]
+
+The climatology of the Valley of the Amazon is as simple as its physical
+geography. There is no circle of the seasons as with us--nature moves in
+a straight line. The daily order of the weather is uniform for months.
+There is very little difference between the dry and hot seasons; the
+former, lasting from July to December, is varied with showers, and the
+latter, from January to June, with sunny days, while the daily
+temperature is the same within two or three degrees throughout the year.
+On the water-shed between the Orinoco and Negro it rains throughout the
+year, but most water falls between May and November, the coolest season
+in that region. On the Middle Negro the wet season extends from June 1st
+to December 1st, and is the most sultry time.
+
+Comparatively few insects, birds, or beasts are to be seen in summer;
+but it is the harvest-time of the inhabitants, who spend the glorious
+weather rambling over the plaias and beaches, fishing and
+turtle-hunting. The middle of September is the midsummer of the valley.
+The rainy season, or winter, is ushered in by violent thunder-storms
+from the west. It is then that the woods are eloquent with buzzing
+insects, shrill cicadas, screaming parrots, chattering monkeys, and
+roaring jaguars. The greatest activity of animal and vegetable life is
+in June and July. The heaviest rains fall in April, May, and June.
+Scarcely ever is there a continuous rain for twenty-four hours.
+Castelnau witnessed at Pebas a fall of not less than thirty inches in a
+single storm. The greatest amount noticed in New York during the whole
+month of September was 12.2 inches. The humidity of the atmosphere, as
+likewise the luxuriance of vegetation and the abundance and beauty of
+animal forms, increases from the Atlantic to the Andes. At the foot of
+the Andes, Poeppig found that the most refined sugar in a few days
+dissolved into sirup, and the best gunpowder became liquid even when
+inclosed in canisters. So we found the Napo steaming with vapor. Fogs,
+however, are rarely seen on the Amazon.
+
+The animals and plants are not all simultaneously affected by the change
+of seasons. The trees retain their verdure through the dry _vera[=o]_,
+and have no set time for renewing their foliage. There are a few trees,
+like Mongruba, which drop their leaves at particular seasons; but they
+are so few in number they create the impression of a few dead leaves in
+a thick-growing forest. Leaves are falling and flowers drooping all the
+year round. Each species, and, in some cases, each individual, has its
+own particular autumn and spring. There is no hibernation nor �stivation
+(except by land shells); birds have not one uniform time for
+nidification; and moulting extends from February to May.
+
+Amazonia, though equatorially situated, has a temperate climate. It is
+cooler than Guinea or Guiana. This is owing to the constant evaporation
+from so much submerged land, and the ceaseless trade winds. The mean
+annual temperature of the air is about 81�.[166] The nights are always
+cool. There are no sudden changes, and no fiery "dog days." Venereal and
+cutaneous affections are found among the people; but they spring from an
+irregular life. A traveler on the slow black tributaries may take the
+tertiana, but only after weeks of exposure. Yellow fever and cholera
+seldom ascend the river above Par�; and on the Middle Amazon there are
+neither endemics nor epidemics, though the trades are feebly felt
+there, and the air is stagnant and sultry. According to Bates, swampy
+and weedy places on the Amazon are generally more healthy than dry ones.
+Whatever exceptions be taken to the branches, the main river is
+certainly as healthy as the Mississippi: the rapid current of the water
+and the continual movement of the air maintaining its salubrity. The few
+English residents (Messrs. Hislop, Jeffreys, and Hauxwell), who have
+lived here thirty or forty years, are as fresh and florid as if they had
+never left their native country. The native women preserve their beauty
+until late in life. Great is the contrast between the gloomy winters and
+dusty summers, the chilly springs and frosty autumns of the temperate
+zone, and the perennial beauty of the equator! No traveler on the Amazon
+would exchange what Wallace calls "the magic half-hour after sunset" for
+the long gray twilight of the north. "The man accustomed to this climate
+(wrote Herndon) is ever unwilling to give it up for a more bracing one."
+
+[Footnote 166: Agassiz calls the average temperature 84�, which, it
+seems to us, is too high. The mean between the temperatures of Par�,
+Man�os, and Tabatinga is 80.7�.]
+
+The mineral kingdom is represented only by sand, clay, and loam. The
+solid rock (except the sandstone already mentioned) begins above the
+falls on the tributaries. The precious gems and metals are confined to
+the still higher lands of Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and the slopes of the
+Andes. The soil on the Lower Amazon is sandy; on the Solimoens and
+Mara�on it is a stiff loam or vegetable mould, in many places twenty
+feet deep.
+
+Both in botany and zoology, South America is a natural and
+strongly-marked division, quite as distinct from North America as from
+the Old World; and as there are no transverse barriers, there is a
+remarkable unity in the character of the vegetation. No spot on the
+globe contains so much vegetable matter as the Valley of the Amazon.
+From the grassy steppes of Venezuela to the treeless Pampas of Buenos
+Ayres, expands a sea of verdure, in which we may draw a circle of eleven
+hundred miles in diameter, which shall include an ever green, unbroken
+forest. There is a most bewildering diversity of grand and beautiful
+trees--a wild, unconquered race of vegetable giants, draped, festooned,
+corded, matted, and ribboned with climbing and creeping plants, woody
+and succulent, in endless variety. The exuberance of nature displayed in
+these million square acres of tangled, impenetrable forest offers a bar
+to civilization nearly as great as its sterility in the African deserts.
+A _macheta_ is a necessary predecessor: the moment you land (and it is
+often difficult to get a footing on the bank), you are confronted by a
+wall of vegetation. Lithe lianas, starred with flowers, coil up the
+stately trees, and then hang down like strung jewels; they can be
+counted only by myriads, yet they are mere superfluities. The dense dome
+of green overhead is supported by crowded columns, often branchless for
+eighty feet. The reckless competition among both small and great adds to
+the solemnity and gloom of a tropical forest. Individual struggles with
+individual, and species with species, to monopolize the air, light, and
+soil. In the effort to spread their roots, some of the weaker sort,
+unable to find a footing, climb a powerful neighbor, and let their roots
+dangle in the air; while many a full-grown tree has been lifted up, as
+it were, in the strife, and now stands on the ends of its stilt-like
+roots, so that a man may walk upright between the roots and under the
+trunk.[167]
+
+[Footnote 167: Buttress roots are not peculiar to any one species, but
+common to most of the large trees in the crowded forest, where the
+lateral growth of the roots is made difficult by the multitude of
+rivals. The Paxiuba, or big-bellied palm, is a fine example.]
+
+The mass of the forest on the banks of the great river is composed of
+palms (about thirty species[168]), leguminous or pod-bearing trees,
+colossal nut-trees, broad-leaved Musace� or bananas, and giant grasses.
+The most prominent palms are the architectural Pupunha, or "peach-palm,"
+with spiny stems, drooping, deep green leaves, and bunches of mealy,
+nutritious fruit; the slender Assa�, with a graceful head of delicate
+green plumes; the Ubuss�, with mammoth, undivided fronds; the stiff,
+serrated-leaved Buss�, and gigantic Mirit�. One of the noblest trees of
+the forest is the Massaranduba, or "cow-tree" (_Brosimum
+galactodendron_), often rising one hundred and fifty feet. It is a hard,
+fine-grained, durable timber, and has a red bark, and leathery, fig-like
+foliage. The milk has the consistency of cream, and may be used for tea,
+coffee, or custards. It hardens by exposure, so as to resemble
+gutta-percha. Another interesting tree, and one which yields the chief
+article of export, is the Caucho, or India-rubber tree[169] (_Siphonia
+Brasiliensis_), growing in the lowlands of the Amazon for eighteen
+hundred miles above Par�. It has an erect, tall trunk, from forty to
+eighty feet high, a smooth, gray bark, and thick, glossy leaves. The
+milk resembles thick, yellow cream, and is colored by a dense smoke
+obtained by burning palm-nuts. It is gathered between August and
+December. A man can collect six pounds a day, though this is rarely
+done. It is frequently adulterated with sand. The tree belongs to the
+same apetalous family as our castor-oil and the mandioca; while the tree
+which furnishes the caoutchouc of the East Indies and Africa is a
+species of Ficus, and yields an inferior article to the rubber of
+America. Other characteristic trees are the Mongruba, one of the few
+which shed their foliage before the new leaf-buds expand; the giant
+Sama�ma, or silk-cotton tree (called _huimba_ in Peru); the Calabash, or
+_cuieira_, whose gourd-like fruit furnishes the cups used throughout the
+Amazon; the Itauba, or stone-wood, furnishing ship-timber as durable as
+teak; the red and white Cedar, used for canoes (not coniferous like the
+northern evergreen, but allied to the mahogany); the Jacarand�, or
+rose-wood, resembling our locust; Palo de sangre, one of the most
+valuable woods on the river; Huacap�, a very common timber; Capirona,
+used as fuel on the steamers; and Tauar�, a heavy, close-grained wood,
+the bark of which splits into thin leaves, much used in making
+cigarettes. The Piassaba, a palm yielding a fibre extensively
+manufactured into cables and ropes, and exported to foreign countries
+for brushes and brooms, being singularly elastic, strong, and more
+durable than hemp; and the Moira-pinima, or "tortoise-shell wood," the
+most beautiful wood in all Amazonia, if not in the world, grow on the
+Upper Rio Negro. A small willow represents the great catkin family.
+
+[Footnote 168: Von Martius, in his great work on the Brazilian Palms,
+enumerates in all 582 species.]
+
+[Footnote 169: The Portuguese and Brazilians call it _seringa_, or
+syringe, in which form it is still used extensively, injections forming
+a great feature in the popular system of cures. The tree mentioned above
+yields most of the rubber of commerce, and is considered distinct from
+the species in Guiana, _S. elastica;_ while the rubber from the Upper
+Amazon and Rio Negro comes from the _S. lutea_ and _S. brevifolia_.
+Agassiz puts milk-weed in the same family!]
+
+The valley is as remarkable for the abundance, variety, and value of its
+timber as for any thing else. Within an area of half a mile square,
+Agassiz counted one hundred and seventeen different kinds of woods, many
+of them eminently fitted, by their hardness, tints, and beautiful grain,
+for the finest cabinet-work. Enough palo de sangre or moira-pinima is
+doubtless wasted annually to veneer all the palaces of Europe.
+
+While most of our fruits belong to the rose family, those of the Amazon
+come from the myrtle tribe. The delicious flavor, for which our fruits
+are indebted to centuries of cultivation, is wanting in many of the
+torrid productions. We prefer the sweetness of Pomona in temperate
+climes to her savage beauty in the sunny south. It is a curious fact,
+noticed by Herndon, that nearly all the valuable fruits of the valley
+are inclosed in hard shells or acid pulps. They also reach a larger
+size in advancing westward. The common Brazil nut is the product of one
+of the tallest trees in the forest (_Bertholletia excelsa_). The fruit
+is a hard, round shell, resembling a common ball, which contains from
+twenty to twenty-four nuts. Eighteen months are required for the bud to
+reach maturity. This tree, says Humboldt, offers the most remarkable
+example of high organic development. Akin to it is the Sapucaya or
+"chickens' nuts" (_Lecythis sapucaya_), whose capsule has a natural lid,
+and is called "monkey's drinking-cup." The nuts, about a dozen in
+number, are of irregular shape and much richer than the preceding. But
+they do not find their way to market, because they drop out of the
+capsule as soon as ripe, and are devoured by peccaries and monkeys. The
+most luscious fruit on the Amazon is the atta of Santarem. It has the
+color, taste, and size of the chirimoya; but the rind, which incloses a
+rich, custardly pulp, frosted with sugar, is scaled. Next in rank are
+the melting pine-apples of Par�, and the golden papayas, fully equal to
+those on the western coast. This is the original home of the cacao. It
+grows abundantly in the forests of the upper river, and particularly on
+the banks of the Madeira. The wild nut is smaller but more oily than the
+cultivated. The Amazon is destined to supply the world with the bulk of
+chocolate. The aromatic tonka beans (Cumar�) used in flavoring snuff,
+and the Brazilian nutmegs (Puxiri), inferior to the Ceylon, grow on
+lofty trees on the Negro and Lower Amazon. The Guaran� beans are the
+seeds of a trailing plant; from these the Mauh�s prepare the great
+medicine, on the Amazon, for diarrhoea and intermittent fevers. Its
+active principle, caffeine, is more abundant than in any other
+substance, amounting to 5.07 per cent.; while black tea contains only
+2.13. Coffee, rice, tobacco, and sugar-cane are grown to a limited
+extent. Rio Negro coffee, if put into the market, would probably
+eclipse that of Cear�, the best Brazilian. Wild rice grows abundantly on
+the banks of the rivers and lakes. The cultivated grain is said to yield
+forty fold. Most of the tobacco comes down from the Mara�on and Madeira.
+It is put up in slender rolls from three to six feet long, tapering at
+each end, and wound with palm fibre. The sugar-cane is an exotic from
+Southeastern Asia, but grows well. The first sugar made in the New World
+was by the Dutch in the island of St. Thomas, 1610. Farina is the
+principal farinaceous production of Brazil. The mandioca or cassava
+(_Manihot utilissima_) from which it is made is supposed to be
+indigenous, though it is not found wild. It does not grow at a higher
+altitude than 2000 feet. Life and death are blended in the plant, yet
+every part is useful. The cattle eat the leaves and stalks, while the
+roots are ground into pulp, which, when pressed and baked, forms farina,
+the bread of all classes. The juice is a deadly poison: thirty-five
+drops were sufficient to kill, in six minutes, a negro convicted of
+murder; but it deposits a fine sediment of pure starch that is the
+well-known tapioca; and the juice, when fermented and boiled, forms a
+drink. On the upper waters grow the celebrated coca, a shrub with small,
+light-green leaves, having a bitter, aromatic taste. The powdered
+leaves, mixed with lime, form _ypad�_. This is to Peruvians what opium
+is to the Turk, betel to the Malay, and tobacco to the Yankee. Thirty
+million pounds are annually consumed in South America. It is not,
+however, an opiate, but a powerful stimulant. With it the Indian will
+perform prodigies of labor, traveling days without fatigue or food. Von
+Tschudi considers its moderate consumption wholesome, and instances the
+fact that one coca-chewer attained the good old age of one hundred and
+thirty years; but when used to excess it leads to idiocy. The signs of
+intemperance are an uncertain step, sallow complexion, black-rimmed,
+deeply-sunken eyes, trembling lips, incoherent speech, and stolid
+apathy. Coca played an important part in the religious rights of the
+Incas, and divine honors were paid to it. Even to-day the miners of Peru
+throw a quid of coca against the hard veins of ore, affirming that it
+renders them more easily worked; and the Indians sometimes put coca in
+the mouth of the dead to insure them a welcome in the other world. The
+alkaloid coca�ne was discovered by W�hler.
+
+Flowers are nearly confined to the edges of the dense forest, the banks
+of the rivers and lagunes. There are a greater number of species under
+the equator, but we have brighter colors in the temperate zone. "There
+is grandeur and sublimity in the tropical forest (wrote Wallace, after
+four years of observation), but little of beauty or brilliancy of
+color." Perhaps the finest example of inflorescence in the world is seen
+in the _Victoria Regia_, the magnificent water-lily discovered by
+Sch�mberg in 1837. It inhabits the tranquil waters of the shallow lakes
+which border the Amazon. The leaves are from fifteen to eighteen feet in
+circumference, and will bear up a child twelve years old; the upper part
+is dark, glossy green, the under side violet or crimson. The flowers are
+a foot in diameter, at first pure white, passing, in twenty-four hours,
+through successive hues from rose to bright red. This queen of
+water-plants was dedicated to the Queen whose empire is never at once
+shrouded in night.
+
+[Illustration: Coca-plant.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+     Life within the Great
+     River.--Fishes.--Alligators.--Turtles.--Porpoises and Manat�s.
+
+
+The Amazon is a crowded aquarium, holding representatives of every
+zoological class--infusoria, hydras, fresh-water shells (chiefly
+Ampullaria, Melania, and Unios), aquatic beetles (belonging mostly to
+new genera), fishes, reptiles, water birds, and cetaceans. The abundance
+and variety of fishes are extraordinary; so also are the species. This
+great river is a peculiar ichthyic province, and each part has its
+characteristics. According to Agassiz, the whole river, as well as its
+tributaries, is broken up into numerous distinct fauna.[170] The
+_piraruc�_, or "redfish" (the _Sudis gigas_ of science), is at once the
+largest, most common, and most useful fish. The Peruvian Indians call it
+_payshi_. It is a powerful fish, often measuring eight feet in length
+and five in girth, clad in an ornamental coat-of-mail, its large scales
+being margined with bright red. It ranges from Peru to Par�. It is
+usually taken by the arrow or spear. Salted and dried, the meat will
+keep for a year, and forms, with farina, the staple food on the Amazon.
+The hard, rough tongue is used as a grater. Other fishes most frequently
+seen are the prettily-spotted catfish, Pescada, Piranha, Acar�, which
+carries its young in its mouth, and a long, slender needle-fish. There
+are ganoids in the river, but no sturgeons proper. Pickerel, perch, and
+trout are also wanting. The sting-ray represents the shark family. As a
+whole, the fishes of the Amazon have a marine character peculiarly their
+own.
+
+[Footnote 170: We await the Professor's examination of his "more than
+80,000 specimens" before we give the number of new species.]
+
+The reptilian inhabitants of this inland sea are introduced by numerous
+batrachians, water-snakes (_Heliops_), and anacondas. But alligators
+bear the palm for ugliness, size, and strength. In summer the main river
+swarms with them; in the wet season they retreat to the interior lakes
+and flooded forests. It was for this reason that we did not see an
+alligator on the Napo. At low water they are found above the entrance of
+the Curaray. About Obidos, where many of the pools dry up in the fine
+months, the alligator buries itself in the mud, and sleeps till the
+rainy season returns. "It is scarcely exaggerating to say (writes Bates)
+that the waters of the Solimoens are as well stocked with large
+alligators in the dry season as a ditch in England is in summer with
+tadpoles." There are three or four species in the Amazon. The largest,
+the Jacar�-uass� of the natives, attains a length of twenty feet. The
+Jacar�-tinga is a smaller kind (only five feet long when full grown),
+and has the long, slender muzzle of the extinct teleosaurus. The South
+American alligators are smaller than the crocodiles of the Nile or
+Ganges, and they are also inferior in rank. The head of the Jacar�-uass�
+(the ordinary species) is broad, while the gavial of India has a long,
+narrow muzzle, and that of the Egyptian lizard is oblong. The dentition
+differs: while in the Old World saurian the teeth interlock, so that the
+two jaws are brought close together, the teeth in the upper jaw of the
+Amazonian cayman pass by the lower series outside of them. The latter
+has therefore much less power. It has a ventral cuirass as well as
+dorsal, and it is web-footed, while the crocodile has the toes
+free--another mark of inferiority. Sluggish on land, the alligator is
+very agile in its element. It never attacks man when on his guard, but
+it is cunning enough to know when it may do this with safety. It lays
+its eggs (about twenty) some distance from the river bank, covering them
+with leaves and sticks. They are larger than those of Guayaquil, or
+about four inches long, of an elliptical shape, with a rough, calcareous
+shell. Negro venders sell them cooked in the streets of Par�.
+
+Turtles are, perhaps, the most important product of the Amazon, not
+excepting the piraruc�. The largest and most abundant species is the
+Tortaruga grande. It measures, when full grown, nearly three feet in
+length and two in breadth, and has an oval, smooth, dark-colored shell.
+Every house has a little pond (called _curr�l_) in the back yard to hold
+a stock of turtles through the wet season. It furnishes the best meat on
+the Upper Amazon. We found it very tender, palatable, and wholesome; but
+Bates, who was obliged to live on it for years, says it is very cloying.
+Every part of the creature is turned to account. The entrails are made
+into soup; sausages are made of the stomach; steaks are cut from the
+breast; and the rest is roasted in the shell.[171] The turtle lays its
+eggs (generally between midnight and dawn) on the central and highest
+part of the plaias, or about a hundred feet from the shore. The Indians
+say it will lay only where itself was hatched out. With its hind
+flippers it digs a hole two or three feet deep, and deposits from eighty
+to one hundred and sixty eggs (Gibbon says from one hundred and fifty to
+two hundred). These are covered with sand, and the next comer makes
+another deposit on the top, and so on until the pit is full. Egg-laying
+comes earlier on the Amazon than on the Napo, taking place in August and
+September. The tracaj�, a smaller species, lays in July and August; its
+eggs are smaller and oval, but richer than those of the great turtles.
+
+[Footnote 171: The natives have this notion about the land-tortoise,
+that by throwing it three times over the head, the liver (the best part)
+will be enlarged.]
+
+The mammoth tortoise of the Gal�pagos lays an egg very similar in size
+and shape to that of the Tortaruga, but a month later, or in October.
+The hunting of turtle eggs is a great business on the Amazon. They are
+used chiefly in manufacturing oil (mant�ca) for illumination. Thrown
+into a canoe, they are broken and beaten up by human feet; water is then
+poured in, and the floating oil is skimmed off, purified over the fire
+in copper kettles, and finally put up in three-gallon earthen jars for
+the market. The turtles are caught for the table as they return to the
+river after laying their eggs. To secure them, it suffices to turn them
+over on their backs. The turtles certainly have a hard time of it. The
+alligators and large fishes swallow the young ones by hundreds; jaguars
+pounce upon the full-grown specimens as they crawl over the plaias, and
+vultures and ibises attend the feast. But man is their most formidable
+foe. The destruction of turtle life is incredible. It is calculated that
+fifty millions of eggs are annually destroyed. Thousands of those that
+escape capture in the egg period are collected as soon as hatched and
+devoured, "the remains of yolk in their entrails being considered a
+great delicacy." An unknown number of full-grown turtles are eaten by
+the natives on the banks of the Mara�on and Solimoens and their
+tributaries, while every steamer, schooner, and little craft that
+descends the Amazon is laden with turtles for the tables of Man�os,
+Santarem, and Par�. When we consider, also, that all the mature turtles
+taken are females, we wonder that the race is not well-nigh extinct.
+They are, in fact, rapidly decreasing in numbers. A large turtle which
+twenty years ago could be bought for fifty cents, now commands three
+dollars. One would suppose that the males, being unmolested, would far
+outnumber the other sex, but Bates says "they are immensely less
+numerous than the females." The male turtles, or _Capitaris_, "are
+distinguishable by their much smaller size, more circular shape, and the
+greater length and thickness of their tails." Near the Tapajos we met a
+third species, called _Mat�-mat�_. It has a deeply-keeled carapax,
+beautifully bossed, and a hideous triangular head, having curious,
+lobed, fleshy appendages, and nostrils prolonged into a tube. It is
+supposed to have great virtues as a remedy for rheumatism. But the most
+noticeable feature of the Amazonian fauna, as Agassiz has remarked, is
+the abundance of cetaceans through its whole extent. From the brackish
+estuary of Par� to the clear, cool waters at the base of the Andes,
+these clumsy refugees from the ocean may be seen gamboling and blowing
+as in their native element. Four different kinds of porpoises have been
+seen. A black species lives in the Bay of Maraj�. In the Middle Amazon
+are two distinct porpoises, one flesh-colored;[172] and in the upper
+tributaries is the _Inia Boliviensis_, resembling, but specifically
+different from the sea-dolphin and the soosoo of the Ganges. "It was
+several years (says the Naturalist on the Amazon) before I could induce
+a fisherman to harpoon dolphins (_Boutos_) for me as specimens, for no
+one ever kills these animals voluntarily; the superstitious people
+believe that blindness would result from the use of the oil in lamps."
+The herbivorous manati (already mentioned, Chap. XV.) is found
+throughout the great river. It differs slightly from the Atlantic
+species. It rarely measures over twelve feet in length. It is taken by
+the harpoon or nets of chambiri twine. Both Herndon and Gibbon mention
+seals as occurring in the Peruvian tributaries; but we saw none, neither
+did Bates, Agassiz, or Edwards. They probably meant the manati.
+
+[Footnote 172: _Dephinus pallidus_. Bates observed this species at Villa
+Nova; we saw it at Coary, 500 miles west; and Herndon found it in the
+Huallaga.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+     Life around the Great River.--Insects.--Reptiles.--Birds.--Mammals.
+
+
+The forest of the Amazon is less full of life than the river. Beasts,
+birds, and reptiles are exceedingly scarce; still there is, in fact, a
+great variety, but they are widely scattered and very shy. In the
+animal, as in the vegetable kingdom, diversity is the law; there is a
+great paucity of individuals compared with the species.[173] Insects are
+rare in the dense forest; they are almost confined to the more open
+country along the banks of the rivers. Ants are perhaps the most
+numerous. There is one species over an inch long. But the most
+prominent, by their immense numbers, are the dreaded sa�bas. Well-beaten
+paths branch off in every direction through the forest, on which broad
+columns may be seen marching to and fro, each bearing vertically a
+circular piece of leaf. Unfortunately they prefer cultivated trees,
+especially the coffee and orange. They are also given to plundering
+provisions; in a single night they will carry off bushels of farina.
+They are of a light red color, with powerful jaws. In every formicarium
+or ant colony there are three sets of individuals--males, females, and
+workers; but the sa�bas have the singularity of possessing three classes
+of workers. The light-colored mounds often met in the forest, sometimes
+measuring forty feet in diameter by two feet in height, are the domes
+which overlie the entrances to the vast subterranean galleries of the
+sa�ba ants. These ants are eaten by the Rio Negro Indians, and esteemed
+a luxury; while the Tapajos tribes use them to season their mandioca
+sauce. Akin to the vegetable-feeding sa�bas are the carnivorous ecitons,
+or foraging ants, of which Bates found ten distinct species. They hunt
+for prey in large organized armies, almost every species having its own
+special manner of marching and hunting. Fortunately the ecitons choose
+the thickest part of the forest. The fire-ant is the great plague on the
+Tapajos. It is small, and of a shiny reddish color; but its sting is
+very painful, and it disputes every fragment of food with the
+inhabitants. All eatables and hammocks have to be hung by cords smeared
+with copaiba balsam.
+
+[Footnote 173: Amazonia is divided into four distinct zoological
+districts: those of Ecuador, Peru, Guiana, and Brazil; the limits being
+the Amazon, Madeira, and Negro. The species found on one side of these
+rivers are seldom found on the other.]
+
+The traveler on the Amazon frequently meets with conical hillocks of
+compact earth, from three to five feet high, from which radiate narrow
+covered galleries or arcades. The architects of these wonderful
+structures are the termites, or "white ants," so called, though they
+belong to a higher order of insects, widely differing from the true
+ants. The only thing in common is the principle of division of labor.
+The termite neuters are subdivided into two classes, soldiers and
+workers, both wingless and blind. Their great enemy is the ant-eater;
+but it is a singular fact, noticed by Bates, that the soldiers only
+attach themselves to the long worm-like tongue of this animal, so that
+the workers, on whom the prosperity of the termitarum depends, are saved
+by the self-sacrifice of the fighting caste. The office of the termites
+in the tropics seems to be to hasten the decomposition of decaying
+vegetation. But they also work their way into houses, trunks, wardrobes,
+and libraries. "It is principally owing to their destructiveness" (wrote
+Humboldt) "that it is so rare to find papers in tropical America older
+than fifty or sixty years."
+
+Dragon-flies are conspicuous specimens of insect life on the Amazon. The
+largest and most brilliant kinds are found by the shady brooks and
+creeks in the recesses of the forest, some of them with green or crimson
+bodies seven inches long, and their elegant lace-like wings tipped with
+white or yellow. Still more noticeable are the butterflies. There is a
+vast number of genera and species, and great beauty of dress, unequaled
+in the temperate zone. Some idea of the diversity is conveyed by the
+fact mentioned by Mr. Bates that about 700 species are found within an
+hour's walk of Par�, and 550 at Ega; while the total number found in the
+British Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports
+only 300. After a shower in the dry season the butterflies appear in
+fluttering clouds (for they live in societies), white, yellow, red,
+green, purple, black, and blue, many of them bordered with metallic
+lines and spots of a silvery or golden lustre. The sulphur-yellow and
+orange-colored kinds predominate. A colossal morpho, seven and a half
+inches in expanse, and visible a quarter of a mile off, frequents the
+shady glades; splendid swallow-tailed papilios, green, rose, or
+velvety-black, are seen only in the thickets; while the _Hetaira
+esmeralda_, with transparent wings, having one spot of a violet hue, as
+it flies over the dead leaves in the dense forest looks "like a
+wandering petal of a flower." Very abundant is the _Heliconius_, which
+plays such an important figure, by its variations, in Wallace's theory
+of the origin of species. On the Mara�on we found _Callidryas eubule_, a
+yellow butterfly common in Florida. The most brilliant butterflies are
+found on the Middle Amazon, out of reach of the strong trade winds. The
+males far outnumber the other sex, are more richly colored, and
+generally lead a sunshiny life.
+
+The females are of dull hues, and spend their lives in the gloomy
+shadows of the forest. Caterpillars and nocturnal moths are rare.
+
+There are no true hive-bees (_Apides_) in South America,[174] but
+instead there are about one hundred and fifty species of bees (mostly
+social _Moliponas_), smaller than the European, stingless, and
+constructing oblong cells. Their colonies are much larger than those of
+the honey-bee. The _Trigona_ occurs on the Napo. Unlike the _Melipona_,
+it is not confined to the New World. A large sooty-black Bombus
+represents our humble-bee. Shrill cicadas, blood-thirsty mantucas,
+piums, punkies, and musquitoes are always associated in the traveler's
+memory with the glorious river. Of the last there are several kinds.
+"The forest musquito belongs to a different species from that of the
+town, being much larger and having transparent wings. It is a little
+cloud that one carries about his person every step on a woodland ramble,
+and their hum is so loud that it prevents one hearing well the notes of
+birds. The town musquito has opaque, speckled wings, a less severe
+sting, and a silent way of going to work. The inhabitants ought to be
+thankful the big noisy fellows never come out of the forest" (Bates,
+ii., 386). There are few musquitoes below Ega; above that point a
+musquito net is indispensable. Beetles abound, particularly in shady
+places, and are of all sizes, from that of a pin's head to several
+inches in length. The most noticeable are the gigantic _Megalosoma_ and
+_Enema_, armed with horns. Very few are carnivorous. "This is the more
+remarkable," observes Darwin, "when compared to the case of carnivorous
+quadrupeds, which are so abundant in hot countries." Very few are
+terrestrial, even the carnivorous species being found clinging to
+branches and leaves. In going from the pole to the equator we find that
+insect life increases in the same proportion as vegetable life. There is
+not a single beetle on Melville Island; eleven species are found in
+Greenland; in England, 2500; in Brazil, 8000. Here lives the king of
+spiders, the _Mygale Blondii_, a monstrous hairy fellow, five inches
+long, of a brown color, with yellowish lines along its stout legs. Its
+abode is a slanting subterranean gallery about two feet in length, the
+sides of which are beautifully lined with silk. Other spiders barricade
+the walks in the forest with invisible threads; some build nests in the
+trees and attack birds; others again spin a closely-woven web,
+resembling fine muslin, under the thatched roofs of the houses.
+
+[Footnote 174: The honey-bee of Europe was introduced into South America
+in 1845.]
+
+Of land vertebrates, lizards are the first to attract the attention of
+the traveler on the equator. Great in number and variety, they are met
+every where--crawling up the walls of buildings, scampering over the
+hot, dusty roads, gliding through the forest. They stand up on their
+legs, carry their tails cocked up in the air, and run with the activity
+of a warm-blooded animal. It is almost impossible to catch them. Some of
+them are far from being the unpleasant-looking animals many people
+imagine; but in their coats of many colors, green, gray, brown, and
+yellow, they may be pronounced beautiful. Others, however, have a
+repulsive aspect, and are a yard in length. The iguana, peculiar to the
+New World tropics, is covered with minute green scales handed with brown
+(though it changes its color like the chameleon), and has a serrated
+back and gular pouch. It grows to the length of five feet, and is
+arboreal. Its white flesh, and its oblong, oily eggs, arc considered
+great delicacies. We heard of a lady who kept one as a pet. Frogs and
+toads, the chief musicians in the Amazonian forest, are of all sizes,
+from an inch to a foot in diameter. The _Bufo gigas_ is of a dull gray
+color, and is covered with warts. Tree-frogs (_Hyla_) are very
+abundant; they do not occur on the Andes or on the Pacific coast. Their
+quack-quack, drum-drum, hoo-hoo, is one of our pleasant memories of
+South America. Of snakes there is no lack; and yet they are not so
+numerous as imagination would make them. There are one hundred and fifty
+species in South America, or one half as many, on the same area, as in
+the East Indies. The diabolical family is led by the boa, while the rear
+is brought up by the Amphisb�nas, or "double-headed snakes," which
+progress equally well with either end forward, so that it is difficult
+to make head or tail of them. The majority are harmless. The deadly
+cor�l is found on both sides of the Andes, and wherever there is a cacao
+plantation. One of the most beautiful specimens of the venomous kind is
+a new species (_Elaps imperator_, Cope), which we discovered on the
+Mara�on. It has a slender body more than two feet in length, with black
+and red bands margined with yellow, and a black and yellow head, with
+permanently erect fangs.
+
+[Illustration: Iguana.]
+
+We have already mentioned the most common birds. Probably, says Wallace,
+no country in the world contains a greater variety of birds than the
+Amazonian Valley. But the number does not equal the expectations of the
+traveler; he may ramble a whole day without meeting one. The rarity,
+however, is more apparent than real; we forget, for the moment, the
+vastness of their dwelling-place. The birds of the country, moreover,
+are gregarious, so that a locality may be deserted and silent at one
+time and swarming with them at another. Parrots and toucans are the most
+characteristic groups. To the former belong true parrots, parroquets,
+and macaws. The first are rarely seen walking, but are rapid flyers and
+expert climbers. On the trees they are social as monkeys, but in flight
+they always go in pairs. The parroquets go in flocks. The Hyacinthine
+macaw (the Araruna of the natives) is one of the finest and rarest
+species of the parrot family. It is found only on the south side of the
+Amazon. The macaw was considered sacred by the Maya Indians of Yucatan,
+and dedicated to the sun. The Quichuans call it guacamayo, guaca meaning
+sacred. Of toucans there are many species; the largest is the toco, with
+a beak shaped like a banana; the most beautiful are the curb-crested, or
+Beauharnais toucans, and the _P. flavirostris_, whose breast is adorned
+with broad belts of red, crimson, and black. "Wherefore such a beak?"
+every naturalist has asked; but the toucan still wags his head, as much
+as to say, "you can not tell." There must be some other reason than
+adaptation. Birds of the same habits are found beside it--the ibis,
+pigeon, spoonbill, and toucan are seen feeding together. "How
+astonishing are the freaks and fancies of Nature! (wrote the funny
+Sidney Smith). To what purpose, we say, is a bird placed in the woods of
+Cayenne with a bill a yard long, making a noise like a puppy-dog, and
+laying eggs in hollow trees? The toucan, to be sure, might retort, to
+what purpose are certain foolish, prating members of Parliament created,
+pestering the House of Commons with their ignorance and folly, and
+impeding the business of the country? There is no end to such questions;
+so we will not enter into the metaphysics of the toucan."
+
+[Illustration: Toucans.]
+
+On the flooded islands of the Negro and Upper Amazon is found the rare
+and curious umbrella bird, black as a crow, and decorated with a crest
+of hairy plumes and a long lobe suspended from the neck, covered with
+glossy blue feathers. This latter appendage is connected with the vocal
+organs, and assists the bird in producing its deep, loud, and lengthy
+fluty note. There are three species. Another rare bird is the Uruponga,
+or Campan�ro, in English the tolling-bell bird, found only on the
+borders of Guiana. It is of the size of our jay, of a pure white color,
+with a black tubercle on the upper side of the bill. "Orpheus himself
+(says Waterton) would drop his lute to listen to him, so sweet, so
+novel, and romantic is the toll of the pretty, snow-white Campan�ro."
+"The Campan�ro may be heard three miles! (echoes Sidney Smith). This
+single little bird being more powerful than the belfry of a cathedral
+ringing for a new dean! It is impossible to contradict a gentleman who
+has been in the forests of Cayenne, but we are determined, as soon as a
+Campan�ro is brought to England, to make him toll in a public place, and
+have the distance measured."[175] But the most remarkable songster of
+the Amazonian forest is the Realejo, or organ-bird. Its notes are as
+musical as the flageolet. It is the only songster, says Bates, which
+makes any impression on the natives. Besides those are the Jacamars,
+peculiar to equatorial America, stupid, but of the most beautiful
+golden, bronze, and steel colors; sulky Trogons, with glossy green backs
+and rose-colored breasts; long-toed Ja�anas, half wader, half fowl; the
+rich, velvety purple and black _Rhamphocoelus Jacapa_, having an immense
+range from Archidona to Par�; the gallinaceous yet arboreal Ciganas;
+scarlet ibises, smaller, but more beautiful than their sacred cousins of
+the Nile; stilted flamingoes, whose awkwardness is atoned for by their
+brilliant red plumage; glossy black Mutums, or curassow turkeys; ghostly
+storks, white egrets, ash-colored herons, black ducks, barbets,
+kingfishers, sandpipers, gulls, plovers, woodpeckers, oreoles; tanagers,
+essentially a South American family, and, excepting three or four
+species, found only east of the Andes; wagtails, finches, thrushes,
+doves, and hummers. The last, "by western Indians _living sunbeams_
+named," are few, and not to be compared with the swarms in the Andean
+valleys. The birds of the Amazon have no uniform time for breeding. The
+majority, however, build their nests between September and New Year's,
+and rarely lay more than two eggs.
+
+[Footnote 175: Review of Waterton's _Wanderings in South America_.]
+
+[Illustration: Brazilian Hummers.]
+
+[Illustration: Capybara]
+
+Amazonia, like Australia, is poor in terrestrial mammals, and the
+species are of small size. Nearly the only game a hunter can depend upon
+for food, besides toucans and macaws, is peccari. One species of tapir,
+to represent the elephants and rhinoceroses of the Old World; three
+small species of deer, taking the places of deer, antelopes, buffaloes,
+sheep, and goats of the other continent; three species of large Felid�;
+one peccari, and a wild dog, with opossums, ant-eaters, armadilloes,
+sloths, squirrels (the only rodents which approach ours),[176]
+capybaras, pacas, agoutis, and monkeys, comprise all the quadrupeds of
+equatorial America. The last two are the most numerous. Marsupial rats
+take the place of the insectivorous mammals. Of ant-eaters, there are at
+least four distinct species; but they are scattered sparingly, and are
+seldom found on the low flooded lands. Four or five species of
+armadillo inhabit the valley. These little nocturnal burrowing edentates
+are the puny representatives of the gigantic Glyptodon of Pleistocene
+times, and the sloths are the dwindling shadows of the lordly
+Megatherium. There are two species of three-toed sloths--one inhabiting
+the swampy lowlands, the other confined to the terra-firma land. They
+lead a lonely life, never in groups, harmless and frugal as a hermit.
+They have four stomachs, but not the long intestines of ruminating
+animals. They feed chiefly on the leaves of the trumpet-tree
+(_Cecropia_), resembling our horse-chestnut. The natives, both Indian
+and Brazilian, hold the common opinion that the sloth is the type of
+laziness. The capybara or ronsoco, the largest of living rodents, is
+quite common on the river side. It is gregarious and amphibious, and
+resembles a mammoth guinea-pig. Pacas and agoutis are most abundant in
+the lowlands, and are nocturnal. These semi-hoofed rodents, like the
+Toxodon of old, approach the Pachyderms. The tapir, or gran-bestia, as
+it is called, is a characteristic quadruped of South America. It is a
+clumsy-looking animal, with a tough hide of an iron-gray color, covered
+with a coat of short coarse hair. Its flesh is dry, but very palatable.
+It has a less powerful proboscis than the Malay species. M. Roulin
+distinguishes another species from the mountains, which more nearly
+resembles the Asiatic. The tapir, like the condor, for an unknown
+reason, is not found north of 8� N., though it wanders as far south as
+40�. We met but one species of peccari, the white-lipped (_D.
+labiatus_). It is much larger than the "Mexican hog," and, too
+thick-headed to understand danger, is a formidable antagonist. The
+raposa is seen only on the Middle Amazon, and very rarely there. It has
+a long tapering muzzle, small ears, bushy tail, and grayish hair. It
+takes to the water, for the one we saw at Tabatinga was caught while
+crossing the Amazon. Fawn-colored pumas, spotted jaguars, black tigers,
+tiger-cats--all members of the graceful feline family--inhabit all parts
+of the valley, but are seldom seen. The puma, or panther, is more common
+on the Pacific side of the Andes. The jaguar[177] is the fiercest and
+most powerful animal in South America. It is marked like the
+leopard--roses of black spots on a yellowish ground; but they are
+angular instead of rounded, and have a central dot. There are also
+several black streaks across the breast, which easily distinguish it
+from its transatlantic representative. It is also longer than the
+leopard; indeed, Humboldt says he saw a jaguar "whose length surpassed
+that of any of the tigers of India which he had seen in the collections
+of Europe." The jaguar frequents the borders of the rivers and lagunes,
+and its common prey is the capybara. It fears the peccari. The night air
+is alive with bats of many species, the most prominent one being the
+_Dysopes perotis_, which measures two feet from tip to tip of the wings.
+If these Cheiropters are as impish as they look, and as blood-thirsty as
+some travelers report, it is singular that Bates and Waterton, though
+residing for years in the country, and ourselves, though sleeping for
+months unprotected, were unmolested.
+
+[Footnote 176: Large rats abound on the Marna�on, but they are not
+American.]
+
+[Footnote 177: The Tupi word for dog is _yaguara_, and for wolf,
+_yagua-men_, or old dog.]
+
+[Illustration: Jaguar.]
+
+About forty species of monkeys, or one half of the New World forms,
+inhabit the Valley of the Amazon. Wallace, in a residence of four years,
+saw twenty-one species--seven with prehensile and fourteen with
+non-prehensile tails. They all differ from the apes of the other
+hemisphere. While those of Africa and Asia (Europe has only one) have
+opposable thumbs on the fore feet as well as hind, uniformly ten molar
+teeth in each jaw, as in man, and generally cheek-pouches and naked
+collosities, the American monkeys arc destitute of the two latter
+characteristics. None of them are terrestrial, like the baboon; all
+(save the marmosets) have twenty-four molars; the thumbs of the
+fore-hands are not habitually opposed to the fingers (one genus, Ateles,
+"the imperfect," is thumbless altogether); the nostrils open on the
+sides of the nose instead of beneath it, as in the gorilla, and the
+majority have long prehensile tails. They are inferior in rank to the
+anthropoids of the Old World, though superior to the lemurs of
+Madagascar. They are usually grouped in two families--Marmosets and
+Cebidre. The former are restless, timid, squirrel-like lilliputs (one
+species is only seven inches long), with tails not prehensile--in the
+case of the scarlet-faced, nearly wanting. The Barigudos, or gluttons
+(_Lagothrix_), are the largest of American monkeys, but are not so tall
+as the Coaitas. They are found west of Man�os. They have more human
+features than the other monkeys, and, with their woolly gray fur,
+resemble an old negro. There are three kinds of howlers (_Mycetes_)--the
+red or mono-colorado of Humboldt, the black, and the _M. beelzebub_,
+found only near Par�. The forest is full of these surly, untamable
+guaribas, as the natives call them. They are gifted with a voice of
+tremendous power and volume, with which they make night and day hideous.
+They represent the baboons of the Old World in disposition and facial
+angle (30�), and the gibbons in their yells and gregarious habits.[178]
+The Sapajous (_Cebus_) are distributed throughout Brazil, and have the
+reputation of being the most mischievous monkeys in the country. On the
+west coast of South America there are at least three or four species of
+monkeys, among them a black howler and a _Cebus capucinus_. The Coitas,
+or spider-monkeys, are the highest of American quadrumana. They are
+slender-legged, sluggish, and thumbless, with a most perfectly
+prehensile tail, terminating in a naked palm, which answers for a fifth
+hand. The Indians say they walk under the limbs like the sloth. They are
+the most common pets in Brazil, but they refuse to breed in captivity.
+Both Coitas and Barigudos are much persecuted for their flesh, which is
+highly esteemed by the Indians.
+
+[Footnote 178: R�timeyer has found a fossil howler in the Swiss
+Jura--middle cocene.]
+
+Mr. Bates has called our attention to the arboreal character of a large
+share of the animals in the Amazonian forest. All the monkeys and bats
+are climbers, and live in the trees. Nearly all the carnivores are
+feline, and are therefore tree-mounters, though they lead a terrestrial
+life. The plantigrade Cercoleptes has a long tail, and is entirely
+arboreal. Of the edentates, the sloth can do nothing on the ground. The
+gallinaceous birds, as the cigana and curassow--the pheasant and turkey
+of the Amazon--perch on the trees, while the great number of arboreal
+frogs and beetles is an additional proof of the adaptation of the fauna
+to a forest region. Even the epiphytous plants sitting on the branches
+suggest this arboreal feature in animal life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+     Life around the Great River.--Origin of the Red Man.--General
+     Characteristics of the Amazonian Indians.--Their Languages,
+     Costumes, and Habitations.--Principal Tribes.--Mixed
+     Breeds.--Brazilians and Brazil.
+
+
+We come now to the genus Homo. Man makes a very insignificant figure in
+the vast solitudes of the Amazon. Between Man�os and Par�, the most
+densely-peopled part of the valley, there is only one man to every four
+square miles; and the native race takes a low place in the scale of
+humanity. As the western continent is geologically more primitive than
+the eastern, and as the brute creation is also inferior in rank, so the
+American man, in point of progress, seems to stand in the rear of the
+Old World races. Both the geology and zoology of the continent were
+arrested in their development. Vegetable life alone has been favored.
+"The aboriginal American (wrote Von Martius) is at once in the
+incapacity of infancy and unpliancy of old age; he unites the opposite
+poles of intellectual life."[179]
+
+[Footnote 179: "I think I discover in the Americans (said Humboldt) the
+descendants of a rare which, early separated from the rest of mankind,
+has followed up for a series of years a peculiar road in the unfolding
+of its intellectual faculties and its tendency toward civilization." The
+South American Indian seems to have a natural aptitude for the arts of
+civilized life not found in the red men of our continent.]
+
+We will not touch the debatable ground of the red man's origin, nor
+inquire whether he is the last remains of a people once high in
+civilization. But we are tempted to express the full belief that
+tropical America is not his "centre of creation." He is not the true
+child of the tropics; and he lives as a stranger, far less fitted for
+its climate than the Negro or Caucasian. Yet a little while, and the
+race will be as extinct as the Dodo. He has not the supple organization
+of the European, enabling him to accommodate himself to diverse
+conditions. Among the Andean tribes there are seldom over five children,
+generally but one, in a family; and Bates, speaking of Brazilian
+Indians, says "their fecundity is of a low degree, and it is very rare
+to find a family having so many as four children."[180]
+
+[Footnote 180: We do not infer, however, from this fact alone, that the
+race is exotic, for the Negroes of Central Africa multiply very slowly.]
+
+While it is probable that Mexico was peopled from the north, it is very
+certain that the Tupi and Guarani, the long-headed hordes that occupied
+eastern South America, came up from the south, moving from the Paraguay
+to the banks of the Orinoco. From the Tupi nation (perhaps a branch of
+the Guarani) sprung the multitudinous tribes now dwelling in the vast
+valley of the Amazon. In such a country--unbroken by a mountain, uniform
+in climate--we need not look for great diversity. The general characters
+are these: skin of a brown color, with yellowish tinge, often nearly the
+tint of mahogany; thick, straight, black hair; black, horizontal eyes;
+low forehead, somewhat compensated by its breadth; beardless; of the
+middle height, but thick-set; broad, muscular chest; small hands and
+feet; incurious; unambitious; impassive; undemonstrative; with a dull
+imagination and little superstition; with no definite idea of a Supreme
+Being, few tribes having a name for God, though one for the "Demon;"
+with no belief in a future state; and, excepting civility, with virtues
+all negative. The semi-civilized along the Lower Amazon, called
+_Tupuyos_, seem to have lost (in the language of Wallace) the good
+qualities of savage life, and gained only the vices of civilization.
+
+There are several hundred different tribes in Amazonia, each having a
+different language; even the scattered members of the same tribe can not
+understand each other.[181] This segregation of dialects is due in great
+part to the inflexibility of Indian character, and his isolated and
+narrow round of thought and life. When and where the Babel existed,
+whence the many branches of the great Tupi family separated, we know
+not. We only know that though different in words, these languages have
+the same grammatical construction. In more than one respect the polyglot
+American is antipodal to the Chinese. The language of the former is
+richest in words, that of the latter the poorest. The preposition
+follows the noun, and the verb ends the sentence. Ancient Tupi is the
+basis of the Lingoa Geral, the inter-tribal tongue on the Middle Amazon.
+The semi-civilized Ticunas, Mundurucus, etc., have one costume--the men
+in trowsers and white cotton shirts, the women in calico petticoats,
+with short, loose chemises, and their hair held in a knot on the top of
+the head by a comb, usually of foreign make, but sometimes made of
+bamboo splinters. The wild tribes north and south go nearly or quite
+nude, while those on the western tributaries wear cotton or bark togas
+or ponchos. The habitations are generally a frame-work of poles,
+thatched with palm-leaves; the walls sometimes latticed and plastered
+with mud, and the furniture chiefly hammocks and earthen vessels.
+
+[Illustration: Native Comb.]
+
+[Footnote 181: Authors compute in South America from 280 to 700
+languages (Abb� Royo said 2000), of which four fifths are composed of
+idioms radically distinct.]
+
+The Mundurucus are the most numerous and warlike tribe in Amazonia. They
+inhabit both banks of the Tapajos, and can muster, it is said, 2000
+fighting men. They are friendly to the whites, and industrious, selling
+to traders large quantities of farina, sarsaparilla, rubber, and tonka
+beans. Their houses are conical or quadrangular huts, sometimes open
+sheds, and generally contain many families. According to Wallace, the
+Mundurucus are the only perfectly tattooed nation in South America. It
+takes at least ten years to complete the tattooing of the whole person.
+The skin is pricked with spines, and then the soot from burning pitch
+rubbed in. Their neighbors, the Par�rau�tes, are intractable, wandering
+savages, roaming through the forest and sleeping in hammocks slung to
+the trees. They have delicately-formed hands and feet, an oval face, and
+glistening black eyes. On the west side of the Tapajos, near Villa Nova,
+are the Mauh�s, an agricultural tribe, well formed, and of a mild
+disposition. On the Lower Madeira are the houseless, formidable Ar�ras,
+who paint their chins red with achote (anatto), and usually have a black
+tattooed streak on each side of the face. They have long made the
+navigation of the great tributary hazardous. Above them dwell the
+Parentint�ns, light colored and finely featured, but nude and savage. In
+the labyrinth of lakes and channels at the mouth of the Madeira live the
+lazy, brutal M�ras, the most degraded tribe on the Amazon. They have a
+darker skin than their neighbors, an extraordinary breadth of chest,
+muscular arms, short legs, protuberant abdomens, a thin beard, and a
+bold, restless expression. They pierce the lips, and wear peccari tusks
+in them in time of war. The Indians on the Purus live generally on the
+communal principle, and are unwarlike and indolent. The Puru-pur�s bury
+in sandy beaches, go naked, and have one wife.
+
+On the great northwest tributary of the Rio Negro, the Uacaiari, there
+are numerous tribes, collectively known as the Uaup�s. They have
+permanent abodes, in shape a parallelogram, with a semicircle at one
+end, and of a size to contain several families, sometimes a whole tribe.
+One of them, Wallace informs us, was 115 feet long by 75 broad, and
+about 30 high. The walls are bullet-proof. Partitions of palm-leaves
+divide it into apartments for families, the chief occupying the
+semicircular end. The men alone wear clothes and ornaments, but both
+sexes paint their bodies with red, black, and yellow colors in regular
+patterns. The men have a little beard, which they pull out, as also the
+eyebrows, and allow the hair to grow unshorn, tying it behind with a
+cord and wearing a comb; while the women cut theirs and wear no comb.
+They are an agricultural people--peaceable, ingenious, apathetic,
+diffident, and bashful.
+
+The Catauish�s inhabit the banks of the Teff�. They perforate the lips,
+and wear rows of sticks in the holes. At the mouth of the Juru� are the
+uncivilized, but tall, noble-looking Marau�s. They pierce the ears and
+lips, and insert sticks. They live in separate families, and have no
+common chief. Above them live the treacherous Arau�s.[182] On the
+opposite side of the Amazon are the nearly extinct Pass�s and Jur�s, the
+finest tribes in central South America. They are peaceable and
+industrious, and have always been friendly to the whites. The Pass�s are
+a slenderly-built, light-colored, dignified, superior race,
+distinguished by a large square tattooed patch in the middle of the
+face. The Jur�s tattoo in a circle round the mouth. Near by are the
+U�nambeus, or "Humming-birds," distinguished by a small blue mark on
+the upper lip. Higher up the Japur� is the large cannibal tribe of
+Mir�nhas, living in isolated families; and on the Tocant�ns dwell the
+low Caish�nas, who kill their first-born children. Along the left bank
+of the Amazon, from Loreto to Japur�, are the scattered houses and
+villages of the Tuc�nas. This is an extensive tribe, leading a settled
+agricultural life, each horde having a chief and a "medicine-man," or
+priest of their superstitions. They are good-natured and ingenious,
+excelling most of the other tribes in the manufacture of pottery; but
+they are idle and debauched, naked except in the villages, and tattooed
+in numbers of short, straight lines on the face. The Mar�bos, on the
+Javar�, have a dark complexion and a slight beard; and on the west side
+of the same river roam the Majer�nas--fierce, hostile, light colored,
+bearded cannibals. In the vicinity of Pebas dwell the inoffensive
+Yaguas. The shape of the head (but not their vacant expression) is well
+represented by Catlin's portrait of "Black Hawk," a Sauk chief. They are
+quite free from the encumbrance of dress, the men wearing a girdle of
+fibrous bark around the loins, with bunches looking like a mop hanging
+down in front and rear, and similar bunches hung around the neck and
+arms. The women tie a strip of brown cotton cloth about the hips. They
+paint the whole body with achote.[183] They sometimes live in
+communities. One large structure, with Gothic roof, is used in common;
+on the inside of which, around the walls, are built family
+sleeping-rooms. The Yaguas are given to drinking and dancing. They are
+said to bury their dead inside the house of the deceased, and then set
+fire to it; but this conflicts with their communal life. Perhaps, with
+the other tribes on the Japur�, I�a, and Napo, they are fragments of
+the great Om�gua nation; but the languages have no resemblance. Of the
+Oriente Indians we have already spoken. The tall, finely-built Cuc�mas
+near Nauta are shrewd, hard-working canoe-men, notorious for the
+singular desire of acquiring property; and the Y�meos, a white tribe,
+wander across the Mara�on as far as Sarayac�. On the Ucayali are
+numerous vagabond tribes, living for the most part in their canoes and
+temporary huts. They are all lazy and faithless, using their wives
+(polygamy is common) as slaves. Infanticide is practiced, _i.e._,
+deformed children they put out of the way, saying they belong to the
+devil. They worship nothing. They bury their dead in a canoe or earthen
+jar under the house (which is vacated forever), and throw away his
+property.[184] The common costume is a long gown, called _cushma_, of
+closely-twilled cotton, woven by the women. Their weapons are two-edged
+battle-axes of hard wood, as palo de sangre, and bows and arrows. The
+arrows, five or six feet long, are made from the flower-stalk of the
+arrow-grass (_Gynerium_), the head pointed with the flinty chonta and
+tipped with bone, often anointed with poison. At the base two rows of
+feathers are spirally arranged, showing the Indian's knowledge of the
+rifle principle. When they have fixed abodes several families live
+together under one roof, with no division separating the women, as among
+the Red Indians on the Pastassa. The roof is not over ten feet from the
+ground. The Piros are the highest tribe; they have but one wife. The
+Conibos are an agricultural people, yet cannibals, stretching from the
+Upper Ucayali to the sources of the Purus. They are a fair-looking,
+athletic people, and, like the Shipibos, of ten wear a piece of money
+under the lip. The C�mpas are the most numerous and warlike.[185] They
+are little known, as travelers give them a wide berth. Herndon fancied
+they were the descendants of the Inca race. They are said to be
+cannibals, and from the specimen we saw we should judge them uncommonly
+sharp. He was averse to telling us any thing about his tribe, but turned
+our questions with an equivocal repartee and a laugh. The Cash�bos, on
+the Pachit�a, is another cannibal tribe. They are light colored and
+bearded. The dwarfish, filthy Rimos alone of the Ucayali Indians tattoo,
+though not so perfectly as the Mundurucus, using black and blue colors.
+The other tribes simply paint. It was among these wild Indians on the
+Ucayali that the Franciscan friars labored so long and zealously, and
+with a success far greater and more lasting than that which attended any
+other missionary enterprise in the valley.
+
+[Footnote 182: Near the sources of this river Castlenau locates the
+Canamas and Uginas; the former dwarfs, the latter having tails a palm
+and a half long--a hybrid from an Indian and Barigudo monkey.]
+
+[Footnote 183: Query: Is the name Yagua (blood) derived from the
+practice of coloring the body red?]
+
+[Footnote 184: Compare the ancient burial custom on the Andes: "On the
+decease of the Inca his palaces are abandoned: all his treasures, except
+those that were employed in his obsequies, his furniture and apparel,
+were suffered to remain as he left them, and his mansions, save one,
+were closed up forever."--_Prescott_.]
+
+[Footnote 185: The women circumcise themselves, and a man will not marry
+a woman who is not circumcised. They perform the singular rite upon
+arriving at the age of puberty, and have a great feast at the time.
+Other tribes flog and imprison their daughters when they reach
+womanhood.]
+
+The remaining inhabitants of the Amazon are mixed-breeds, Negroes, and
+whites. The amalgamations form the greater part of the population of the
+large towns. Von Tschudi gives a catalogue of twenty-three hybrids in
+Peru, and there are undoubtedly as many, or more, in Brazil. The most
+common are Mamelucos (offspring of white with Indian), Mulattoes (from
+white and Negro), Cafuzos or Zambos (from Indian and Negro), Curibocos
+(from Cafuzo and Indian); and Xibaros (from Cafuzo and Negro). "To
+define their characteristics correctly," says Von Tschudi, "would be
+impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood. As a
+general rule, it may be said that they unite in themselves all the
+faults without any of the virtues of their progenitors. As men they are
+generally inferior to the pure races, and as members of society they are
+the worst class of citizens." Yet they display considerable talent and
+enterprise, as in Quito; a proof that mental degeneracy does not
+necessarily result from the mixture of white with Indian blood. "There
+is, however," confesses Bates, after ten years' experience, "a
+considerable number of superlatively lazy, tricky, and sensual
+characters among the half-castes, both in rural places and in the
+towns." Our observations do not support the opinion that the result of
+amalgamation is "a vague compound, lacking character and expression."
+The moral part is perhaps deteriorated; but in tact and enterprise they
+often excel their progenitors.
+
+Negroes are to be seen only on the Lower Amazon. By the new act of
+emancipation, such as are slaves continue so, but their children are
+free. Negroes born in the country are called creoles.
+
+Of the white population, save a handful of English, French, and German,
+the Portuguese immigrants are the most enterprising men on the river.
+They are willing to work, trade, or do any thing to turn a penny. Those
+who acquire a fortune generally retire to Lisbon. The Brazilians proper
+are the descendants of the men who declared themselves "free and
+independent" of the mother country. Few of them are of pure Caucasian
+descent, for the immigration from Portugal for many years has been
+almost exclusively of the male sex. "It is generally considered bad
+taste in Brazil to boast purity of descent" (Bates, i, 241). Brazilians
+are stiff and formal, yet courteous and lively, communicative and
+hospitable, well-bred and intelligent. They are not ambitious, but
+content to live and enjoy what nature spontaneously offers. The most a
+Brazilian wants is farina and coffee, a hammock and cigar. Brazilian
+ladies have led a dreary life of constraint and silence, without
+education or society, the husband making a nun of his wife after the old
+bigoted Portuguese notion; but during the last twenty years the doors
+have been opened. Brazil attained her independence in 1823; Brazilian
+women in 1848.
+
+Here, in this virgin valley, where every plant is an evergreen,
+possessing the most agreeable and enjoyable climate in the world, with a
+brilliant atmosphere, rivaled only by that of Quito, and with no changes
+of seasons--here we may locate the paradise of the lazy. Life may be
+maintained with as little labor as in the Garden of Eden. Perhaps no
+country in the world is capable of yielding so large a return for
+agriculture. Nature, evidently designing this land as the home of a
+great nation, has heaped up her bounties of every description--fruits of
+richest flavors, woods of finest grain, dyes of gayest colors, and drugs
+of rarest virtues; and left no sirocco or earthquake to disturb its
+people. Providence, moreover, has given the present emperor a wise and
+understanding heart; and the government is a happy blending of imperial
+dignity and republican freedom. White, Negro, half-caste, and Indian may
+be seen sitting side by side on the jury-bench. Certainly "the nation
+can not be a despicable one whose best men are able to work themselves
+up to positions of trust and influence."
+
+God bless the Empire of the South!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+     How to Travel in South
+     America.--Routes.--Expenses.--Outfit.--Precautions.--Dangers.
+
+
+The most vague and incorrect notions prevail in respect to traveling in
+South America. The sources of trustworthy and desirable information are
+very meagre. Murray has not yet published a "Hand-book for the Andes;"
+routes, methods, and expenses of travel are almost unknown; and the
+imagination depicts vampires and scorpions, tigers and anacondas, wild
+Indians and fevers without end, impassable rivers and inaccessible
+mountains as the portion of the tourist. The following statements, which
+can be depended upon, may therefore be acceptable to those who
+contemplate a trip on the Andes and the Amazon.
+
+The shortest, cheapest, most feasible, and least interesting route
+across the continent is from Valparaiso to Buenos Ayres. The breadth of
+South America is here only eight hundred miles. By railroad from
+Valparaiso to the foot of the Andes; thence a short mule-ride by the
+Uspallata Pass (altitude 12,000 feet), under the shadow of Aconcagua to
+Mendoza; thence by coach across the pampas to the Rio Plata. The
+Portillo Pass (traversed by Darwin) is nearer, but more lofty and
+dangerous.
+
+Bolivia offers the difficult path of Gibbon: From the coast to
+Cochabamba; thence down the Marmor� and Madeira. There are three routes
+through Peru: First, from Lima to Mayro, by way of Cerro Pasco and
+Hu�naco, by mule, ten days; thence down the Pachit�a, by canoe, six
+days; thence down the Ucayali to Iquitos, by steamer, six days
+(forty-five hours' running time). When the road from Lima to Mayro is
+finished the passage will be shortened four days. No snow is met in
+crossing the Andes in summer, but in winter it is very deep. Second
+(Herndon's route), from Lima to Tinga Maria, by way of Hu�naco, by mule,
+fifteen days, distance three hundred miles (the passage is difficult in
+the rainy season); thence by canoe fifteen days down the Huallaga to
+Yurimaguas. Third and best, by mule from Truxillo to Caxim�rca, five
+days (note the magnificent ruins); thence to Chachapoyas, seven days
+(here are pre-Incarial relics); thence to Moyabamba, eight days; thence
+on foot to Balsa Puerto, four days; thence by canoe to Yurimaguas, two
+days. Price of a mule from Truxillo to Moyabamba is $30; canoe-hire,
+$10. The Peruvian steamers arrive at Yurimaguas the fifth of every month
+and leave the seventh; reach Nauta the ninth and Iquitos the tenth;
+leave Iquitos the sixteenth and arrive at Tabatinga the nineteenth, to
+connect with the Brazilian line. Going up, they leave Tabatinga the
+twenty-first and arrive at Iquitos the twenty-fourth, stopping six days.
+Running time from Yurimaguas to Tabatinga, forty-eight hours; fare, $70,
+gold; third-class, $17. La Condamine's route, _via_ Loxa and the
+Mara�on, is difficult; and Md. Godin's, _via_ the Pastassa, is perilous
+on account of rapids and savages. The transit by the Napo we will now
+give in detail.
+
+Six hundred dollars in gold will be amply sufficient for a first-class
+passage from New York to New York across the continent of South America,
+making no allowance for stoppages. For necessary expenses in Ecuador,
+take a draft on London, which will sell to advantage in Guayaquil; so
+will Mexican dollars. American gold should be taken for expenses on the
+Amazon in Brazil; at Par� it commands a premium. On the Mara�on it is
+below par; Peruvian gold should therefore be bought at Guayaquil for
+that part of the route. Also French _medios_, or quarter francs; they
+will be very useful every where on the route, especially on the Upper
+Amazon, where change is scarce. Fifty dollars' worth will not be too
+many; for, as the Scotchman said of sixpences, "they are canny little
+dogs, and often do the work of shillings." Take a passport for Brazil.
+Leave behind your delicacies and superfluities of clothing; woolen
+clothes will be serviceable throughout. A trunk for mountain travel
+should not exceed 24 by 15 by 15 inches--smaller the better. Take a
+rubber air-pillow and mattress: there is no bed between Guayaquil and
+Par�. A hammock for the Amazon can be bought on the Napo.
+
+The Pacific Mail steamships, which leave New York on the first and
+sixteenth of each month, connect at Panama without delay with the
+British Steam Navigation line on the South Pacific. Fare, first-class,
+from New York to Guayaquil, by way of Panama and Paita, $215, gold;
+second-class, $128. Time to Panama, eight days; to Paita, four days; to
+Guayaquil, one day. A coasting steamer leaves Panama for Guayaquil the
+thirteenth of each month. There are two so-called hotels in Guayaquil.
+"Los tres Mosqueteros," kept by Sr. Gonzales, is the best. Take a front
+room ($1 per day), and board at the Fonda Italiana or La Santa Rosa ($1
+per day). Here complete your outfit for the mountains: saddle, with
+strong girth and crupper; saddle-bags, saddle-cover, sweat-cloth, and
+bridle ($40, paper), woolen poncho ($9), rubber poncho ($4), blanket
+($6), leggins, native spurs and stirrups, knife, fork, spoon, tea-pot,
+chocolate (tea, pure and cheap, should be purchased at Panama), candles,
+matches, soap, towels, and tarpaulin for wrapping up baggage. Convert
+your draft into paper, _quantum sufficit_ for Guayaquil; the rest into
+silver.
+
+Besides this outer outfit, an inner one is needed--of patience without
+stint. You will soon learn that it is one thing to plan and quite
+another to execute. "To get out of the inn is one half of the journey"
+is very appropriately a Spanish proverb. Spaniards do nothing
+_d'appressado_ (in a hurry), but every thing _ma�ana_ (to-morrow). You
+will find fondas, horses, and roads divided into the bad, the worse, and
+the worst, and bad is the best. But fret not thyself. "Serenity of
+mind," wrote Humboldt, "almost the first requisite for an undertaking in
+inhospitable regions, passionate love for some class of scientific
+labor, and a pure feeling for the enjoyment which nature in her freedom
+is ready to impart, are elements which, when they meet together in an
+individual, insure the attainment of valuable results from a great and
+important journey."
+
+The journey to Quito must be made between May and November; in the rainy
+season the roads are impassable. From Guayaquil to Bodegas by Yankee
+steamer; fare, $2; time, eight hours. At Bodegas hire beasts at the
+_Consignacion_ for Guaranda; price for riding and cargo beasts, $4 each.
+No extras for the _arriero_. A mule will carry two hundred and fifty
+pounds. Buy bread at Bodegas and Guaranda. The Indians on the road are
+very loth to sell any thing; buy a fowl, therefore, at the first
+opportunity, or you will have to live on dirty potato soup, and be glad
+of that. At the tambos, or wayside inns, you pay only for _yerba_
+(fodder). Never unsaddle your beast till it is cool; an Indian will even
+leave the bridle on for a time. To Guaranda, three full days. There take
+mules (safer than horses in climbing the mountains) for Quito; $6 25,
+silver, per beast; time, five days. Be sure to leave Guaranda by 4 a.m.,
+for in the afternoon Chimborazo is swept by furious winds. Also start
+with a full stomach; you will get nothing for two days. Drink sparingly
+of the snow-water which dashes down the mountain. You will be tempted
+to curse Chuquipoyo; but thank heaven it is no worse.
+
+There are two hotels in Quito, French and American; the former has the
+better location, the latter the better rooms. Best front room,
+furnished, half a dollar a day; cheaper by the month. Meals (two),
+twenty-five cents each. The beef is excellent, but the _cuisine_--oh,
+onions! "God sends the meat, and the evil one cooks." You can hire a
+professional male cook (Indian) for $5 a month, but you can't teach him
+any thing. Fish is not to be had in Quito. Gibbon speaks of having some
+in Cuzco, but does not tell us where it came from.[186] Price of best
+flour, $3 60 per quintal; butter, thirty cents a pound; beef, $1 an
+arroba (twenty-five pounds); refined sugar, $3 50 an arroba; brown sugar
+(_rapidura_),[187] five cents a pound; cigars, from six to sixteen for a
+dime; cigarettes, five cents a hundred. Horse hire, from fifty cents to
+$1 per day. If you are to remain some time, buy a beast: a good mule
+costs $40; an ordinary horse, $50. The Post-office Department is a
+swindle. If you "pay through" you will find on your arrival home that
+your letters have been paid at both ends. Ask our consul at Guayaquil to
+forward them.
+
+[Footnote 186: The Guayaquil market is well supplied with fish of a fair
+quality. Usually the fish of warm tropical waters are poor, but the cold
+"Humboldt current," which passes along the west coast of Ecuador,
+renders them as edible as those of temperate zones.]
+
+[Footnote 187: Called _chancaca_ in Peru. In flavor it is very nearly
+equal to maple-sugar.]
+
+The necessary preparations for the Napo journey have been given in a
+previous chapter (Chap. XI). We might add to the list a few cans of
+preserved milk from New York, for you will not see a drop between the
+Andes and the Atlantic. Fail not to take plenty of lienzo; you must have
+it to pay the Indians, and any surplus can be sold to advantage. A bale
+of thirty varas costs about five dollars. Rely not at all on game; a
+champion sharpshooter could not live by his rifle. Santa Rosa and Coca
+will be represented to you as small New Yorks; but you will do well if
+you can buy a chicken between them.
+
+From Quito to Papallacta, two days and a half; riding beast, $2 silver,
+and $1 20 for each cargo of three arrobas. At Papallacta hire Indians
+for Archidona; each carries three arrobas, and wants $5 silver in
+advance. You take to your feet; time, nine days, including one day of
+rest at Baeza. At Archidona you take a new set of peons for Napo at
+twenty-five cents apiece; time, one day. From Napo down the river to
+Santa Rosa, one day. You give two and a half varas of lienzo to each
+Indian, and the same for the canoe. From Santa Rosa to Pebas, on the
+Mara�on, fifteen days; cost of an Indian, twenty-five varas; ditto for a
+canoe. We advise you to stop at Coca and rig up a raft or craft of some
+kind; we ascribe our uninterrupted good health to the length and breadth
+of our accommodations. The Peruvian steamer from the west arrives at
+Pebas on the sixteenth of each month; fare to Tabatinga, $15 gold; time,
+four days; running time, eleven hours. Brazilian steamer leaves
+Tabatinga the twentieth of each month; fare to Man�os, $44 44 gold;
+time, five days; distance, one thousand miles. From Man�os to Par�, $55
+55 gold; time, six days; distance, one thousand miles. The Brazilian
+steamers make semi-monthly trips. We found two hotels in Par�--the
+"Italiana," dear and poor; the "Diana," unpretending but comfortable.
+Charges at the latter for room and board, $2 a day. The best time for
+traveling on the Amazon is between July and December. The United States
+and Brazilian steamships on their homeward voyage call at Par� the
+seventh of each month; fare to New York, $150 gold (the same as down the
+whole length of the Amazon); second class, $75; time, fourteen days;
+distance by way of St. Thomas, 1610 + 1400 miles. Steamer for Rio the
+ninth of each month; fare, $125; time, twelve days; distance, 2190
+miles. Fare from Rio to New York, $200. Fare by sailing vessel from Par�
+to New York, from $50 to $75; time, three weeks. A British steamer from
+Rio stops at Par� and Lisbon.
+
+A word about health. First, take one grain of common-sense daily; do as
+the natives do, keep out of the noon-day sun, and make haste slowly.
+Secondly, take with you quinine in two-grain pills, and begin to take
+them before leaving New York, as the great African traveler, Du Chaillu,
+recommended us. As preventive against the intermittent fevers on the
+lowlands and rivers, nothing is better than Dr. Copeland's celebrated
+pills--quinine, twelve grains; camphor, twelve grains; cayenne pepper,
+twelve grains. Mix with mucilage, and divide into twelve pills: take one
+every night or morning as required. On the Amazon carry guarana. Woolen
+socks are recommended by those who have had much experience of tropical
+fevers. Never bathe when the air is moist; avoid a chill; a native will
+not bathe till the sun is well up. Rub yourself with _aguardiente_
+(native rum) after a bath, and always when caught in a shower. Freely
+exercise in Quito to ward off liver complaints. Drink little water;
+coffee or chocolate is better, and tea is best. Avoid spirits with
+fruit, and fruit after dinner. The sickliest time in Guayaquil is at the
+breaking up of the rainy season.
+
+As to dangers: First, from the people. Traveling is as safe in Ecuador
+as in New York, and safer than in Missouri. There are no Spanish
+banditti, though some places, as Chambo, near Riobamba, bear a bad name.
+It is not wise to tempt a penniless footpad by a show of gold; but no
+more so in Ecuador than any where. We have traveled from Guayaquil to
+Damascus, but have never had occasion to use a weapon in self-defense;
+and only once for offense, when we threatened to demolish an Arab sheik
+with an umbrella. Secondly, from brutes. Some travelers would have us
+infer that it is impossible to stir in South America without being
+"affectionately entwined by a serpent, or sprung upon by a jaguar, or
+bitten by a rattlesnake; jiggers in every sand-heap and scorpions under
+every stone" (_Edinburgh Review_, xliii, 310). Padre Vernazza speaks of
+meeting a serpent two yards in diameter! But you will be disappointed at
+the paucity of animal life. We were two months on the Andes (August and
+September) before we saw a live snake. They are plentiful in the wet
+season in cacao plantations; but the majority are harmless. Dr. Russel,
+who particularly studied the reptiles of India, found that out of
+forty-three species which he examined not more than seven had poisonous
+fangs; and Sir E. Tennent, after a long residence in Ceylon, declared he
+had never heard of the death of an European by the bite of a snake. It
+is true, however, that the number and proportion of the venomous species
+are greater in South America than in any other part of the world; but it
+is some consolation to know that, zoologically, they are inferior in
+rank to the harmless ones; "and certainly," adds Sidney Smith, "a snake
+that feels fourteen or fifteen stone stamping on his tail has little
+time for reflection, and may be allowed to be poisonous." If bitten,
+apply ammonia externally immediately, and take five drops in water
+internally; it is an almost certain antidote. The discomforts and
+dangers arising from the animal creation are no greater than one would
+meet in traveling overland from New York to New Orleans.
+
+Finally, of one thing the tourist in South America may be assured--that
+dear to him, as it is to us, will be the remembrance of those romantic
+rides over the Cordilleras amid the wild magnificence of nature, the
+adventurous walk through the primeval forest, the exciting canoe-life on
+the Napo, and the long, monotonous sail on the waters of the Great
+River.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+IN MEMORIAM.
+
+    "A life that all the Muses decked
+      With gifts of grace that might express
+      All comprehensive tenderness,
+    All-subtilizing intellect."--TENNYSON.
+
+
+On the east of the city of Quito is a beautiful and extensive plain, so
+level that it is literally a _table-land_. It is the classic ground of
+the astronomy of the eighteenth century: here the French and Spanish
+academicians made their celebrated measurement of a meridian of the
+earth. As you stand on the edge of this plain just without the city, you
+see the dazzling summit of Cayambi looking down from the north; on your
+left are the picturesque defiles of Pichincha; on your right the slopes
+of Antisana. Close by you, standing between the city and the plain, is a
+high white wall inclosing a little plot, like the city above, "four
+square." You are reminded by its shape, and also by its position
+relative to Quito and Pichincha, of that other sacred inclosure just
+outside the walls of Jerusalem and at the foot of Olivet, the Garden of
+Gethsemane. This is the Protestant Cemetery.
+
+[Illustration: P. Staunton]
+
+Through the efforts of our late representative--now also numbered with
+the dead--this place was assigned by the government for the interment of
+foreigners who do not die in the Romish faith. And there we buried our
+fellow-traveler, COLONEL PHINEAS STAUNTON, the artist of the expedition,
+and Vice-Chancellor of Ingham University, New York. On the 8th of
+September, 1867, we bore him through the streets of Quito to this
+quiet resting-place, without parade and in solemn silence--just as we
+believe his unobtrusive spirit would have desired, and just as his
+Savior was carried from the cross to the sepulchre. No splendid hearse
+or nodding plumes; no long procession, save the unheard tread of the
+angels; no requiem, save the unheard harps of the seraphs. We gave him a
+Protestant Christian burial, such as Quito never saw. In this corner of
+nature's vast cathedral, the secluded shrine of grandeur and beauty not
+found in Westminster Abbey, we left him. We parted with him on the mount
+which is to be the scene of his transfiguration.
+
+It would be difficult for an artist to find a grave whose surroundings
+are so akin to his feelings. He lies in the lofty lap of the Andes, and
+snow-white pinnacles stand around him on every side, just as we imagine
+the mountains are around the city of God. We think we hear him saying,
+as Fanny Kemble Butler said of another burial-ground: "I will not rise
+to trouble any one if they will let me sleep here. I will only ask to be
+permitted, once in a while, to raise my head and look out upon this
+glorious scene." No dark and dismal fogs gather at evening about that
+spot. It lies nearer to heaven than any other Protestant cemetery in the
+world. "It is good (says Beecher) to have our mortal remains go upward
+for their burial, and catch the earliest sounds of that trumpet which
+shall raise the dead." And the day is coming when that precious vein of
+gold that now lies in the bosom of the mighty Andes shall leave its
+rocky bed and shine in seven-fold purity. Indeed, the artist is already
+in that higher studio among the mountains of Beulah.
+
+A simple sculptured obelisk of sorrow stands over the dust of Colonel
+Staunton: his most fitting monument is his own life-work. He was the
+very painter Humboldt longed for in his writings--"the artist, who,
+studying in nature's great hot-house bounded by the tropics, should add
+a new and more magnificent kingdom of nature to art." Colonel Staunton,
+true and lovely in his own character, was ever seeking in nature for
+whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are pure, and now was
+about to add whatsoever things are grand. He was a _Christian_ artist,
+in sympathy with such men as Raphael and Leonardo de Vinci. "The
+habitual choice of sacred subjects (says Ruskin) implies that the
+painter has a natural disposition to dwell on the highest thoughts of
+which humanity is capable." No shallow or false person could have
+conceived his _Ascension_. Only the highest qualities of the intellect
+and heart--a soul already half ascended--could have given such ethereal
+lightness to those "two men in white apparel." Only the pure in heart
+see God. As we revisit in imagination the spot where he sleeps so well,
+we behold, in the calm sublimity of the mountains that surround his
+grave, an image of the undisturbed repose of his spirit on the Rock of
+Ages.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES.
+
+APPENDIX A.
+
+
+BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA.[188]
+
+
+[Footnote 188: First published in the _American Journal of Science_ for
+September, 1868, to which the reader is referred for other physical
+observations. The barometric anomaly, noticed particularly on the Lower
+Amazon, was also observed by Herndon, Castelnau, Chandlers, Spruce, and
+Wallace.]
+
++----------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+---------------+
+|Locality. |Altitude.|Barometer.|Boiling|Regnault's|Difference.|Other          |
+|          |         |          | Point.|  Equiv.  |           |Estimates.     |
++----------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+---------------+
+|          |         |          |   �   |          |           |               |
+|Pacific   |       0 |    29.930| 212.01|          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|  Ocean   |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 29.904;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 29.867.       |
+|Guayaquil |       10|    29.899| 211.95|    29.831|      -.008|_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 211.8� |
+|Guaranda  |    8,840|    21.976|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 8872;  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Hall, 8928.   |
+|Arenal    |   14,250|    18.123|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 13,917;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Hall, 14,268. |
+|Mocha     |   10,900|    20.393|       |          |           |               |
+|Ambato    |    8,490|    22.241|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 8541;  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 8787.         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 22.218.       |
+|Tacunga   |    9,181|    21.693|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 9180;  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9384.         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.700.       |
+|Tiupullo  |   11,662|    19.858|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 11,702.|
+|Machachi  |    9,900|    21.212|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 9823.  |
+|Quito     |    9,520|    21.530|  195.8|    21.485|      -.045|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | La Condamine, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9596;         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9570; Caldas, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 8947;         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9567; Aguilar,|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9496; Visse,  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9307; Bureau  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | des Longs.,   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9540;         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Tramblay's    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | _Ann._,       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9538;         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson, 9513.|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | La Condamine, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.404;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.403;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Aguilar,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.465;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.566.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 195.6�;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Tramblay,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 184.18�.      |
+|Panecillo |   10,101|    21.043|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 10,244;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Aguilar,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 10,135.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.207.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 194.7� |
+|Pichincha,|   15,827|    17.038|  184.5|    17.030|      -.008|_Alt._ of      |
+|  top     |         |          |       |          |           | La Condamine, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,606;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,922;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,676; Visse,|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 16,200; Hall, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,380;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,704.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 16.942.|
+|Pichincha,|   13,300|          |  189.2|    18.672|           |_Alt._ of      |
+|   crater |         |          |       |          |           | Visse and     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Moreno,       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 18,600.       |
+|Antisana  |   13,300|    18.583|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|  H.      |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 13,465;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 13,356.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Aguirre,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 18.573;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 18.630.       |
+|On        |   16,000|    16.782|       |          |           |               |
+|  Antisana|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Pinatura  |   10,410|    20.791|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 10,348.       |
+|Padregal  |   11,860|    19.817|       |          |           |               |
+|On        |   12,690|    19.004|       |          |           |               |
+|  Cotopaxi|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Riobamba  |    9,200|    21.705|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 9157;  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9413.         |
+|Cajabamba |   10,918|    20.512|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | La Condamine, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 11,000.       |
+|Itulcachi |    8,885|    22.006|       |          |           |               |
+|Tablon    |   10,516|    20.800|       |          |           |               |
+|Papallacta|   10,511|    20.803|  193.8|    20.598|      -.205|               |
+|Guila     |    8,622|    22.206|       |          |           |               |
+|Pachamama |    7,920|    22.751|       |          |           |               |
+|Baeza     |    6,625|    23.793|       |          |           |               |
+|Cochachim-|    4,252|    25.832|       |          |           |               |
+|  bamba   |         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Curi-urcu |    3,247|    26.746|   �   |          |           |               |
+|Archidona |    2,115|    27.816| 209.00|    28.180|      +.364|               |
+|Napo      |    1,450|    28.419| 209.4 |    28.407|      -.012|               |
+|Santa Rosa|    1,100|    28.814| 210.4 |    28.982|      +.168|               |
+|Coca      |      858|    29.022| 210.65|    29.127|      +.105|               |
+|Mouth of  |      586|    29.321| 211.00|    29.331|      +.010|               |
+| the River|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|  Aguarico|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Do. River |      500|    29.408|  210.8|    29.215|      -.193|               |
+|   Curaray|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Do. River |      385|    29.526|  211.4|    29.566|      +.040|_Alt._ at      |
+|  Napo    |         |          |       |          |           | Nauta, by     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Castelnau,    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 365.          |
+|Pebas     |      345|    29.510|  211.1|    29.390|      -.120|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 537. |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 211.1�.       |
+|Loreto    |         |          |  211.4|    29.566|           |               |
+|San       |      256|    29.655|       |          |           |               |
+|  Antonio |         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Tabatinga |      255|    29.656|  211.5|    29.625|      -.041|_Alt._ of Spix |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | and Martius,  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 670;          |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 150;   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Agassiz, 200. |
+|Tunantins |     138?|    29.770|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 124.   |
+|Ega       |     100?|    29.813|  211.9|    29.862|      +.049|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 2052;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 120.   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 208.2�.       |
+|Man�os    |     199?|    29.705|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 1475;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Castelnau,    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 293; Spix and |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Martius, 556; |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 92.    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 209.3�;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Gibbon,       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 210.87�;      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Wallace,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 212�.5.       |
+|Serpa     |     158?|    29.752|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | and Pinto, 84.|
+|Obidos    |      114|    29.802|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | and Pinto, 58;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Agassiz, 45.  |
+|Santarem  |      107|    29.808|  211.5|    29.625|      -.183|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 846; |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 50.    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 210.5�.       |
+|Mount     |       83|    29.834|       |          |           |               |
+|  Al�gre  |         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Gurup�    |       38|    29.890|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | and Pinto, 42.|
+|Par�      |       15|    29.889| 211.95|    29.891|      +.002|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 320; |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 35;    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Dewey, 35.    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 29.708; Dewey,|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 29.941; Orton |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | (reduced to   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | level of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | river),       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 29.914.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 211.5�.       |
+|Atlantic  |       -2|    29.932| 212.16|          |           |_Bar._ of Dewey|
+|  Ocean   |         |          |       |          |           | 29.977.       |
++----------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+---------------+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B.
+
+VOCABULARIES FROM THE QUICHUA, Z�PARO, Y�GUA, AND C�MPAS LANGUAGES.
+
+[SPANISH PRONUNCIATION]
+
+
+_English.                Quichua.             Z�paro.        Y�gua._
+
+Father,                   Y�ya,                Apoch�jo,      Yen.
+Mother,                   M�ma,                A�no,          Nihu�.
+Son
+ (said by father),        Ch�ri,               Ni�to,         Po�n.
+Son
+ (said by mother),        C�ri hu�hua,         Tauq�,         Po�n.
+Daughter
+ (said by father),        Ush�shi,             Coni�t _or_ cuniat�.
+Daughter
+ (said by mother),        Hu�rmi hu�hua,       It�m.
+Own father,               Qu�quin y�ya,        Cuqu m�no.
+Own mother,               Qu�quin m�ma,        La cu�no.
+Step-father,              La y�ya,             T�ma qu�ra.
+Step-mother,              La m�ma,             T�ma qu�ra (m�ma?).
+Own son,                  Qu�quin ch�ri,       Ia cuni�na.
+Step-son,                 Qu�pai ch�ri,        Saqu�na cuni�na.
+Elder son
+ (said by father),        C�ra
+                        (_or_ ��upa)
+                          ch�ri,               Cuniap�ra.
+Elder son
+ (said by mother),        C�ra
+                        (_or_ ��upa)
+                          hu�hua,              Cuniap�ra.
+Younger son
+ (said by mother),        S�llca
+                        (_or_ qu�pa)
+                         ch�ri,                Nuno�.
+Younger daughter
+ (said by father),        S�llca
+                        (or qu�pa) ush�shi,    Nuno� cuniat�.
+Only son
+ (said by father),        Zap�lla
+                        (_or_ zapa�)
+                          ch�ri,               Noqu� cuni�n, T�qui rai (huahua).
+Only son
+ (said by mother),        Zap�lla
+                           (_or_ zapa�)
+                          c�ri hu�hua,   Noqu� t�uco cuni�n, T�qui rai (huahua).
+Grandson,                 C�ri hu�huay,        Cuajen��o.
+Granddaughter,            Hu�rmi hu�huay.
+Great-grandson,           C�ri v�llca,         Cuajen��o.
+Great-great-grandson,     C�ri chup�llu.
+Grandfather,              H�tun y�ya,          Quirra�to pi�tzo,   Yen.
+Grandmother,              H�tun m�ma,          Quitra�to ocu�je.
+Great-grandfather,        Mach�i y�ya,         Quirishep�i.
+Great-grandmother,        P�ya (or �pa)        P�ra.
+                             m�ma,
+Great-great-grandfather,  Ap�squi (or          Pi�tzo.
+                             ap�nche) y�ya,
+Ancestors,                Ap�squi c�na,        Idasip�a.
+Brother (said by male),   Haua�qui,            Cuquih��o,         Rai ta�re.
+Brother (said by female), T�ri,                Cu�uno,            Rai puipu�n.
+Sister (said by male),    P�ni,                Cuirim�to,         Rai p�po.
+Sister (said by female),  N�na,                Taqu�,             Rai ta�re tu.
+Elder brother,            C�rac hua�qui,       Irish�a cuqu��o.
+Younger brother,          S�llca hua�qui,      Noqu�.
+Cousin (said by male),    Ch�spa hua�qui,      Cuaner�no,         Primo�ne.
+Cousin (said by female),  Ch�spa p�ni,         Cuaner�no,         Prima�ne.
+Second cousin,            Ca�lla ch�spa        Cuaner�no
+                            hua�qui,            (or cuaram�,
+                                                relation).
+Third cousin,             C�ru ch�spa          Cuaner�no (or
+                            hua�qui,            cuaram�,
+                                                relation).
+Uncle (father's brother), Yayap�c hua�qui      T�uco.
+                            (or h�chi),[189]
+Uncle (mother's brother), Mamap�c (or caca)    Cu�noro.
+                            t�ri,
+Aunt (father's sister),   Ypa (on Mara�on,     Cuiqu��a.
+                            tia�ne),
+Aunt (mother's sister),   Mamap�c ���a,        Cu�no cu��o.
+Father-in-Law,            Cac�y (of male);
+                            quihuach� (of
+                            female).
+Mother-in-law,            Quihu�c (of male);
+                            quihuach� (of
+                            female).
+Son-in-Law,               M�sha,               Acam�a,            Quiria.
+Daughter-in-law,          Kach�n,              Cuar� r�no.
+Brother-in-law,           Masan�               Cuajinoj�no.
+                            (or cat�y),
+Sister-in-law,            Ypa (or kach�n
+                            p�ra).
+God-son,                  Ch�ri c�shcai
+                       (_or_ ch�scai), (_Not used_).
+God-father,               Shutich�c
+                       (_or_ shut�shca) y�ya,
+                                               Na achiat�no.
+God-mother,               Shutich�c
+                       (_or_ shut�shca) m�ma,
+                                               Noaichoz�no.
+Relation, A�llu,          Cuaram�,             (_Same as brother_).
+Husband, C�sa,            Cuir�n,              Rai-hu�no.
+Wife, Hu�rmi,             Cuirich�n,           Rai-huatur�.
+Widower,                  Hu�ccha c�ri,        Mach�cho.
+Widow,                    Hu�ccha hu�rmi,      Mach�cho.
+Twins,                    Yshcai huach�shca
+                       (_or_ huach�c).    S�rro.
+Hand,                     Maqu�,               Cuicho�c.          Samut�.
+Foot,                     Chaqu�,              Cui�oc�,           Nimut�.
+Fingers,                  Maqu� p�lca,         Canas�,        (_No terms for
+                                                                  Toes, Chaqu�
+                                                                  p�lca, Cui�oc�
+                                                                  canas�.
+                                                                  fingers and
+                                                                  toes_).
+Thumb, (_No separate terms Cumacan�. for thumb and big toe_).
+Nails,                    Silh�,               Anahuach�.
+God,                      Ap�nchi-y�ya
+                       (_God our Father_),     Pi�tzo,            Tupana.
+One,                      Shuc
+                           (_or_ Shug),        Noqu�,             Tiqu�.
+Two,                      Ishcay,              Ammasaniqu�,       Nano�joi.
+Three,                    Qu�nsa,              Imuc� maraqu�
+                                            (_above three they
+                                             have no names, but show
+                                             their fingers; do not count
+                                             above ten_).         Momuh�.
+Four,                     Ch�scu,              Na�unj�ia.
+Five,                     P�shca                                  Tana�jo.
+                           (_or_ p�tchca),
+Six,                      S�cta,                                  Tiqu� �ih�te.
+Seven,                    C�nchis,                                Na�oujai�te.
+Eight,                    P�sac
+                           (_or_ pusag),                          Momunhuai�te.
+Nine,                     Isc�n,                                  Na�auyu�a-�te.
+Ten,                      Ch�nga,                                 Nanjui.
+                                                                 (_Go no
+                                                                  higher._)
+Eleven,                   Ch�nga shug.
+Twelve,                   Ch�nga �shcay, _etc._
+Twenty,                   Ishcay-ch�nga.
+Twenty-one,               Ishcay-ch�nga shug, _etc._
+Thirty,                   Qu�nsa ch�nga.
+One hundred,              P�chac (_or_ p�tzag).
+One thousand,             Guar�nga.
+Ten thousand, (_Would be_ ch�nga-guar�nga; _but they never go
+  over 1000_).
+Ordinal numbers, (Niqu� _is joined to the number:_ e.g., _first is_
+  shug niqu�: _second_, ishc�y niqu�).
+
+[Footnote 189: Qu'ichua on Mara�on, tiui�t.]
+
+(_The Conibos count by twos. Thus, one is_ av�cho; _two_, rab�i.
+_Above two, so many twos, as four is_ rab�i-rab�i; _and six_,
+rab�i-rab�i-rab�i. _Ten is expressed by spreading both hands, and twenty
+by bringing fingers and toes together. Thus the Caribs. Decimal
+numeration is found among all the American aborigines, ancient and
+modern, juxtaposition usually designating multiplication._)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CAMPAS WORDS.
+
+Mother,          Ina.   � Nose,  Aqu�ry.      � Leg,          A�tse.
+Brother (said           � Mouth, Apa-anti.    � Belly,        Am�tse.
+ by male),       Incho. � Hand,  N�co.        � Wrist,        Ac�.
+Brother (said           � Foot,  A�tse-cun�da.� Knee,         Airit�.
+ by female),     Iga    � Lips,  Ach�ra.      � Ankle,        At�nque.
+Sister (said by         � Teeth, Aiqu�.       � Nails,        Ach�te.
+ by male),       Incho. � Hair,  Qu�sti.      � Fly,          Chimb�que.
+Head,            A�tu.  � Neck,  Aqu�nce.     � Musquito,     Ch�tu.
+Eyes,            Oqu�.  � Arm,   Ac�.         � Armadillo     P�cha.
+
+Curasson,  Choich�tes.� Rope,  Piamin�ta.
+Turtle,    Tut�.      � Twine, Quiritar�.
+Monkey,    Tsep�.     � Maize, Ch�nque.
+Cocoa,     Quinb�to.  � One,   Pan�ro.
+Clay,      Quipate�.  � Two,   Pitin�.
+Shirt,     P�pani.    � Three, Pariotohu�y.
+Fire,      Pamar�.    � Four,  Pariopat�ta.
+Hammock,   Quio-ots.  � Five,  Pariotohuaygae.
+
+(_My informant on numerals, a boy, though quite intelligent, could go no
+farther; but the tribe undoubtedly count ten._)
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C.
+
+COMMERCE OF THE AMAZON.
+
+
+I.--VALUE OF PRODUCTS EXPORTED FROM DIFFERENT TOWNS ON THE AMAZON BY THE
+IMPERIAL STEAMERS IN 1867.[190]
+
+[Footnote 190: This Table is taken from the _Relatoria da Companhia de
+Navega�ao e Commercio do Amazonas_, and includes only the commerce by
+the Brazilian steamers and the staple products. The vast amount carried
+by sailing craft and by Peruvian steamers on the Mara�on is unknown to
+us. The number of passengers transported by the steamers in 1867 was
+13,886; receipts from passage, $75,744; from freight, $210,654. In the
+reduction, the milrey has been taken at 50 cts. U.S. currency, which was
+the rate very nearly in 1867. The alquiere (alq.)--.988 of a bushel;
+arr. = arroba of 32 lbs.]
+
+--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+Products.     |Camet�.|Braves.|Macap�.|Gurup�.|Porto  |Prainha.|
+              |       |       |       |       |do Moz.|        |
+--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+Brazil Nuts.  | ....  |   $600|   $400|   $290|    $10|   $16  |
+Cacao.        |$44,054|  1,615|  6,429|  1,345|    257|$1,677  |
+Cattle.       | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | 1,575  |
+Coffee.       | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Copaiba.      | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Cotton, raw.  | ....  | ....  |    100|     90| ....  | ....   |
+Dried Meat.   | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  |   145  |
+Farina.       | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Guarana.      | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Hides.        |  138  |    800|  3,302|    858|    271|   152  |
+Horses.       | ....  |     75|    600| ....  | ....  |   375  |
+India-rubber. |123,460|128,440|306,880| 85,110| 85,780| 1,430  |
+Piassaba.     | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Pirarucu.     | ....  |     10|     20| ....  |    200| 1,805  |
+Sasparilla.   | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  |    60  |
+Tallow.       | ....  |     12|    212| ....  | ....  |    60  |
+Tobacco.      | ....  |     50| ....  |     25| ....  |    25  |
+Tonka Beans.  | ....  | ....  | ....  |     43| ....  | ....   |
+Turtles.      | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Turtle-oil.   | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+
+--------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+Products.     |Mt.    |Santarum.|Obidos.|Villa  |Serpa. |Man�os.|Cudajaz.|
+              |Al�gre.|         |       |Nova.  |       |       |        |
+--------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+Brazil Nuts.  | ....  | $1,334  | $6,938| $2,564| $6,886|$15,010|$1,442  |
+Cacao.        | $86   |$69,111  |172,421| 28,907| 34,462| 38,802| 1,945  |
+Cattle.       | 600   |    550  |     25| ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Coffee.       | ....  |     56  |     33|      7| ....  |    172| ....   |
+Copaiba.      | ....  |     18  |  1,422|  4,383|  8,651|  5,175|   132  |
+Cotton, raw.  | ....  | ....    | ....  | ....  |    103|    293| ....   |
+Dried Meat.   | ....  |  2,744  | 15,699|    167| ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Farina.       | ....  | ....    | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Guarana.      | ....  |  1,620  |    750| 24,240| 14,550|     60| ....   |
+Hides.        | ....  |  2,426  |  4,087|  5,787|  6,290|  2,103| ....   |
+Horses.       |3,225  |  3,975  |  2,100| ....  | ....  |    300| ....   |
+India-rubber. | ....  | 22,670  |  8,640| 20,100|209,400|219,340|30,468  |
+Piassaba.     | ....  | ....    | ....  | ....  | ....  |  7,612| ....   |
+Pirarucu.     |  525  | 18,902  | 31,525| 40,827| 21,025| 79,055| 8,273  |
+Sasparilla.   | ....  |  2,376  |  1,392|    108|    372| 33,708|   207  |
+Tallow.       | ....  |    200  |  1,484|  1,368|  4,164|     16| ....   |
+Tobacco.      | ....  | ....    | ....  |    225|  1,187|    237| ....   |
+Tonka Beans.  | ....  | ....    |    120|  1,070|      5|      9| ....   |
+Turtles.      | ....  | ....    |     70| ....  |      2|     76|   136  |
+Turtle-oil.   | ....  | ....    |    100| ....  |      5|  8,220|   216  |
+--------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+
+--------------+------+-----+-----+----------+------+----------+
+Products.     |Coary.|Ega. |Fonte|Touantina.|S.    |Tabatluga.|
+              |      |     |Boa. |          |Paulo.|          |
+--------------+------+-----+-----+----------+------+----------+
+Brazil Nuts.  | $498 | $325| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Cacao.        |5,192 |4,907| $957|   $365   |  $310|   $227   |
+Cattle.       | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Coffee.       | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... |     25   |
+Copaiba.      | .... |1,559|  123| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Cotton, raw.  | .... | ....|    1|      6   | .... |    232   |
+Dried Meat.   | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Farina.       |   80 |   37|   15|    105   |    10| ....     |
+Guarana.      | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Hides.        | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Horses.       | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+India-rubber. |7,644 |6,808|5,460|  2,252   |9,155 | 15,054   |
+Piassaba.     | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Pirarucu.     |5,944 |6,205|7,572|  6,768   |2,018 |    920   |
+Sasparilla.   |  943 |5,163|4,876|  5,209   |2,334 |  3,703   |
+Tallow.       | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Tobacco.      |   48 |  300| ....| ....     |   12 |    360   |
+Tonka Beans.  | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Turtles.      |   39 |   33|   10|     50   |    3 |      3   |
+Turtle-oil.   |2,382 |3,123|1,693|  1,646   |  298 |    335   |
+--------------+------+-----+-----+----------+------+----------+
+
+--------------+-------------+------+---------+
+Products.     |Quantity.    |Mean  |Total    |
+              |             |Price.|Value.   |
+--------------+-------------+------+---------+
+Brazil Nuts.  | 18,397 alq. | $2.00|  $35,794|
+Cacao.        |314,327 arr. |  3.00|  942,981|
+Cattle.       |    110      | 25.00|    2,750|
+Coffee.       |     79 arr. |  3.70|      292|
+Copaiba.      | 72,030 lbs. |   .30|    2,160|
+Cotton, raw.  |    653 arr. |  1.25|      816|
+Dried Meat.   |  6,821  "   |  2.75|   18,757|
+Farina.       |     90 alq. |  2.50|      247|
+Guarana.      |  1,374 arr. | 30.00|   41,220|
+Hides.        | 11,871      |  2.00|   23,742|
+Horses.       |    142      | 75.00|   10,650|
+India-rubber. |128,955 arr. | 10.00|1,289,550|
+Piassaba.     |  7,612  "   |  1.00|    7,612|
+Pirarucu.     | 94,316  "   |  2.50|  235,790|
+Sasparilla.   |  5,119  "   | 11.80|   60,442|
+Tallow.       |  1,893  "   |  4.00|    7,572|
+Tobacco.      |    205  "   | 12.23|    2,525|
+Tonka Beans.  |    260  "   |  4.80|    1,248|
+Turtles.      |    331      |  1.80|      596|
+Turtle-oil.   |  3,762 j'rs.|  4.75|   17,760|
+--------------+-------------+------+---------+
+
+II. ARTICLES EXPORTED FROM PAR� TO THE UNITED STATES IN 1860.
+
+Annatto                  lbs.    64,832
+Balsam Copaiba             "     89,670
+Cacao                      "    145,888
+Copper, old                "      1,171
+Hides, wet                 "    616,172
+   "   dry                 "      4,503
+Nuts, Brazil               "     23,582
+  "     "   unshelled      "     19,481
+Piassaba                 lbs.     3,488
+Rubber, fine               "  2,394,656
+  "     mixed              "     69,120
+  "     coarse             "    420,000
+Skins, Deer                "     64,406
+Tapioca                    "    118,080
+Tonka Beans                "     18,298
+
+III. ARTICLES IMPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES TO PAR� IN 1860.
+
+Axes                      dozens,        1,826
+Candles                    boxes,          594
+Chairs                    dozens,          333
+Codfish                    drums,        1,943
+Clocks                    number,          660
+Combs                     dozens,        7,353
+Domestics                package,        2,370
+Drugs                       "              435
+Flour                    barrels,       16,755
+Fire-crackers              boxes,        1,800
+Gunny-bags                number,       13,000
+Gunpowder                   kegs,        2,150
+Hams                     tierces,           38
+Hardware                packages,          201
+Hats, Palm-leaf            cases,          506
+Knives                    dozens,        2,195
+Lard                    packages,        2,709
+Lumber                      feet,       75,955
+Nails                       kegs,          588
+Matches                    cases,          174
+Oars                      number,          592
+Pepper                      bags,          190
+Rosin                    barrels,        1,556
+Rubber and other Shoes     pairs,        3,398
+Shooks (box)              number,       16,428
+Soap                       boxes,        6,891
+Specie, in Gold          dollars,      113,827
+Straw Paper                reams,       12,903
+Soda-biscuit         12-lb. tins,        5,954
+Saltpetre                   kegs,           95
+Tea                       chests,          235
+Tea                        boxes,          533
+Tar and Pitch            barrels,          329
+Tobacco                    boxes,          257
+Twine, Cotton             pounds,       13,322
+Tortoise-shell              "              299-1/2
+
+IV. DUTIES ON PRINCIPAL IMPORTS FROM UNITED STATES AT PAR�.
+
+Axes and Hatchets              30 reys per pound.
+Biscuit, Soda                 400       "  arroba.
+Brooms                        600       "  dozen.
+Chairs, cane-seat           1,000       "  article.
+  "        rocking          3,000       "    "
+  "    "           extra    6,000       "    "
+Cinnamon, Ceylon              500       "  pound.
+Combs, rubber                 600       "    "
+  "         ivory           2,000       "    "
+Cotton Goods                   90       "  sq. vara.
+  "      "  colored twills    150       "    "
+Candles                       240          pound.
+Cigars                      1,200       "    "
+Cordage                        50       "    "
+Dirks, ordinary             6,000       "  article.
+   "   extra               12,000       "    "
+Flour                         150       "  arroba.
+Hats, Palm-leaf.              180       "  article.
+Hams                           70       "  pound.
+Homoeopathic Medicine       300       "  ounce.
+Knives                        250       "  article.
+Lard                        1,500
+Matting, India                240       "  pound.
+Nails, to two inches           40       "    "
+   "     over   "              20       "    "
+Padlocks, brass               250       "    "
+ "  iron                      180       "    "
+Pearl Barley                  400       "  arroba.
+Pepper, India                  70       "  pound.
+Plows                        free.
+Pork                          600       "  arroba.
+Powder                        200       "  pound.
+Paper, Straw                   30       "    "
+Pilot Bread                   150       "  arroba.
+Roman Cement                   50       "    "
+Rosin                       1,200
+Sieves, iron wire              30       "  pound.
+  "     brass                  50       "    "
+Shoes, Rubber                 400       "    "
+Store Trucks                  900       "  article.
+Shooks, boxes                 400       "  arroba.
+Soap, Yellow                   30       "  pound.
+Scales, simple                120       "    "
+Tar and Pitch                 200       "  arroba.
+Tortoise-shell              2,500       "  pound.
+Tea                           450       "    "
+Twine, Cotton                 300       "    "
+Trunks, 2 to 4 palms        2,700       "  article.
+   "    over 4   "          3,600       "    "
+Tobacco, chewing            4,800       "  arroba.
+   "     cut                9,600       "  arroba.
+
+This Tariff went into operation February 23, 1861.
+
+
+
+
+ADDENDA.
+
+
+_Orchilla_, page 29.--This valuable lichen comes chiefly from Tumbez. It
+is not found on the rocks, like the orchilla of the Old World, but grows
+on various trees. The foliage of a tree disappears when the orchilla
+commences. The sea air is indispensable to its production, as it is
+found only near the coast.
+
+_Religious Intolerance_, p. 91.--The expression "Protestant dogs" has
+since been publicly repeated by a priest in a sermon, who told the
+people to confess, or they would be treated in a similar way. It called
+forth a remonstrance from Mr. Hamilton, the British Minister, directed
+to the archbishop, declaring such conduct inhuman and unchristian. The
+Pope's Nuncio left Quito for good in July, 1869.
+
+_Fish in the Quito Valley_, p. 107.--Dr. Gill informs me that the true
+name of this little fish is _Cyclopium Humboldtii_, Swainson. It belongs
+to the sub-family Trachelypterin�, under Silurid�.
+
+_Hummers' Nests_, p. 108.--They are not always of a lengthened form, as
+the text would imply, but are sometimes quite shallow. They are
+invariably lined with the softest vegetable materials and covered with
+moss. The nests are not as compact as those of our Northern hummer, and,
+so far as we observed, are never shingled with flat lichens.
+
+_Humboldt in 1802_, p. 156.--He spent five months in the valley of
+Quito.
+
+_Pebas Fossils_, p. 282.--In a letter to the author, Mr. Darwin says:
+"Your discovery of marine shells high up the Amazon possesses _extreme_
+interest, not only in itself, but as one more most striking instance how
+rash it is to assert that any deposit is not a marine formation because
+it does not contain fossils. As for myself, I never believed for a
+moment in Agassiz's idea of the origin of the Amazonian formation."
+Agassiz "candidly confesses (Lyell's _Principles_, i., 468) that he
+failed to discover any of those proofs which we are accustomed to
+regard, even in temperate latitudes, as essential for the establishment
+of the former existence of glaciers where they are now no more. No
+glaciated pebbles, or far-transported angular blocks with polished and
+striated sides; no extensive surface of rock, smooth, and traversed by
+rectilinear furrows, were observed." The fossiliferous bed at Pebas is
+as plainly _in situ_ as the Medina sandstone at Genesee Falls.
+
+_Tropical Flowers_, p. 292.--"During twelve years spent amid the
+grandest tropical vegetation, I have seen nothing comparable to the
+effect produced on our landscapes by gorse, broom, heather, wild
+hyacinths, hawthorns, purple orchises, and buttercups."--Wallace's
+_Malay Archipelago_.
+
+_Coca-plant_, p. 293.--The engraving conveys the impression that the
+leaves are parallel-veined; but the coca is a dicotyledon, with the
+under surface of the leaf strongly marked with veins, of which two, in
+addition to the midrib, run parallel with the margin.
+
+_Pedrero_, Map.--This town on the Rio Negro is also written _Pedreira_.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Adobe dwellings, page 46.
+
+Agassiz, Mount, 250.
+  Prof., on the geology of the Amazonian valley, 280, 282, 347.
+
+Agriculture on the Amazon, 243.
+    Andes, 75.
+
+Aground on the Amazon, 239.
+
+Aguano, 201.
+
+Aguardiente, 175.
+
+Alcalde's house, 202.
+
+Alligators, 35, 296.
+
+Almeyrim Hills, 252.
+
+Aloe, American, 100.
+
+Alpargates, 70.
+
+Altar, volcano of, 150.
+
+Amazon River, annual rise, 274.
+    birds on, 306.
+    cetaceans, 299.
+    climate, 273, 284.
+    commerce, 277.
+    current, 273.
+    delta, 272.
+    depth, 274.
+    etymology, 278.
+    expeditions, 277.
+    first view of, 226.
+    fishes, 295.
+    foreign vessels on, 276.
+    insects, 300.
+    life within, 295.
+    magnitude, 264, 272, 278.
+    natural canals, 265.
+    navigation, 276.
+    reptiles, 296.
+    scenery, 236.
+    source, 264.
+    tints, 272.
+    tributaries, 266, 271.
+    volume, 273.
+  Valley, 280.
+    creation of, 117.
+    forest, 287.
+    fruits, 289.
+    geology, 281, 347.
+    minerals, 286.
+    slope, 280.
+    soil, 286.
+    trees, 289.
+    zoology, 284.
+
+Amazonian Indians, 316.
+
+Ambato, 52, 153.
+
+America, the continent of vegetation, 103.
+
+America, South, geology of, 114.
+
+Amphisboena, 194.
+
+Amusements in Quito, 80.
+
+Anacondas, 222.
+
+Andean chain, 119.
+
+Andes, as a geological boundary, 207.
+  birds on the, 105, 146.
+  equipped for the, 37.
+  first sight of the, 33.
+  heart of the, 48.
+  last view of the, 214.
+  of Ecuador, 121.
+  reptiles on the, 107.
+  rise of the, 115.
+  sinking of the, 138.
+  summit of the, 49, 134.
+  valleys of the, 130.
+  views from the, 45, 134, 141.
+
+Anguteros Indians, 222.
+
+Animal life, dearth of, 188.
+
+Animals on the Napo, 207.
+
+Antisana, volcano of, 144, 180.
+  hacienda, 144.
+
+Ants, battle with, 225.
+  on the Amazon, 300.
+  on the Napo, 194.
+
+Apothecaries in Quito, 93.
+
+Archidona, 191.
+
+Architecture in Quito, 78.
+
+Arenal, 49.
+
+Armadillo, 310.
+
+Army of Ecuador, 87.
+
+Arrieros, 36.
+
+Arrows, Indian, 321.
+
+Arts in Quito, 78.
+
+Ascending the Andes, 43, 96, 144.
+
+Astronomy on the Andes, 97.
+
+Atahuallpa, 56.
+
+Atmosphere of Quito, 97.
+
+
+Baeza, 187.
+
+Balsas, 32.
+
+Bamboos on the Napo, 220.
+
+Banana, 34.
+
+Ba�os, 149.
+
+Barometric measurements, 337.
+  anomaly, 241, 226.
+  variations at Quito, 92.
+
+Barra, 243.
+
+Bartholomew, St., 54.
+
+Bats, 205, 312.
+
+Bears, 105.
+
+Bed, Andean, 181.
+
+Bees on the Amazon, 303.
+  of Quito, 108.
+  on the Napo, 207.
+
+Beetles on the Amazon, 303.
+  on the Napo, 206.
+
+Bells of Quito, 89.
+
+"Big-ear" Indians, 222.
+
+Birds on the Amazon, 306.
+  coloration of, in the tropics, 105.
+  moulting of, 285.
+  of South America, 105.
+
+Blow-guns, 170.
+
+Boa-constrictor, 223.
+
+Bodegas, 35.
+
+Botany of South America, 286.
+
+Brazilian etiquette, 235, 246.
+  frontier, 233.
+  steamers, 234.
+
+Brazilians, 323.
+
+Brazil-nut trees, 290.
+
+Bread-tree, 34.
+
+Breves, 254.
+
+Buildings, Andean, 46.
+
+Bull-baits, 80.
+
+Burial Customs, 91, 321.
+  at Quito, 91.
+
+Butter, 251.
+
+Butterflies on the Amazon, 302.
+  on the Napo, 206.
+
+Buzzards, 29.
+
+
+Caballococha, 232.
+
+Cacao, 30, 290.
+
+Cajabamba, 153.
+
+Calabash-tree, 289.
+
+Camino Real, 45.
+
+Camellones, 43.
+
+Camindo on the Napo, 226.
+
+C�mpas Indians, 322.
+
+Can�los, 172.
+
+Canoe-life on the Napo, 213.
+
+Canoe-paths, 265.
+
+Canoes on the Napo, 200.
+
+Capybara, 310.
+
+Caraguairazo, 132.
+
+Carnival, 81.
+
+Carranqui, 157.
+
+Cassiquiari Canal, 267.
+
+Cathedral of Guayaquil, 26.
+  of Quito, 66.
+
+Cattle on the Andes, 145.
+
+Caucho-tree, 288.
+
+Cayambi, 143.
+
+Cedar on the Amazon, 289.
+
+Cemetery, Protestant, 91.
+
+Century-plant, 100.
+
+Cerro, 33.
+
+Cetaceans in the Amazon, 299.
+
+Chicha, 167, 210.
+
+Chillo hacienda, 155.
+
+Chimbo, Valley of, 46.
+
+Chimborazo, 33, 44, 49, 127.
+
+Chimneys, absence of, 44.
+
+Chirimoya, 101.
+
+Chuquipoyo, 51.
+
+Chuquiragua, 100.
+
+Cig�na, 206, 308.
+
+Cinchona, 47.
+
+Cinnamon, American, 172.
+
+Circumcision, 322.
+
+Civility, Ecuadorian, 35, 71.
+
+Civilization on the Amazon, 236.
+
+Clay-eating, 229.
+  formation of the Amazon, 225.
+
+Climate of Guayaquil, 28.
+  of Quito, 91.
+  of the Amazon, 238, 251.
+
+Coary, River, 242, 269.
+
+Coca-chewing, 291, 348.
+
+Coca village, 207.
+
+Cochineal, 108.
+
+Cock-fighting, 35, 80.
+
+Cocoa-palm, 35.
+
+Coffee, 31, 259, 290.
+
+Colleges of Ecuador, 79.
+
+Combativeness on the Andes, 95.
+
+Commerce on the Amazon, 342.
+
+Compressed heads, 171.
+
+Compulsory commerce, 195.
+
+Condor, 106, 131.
+
+Cones of volcanoes, 122.
+
+Conibos Indians, 321.
+
+Cookery in Quito, 44, 84.
+
+Copal-gum, 193.
+
+Cordillera, 33, 126.
+
+Cosanga River, 189.
+
+Costumes of Amazonian Indians, 239, 241.
+
+Cotocach�, village, 154.
+  volcano, 142.
+
+Cotopaxi, 55, 146.
+  eruptions of, 125.
+
+Cotton-mills, 77, 155.
+
+Cow-tree, 288.
+
+Craft on the Napo, 209.
+
+Craters, deep, 133.
+
+Crocodiles, 296.
+
+Cudaj�, 242.
+
+Cuenca, 152.
+
+Cunchebamba, 53.
+
+Curaray River, 224.
+
+Curassow, 308.
+
+Curi-urcu, 191.
+
+Currency of Par�, 260.
+  Quito, 75.
+
+Cuzco ladies, 82.
+
+
+Dangers in South America, 331.
+
+Darwin on the geology of the Pampas, 282.
+
+Darwin on the geology of the Amazon, 347.
+
+Debt of Ecuador, 87.
+
+Deer on the Napo, 226.
+  fossil, 154.
+
+Descent into Pichincha, 139.
+
+Discipline on the Napo, 204.
+
+Diseases on the Andes, 93, 331.
+
+Dogs on the Andes, 95.
+
+Dolphins, 299.
+
+Dragon-flies, 302.
+
+Dress in Quito, 69.
+
+Drunkenness at Quito, 146.
+
+
+Earthquake at Ibarra, 157.
+  at Riobamba, 153.
+  effect of, on climate, 91.
+  experience of, 163.
+  theories of, 161.
+
+Eastern Cordillera, 179.
+
+Eciton ants, 301.
+
+Ecuador, army, 87.
+  Congress, 86.
+  debt, 87.
+  extent, 85.
+  flora and fauna, 103.
+  government, 86.
+  population, 85.
+  religion, 89.
+  repudiation, 86.
+  revenue, 87.
+  revolutions, 86.
+  supreme court, 87.
+  volcanoes, 122, 148.
+
+Ecuadorian cooking, 44, 84.
+
+Education on the Andes, 79.
+
+Edwards, George, 195.
+
+Ega, 239.
+
+Eggs of the alligator, 297.
+  of the turtle, 297.
+
+El Dorado, 183.
+
+Elephant at high altitudes, 155.
+
+Equator, mean temperature, 262.
+
+Expenses of travel, 327.
+
+
+Farina, 235, 291.
+
+Ferns, tree, 38.
+
+Fever remedies, 331.
+
+Fire-flies, 25.
+
+Fish in the Napo, 226.
+  in Quito Valley, 107, 347.
+  in the tropics, 329.
+
+Fishes ejected from volcanoes 107, 132, 143.
+  of the Amazon, 295.
+
+Fishing with barbasco, 169.
+
+Flamingoes, 308.
+
+Flowers on the Amazon, 292, 347.
+  on the Andes, 50, 102, 136.
+
+Fonte Boa, 239.
+
+Forest on the Napo, 216, 219.
+  trail, 182, 186.
+  tropical, 36, 38, 287.
+
+Fossil bones on the Andes, 154.
+
+Fossils in the Amazon Valley, 282, 347.
+
+Frogs in Quito Valley, 107.
+  of the Amazon, 304.
+
+Fruits of Quito, 101.
+  on the Amazon, 289.
+
+
+Gal�pagos Islands, 105, 124.
+
+Gentians, 103.
+
+Geology of South America, 114.
+  of the Amazon Valley, 225, 347.
+
+Glacial theory of Agassiz, 282, 347.
+
+Glaciers, absence of, 131.
+
+Glimpse of the Andes, 33.
+
+Go�tre, 94.
+
+Gold on the Napo, 196.
+
+Grapes on the Amazon, 234.
+
+Grebe on the Andes, 146.
+
+Guacamayo Mountain, 190.
+
+Guamani, 144, 179.
+
+Gu�pulo, 178.
+
+Guarani race, 316.
+
+Guarana, 290.
+
+Guaranda, 46.
+
+Guayaquil, city and people, 25.
+  climate, 28.
+  commerce, 29.
+  history, 28.
+  market, 30.
+
+Guayas River, scenes on, 32.
+
+Guayusa tea, 193.
+
+Gurup�, 253.
+
+Gypsy-birds, 223.
+
+
+Hammocks, 202.
+
+Hats of Guayaquil, 31.
+
+Hatuntaqui, battle of, 56, 154.
+
+Hauxwell, Mr., 227, 229.
+
+Health in the tropics, 331.
+  on the Andes, 93.
+
+Heart of the Andes, 48.
+
+High altitudes, experience at, 96, 142.
+
+Himalayas, vegetation on, 50, 100.
+
+Horns, blowing of, 209.
+
+Horses, extinct species of, 154.
+  for the Andes, 36.
+
+Hospitality, Ecuadorian, 35, 71.
+
+Hotels, Andean, 40, 53.
+  in Guayaquil, 328.
+  in Quito, 329.
+
+Howling monkeys, 223, 313.
+
+Huallaga River, 266.
+
+Humboldt, 136, 156, 348.
+
+Hummers in Quito, 107, 347.
+  on the Amazon, 307.
+
+Hybrids, 43.
+
+Hypsometric zones, 50.
+
+
+Ibarra, 157.
+
+Ibis, 308.
+
+Ida Pfeiffer, 53.
+
+Iguana, 304.
+
+Imbabura, 143, 154.
+
+Immorality of priests, 89.
+
+Incarial relics, 109, 112, 124.
+
+Incas in Quito, 56.
+
+Indian character, 153, 203, 243.
+  dwellings, 78.
+  peons, 36, 183.
+  savages, 221.
+  villages, 237.
+
+Indians, Amazonian, 315.
+  Andean, 69, 109, 111.
+  as travelers, 186.
+
+India-rubber-tree, 288.
+
+In memoriam, 334.
+
+Insect pests, 224.
+
+Insects, Amazon, 206, 300.
+  in Quito, 108.
+
+Iquitos, 231.
+
+Itulcachi, 178.
+
+
+Jacamars, 308.
+
+Ja�anas, 308.
+
+Jacapas, 308.
+
+Jaguars, 311.
+
+Japur� River, 267, 320.
+
+Javar� River, 269, 320.
+
+Jesuits, 89, 321.
+
+Jiggers, 108.
+
+J�varos Indians, 165, 171.
+
+Jur�s Indians, 319.
+
+Juru� River, 269, 319.
+
+Jutah� River, 269.
+
+
+Lady travelers on the Amazon, 236.
+
+La Mona, 38.
+
+Lauguage of Ecuador, 71.
+
+Latacunga, 53.
+
+Lava, absence of, 122.
+  streams, 144.
+
+Lepers, 55, 94.
+
+Lianas, 188.
+
+Lice-eating, 181.
+
+Life within the Amazon, 295.
+  around the Amazon, 300.
+
+Lignite on the Amazon, 225, 283.
+
+Lion, American, 105.
+
+Living on the Amazon, 235.
+
+Lizards of the Amazon, 304.
+
+Llama, 104.
+  fossil, 154.
+
+Llanganati Mountains, 149.
+
+Locro, 44.
+
+Loja, 152.
+
+Longevity on the Andes, 92.
+
+Loreto, 232.
+
+Lotteries in Quito, 90.
+
+Lungs of mountaineers, 95.
+
+Lyell on the Valley of the Amazon, 347.
+
+
+Macaws, 306.
+
+Machachi, 55.
+
+Madeira River, 269.
+
+Mama�, 234.
+
+Mamelucos, 239.
+
+Mammals on the Amazon, 309.
+
+Man�os, 243.
+
+Manati, 215, 299.
+
+Mandioca, 291.
+
+Mango, 34.
+
+Manufactures of Quito, 77.
+
+Mara�on River, 227.
+  steamers, 230.
+
+Maravilla, 48.
+
+Market of Quito, 77.
+
+Mashka, 36.
+
+Maspa, 186.
+
+Masquerade, Indian, 110.
+
+Mastodon, Andean, 154.
+
+Mat�-mat� turtle, 299.
+
+Maucallacta, 232.
+
+Mauh�s Indians, 318.
+
+Mazan River, 226.
+
+Meat, preservation of, 222.
+
+Merchants of Quito, 74.
+
+Mica Lake, 146.
+
+Milk on the Andes, 179.
+
+Milky Way at Quito, 98.
+
+Mixed races, 68, 322.
+
+Mocha, 52.
+
+Mongruba-tree, 288.
+
+Monkey meat, 203.
+
+Monkeys, 223, 313.
+
+Monta�a of Peru, 231.
+
+Monte Al�gre, 252.
+
+Mont�ca flies, 224.
+
+Moreno, President, 54, 86, 138.
+
+Mountaineers, 43, 69, 95.
+
+Mountains on the Amazon, 252.
+
+Moyabamba, 231.
+
+Mules, 43.
+
+Muleteers, 36.
+
+Mundurucus Indians, 318.
+
+M�ras Indians, 318.
+
+Music in the forest, 205.
+
+Musquitoes, 224, 228, 303.
+
+
+Napo country, 164.
+  diseases, 198.
+  fish, 226.
+  Indians, 165, 197, 180, 210.
+  journey, 174.
+  navigation, 197, 209.
+  productions, 196.
+  rapids, 200.
+  river, 197, 199, 227, 268.
+  scenery, 216, 220.
+  tea, 193.
+  turtles, 226.
+  village, 194.
+  wilderness, 188, 191.
+
+Nauta, 231.
+
+Negroes on the Amazon, 247, 323.
+
+Negro River, 242, 266, 319.
+
+Newspapers in Ecuador, 27, 80.
+
+Nocturnal music, 205.
+
+
+Obidos, 248.
+
+Obsidian, 124, 148.
+
+Orchids, 216.
+
+Orchilla, 347.
+
+Orejones, 222.
+
+Orellana's expedition, 183, 207.
+
+Organ-bird, 308.
+
+Oriente, 164.
+
+Otovalo, 157.
+
+Outfit for travel, 327.
+
+
+Paita, raised beach at, 115.
+
+Paja, or Paramo grass, 49.
+
+Palms, cocoa, 35.
+  on the Amazon, 287.
+  on the Napo, 219.
+
+Palo de cruz, 228.
+
+Pampas, geology of, 282.
+
+Panama hats, 31.
+
+Pa�uelon, 69.
+
+Papallacta, 177, 181.
+
+Papaya-tree, 202, 234.
+
+Par� City, buildings, 257.
+  climate, 262.
+  commerce, 259.
+  currency, 260.
+  government, 261.
+  people, 258.
+  view of, 254.
+
+Para River, 254, 271.
+
+Paramo, 33.
+
+Parrots, 206, 306.
+
+Pass�s Indians, 319.
+
+Pastassa River, 150, 268.
+
+Pebas, 227.
+  fossils, 282, 347.
+
+Peccaries, 221, 310.
+
+Peons, 36, 183.
+
+Peruvian bark, 47.
+  steamers, 230.
+
+Pfeiffer, Ida, 53.
+
+Piassaba palm, 289.
+
+Pichincha volcano, 124, 133, 140.
+
+Pigs, mode of dressing, 49.
+
+Pirarucu fish, 295.
+
+Piums, 224.
+
+Pizarro at Coca, 183, 207.
+
+Plantain, 34.
+
+Poison antidote, 332.
+
+Politeness, Ecuadorian, 35, 71.
+
+Politics in Quito, 86.
+
+Polylepis-trees, 50, 179.
+
+Poncho, 69.
+
+Porphyroid trachytes, 124.
+
+Porpoises, 299.
+
+Porto do Moz, 253.
+
+Potatoes on the Andes, 101.
+
+Potato soup, 44, 50.
+
+Prayinha, 253.
+
+President's order, 176.
+
+Priests of Quito, 89.
+
+Protestant cemetery, 90, 334.
+
+Puma, 105.
+
+Pumice, 148.
+  on the Amazon, 268.
+
+Puna, 96.
+
+Purus Indians, 318.
+  River, 269.
+
+
+Quadrupeds on the Amazon, 309.
+
+Quartz, paucity of, 122.
+
+Quito agriculture, 75.
+  amusements, 80.
+  architecture, 78.
+  arts, 78.
+  atmosphere, 96.
+  bells, 89.
+  birds, 106.
+  bull-baits, 80, 94.
+  butterflies, 108.
+  capital, 66.
+  carnival, 81.
+  climate, 91.
+  cock-fights, 81.
+  cookery, 84.
+  currency, 75.
+  diseases, 93.
+  dress, 69.
+  drunkenness, 142.
+  education, 79.
+  fashions, 70.
+  fish, 108.
+  flour, 98, 101.
+  history, 56, 152.
+  insects, 108.
+  ladies, 70, 81.
+  manufactures, 77.
+  market, 77.
+  masquerades, 81.
+  merchants, 74.
+  newspapers, 80.
+  politics, 86.
+  population, 68.
+  potatoes, 101.
+  prices, 329.
+  Protestant cemetery, 90.
+  religion, 87.
+  reptiles, 107.
+  scenery, 178.
+  servants, 83.
+  situation, 55, 59, 62.
+  streets and buildings, 64, 65.
+  street scene, 60.
+  suburbs, 55, 59.
+  under the Incas, 56.
+  under the Spaniards, 57.
+  Valley, 51, 55, 73, 149, 152.
+    arch�ology of, 109, 112.
+
+Quitonians, character of the, 71, 86.
+  primeval, 109.
+
+
+Rain-fall at Quito, 93.
+   line on the Andes, 45.
+
+Raposa, 233, 311.
+
+Regularity of nature, 92.
+
+Religion of Ecuador, 87.
+
+Religious intolerance, 91, 347.
+
+Reptiles at Quito, 107.
+  on the Amazon, 296.
+
+Revenue of Ecuador, 87.
+
+Ride down the Andes, 180.
+
+Rimos Indians, 322.
+
+Riobamba, 150, 153.
+
+River systems of South America, 118, 275.
+
+Roads on the Andes, 43, 53, 74.
+
+Rodents on the Amazon, 309.
+
+Romanism on the Andes, 88.
+
+Rose of the Andes, 101.
+
+Routes across South America, 325.
+
+Rumi�agui, 146.
+
+
+Salt on the Andes, 193.
+
+San Antonio, 233.
+
+Sand-flies, 224.
+
+Sangai volcano, 150.
+
+San Paulo, 237.
+
+Santarem, 251.
+
+Santa Rosa, 201.
+
+Sapucaya nut, 290.
+
+Sarsaparilla, 224.
+
+Sa�ba ants, 194, 300.
+
+Savages on the Napo, 221.
+
+Savaneta, 40.
+
+Scenery on the Amazon, 253.
+
+Sea-cows, 215.
+
+Serpa, 247.
+
+Shells in Quito Valley, 109.
+  in the Amazon Valley, 293.
+
+Sierra, 33.
+
+Silk-cotton-tree, 220, 289.
+
+Sincholagua, 146.
+
+Sloths, 310.
+
+Slow-worm on the Napo, 194.
+
+Snakes, scarcity of, 195, 332.
+
+Snakes on the Amazon, 305.
+
+Snow at high altitudes, 138.
+  limit in the Andes, 125.
+
+Soil in the Amazon Valley, 286.
+
+Solimoens, 237.
+
+South America, geology of, 114.
+  American fauna and flora, 103.
+  American Indians, 315.
+
+Southerners on the Amazon, 246, 251.
+
+Spanish character, 328.
+
+Spanish language, 71.
+
+Spanish Republicanism, 58.
+
+Spiders on the Amazon, 304.
+
+Stars at Quito, 97.
+
+Staunton, Col., burial of, 91, 334.
+
+Steam on the Amazon, 230, 234, 330.
+
+Storm on the Napo, 213.
+
+Sugar on the Amazon, 252.
+  on the Andes, 329
+
+Sugar-cane on the Amanzon, 291.
+
+Suno, 205.
+
+Superstition, 54.
+
+
+Tabatinga, 233.
+
+Table-lands of the Old World, 152.
+
+Tablon, 178.
+
+Tacunga, 53
+
+Tambillo ridge, 55.
+
+Tambo on the mountains, 40.
+
+Tapajos River, 270.
+
+Tapir, 104, 310.
+
+Teff� River, 269.
+
+Temperature, correspondence of altitude and latitude as to, 145.
+
+Termite ants, 301.
+
+Thermometer, variations of, 92.
+
+Tide on the Amazon, 275.
+
+Timber on the Amazon, 289.
+
+Tiupullo, 54.
+
+Toads of the Amazon, 304.
+
+Tobacco on the Amazon, 291.
+  use of, by the Napos, 197.
+
+Tocant�ns River, 271.
+
+Tolling-bell bird, 307.
+
+Tortoise-shell wood, 289.
+
+Toucan, 206, 306.
+
+Trade wind, 118.
+
+Trail in the forest, 182.
+
+Trapiche, 207.
+
+Traveling in South America, 325.
+
+Trees in Quito Valley, 100.
+  on the Amazon, 288.
+
+Trogon, 308.
+
+Tropical flowers, 292, 347.
+  forest, 287.
+
+Tropical vegetation, 34, 38, 188, 190, 219.
+
+Tuc�na Indians, 320.
+
+Tucker, Admiral, 232.
+
+Tunant�ns, 237.
+
+Tunguragua volcano, 149.
+
+Tupi race, 316.
+
+Turtles in the Amazon, 297.
+  in the Napo, 215, 220.
+
+
+Uaup�s Indians, 319.
+
+Ucayali Indians, 321.
+  River, 268.
+
+Umbrella bird, 307.
+
+Upper Amazon towns, 231.
+
+Urar� poison, 228.
+
+
+Valediction on the Napo, 204.
+
+Valley of the Amazon, 280.
+  of the Andes, 130.
+  of the Chimbo, 46.
+  of Quito, 51, 55, 73, 149, 151, 155.
+
+Vanilla on the Napo, 196.
+
+Vegetation in the tropics 34, 38.
+  on the Amazon, 287.
+  zones of, on the Andes, 50.
+
+Verdure on the Amazon, 285.
+
+
+Veta, 96.
+
+Victoria Regia, 292.
+
+Views from the Andes, 45.
+
+Villa Nora, 248.
+
+Vocabularies Indian, 339.
+
+Volcanoes of Ecuador, 122, 125, 151.
+
+
+Washerwomen of Quito, 83.
+
+Water-beetles, 295.
+  carriers, 61.
+
+Water-shed of the Atlantic and Pacific, 54.
+
+Water-snakes, 296.
+
+Wayside inn. 40.
+
+White ants, 301.
+
+Wisse, M., descent into Pichincha, 138.
+
+Wool, Andean, 104.
+
+
+Xing� River, 271.
+
+
+Yagua Indians, 320.
+
+Yana-urcu, 142.
+
+Ypad�, 291.
+
+Yuca, 167.
+
+Yurimaguas, 231.
+
+
+Z�paro Indians, 165, 170.
+
+Zodiacal light, 98.
+
+Zones of vegetation, 50.
+
+Zoology of the Napo, 206.
+
+Zoology of South America, 286.
+
+Zoological provinces of Amazonia, 300.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Andes and the Amazon, by James Orton
+
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Andes And The Amazon: Or, Across The Continent Of South America, by James Orton, M.A..
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Andes and the Amazon, by James Orton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Andes and the Amazon
+       Across the Continent of South America
+
+Author: James Orton
+
+Release Date: September 8, 2006 [EBook #19209]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was made using scans of public domain works
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+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p><a name="Map" id="Map"></a></p>
+<table summary="note" border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      Transcriber's note: The accentuation and the spelling of the
+original has been retained.<br /> This may at times seem variable (e.g., manati and manat&iacute;).<br />
+Certain of the images may be viewed in a full-screen, larger size by clicking on their captions.<br />
+The illustration entitled, "Map of Equatorial America" was not available for inclusion.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center"><a name="palms" id="palms"></a>
+<img src="images/004.png" alt="" /><br />PALMS ON THE MIDDLE AMAZON.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<br /><br /></p>
+
+<h3>THE</h3>
+<h1>ANDES AND THE AMAZON:</h1>
+<h4>OR,</h4>
+<h2>ACROSS THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA.</h2>
+<h2>By JAMES ORTON, M.A.<br /><br /></h2>
+<p class="center smcap">PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN VASSAR COLLEGE, POUGHKEEPSIE, N.Y., AND CORRESPONDING
+MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, PHILADELPHIA.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>WITH A NEW MAP OF EQUATORIAL AMERICA AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.</i></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>NEW YORK:</i><br />
+HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,</h3>
+<h4>FRANKLIN SQUARE<br />
+1870.</h4>
+
+<p class="center">
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by<br />
+<span class="smcap">Harper &amp; Brothers</span>,<br />
+In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the<br />
+Southern District of New York.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 5%;" />
+
+<h3>TO</h3>
+<h2>CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,</h2>
+<h4>
+WHOSE PROFOUND RESEARCHES<br />
+HAVE THROWN SO MUCH LIGHT UPON EVERY DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE,<br />
+AND<br />
+WHOSE CHARMING "VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE" HAS SO PLEASANTLY<br />
+ASSOCIATED HIS NAME WITH OUR SOUTHERN CONTINENT,<br />
+THESE SKETCHES OF THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON ARE, BY PERMISSION,<br />
+MOST RESPECTFULLY<br />
+Dedicated.</h4>
+<hr style="width: 5%;" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none
+exceed in sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of
+man; whether those of Brazil, where the powers of Life are
+predominant, or those of Terra del Fuego, where Death and Decay
+prevail. Both are temples filled with the varied productions of the
+God of Nature: no one can stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not
+feel that there is more in man than the mere breath of his
+body."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Darwin's</span> <i>Journal</i>, p. 503.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="toc"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a><br />
+<a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a><br />
+<a href="#CONTENTS">Table of Contents</a><br />
+<a href="#APPENDICES">Table of Appendices</a><br />
+<a href="#ILLUSTRATIONS">Table of Illustrations</a><br />
+<a href="#THE_ANDES_AND_THE_AMAZON">THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON.</a><br />
+<a href="#ADDENDA">Addenda</a><br />
+<a href="#INDEX">Index</a><br />
+<a href="#FOOTNOTES">Footnotes</a></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>This volume is one result of a scientific expedition to the equatorial
+Andes and the river Amazon. The expedition was made under the auspices
+of the Smithsonian Institution, and consisted of the following gentlemen
+besides the writer: Colonel Staunton, of Ingham University, Leroy, N.Y.;
+F.S. Williams, Esq., of Albany, N.Y.; and Messrs. P.V. Myers and A.
+Bushnell, of Williams College. We sailed from New York July 1, 1867;
+and, after crossing the Isthmus of Panama and touching at Paita, Peru,
+our general route was from Guayaquil to Quito, over the Eastern
+Cordillera; thence over the Western Cordillera, and through the forest
+on foot to Napo; down the Rio Napo by canoe to Pebas, on the Mara&ntilde;on;
+and thence by steamer to Par&aacute;.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nearly the entire region traversed by the expedition is strangely
+misrepresented by the most recent geographical works. On the Andes of
+Ecuador we have little besides the travels of Humboldt; on the Napo,
+nothing; while the Mara&ntilde;on is less known to North Americans than the
+Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the following pages first appeared in the New York <i>Evening
+Post</i>. The author has also published "Physical Observations on the Andes
+and the Amazon" and "Geological Notes on the Ecuadorian Andes" in the
+<i>American Journal of Science</i>, an article on the great earthquake of
+1868 in the Rochester <i>Democrat</i>, and a paper <i>On the Valley of the
+Amazon</i> read before the American Association at Salem. These papers have
+been revised and extended, though the popular form has been retained. It
+has been the effort of the writer to present a condensed but faithful
+picture of the physical aspect, the resources, and the inhabitants of
+this vast country, which is destined to become an important field for
+commercial enterprise. For detailed descriptions of the collections in
+natural history, the scientific reader is referred to the various
+reports of the following gentlemen, to whom the specimens were committed
+by the Smithsonian Institution:</p>
+
+<table summary="biblio" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="text-align: left;">
+<tr><td>
+Volcanic Rocks</td><td> Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., Montreal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Plants</td><td> Dr. Asa Gray, Cambridge.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Land and Fresh-water Shells.</td><td> M. Crosse, Paris, and Thomas Bland, Esq., New York.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Marine Shells </td><td>Rev. Dr. E.R. Beadle, Philadelphia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Fossil Shells</td><td> W.M. Gabb, Esq., Philadelphia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Hemiptera</td><td> Prof. P.R. Uhler, Baltimore.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Orthoptera</td><td> S.H. Scudder, Esq., Boston.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Hymenoptera and Nocturnal Lepidoptera&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td> Dr. A.S. Packard, Jr., Salem.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Diurnal Lepidoptera</td><td> Tryon Reakirt, Esq., Philadelphia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Coleoptera</td><td> George D. Smith, Esq., Boston.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Phalangia and Pedipalpi</td><td> Dr. H.C. Wood, Jr., Philadelphia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Fishes</td><td> Dr. Theodore Gill, Washington.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Birds </td><td>John Cassin, Esq.,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Philadelphia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Bats</td><td> Dr. H. Allen, Philadelphia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>
+Mammalian Fossils </td><td>Dr. Joseph Leidy, Philadelphia.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Many of the type specimens are deposited in the museums of the
+Smithsonian Institution, the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science,
+the Boston Society of Natural History, the Peabody Academy of Science,
+and Vassar College; but the bulk of the collection was purchased by
+Ingham University, Leroy, New York.</p>
+
+<p>The Map of Equatorial America was drawn with great care after original
+observations and the surveys of Humboldt and Wisse on the Andes, and of
+Azevedo, Castlenau, and Bates on the Amazon.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The names of Indian
+tribes are in small capitals. Most of the illustrations are after
+photographs or drawings made on the ground, and can be relied upon. The
+portrait of Humboldt, which is for the first time presented to the
+public, was photographed from the original painting in the possession of
+Sr. Aguirre, Quito. Unlike the usual portrait&mdash;an old man, in
+Berlin&mdash;this presents him as a young man in Prussian uniform, traveling
+on the Andes.</p>
+
+<p>We desire to express our grateful acknowledgments to the Smithsonian
+Institution, Hon. William H. Seward, and Hon. James A. Garfield, of
+Washington; to Cyrus W. Field, Esq., and William Pitt Palmer, Esq., of
+New York; to C.P. Williams, Esq., of Albany; to Rev. J.C. Fletcher, now
+United States Consul at Oporto; to Chaplain Jones, of Philadelphia; to
+Dr. William Jameson, of the University of Quito; to J.F. Reeve, Esq.,
+and Captain Lee, of Guayaquil; to the Pacific Mail Steamship, Panama
+Railroad, and South Pacific Steam Navigation companies; to the officers
+of the Peruvian and Brazilian steamers on the Amazon; and to the eminent
+naturalists who have examined the results of the expedition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;Osculati has alone preceded us, so far as we can learn, in
+obtaining a vocabulary of Z&aacute;paro words; but, as his work is not to be
+found in this country, we have not had the pleasure of making a
+comparison.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Rev.</span> J.C. FLETCHER,<br />
+<span class="smcap">author of "brazil and brazilians."</span></p>
+
+
+<p>In this day of many voyages, in the Old World and the New, it is
+refreshing to find an untrodden path. Central Africa has been more fully
+explored than that region of Equatorial America which lies in the midst
+of the Western Andes and upon the slopes of these mountain monarchs
+which look toward the Atlantic. In this century one can almost count
+upon his hand the travelers who have written of their journeys in this
+unknown region. Our own Herndon and Gibbon descended&mdash;the one the
+Peruvian and the other the Bolivian waters&mdash;the affluents of the Amazon,
+beginning their voyage where the streams were mere channels for canoes,
+and finishing it where the great river appears a fresh-water ocean. Mr.
+Church, the artist, made the sketches for his famous "Heart of the
+Andes" where the headwaters of the Amazon are rivulets. But no one whose
+language is the English has journeyed down and described the voyage from
+the <i>plateaux</i> of Ecuador to the Atlantic Ocean until Professor Orton
+and his party accomplished this feat in 1868. Yet it was over this very
+route that the King of Waters (as the Amazon is called by the
+aborigines) was originally discovered. The <i>auri sacra fames</i>, which in
+1541 urged the adventurous Gonzalo Pizarro to hunt for the fabled city
+of <i>El Dorado</i> in the depths of the South American forests, led to the
+descent of the great river by Orellana, a knight of Truxillo. The fabled
+women-warriors were said to have been seen in this notable voyage, and
+hence the name of the river <i>Amazon</i>, a name which in Spanish and
+Portuguese is in the plural. It was not until nearly one hundred years
+after Orellana was in his grave that a voyage of discovery ascended the
+river. In 1637 Pedro Teixeira started from Par&aacute; with an expedition of
+nearly two thousand (all but seventy of whom were natives), and with
+varied experiences, by water and by land, the explorer in eight months
+reached the city of Quito, where he was received with distinguished
+honor. Two hundred years ago the result of this expedition was
+published.</p>
+
+<p>The Amazon was from that time, at rare intervals, the highway of Spanish
+and Portuguese priests and friars, who thus went to their distant
+charges among the Indians. In 1745 the French academician De la
+Condamine descended from Quito to Par&aacute;, and gave the most accurate idea
+of the great valley which we had until the first quarter of this
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The narrow policy of Spain and Portugal was most unfruitful in its
+results to South America. A jealous eye guarded that great region, of
+which it can be so well said there are</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Realms unknown and blooming wilds,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And fruitful deserts, worlds of solitude,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Where the sun smiles and seasons teem in vain."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Now, the making known to the world of any portion of these "fruitful
+deserts" is performing a service for the world. This Professor Orton
+has done. His interesting and valuable volume hardly needs any
+introduction or commendation, for its intrinsic merit will exact the
+approbation of every reader. Scientific men, and tourists who seek for
+new routes of travel, will appreciate it at once; and I trust that the
+time is near at hand when our mercantile men, by the perusal of such a
+work, will see how wide a field lies before them for future commercial
+enterprise. This portion of the tropics abounds in natural resources
+which only need the stimulus of capital to draw them forth to the light;
+to create among the natives a desire for articles of civilization in
+exchange for the crude productions of the forest; and to stimulate
+emigration to a healthy region of perpetual summer.</p>
+
+<p>It seems as if Providence were opening the way for a great change in the
+Valley of the Amazon. That immense region drained by the great river is
+as large as all the United States east of the States of California and
+Oregon and the Territory of Washington, and yet it has been so secluded,
+mainly by the old monopolistic policy of Portugal, that that vast space
+has not a population equal to the single city of Rio de Janeiro or of
+Brooklyn. Two million five hundred thousand square miles are drained by
+the Amazon. Three fourths of Brazil, one half of Bolivia, two thirds of
+Peru, three fourths of Ecuador, and a portion of Venezuela are watered
+by this river. Riches, mineral and vegetable, of inexhaustible supply
+have been here locked up for centuries. Brazil held the key, but it was
+not until under the rule of their present constitutional monarch, Don
+Pedro II., that the Brazilians awoke to the necessity of opening this
+glorious region. Steamers were introduced in 1853, subsidized by the
+government. But it is to a young Brazilian statesman, Sr. A.C. Tavares
+Bastos, that belongs the credit of having agitated, in the press and in
+the national parliament, the opening of the Amazon, until public
+opinion, thus acted upon, produced the desired result. On another
+occasion, in May, 1868, I gave several indices of a more enlightened
+policy in Brazil, and stated that the opening of the Amazon, which
+occurred on the 7th of September, 1867, and by which the great river is
+free to the flags of all nations, from the Atlantic to Peru, and the
+abrogation of the monopoly of the coast-trade from the Amazon to the Rio
+Grande do Sul, whereby 4000 miles of Brazilian sea-coast are open to the
+vessels of every country, can not fail not only to develop the resources
+of Brazil, but will prove of great benefit to the bordering
+Hispano-American republics and to the maritime nations of the earth. The
+opening of the Amazon is the most significant indication that the leaven
+of the narrow monopolistic Portuguese conservatism has at last worked
+out. Portugal would not allow Humboldt to enter the Amazon Valley in
+Brazil. The result of the new policy is beyond the most sanguine
+expectation. The exports and imports for Par&aacute; for October and November,
+1867, were double those of 1866. This is but the beginning. Soon it will
+be found that it is cheaper for Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and New Granada,
+east of the Andes, to receive their goods from, and to export their
+India-rubber, cinchona, etc., to the United States and Europe, <i>via</i> the
+great water highway which discharges into the Atlantic, than by the
+long, circuitous route of Cape Horn or the trans-Isthmian route of
+Panama.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="toc">
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><b>CHAPTER I.</b></a><br />
+Guayaquil.&mdash; First and Last Impressions.&mdash; Climate.&mdash; Commerce.&mdash; The
+Malecon.&mdash; Glimpse of the Andes.&mdash; Scenes on the Guayas.&mdash; Bodegas.&mdash; Mounted
+for Quito.&mdash; La Mena.&mdash; A Tropical Forest......Page 25<br />
+
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><b>CHAPTER II.</b></a><br />
+
+Our Tambo.&mdash; Ascending the Andes.&mdash; Camino Real.&mdash; Magnificent Views.&mdash; Guaranda.&mdash; Cinchona.&mdash; The
+Summit.&mdash; Chimborazo.&mdash; Over the Andes.&mdash; Chuquipoyo
+the Wretched.&mdash; Ambato.&mdash; A Stupid City.&mdash; Cotopaxi.&mdash; The
+Vale of Machachi.&mdash; Arrival at Quito......40<br />
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><b>CHAPTER III.</b></a><br />
+
+Early History of Quito.&mdash; Its Splendor under the Incas.&mdash; Crushed by Spain.&mdash; Dying
+now.&mdash; Situation.&mdash; Altitude.&mdash; Streets.&mdash; Buildings......56<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><b>CHAPTER IV.</b></a><br />
+
+Population of Quito.&mdash; Dress.&mdash; Manners.&mdash; Character.&mdash; Commerce.&mdash; Agriculture.&mdash; Manufactures.&mdash; Arts.&mdash; Education.&mdash; Amusements.&mdash; Quito
+Ladies......68<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><b>CHAPTER V.</b></a><br />
+
+Ecuador.&mdash; Extent.&mdash; Government.&mdash; Religion.&mdash; A Protestant Cemetery in
+Quito.&mdash; Climate.&mdash; Regularity of Tropical Nature.&mdash; Diseases on the Highlands......85<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><b>CHAPTER VI.</b></a><br />
+
+Astronomic Virtues of Quito.&mdash; Flora and Fauna of the Valley of Quito.&mdash; Primeval
+Inhabitants of the Andes.&mdash; Quichua Indians......97<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><b>CHAPTER VII.</b></a><br />
+
+Geological History of South America.&mdash; Rise of the Andes.&mdash; Creation of the
+Amazon.&mdash; Characteristic Features of the Continent.&mdash; Andean Chain.&mdash; The
+Equatorial Volcanoes......114<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><b>CHAPTER VIII.</b></a><br />
+
+The Volcanoes of Ecuador.&mdash; Western Cordillera.&mdash; Chimborazo.&mdash; Iliniza.&mdash; Corazon.&mdash; Pichincha.&mdash; Descent
+into its Crater. Page.....127<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><b>CHAPTER IX.</b></a><br />
+
+The Volcanoes of Ecuador.&mdash; Eastern Cordillera.&mdash; Imbabura.&mdash; Cayambi.&mdash; Antisana.&mdash; Cotopaxi.&mdash; Llanganati.&mdash; Tunguragua.&mdash; Altar.&mdash; Saugai......143<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><b>CHAPTER X.</b></a><br />
+
+The Valley of Quito.&mdash; Riobamba.&mdash; A Bed of "Fossil Giants."&mdash; Chillo Hacienda.&mdash; Otovalo
+and Ibarra.&mdash; The Great Earthquake of 1868......152<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><b>CHAPTER XI.</b></a><br />
+
+"The Province of the Orient," or the Wild Napo Country.&mdash; The Napos, Zaparos,
+and J&iacute;varos Indians.&mdash; Preparations to cross the Continent......164<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><b>CHAPTER XII.</b></a><br />
+
+Departure from Quito.&mdash; Itulcachi.&mdash; A Night in a Bread-tray.&mdash; Crossing the
+Cordillera.&mdash; Guamani.&mdash; Papallacta.&mdash; Domiciled at the Governor's.&mdash; An
+Indian Aristides.&mdash; Our Peon Train.&mdash; In the Wilderness......177<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><b>CHAPTER XIII.</b></a><br />
+
+Baeza.&mdash; The Forest.&mdash; Crossing the Cosanga.&mdash; Curi-urcu.&mdash; Archidona.&mdash; Appearance,
+Customs, and Belief of the Natives.&mdash; Napo and Napo River......187<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><b>CHAPTER XIV.</b></a><br />
+
+Afloat on the Napo.&mdash; Down the Rapids.&mdash; Santa Rosa and its mulish Alcalde.&mdash; Pratt
+on Discipline.&mdash; Forest Music.&mdash; Coca.&mdash; Our Craft and Crew.&mdash; Storm
+on the Napo......200<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XV"><b>CHAPTER XV.</b></a><br />
+
+Sea-Cows and Turtles' Eggs.&mdash; The Forest.&mdash; Peccaries.&mdash; Indian Tribes on
+the Lower Napo.&mdash; Anacondas and Howling Monkeys.&mdash; Insect Pests.&mdash; Battle
+with Ants.&mdash; Barometric Anomaly.&mdash; First View of the Amazon.&mdash; Pebas......215<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><b>CHAPTER XVI.</b></a><br />
+
+Down the Amazon.&mdash; Steam on the Great River.&mdash; Loreto.&mdash; San Antonio.&mdash; Tabatinga.&mdash; Brazilian
+Steamers.&mdash; Scenery on the Amazon.&mdash; Tocant&iacute;ns.&mdash; Fonte
+Boa.&mdash; Ega.&mdash; Rio Negro.&mdash; Man&aacute;os......230<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII"><b>CHAPTER XVII.</b></a><br />
+
+Down the Amazon.&mdash; Serpa.&mdash; Villa Nova.&mdash; Obidos.&mdash; Santarem.&mdash; A Colony
+of Southerners.&mdash; Monte Al&eacute;gre.&mdash; Porto do Moz.&mdash; Leaving the Amazon.&mdash; Breves.&mdash; Par&aacute;
+River.&mdash; The City of Par&aacute;.&mdash; Legislation and Currency.&mdash; Religion
+and Education.&mdash; Nonpareil Climate. Page.....247<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII"><b>CHAPTER XVIII.</b></a><br />
+
+The River Amazon.&mdash; Its Source and Magnitude.&mdash; Tributaries and Tints.&mdash; Volume
+and Current.&mdash; Rise and Fall.&mdash; Navigation.&mdash; Expeditions on the
+Great River......264<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX"><b>CHAPTER XIX.</b></a><br />
+
+The Valley of the Amazon.&mdash; Its Physical Geography.&mdash; Geology.&mdash; Climate.&mdash; Vegetation......280<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XX"><b>CHAPTER XX.</b></a><br />
+
+Life within the Great River.&mdash; Fishes.&mdash; Alligators.&mdash; Turtles.&mdash; Porpoises
+and Manat&iacute;s......295<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI"><b>CHAPTER XXI.</b></a><br />
+
+Life around the Great River.&mdash; Insects.&mdash; Reptiles.&mdash; Birds.&mdash; Mammals......300<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII"><b>CHAPTER XXII.</b></a><br />
+
+Life around the Great River.&mdash; Origin of the Red Man.&mdash; General Characteristics
+of the Amazonian Indians.&mdash; Their Languages, Costumes, and Habitations.&mdash; Principal
+Tribes.&mdash; Mixed Breeds.&mdash; Brazilians and Brazil......315<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII"><b>CHAPTER XXIII.</b></a><br />
+
+How to Travel in South America.&mdash; Routes.&mdash; Expenses.&mdash; Outfit.&mdash; Precautions.&mdash; Dangers......325<br />
+
+<br /><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV"><b>CHAPTER XXIV.</b></a><br />
+
+In Memoriam......334<br />
+
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h3>APPENDICES</h3>
+<table summary="appendices" class="toc">
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#APPENDICES"><b>APPENDIX A</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Barometrical Measurements across South America.....Page 338</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#APB"><b>APPENDIX B</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Vocabularies from the Quichua, Z&aacute;paro, Y&aacute;gua, and C&aacute;mpas Languages.....340</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#APC"><b>APPENDIX C</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#APC"><b>Commerce of the Amazon</b></a>.....344</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#ADDENDA"><b><span class="smcap">Addenda</span></b></a>.....349</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#INDEX"><b>INDEX</b> </a>.....349</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<table summary="ILL" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td><a href="#palms">Palms on the Middle Amazon</a></td><td align="right"><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#cathedral">Cathedral of Guayaquil</a></td><td align="right">Page 27</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#equipped">Equipped for the Andes</a></td><td align="right">37</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Ascending">Ascending the Andes </a></td><td align="right">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Quito">Quito from the North </a></td><td align="right">61</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Water">Water-carriers </a></td><td align="right">62</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Street">Street in Quito </a></td><td align="right">63</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Palacio">Capitol at Quito </a></td><td align="right">66</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Indian">Indian Dwellings </a></td><td align="right">78</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Washerwomen">Washerwomen </a></td><td align="right">83</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Ecclesiastics">Ecclesiastics </a></td><td align="right">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Volcanoes">Profiles of Ecuadorian Volcanoes </a></td><td align="right">123</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Crater">Crater of Pichincha </a></td><td align="right">135</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Humboldt">Humboldt in 1802 </a></td><td align="right">156</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Ibarra">Ibarra </a></td><td align="right">158</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Napo">Napo Peon </a></td><td align="right">184</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Auto">Autograph of an Indian </a></td><td align="right">footnote 112</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Papaya">Papaya-tree </a></td><td align="right">202</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Trapiche">Trapiche, or Sugar-mill </a></td><td align="right">208</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Craft">Our Craft on the Napo </a></td><td align="right">211</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Hunting">Hunting Turtle-eggs </a></td><td align="right">217</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Howler">A Howler </a></td><td align="right">223</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Kitchen">Kitchen on the Amazon </a></td><td align="right">238</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Natives">Natives on the Middle Amazon </a></td><td align="right">241</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Siesta">A Siesta </a></td><td align="right">244</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Santarem">Santarem </a></td><td align="right">250</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Para">Par&aacute; </a></td><td align="right">255</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Fruit">Fruit-peddlers </a></td><td align="right">259</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Igarap">Igarap&eacute;, or Canoe-path </a></td><td align="right">265</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Coca">Coca-plant </a></td><td align="right">293</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Iguana">Iguana </a></td><td align="right">305</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Toucans">Toucans </a></td><td align="right">307</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Brazilian">Brazilian Hummers Page </a></td><td align="right">309</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Capybara">Capybara </a></td><td align="right">310</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Jaguar">Jaguar </a></td><td align="right">311</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Comb">Native Comb </a></td><td align="right">317</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#P_Staunton">Colonel Staunton</a></td><td><i>To face page</i> 334</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#Map">Map of Equatorial America</a></td><td align="right"><i>End.</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="THE_ANDES_AND_THE_AMAZON" id="THE_ANDES_AND_THE_AMAZON"></a>THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON.</h2>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER I.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Guayaquil.&mdash; First and Last Impressions.&mdash; Climate.&mdash; Commerce.&mdash; The
+Malecon.&mdash; Glimpse of the Andes.&mdash; Scenes on the
+Guayas.&mdash; Bodegas.&mdash; Mounted for Quito.&mdash; La Mona.&mdash; A Tropical Forest.</p>
+
+
+<p>Late in the evening of the 19th of July, 1867, the steamer "Favorita"
+dropped anchor in front of the city of Guayaquil. The first view
+awakened visions of Oriental splendor. Before us was the Malecon,
+stretching along the river, two miles in length&mdash;at once the most
+beautiful and the most busy street in the emporium of Ecuador. In the
+centre rose the Government House, with its quaint old tower, bearing
+aloft the city clock. On either hand were long rows of massive,
+apparently marble, three-storied buildings, each occupying an entire
+square, and as elegant as they were massive. Each story was blessed with
+a balcony, the upper one hung with canvas curtains now rolled up, the
+other protruding over the sidewalk to form a lengthened arcade like that
+of the Rue de Rivoli in imperial Paris. In this lower story were the gay
+shops of Guayaquil, filled with the prints, and silks, and fancy
+articles of England and France. As this is the promenade street as well
+as the Broadway of commerce, crowds of Ecuadorians, who never do
+business in the evening, leisurely paced the magnificent arcade; hatless
+ladies sparkling with fire-flies<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> instead of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> diamonds, and far more
+brilliant than koh-i-noors, swept the pavement with their long trains;
+martial music floated on the gentle breeze from the barracks or some
+festive hall, and a thousand gas-lights along the levee and in the city,
+doubling their number by reflection from the river, betokened wealth and
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>We landed in the morning to find our vision a dissolving view in the
+light of the rising sun. The princely mansions turned out to be hollow
+squares of wood-work, plastered within and without, and roofed with red
+tiles. Even the "squares" were only distant approximations; not a right
+angle could we find in our hotel. All the edifices are built (very
+properly in this climate) to admit air instead of excluding it, and the
+architects have wonderfully succeeded; but with the air is wafted many
+an odor not so pleasing as the spicy breezes from Ceylon's isle. The
+cathedral is of elegant design. Its photograph is more imposing than
+Notre Dame, and a Latin inscription tells us that it is the Gate of
+Heaven. But a near approach reveals a shabby structure, and the pewless
+interior is made hideous by paintings and images which certainly must be
+caricatures. A few genuine works of art imported from Italy alone
+relieve the mind of the visitor. Excepting a few houses on the Malecon,
+and not excepting the cathedral, the majority of the buildings have a
+tumble-down appearance, which is not altogether due to the frequent
+earthquakes which have troubled this city; while the habitations in the
+outskirts are exceedingly primitive, floored and walled with split cane
+and thatched with leaves, the first story occupied by domestic animals
+and the second by their owners. The city is quite regularly laid out,
+the main streets<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> running parallel to the river. A few streets are
+rudely paved, many are shockingly filthy, and all of them yield grass to
+the delight of stray donkeys and goats. A number of mule-carts, half a
+dozen carriages, one omnibus, and a hand-car on the Malecon, sum up the
+wheeled vehicles of Guayaquil. The population is twenty-two thousand,
+the same for thirty years past. Of these, about twenty are from the
+United States, and perhaps twenty-five can command $100,000. No
+foreigner has had reason to complain that Guayaquilians lacked the
+virtues of politeness and hospitality. The ladies dress in excellent
+taste, and are proverbial for their beauty. Spanish, Indian, and Negro
+blood mingle in the lower classes. The city supports two small papers,
+<i>Los Andes</i> and <i>La Patria</i>, but they are usually issued about ten days
+behind date. The hourly cry of the night-watchman is quite as musical as
+that of the muezzin in Constantinople. At eleven o'clock, for example,
+they sing "<i>Ave Maria purissima! los once han dedo, noche clara y
+serena. Viva la Patria!</i>"</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="cathedral" id="cathedral"></a>
+<img src="images/025tb.png" alt="" /><br /><a href="images/025.png">Cathedral of Guayaquil.</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The full name of the city is Santiago de Guayaquil.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> It is so called,
+first, because the conquest of the province was finished on the 25th of
+July (the day of St. James), 1533; and, secondly, after Guayas, a
+feudatory cacique of Atahuallpa. It was created a city by Charles V.,
+October 6, 1535. It has suffered much in its subsequent history by fires
+and earthquakes, pirates and pestilence. It is situated on the right
+bank of the River Guayas, sixty miles from the ocean, and but a few feet
+above its level. Though the most western city in South America, it is
+only two degrees west of the longitude of Washington, and it is the same
+distance below the equator&mdash;Orion sailing directly overhead, and the
+Southern Cross taking the place of the Great Dipper. The mean annual
+temperature, according to our observations, is 83&deg;. There are two
+seasons, the wet, or <i>invierno</i>, and the dry, or <i>verano</i>. The <i>verano</i>
+is called the summer, although astronomically it is winter; it begins in
+June and terminates in November.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> The heavy rains come on about
+Christmas. March is the rainiest month in the year, and July the
+coldest. It is at the close of the <i>invierno</i> (May) that fevers most
+abound. The climate of Guayaquil during the dry season is nearly
+perfect. At daybreak there is a cool easterly breeze; at sunrise a brief
+lull, and then a gentle variable wind; at 3 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> a southwest wind, at
+first in gusts, then in a sustained current; at sunset the same softened
+down to a gentle breeze, increasing about <i>7</i> <span class="smcap">P.M.</span>, and dying away about
+3 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span> Notwithstanding heaps of filth and green-mantled pools,
+sufficient to start a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>pestilence if transported to New York, the city
+is usually healthy, due in great part, no doubt, to countless flocks of
+buzzards which greedily wait upon decay. These carrion-hawks enjoy the
+protection of law, a heavy fine being imposed for wantonly killing
+one.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> It is during the rainy season that this port earns the
+reputation of being one of the most pestiferous spots on the globe. The
+air is then hot and oppressive, reminding the geologist of the steaming
+atmosphere in the carboniferous period; the surrounding plains are
+flooded with water, and the roads, even some of the streets of the city,
+become impassable; intolerable musquitoes, huge cockroaches, disgusting
+centipedes, venomous scorpions, and still more deadly serpents, keep the
+human species circumspect, and fevers and dysenteries do the work of
+death.</p>
+
+<p>The Guayas is the largest river on the Pacific coast; and Guayaquil
+monopolizes the commerce of Ecuador, for it is the only port. Esmeraldas
+and Peylon are not to be mentioned. Through its custom-house passes
+nearly every import and export. The green banks of the Guayas, covered
+with an exuberant growth, are in strong contrast with the sterile coast
+of Peru, and the possession of Guayaquil has been a coveted prize since
+the days of Pizarro. Few spots between the tropics can vie with this
+lowland in richness and vigor of vegetation. Immense quantities of
+cacao&mdash;second only to that of Caracas&mdash;are produced, though but a
+fraction is gathered, owing to the scarcity of laborers, so many
+Ecuadorians have been exiled or killed in senseless revolutions. Twenty
+million pounds are annually exported, chiefly to Spain; and two million
+pounds of excellent coffee, which often finds its way into New York
+under the name of "pure Java." There are three or four kinds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+indigenous cacao on this coast, all richly deserving the generic title
+<i>Theobroma</i>, or "food for the gods." The best grows in Esmeraldas, as it
+contains the largest amount of oil and has the most pleasant flavor. But
+very little of it is exported, because it rots in about six months. The
+<i>cacao de arriba</i>, from up the River Guayas, is the best to export, as
+it keeps two years without damage. Next in order is the <i>cacao de
+abajo</i>, from down the river, as Machala, Santa Rosa, Balao, and Manabi,
+below Guayaquil. A still richer nut is the mountain cacao, but it is
+never cultivated. It is small and white, and almost pure oil. This oil,
+called cacao-butter, is used by the natives for burns, sores, and many
+cutaneous diseases. Cacao contributes more to the commerce of the
+republic than any other production of its soil. The flowers and fruit
+grow directly out of the trunk and branches. "A more striking example
+(says Humboldt) of the expansive powers of life could hardly be met with
+in organic nature." The fruit is yellowish-red, and of oblong shape, and
+the seeds (from which chocolate is prepared) are enveloped in a mass of
+white pulp. The tree resembles our lilac in size and shape, and yields
+three crops a year&mdash;in March, June, and September. Spain is the largest
+consumer of cacao. The Mexican <i>chocolalt</i> is the origin of our word
+chocolate. Tucker gives the following comparative analysis of unshelled
+beans from Guayaquil and Caracas:</p>
+
+<table summary="" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Guayaquil.</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Caracas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Theobromine</td><td align="center"> 0.63</td><td align="center"> 0.55</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cacao-red</td><td align="center"> 4.56</td><td align="center"> 6.18</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cacao-butter</td><td align="center"> 36.38 </td><td align="center">35.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gluten</td><td align="center"> 2.96</td><td align="center"> 3.21</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Starch </td><td align="center">0.53</td><td align="center"> 0.62</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gum</td><td align="center"> 1.58</td><td align="center"> 1.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Extractive matter</td><td align="center"> 3.44 </td><td align="center">6.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Humic acid</td><td align="center"> 8.57</td><td align="center"> 9.28</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cellulose</td><td align="center"> 30.50 </td><td align="center">28.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Ash </td><td align="center">3.03</td><td align="center"> 2.91</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water </td><td align="center">6.20</td><td align="center"> 5.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">98.38</td><td align="center"> 99.48</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The coffee-tree is about eight feet high, and has dark green leaves,
+white blossoms, and green, red, and purple berries at the same time.
+Each tree yields on an average two pounds annually.</p>
+
+<p>The other chief articles of exportation are hides, cotton, "Panama
+hats," manufactured at Indian villages on the coast, cinchona bark,
+caucho, tobacco, orchilla weed, sarsaparilla, and tamarinds.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The hats
+are usually made of the "Toquilla" (<i>Carludovica palmata</i>), an
+arborescent plant about five feet high, resembling the palm. The leaf,
+which is a yard long, is plaited like a fan, and is borne on a
+three-cornered stalk. It is cut while young, the stiff parallel veins
+removed, then slit into shreds by whipping it, and immersed in boiling
+water, and finally bleached in the sun. The same "straw" is used in the
+interior. The "Mocora," which grows like a cocoa-nut tree, with a very
+smooth, hard, thorny bark, is rarely used, as it is difficult to work.
+The leaves are from eight to twelve feet in length, so that the "straws"
+will finish a hat without splicing. Such hats require two or three
+months, and bring sometimes $150; but they will last a lifetime. They
+can be packed away in a vest pocket, and they can be turned inside out
+and worn, the inside surface being as smooth and well finished as the
+outside. "Toquilla" hats are whiter than the "mocora."</p>
+
+<p>The exports from Guayaquil bear no proportion to the capabilities of the
+country; Ecuador has no excuse for being bankrupt. Most of the imports
+are of English origin; lard comes from the United States, and flour from
+Chile.</p>
+
+<p>The Malecon and river present a lively scene all the year round; the
+rest of the city appears deserted in comparison.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+The British steamers
+from Panama and Payta arrive weekly; Yankee steam-boats make regular
+trips up and down the Guayas and its tributaries; half a dozen sailing
+vessels, principally French, are usually lying in the stream, which is
+here six fathoms deep; and hundreds of canoes are gliding to and fro.
+But the <i>balsas</i> are the most original, and, therefore, the most
+attractive sight. These are rafts made of light balsa wood, so buoyant
+as to be used in coasting voyages. They were invented by the old
+Peruvians, and are the homes of a literally floating population. By
+these and the smaller craft are brought to the mole of the Malecon,
+besides articles for exportation, a boundless variety of
+fruits&mdash;pine-apples (whose quality has made Guayaquil famous), oranges,
+lemons, limes, plantains, bananas, cocoa-nuts, alligator pears, papayas,
+mangos, guavas, melons, etc.; many an undescribed species of fish known
+only to the epicure, and barrels or jars of water from a distant point
+up the river, out of the reach of the tide and the city sewers. Ice is
+frequently brought from Chimborazo, and sold for $1 per pound. A flag
+hoisted at a favorite caf&eacute; announces that snow has arrived from the
+mountains, and that ice-cream can be had. The market, held every morning
+by the river side, is an animated scene. The strife of the half-naked
+fishmongers, the cry of the swarthy fruit-dealers&mdash;"Pinas!" "Naranjas!"
+etc., and the song of the itinerant dulce-peddler&mdash;"Tamales!" mingled
+with the bray of the water-bearing donkeys as they trot through the
+town, never fail to arrest the attention of every traveler.</p>
+
+<p>But there is another sight more attractive still&mdash;one worth a long
+voyage, for Nature nowhere else repeats the picture. From the balconies
+of Guayaquil can be seen on a clear day the long, towering range of the
+Andes. We may forget all the incidents in our subsequent journey, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+the impression produced by that glorious view is unfading. The sun had
+nearly touched the Pacific when the clouds, which for days had wrapped
+the Cordilleras<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> in misty robes, suddenly rose like a curtain. There
+stood, in inconceivable grandeur, one of the stupendous products of the
+last great revolution of the earth's crust, as a geologist would say,
+but, in the language of history, the lofty home of the Incas, made
+illustrious by the sword of Pizarro and the pen of Prescott. On the
+right a sea of hills rose higher and higher, till they culminated in the
+purple mountains of Assuay. Far to the left, one hundred miles
+northeasterly, the peerless Chimborazo lifted its untrodden and
+unapproachable summit above its fellows&mdash;an imposing background to
+lesser mountains and stately forests. The great dome reflected
+dazzlingly the last blushes of the west, its crown of snow fringed with
+black lines, which were the steep and sharp edges of precipitous rocks.
+It was interesting to watch the mellowing tints on the summit as the
+shadows crept upward: gold, vermilion, violet, purple, were followed by
+a momentary "glory;" then darkness covered the earth, and a host of
+stars, "trembling with excess of light," burst suddenly into view over
+the peaks of the Andes.</p>
+
+<p>Bidding "adios" to our Guayaquilian friends, we took passage in one of
+Captain Lee's little steamers to Bodegas, seventy miles up the river.
+The Ecuadorian government, strange to say, does not patronize these
+steamers, but carries the Quito mail in a canoe. The Guayas is a
+sluggish stream, its turbid waters starting from the slope of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+Andes, and flowing through a low, level tract, covered with varied forms
+of vegetable life. Forests of the broad-leaved plantain and banana line
+the banks. The fruit is the most common article of food in equatorial
+America, and is eaten raw, roasted, baked, boiled, and fried. It grows
+on a succulent stem formed of sheath-like leaf-stalks rolled over one
+another, and terminating in enormous light green, glossy blades nearly
+ten feet long by two feet wide, so delicate that the slightest wind will
+tear them transversely. Each tree (vulgarly called "the tree of
+paradise") produces fruit but once, and then dies. A single bunch often
+weighs 60 or 70 pounds; and Humboldt calculated that 33 pounds of wheat
+and 99 pounds of potatoes require the same space of ground as will
+produce 4000 pounds of bananas. They really save more labor than steam,
+giving the greatest amount of food from a given piece of ground with the
+least labor. They are always found where the palm is; but their original
+home is the foot of the Himalayas. The banana (by some botanists
+considered a different species from the plantain) is about four inches
+long, and cylindrical, and is eaten raw. The plantain is twice as large
+and prismatic, and uncooked is unhealthy. There is another variety,
+<i>platanos de Otaheite</i>, which resembles the banana in size and quality,
+but is prismatic.</p>
+
+<p>A belt of jungle and impenetrable brushwood intervenes, and then cacao
+and coffee plantations, vast in extent, arrest the eye. Passing these,
+the steamer brings you alongside of broad fields covered with the low,
+prickly pine-apple plant; the air is fragrant with a rich perfume wafted
+from a neighboring grove of oranges and lemons; the mango spreads its
+dense, splendid foliage, and bears a golden fruit, which, though praised
+by many, tastes to us like a mixture of tow and turpentine; the exotic
+bread-tree waves its fig-like leaves and pendent fruit; while high over
+all the beautiful
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+cocoa-palm lifts its crown of glory.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Animal life
+does not compare with this luxuriant growth. The steamer-bound traveler
+may see a few monkeys, a group of <i>gallinazos</i>, and many brilliant,
+though songless birds; but the chief representative is the lazy, ugly
+alligator. Large numbers of these monsters may be seen on the mud-bank
+basking in the hot sun, or asleep with their mouths wide open.</p>
+
+<p>Eight hours after leaving the Malecon we arrived at Bodegas, a little
+village of two thousand souls, rejoicing in the synonym of Babahoyo.
+This has been a place of deposit for the interior from the earliest
+times. In the rainy season the whole site is flooded, and only the upper
+stories are habitable. Cock-fighting seems to be the chief amusement. We
+breakfasted with the governor, a portly gentleman who kept a little
+dry-goods store. His excellency, without waiting for a formal
+introduction, and with a cordiality and courtesy almost confined to the
+Latin nations, received us into his own house, and honored us with a
+seat at his private table, spread with the choicest viands of his
+kingdom, serving them himself with a grace to which we can not do
+justice. Much as we find to condemn in tropical society, we can not
+forget the kindness of these simple-hearted people. Though we may
+portray, in the coming pages, many faults and failings according to a
+New York standard, we wish it to be understood that there is another
+side to the picture; that there are virtues on the Andes to which the
+North is well-nigh a stranger. "How many times (says an American
+resident of ten years) I have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>arrived at a miserable hut in the heart
+of the mountains, tired and hungry, after traveling all day without any
+other companion than the arriero, to receive a warm-hearted welcome, the
+best, perhaps the only chair or hammock offered to me, the fattest
+chicken in the yard killed on my account, and more than once they have
+compelled me by force to take the only good bed, because I must be
+tired, and should have a good night's rest. A man may travel from one
+end of the Andes to the other, depending altogether on the good people
+he meets."</p>
+
+<p>At Bodegas travelers take to mules or horses for the mountains, hiring
+one set for Guaranda and another at that village for Quito; muleteers
+seldom allow their animals to pass from one altitude to the other. These
+<i>arrieros</i>, or muleteers, form a very important class in Ecuador. Their
+little caravans are the only baggage and express trains in the republic;
+there is not a single regularly established public conveyance in the
+land. The <i>arrieros</i> and their servants (<i>peons</i>) are Indians or
+half-breeds. They wear a straw or felt hat, a poncho striped like an
+Arab's blanket, and cotton breeches ending at the knees. For food they
+carry a bag of parched corn, another bag of roasted barley-meal
+(<i>mashka</i>), and a few red peppers. The beasts are thin, decrepit jades,
+which threaten to give out the first day; yet they must carry you
+halfway up the Andes. The distance to the capital is nearly two hundred
+miles. The time required is usually eight or nine days; but officials
+often travel it in four.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="equipped" id="equipped"></a>
+<img src="images/035tb.png" alt="Equipped for the Andes." title="Equipped for the Andes." /><br />
+<a href="images/035.png">Equipped for the Andes.</a></p>
+
+<p>We left Bodegas at noon. It was impossible to start the muleteer a
+moment earlier, though he had promised to be ready at seven. Patience is
+a necessary qualification in a South American traveler. In our company
+were a Jesuit priest, with three attendants, going to Riobamba, and a
+young Quito merchant, with his mother&mdash;the mother of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> only twenty-five
+children. This merchant had traveled in the United States, and could not
+help contrasting the thrift and enterprise of our country with the
+beggary and laziness of his own, adding, with a show of sincerity, "I am
+sorry I have Spanish blood in my veins." The suburbs of Bodegas reminded
+us of the outskirts of Cairo; but the road soon entered a broad savannah
+instead of a sandy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> desert. At 3 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> we passed through La Mona, a
+village of twenty-five bamboo huts, all on stilts, for in the rainy
+season the whole town is under water. Signs of indolence and neglect
+were every where visible. Idle men, with an uncertain mixture of
+European, Negro, and Indian blood; sad-looking Quichua women, carrying a
+naked infant or a red water-jar on the back; black hogs and lean poultry
+wandering at will into the houses&mdash;such is the picture of the motley
+life in the inland villages. Strange was the contrast between human
+poverty and natural wealth. We were on the borders of a virgin forest,
+and the overpowering beauty of the vegetation soon erased all memory of
+the squalor and lifelessness of La Mona. Our road&mdash;a mere path, suddenly
+entered this seemingly impenetrable forest, where the branches crossed
+overhead, producing a delightful shade. The curious forms of tropical
+life were all attractive to one who had recently rambled over the
+comparatively bleak hills of New England. Delight is a weak term to
+express the feelings of a naturalist who for the first time wanders in a
+South American forest. The superb banana, the great charm of equatorial
+vegetation, tossed out luxuriantly its glossy green leaves, eight feet
+in length; the slender but graceful bamboo shot heavenward, straight as
+an arrow; and many species of palm bore aloft their feathery heads,
+inexpressibly light and elegant. On the branches of the independent
+trees sat tufts of parasites, many of them orchids, which are here
+epiphytal; and countless creeping plants, whose long flexible stems
+entwined snake-like around the trunks, or formed gigantic loops and
+coils among the limbs. Beneath this world of foliage above, thick beds
+of mimos&aelig; covered the ground, and a boundless variety of ferns attracted
+the eye by their beautiful patterns.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> It is easy to specify the
+individual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> objects of admiration in these grand scenes, but it is not
+possible to give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of wonder,
+astonishment, and devotion which fill and elevate the mind. This road to
+the Andes is a paradise to the contemplative man. "There is something in
+a tropical forest (says Bates) akin to the ocean in its effects on the
+mind. Man feels so completely his insignificance, and the vastness of
+nature." The German traveler Burmeister observes that "the contemplation
+of a Brazilian forest produced on him a painful impression, on account
+of the vegetation displaying a spirit of restless selfishness, eager
+emulation, and craftiness." He thought the softness, earnestness, and
+repose of European woodland scenery were far more pleasing, and that
+these formed one of the causes of the superior moral character of
+European nations. Live and let live is certainly not the maxim taught in
+these tropical forests, and it is equally clear that selfishness is not
+wanting among the people. Here, in view of so much competition among
+organized beings, is the spot to study Darwin's "Origin of Species." We
+have thought that the vegetation under the equator was a fitter emblem
+of the human world than the forests of our temperate zone. There is here
+no set time for decay and death, but we stand amid the living and the
+dead; flowers and leaves are falling, while fresh ones are budding into
+life. Then, too, the numerous parasitic plants, making use of their
+neighbors as instruments for their own advancement, not inaptly
+represent a certain human class.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER II.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Our Tambo.&mdash; Ascending the Andes.&mdash; Camino Real.&mdash; Magnificent
+Views.&mdash; Guaranda.&mdash; Cinchona.&mdash; The Summit.&mdash; Chimborazo.&mdash; Over the
+Andes.&mdash; Chuquipoyo the Wretched.&mdash; Ambato.&mdash; A Stupid
+City.&mdash; Cotopaxi.&mdash; The Vale of Machachi.&mdash; Arrival at Quito.</p>
+
+
+<p>We reached Savaneta at 5 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> This little village of hardly twenty
+houses becomes the Bodegas, or place of deposit for the mountains six
+months in the year, for in the <i>invierno</i> the roads are flooded, and
+canoes take the place of mules from Savaneta to Babahoyo. Even in the
+dry season the dampness of this wilderness is so great that the
+traveler's sugar and chocolate are melted into one, and envelopes seal
+themselves. We put up at a <i>tambo</i>, or wayside inn, a simple two-storied
+bamboo hovel, thatched with plantain leaves without and plastered with
+cobwebs within, yet a palace compared with what sheltered us afterward.
+The only habitable part was the second story, which was reached by a
+couple of notched bamboo sticks. A hammock, two earthen kettles, two
+plates, and a few calabashes constituted the household furniture. The
+dormitory was well ventilated, for two sides were open. Our lodging,
+however, cost us nothing; travelers only pay for <i>yerba</i> for their
+beasts. Though this has been the royal road to Quito for three
+centuries, there is but one <i>posada</i> between Guayaquil and Ambato, a
+distance of one hundred and fifty miles; travelers must carry their own
+bedding and provisions.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Ascending" id="Ascending"></a>
+<img src="images/040tb.png" alt="Ascending the Andes." title="Ascending the Andes." /><br />
+<a href="images/040.png">Ascending the Andes.</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Leaving Savaneta at dawn, and breakfasting at a wayside hut owned by an
+old negro, we struck about noon the Rio Charriguajaco, dashing down the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+mountains in hot haste for the Guayas. It was refreshing to look upon
+living <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+waters for the first time since leaving the hills of our
+native country. Fording this stream we know not how many times, and
+winding through the dense forest in narrow paths often blockaded by
+laden donkeys that doggedly disputed the passage, we soon found
+ourselves slowly creeping up the Andes. We frequently met mountaineers
+on their way to Bodegas with loads of potatoes, peas, barley, fowls,
+eggs, etc. They are generally accompanied by their wives or daughters,
+who ride like the men, but with the knees tucked up higher. On the
+slippery tracks which traverse this western slope, bulls are often used
+as beasts of burden, the cloven hoofs enabling them to descend with
+great security. But mules are better than horses or asses. "That a
+hybrid (muses Darwin) should possess more reason, memory, obstinacy,
+social affection, powers of muscular endurance, and length of life than
+either of its parents, seems to indicate that art has here outdone
+nature."</p>
+
+<p>Toward evening the ascent became rapid and the road horrible beyond
+conception, growing narrower and rougher as we advanced. Indeed, our way
+had long since ceased to be a road. In the dense forest, where sunshine
+never comes, rocks, mud, and fallen trees in rapid alternation
+macadamize the path, save where it turns up the bed of a babbling brook.
+In the comparatively level tracts, the equable step of the beasts has
+worn the soil into deep transverse ridges, called <i>camellones</i>, from
+their resemblance to the humps on a camel's back. In the precipitous
+parts the road is only a gully worn by the transit of men and beasts for
+ages, aided by torrents of water in the rainy season. As we ascend, this
+changes to a rocky staircase, so strait that one must throw up his legs
+to save them from being crushed, and so steep that horse and rider run
+the risk of turning a somersault. It is fearful to meet in a narrow
+defile, or where the road winds around the edge of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> a precipice, a drove
+of reckless donkeys and mules descending the mountain, urged on by the
+cries and lashes of the muleteers behind. Yet this has been the highway
+of Ecuadorian commerce for three hundred years. In vain we tried to
+reach the little village of Camino Real on the crest of the ridge; but
+the night was advancing rapidly, and crawling up such a road by
+starlight was not a little dangerous. So we put up at a miserable tambo,
+Pogyos by name. It was a mud hut of the rudest kind, windowless and
+unfloored; very clean, if it had been left to nature, but man and beast
+had rendered it intolerably filthy. Our hostess, a Quichua woman, with
+tattered garments, and hair disheveled and standing up as if
+electrified, set a kettle on three stones, and, making a fire under it,
+prepared for us a calabash of chicken and <i>locro</i>. <i>Locro</i>, the national
+dish in the mountains, is in plain English simply potato soup. Sitting
+on the ground, we partook of this refreshment by the aid of fingers and
+wooden spoons, enticing our appetites by the reflection that potato soup
+would support life. The unkempt Indian by our side, grinning in
+conscious pride over her successful cookery, did not aid us in this
+matter. Fire is used in Ecuador solely for culinary purposes, not for
+warmth. It is made at no particular spot on the mud floor, and there is
+no particular orifice for the exit of the smoke save the chinks in the
+wall. There is not a chimney in the whole republic. As the spare room in
+the establishment belonged to the women, we gentlemen slept on the
+ground outside, or on beds made of round poles. The night was piercingly
+cold. The wished-for morning came at last, and long before the sun
+looked over the mountains we were on our march. It was the same terrible
+road, running zigzag, or "quingo" fashion, up to Camino Real, where it
+was suddenly converted into a royal highway.</p>
+
+<p>We were now fairly out of the swamps of the lowlands,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> and, though under
+the equator, out of the tropics too. The fresh mountain breeze and the
+chilly mists announced a change of climate.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Fevers and dysenteries,
+snakes and musquitoes, the plantain and the palm, we had left behind.
+Camino Real is a huddle of eight or ten dwellings perched on the summit
+of a sierra a thousand feet higher than the top of Mount Washington. The
+views from this stand-point compensate for all past troubles. The wild
+chaos of mountains on every side, broken by profound ravines, the heaps
+of ruins piled up during the lapse of geologic ages, the intense azure
+of the sky, and the kingly condor majestically wheeling around the still
+higher pinnacles, make up a picture rarely to be seen. Westward, the
+mountains tumble down into hills and spread out into plains, which, in
+the far distant horizon, dip into the great Pacific. The setting sun
+turns the ocean into a sheet of liquid fire. Long columns of purple
+light shoot up to the zenith, and as the last point of the sun sinks
+beneath the horizon, the stars rush out in full splendor; for at the
+equator day gives place to night with only an hour and twenty minutes of
+twilight. The mountains are Alpine, yet grander than the Alps; not so
+ragged as the granite peaks of Switzerland, but with rounder heads. The
+prospect down this occidental slope is diversified by deep valleys,
+lands-lides, and flowering trees. Magnificent are the views eastward,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Where Andes, giant of the western star,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Looks from his throne of clouds o'er half the world."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The majestic dome of Chimborazo was entirely uncovered of clouds, and
+presented a most splendid spectacle. There it stood, its snow-white
+summit, unsullied by the foot of man, towering up twice as high as Etna.
+For many years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> it received the homage of the world as the highest point
+in America; but now the Aconcagua of Chile claims the palm. Still, what
+a panorama from the top of Chimborazo, could one reach it, for the eye
+would command ten thousand square miles!</p>
+
+<p>Our road gently winds down the sierra, giving us at every turn sublime
+ideas of what nature can do in tossing up the thin crust of our globe.
+But sublimity is at a discount here&mdash;there is too much of it. Suddenly
+we are looking down into the enchanting valley of Chimbo. This romantic
+and secluded spot is one of those forgotten corners of the earth which,
+barricaded against the march of civilization by almost impassable
+mountains, and inhabited by a thriftless race, has been left far behind
+in the progress of mankind. Distance lends enchantment to the view. We
+are reminded of the pastoral vales of New England. Wheat takes the place
+of the sugar-cane, barley of cacao, potatoes of plantains, and turnips
+of oranges. Bamboo sheds have given way to neatly whitewashed villages,
+and the fields are fenced with rows of aloe. But, drawing nearer, we
+find the habitations are in reality miserable mud hovels, without
+windows, and tenanted by vermin and ragged poverty. There are herds of
+cattle and fields of grain; yet we shall not find a quart of milk or a
+loaf of bread for sale. The descent into the valley is very precipitous,
+and, after a rain, alarmingly slippery. Mules, drawing their legs
+together, slide down with startling velocity, and follow the windings
+with marvelous dexterity.</p>
+
+<p>We arrived at Guaranda at 5 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> on the third day after leaving Bodegas.
+This is a desolate town of two thousand souls, dwelling in low
+dilapidated huts made of the most common building material in the
+Andes&mdash;<i>adobe</i>, or sun-dried blocks of mud mingled with straw.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+<p>The streets are rudely paved, and pitch to the centre, to form an
+aqueduct, like the streets of old Sychar. The inhabitants are in happy
+ignorance of the outside world. They pass the day without a thought of
+work, standing on the Plaza, or in front of some public office, staring
+vacantly into space, or gossiping. A cockfight will soonest rouse them
+from their lethargy. They seem to have no purpose in life but to keep
+warm under their ponchos and to eat when they are hungry. Guaranda is a
+healthy locality, lying in a deep valley on the west bank of the Chimbo,
+at an elevation, according to our barometer, of 8840 feet, and having a
+mean temperature slightly less than that of Quito. It is a place of
+importance, inasmuch as it is the resting-place before ascending or
+after descending the still loftier ranges, and much more because it is
+the capital of the region which yields the invaluable <i>cinchona</i>, or
+Peruvian bark.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> This tree is indigenous to the Andes, where it is
+found on the western slope between the altitudes of two thousand and
+nine thousand feet, the species richest in alkaloids occupying the
+higher elevations, where the air is moist. Dr. Weddell enumerates
+twenty-one species, seven of which are now found in Ecuador, but the
+only one of value is the the <i>C. succirubra</i> (the <i>calisaya</i> has run
+out), and this is now nearly extinct, as the trees have been destroyed
+to obtain the bark. This species is a beautiful tree, having large,
+broadly oval, deep green, shining leaves, white, fragrant flowers, and
+red bark, and sometimes, though rarely, attains the height of sixty
+feet. A tree five feet in circumference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> will yield fifteen hundred
+pounds of green bark, or eight hundred of the dry. The roots contain the
+most alkaloid, though the branches are usually barked for commerce. The
+true cinchona barks, containing quinine, quinidine, and cinchonine, are
+distinguished from the false by their splintery-fibrous texture, the
+latter being pre-eminently corky. The cascarilleros begin to hunt for
+bark in August. Dr. Taylor, of Riobamba, found one tree which gave $3600
+worth of quinine. The general yield is from three to five pounds to a
+quintal of bark. The tree has been successfully transplanted to the
+United States, and particularly to India, where there are now over a
+million of plants. It was introduced into India by Markham in 1861. The
+bark is said to be stronger than that from Ecuador, yielding twice as
+much alkaloid, or eleven per cent. The quinine of commerce will
+doubtless come hereafter from the slopes of the Himalayas instead of the
+Andes. In 1867 only five thousand pounds of bark were exported from
+Guayaquil. The Indians use the bark of another tree, the <i>Maravilla</i>,
+which is said to yield a much stronger alkaloid than cinchona. It grows
+near Pallatanga.</p>
+
+<p>We left Guaranda at 5 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span> by the light of Venus and Orion, having
+exchanged our horses for the sure-footed mule. It was a romantic ride.
+From a neighboring stand-point Church took one of his celebrated views
+of "The Heart of the Andes." But the road, as aforetime, was a mere
+furrow, made and kept by the tread of beasts. For a long distance the
+track runs over the projecting and jagged edges of steeply-inclined
+strata of slate, which nobody has had the energy to smooth down. At many
+places on the road side were human skulls, set in niches in the bank,
+telling tales of suffering in their ghastly silence; while here and
+there a narrow passage was blocked up by the skeleton or carcass of a
+beast that had borne its last burden. At<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> nine o'clock we came out on a
+narrow, grassy ridge called the Ensillada, or Saddleback, where there
+were three straw huts, with roofs resting on the ground, and there we
+breakfasted on <i>locro</i>. During our stay the Indians killed a pig, and
+before the creature was fairly dead dry grass was heaped upon it and set
+on fire. This is the ordinary method of removing the bristles.</p>
+
+<p>Still ascending, we lose sight of the valley of the Chimbo, and find
+ourselves in a wilderness of crags and treeless mountains clothed with
+the long, dreary-looking paramo grass called <i>paja</i>. But we are face to
+face with "the monarch of the Andes," and we shall have its company the
+rest of the day. The snowy dome is flooded with the golden light of
+heaven; delicate clouds of softest hues float around its breast; while,
+far below, its feet are wrapped in the baser mists of earth. We attained
+the summit of the pass at 11 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span> All travelers strive to reach it early
+in the morning, for in the afternoon it is swept by violent winds which
+render it uncomfortable, if not dangerous. This part of the road is
+called the "Arenal," from the sand and gravel which cover it. It is
+about a league in length, and crosses the side of Chimborazo at an
+elevation of more than fourteen thousand feet. Chimborazo stands on the
+left of the traveler. How tantalizing its summit! It appears so easy of
+access; and yet many a valiant philosopher, from Humboldt down, has
+panted for the glory and failed. The depth of the snow and numerous
+precipices are the chief obstacles; but the excessively rarefied air is
+another hinderance. Even in crossing the Arenal, a native of the
+lowlands complains of violent headache, a propensity to vomit, and a
+difficulty of breathing. The Arenal is often swept by snow-storms; and
+history has it that some of the Spanish conquerors were here frozen to
+death. The pale yellow gravel is considered by some geologists as the
+moraine of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> glacier. It is spread out like a broad gravel walk, so
+that, without exaggeration, one of the best roads in Ecuador has been
+made by Nature's hand on the crest of the Andes.</p>
+
+<p>It was interesting to trace the different hypsometrical zones by the
+change of vegetation from Bodegas to this lofty spot. The laws of the
+decrease of heat are plainly written on the rapid slopes of the
+Cordilleras. On the hot, steaming lowlands of the coast reign bananas
+and palms. As these thin out, tree-ferns take their place. Losing these,
+we found the cinchona bedewed by the cool clouds of Guaranda; and last
+of all, among the trees, the polylepis. The twisted, gnarled trunk of
+this tree, as well as its size and silvery foliage, reminded us of the
+olive, but the bark resembles that of the birch. It reaches the greatest
+elevation of any tree on the globe. Then followed shrubby fuchsia,
+calceolaria, eupatoria, and red and purple gentians; around and on the
+Arenal, a uniform mantle of monocotyledonous plants, with scattered
+tufts of valeriana, viola, and geranium, all with rigid leaves in the
+characteristic rosettes of super-alpine vegetation; and on the
+porphyritic and trachytic sides of Chimborazo, lichens alone. Snow then
+covers the last effort of vegetable life.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The change in the
+architecture of the houses indicated, likewise, a change of altitude.
+The open bamboo huts, shingled with banana leaves, were followed by
+warmer <i>adobe</i> houses, and these, in turn, by the straw hovels of the
+mountain-top, made entirely of the long, wiry grass of the paramos.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+<p>Leaving the Arenal, we rapidly descended by the usual style of
+road&mdash;stone stairs. But down we went, as all the goods for Quito, "the
+grand capital," have done since the Spanish Conquest. The old road from
+Beir&ucirc;t to Damascus is royal in comparison. The general aspect of the
+eastern slope is that of a gray, barren waste, overgrown with <i>paja</i>;
+but now and then we crossed deep gulleys, whose sides were lined with
+mosses and sprinkled with calceolarias, lupines, etc. In our descent we
+had before us the magnificent Valley of Quito, and beyond it the eastern
+Cordillera. Below us was Riobamba, and far away to the right the deep
+gorge of the Pastassa. Nevertheless, this is one of the loneliest rides
+earth can furnish. Not a tree nor human habitation is in sight. Icy
+rivulets and mule-trains are the only moving objects on this melancholy
+heath. Even "Drake's Plantation Bitters," painted on the volcanic cliffs
+of Chimborazo, would be a relief.</p>
+
+<p>At last we reached our rude accommodations for the night. It was a
+solitary mud tambo, glorying in the euphonious name of Chuquipoyo. The
+court-yard was a sea of mud and manure, for this is the halting-place
+for all the caravans between Quito and the coast. Our room was a horrid
+hole, dark, dirty, damp, and cold, without a window or a fire. There was
+one old rickety bedstead, but as that belonged to the lady in our party,
+the rest betook themselves to benches, table, and floor. We filled our
+stomachs with an unpalatable potato soup containing cheese and eggs, and
+laid down&mdash;to wait for the morning. Grass is the only fuel here; but
+this is not the chief reason why it is so difficult to make good tea or
+cook potatoes at this wretched tambo. Water boils at 190&deg;, or before it
+is fairly hot: it is well the potatoes are small. The muleteers slept
+with their beasts outside, though the night was fearfully cold, for
+Chuquipoyo lies on the frigid side of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> Chimborazo, at an elevation of
+over twelve thousand feet above the sea. As Johnson said to Boswell,
+"This is a dolorous place."</p>
+
+<p>Gladly we left this cheerless tambo, though a cold, heavy mist was
+falling as we rode northward, over the seemingly endless paramo of
+Sanancajas. Here, as throughout the highlands of Ecuador, ditches are
+used for fences; so that, should the traveler wander from the path, he
+finds himself stopped by an impassable gulf. In two hours and a half we
+reached Mocha, a lifeless pueblo under the shadow of Carguairazo. Slowly
+descending from our high altitude, we gradually entered a more congenial
+climate&mdash;the zone of wheat and barley, till, finally, signs of an
+eternal spring were all around us&mdash;ripening corn on one side, and
+blossoming peas on the other.</p>
+
+<p>Late in the afternoon the road led us through a sandy, sterile tract,
+till suddenly we came in sight of Ambato, beautifully situated in a deep
+ravine, eight thousand five hundred and fifty feet above the Pacific.
+The city ranks next to Quito in beauty. It is certainly an oasis, the
+green foliage of its numerous shade-trees and orchards contrasting with
+the barren hills around. It is two degrees warmer than Quito, and is
+famous for its fruit and fine climate. It is the Lynn of Ecuador, the
+chief articles of manufacture being boots and shoes&mdash;cheap, but of poor
+quality. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1698. The houses are built
+of sun-dried brick, and whitewashed. The streets, with gutters in the
+centre, are at right angles, and paved, and adorned with numerous
+cypress-looking trees, called <i>sauce</i>, a species of willow. The Plaza,
+which contains a useful if not ornamental fountain, presents a lively
+scene on Sunday, the great market-day. The inn is a fair specimen of a
+public house in Spanish America. Around the court-yard, where the beasts
+are fed, are three or four<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> rooms to let. They are ventilated only when
+opened for travelers. The floor is of brick, but alive with fleas; the
+walls are plastered, but veiled with cobwebs. The furniture, of
+primitive make and covered with dust, consists of a chair or two, a
+table, and a bed of boards covered with a thin straw mat. There is not a
+hotel in Ecuador where sheets and towels are furnished. The landlords
+are seldom seen; the entire management of the concern is left to a
+slovenly Indian boy, who is both cook and hostler. No amount of bribery
+will secure a meal in less than two hours. Ten years ago there was not a
+posada in the country; now there is entertainment for man and beast at
+Guayaquil, Guaranda, Mocha, Ambato, Tacunga, Machachi, and Quito.
+Riobamba has a billiard saloon, but no inn.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Ambato, we breakfasted at Cunchebamba, an Indian village of half
+a dozen straw huts. Thence the road for a long distance winds through
+vast deposits of volcanic <i>d&eacute;bris</i>, the only sign of vegetation being
+hedges of aloe and cactus. Arid hills and dreary plains, covered with
+plutonic rocks and pumice dust, tell us we are approaching the most
+terrible volcano on the earth. Crossing the sources of the Pastassa, we
+entered Latacunga,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> situated on a beautiful plain at the foot of
+Cotopaxi, seven hundred feet higher than Ambato. Its average temperature
+is 59&deg;. The population, chiefly Indians, numbers about fifteen thousand.
+It is the dullest city in Ecuador, without the show of enterprise or
+business. Not even grass grows in the streets&mdash;the usual sign of life in
+the Spanish towns. It is also one of the filthiest; and though it has
+been many times thoroughly shaken by earthquakes, and buried under
+showers of volcanic dust, it is still the paradise of fleas, which have
+survived every revolution. Ida Pfeiffer says that, after a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> night's rest
+in Latacunga, she awoke with her skin marked all over with red spots, as
+if from an eruptive disease. We can certify that we have been tattoed
+without the night's rest. The town has a most stupid and forlorn aspect.
+Half of it is in ruins. It was four times destroyed between 1698 and
+1797. In 1756 the Jesuit church was thrown down, though its walls were
+five feet thick. The houses are of one story, and built of pumice,
+widely different from the palaces and temples which are said to have
+stood here in the palmy days of the Incas. Cotopaxi stands threateningly
+near, and its rumbling thunder is the source of constant alarm.</p>
+
+<p>From Latacunga to Quito there is a very fine carriage road, the result
+of one man's administration&mdash;Se&ntilde;or G. Garcia Moreno. For many miles it
+passes over an uncultivated plateau, strewn with volcanic fragments. The
+farms are confined to the slopes of the Cordilleras, and, as every where
+else, the tumbling haciendas indicate the increasing poverty of the
+owner. Superstition and indolence go hand in hand. On a great rock
+rising out of the sandy plain they show a print of the foot of St.
+Bartholomew, who alighted here on a visit&mdash;surely to the volcanoes, as
+it was long before the red man had found this valley. Abreast of
+Cotopaxi the road cuts through high hills of fine pumice
+inter-stratified with black earth, and rapidly ascends till it reaches
+Tiupullo, eleven thousand five hundred feet above the sea. This high
+ridge,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> stretching across the valley from Cotopaxi to Iliniza, is a
+part of the great water-shed of the continent&mdash;the waters on the
+southern slope flowing through the Pastassa and Amazon to the Atlantic,
+those on the north finding their way to the Pacific by the Rio
+Esmeraldas. At this bleak place we breakfasted on punch and guinea-pig.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+<p>As soon as we began to descend, the glittering cone of Cotopaxi, and the
+gloomy plain it has so often devastated, passed out of view, and before
+us was a green valley exceedingly rich and well cultivated, girt by a
+wall of mountains, the towers of which were the peaks of Corazon and
+Rumi&ntilde;agui. Loathsome lepers by the wayside alone disturbed the pleasing
+impression. Three hours more of travel brought us to the straggling
+village of Machachi, standing in the centre of the beautiful plain, at
+an altitude of nine thousand nine hundred feet. Nature designed this
+spot for a home of plenty and comfort, but the habitations of the
+wretched proprietors are windowless adobe hovels, thatched with dried
+grass, and notorious for their filth.</p>
+
+<p>We must needs make one more ascent, for the ridge of Tambillo hides the
+goal of our journey. The moment we reached the summit, views
+unparalleled in the Andes or any where else met our astonished vision
+whithersoever we looked. Far away to the south stretched the two
+Cordilleras, till they were lost in the mist which enshrouded Chimborazo
+and Tunguragua. Turning to the north, we beheld the city of Quito at our
+feet, and Pichincha and Antisana standing like gallant sentinels on
+either side of the proud capital. Beautiful were the towering mountains,
+and almost as delightful now are the memories of that hour. A broad,
+well-traveled road, gentlemen on horseback clad in rich ponchos, droves
+of Indians bowed under their heavy burdens, and long lines of laden
+donkeys hurrying to and fro, indicate our approach to a great city.
+Winding with the road through green pastures and fields of ripening
+grain, and crossing the Mach&aacute;ngara by an elegant bridge, we enter the
+city of the Incas.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER III.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Early History of Quito.&mdash; Its Splendor under the Incas.&mdash; Crushed by
+Spain.&mdash; Dying now.&mdash; Situation.&mdash; Altitude.&mdash; Streets.&mdash; Buildings.</p>
+
+
+<p>Quito is better known than Ecuador. Its primeval history, however, is
+lost in obscurity. In the language of Prescott, "the mists of fable have
+settled as darkly round its history as round that of any nation, ancient
+or modern, in the Old World." Founded, nobody knows when, by the kings
+of the Quitus, it was conquered about the year 1000 by a more civilized
+race, the Cara nation, who added to it by conquest and alliance. The
+fame of the region excited the cupidity of the Incas of Peru, and during
+the reign of Cacha (1475), Huayna-Capac the Great moved his army from
+Cuzco, and by the celebrated battle of Hatuntaqui, in which Cacha was
+killed, Quito was added to the realm of the Incas. Huayna-Capac made
+Quito his residence, and reigned there thirty-eight years&mdash;the most
+brilliant epoch in the annals of the city. At his death his kingdom was
+divided, one son, Atahuallpa,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> reigning in Quito, and Huascar at
+Cuzco. Civil war ensued, in which the latter was defeated, and
+Atahuallpa was chosen Inca of the whole empire, 1532. During this war
+Pizarro arrived at Tumbez. Every body knows what followed. Strangled at
+Caxamarca, the body of Atahuallpa was carried to Quito, the city of his
+birth, in compliance with his dying wish, and buried there with imposing
+obsequies. Refounded by Benalcazar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> in 1534, Quito was created an
+imperial city by Charles V. seven years later. It formed part of Peru
+till 1710; then of Santa F&eacute; till 1722; and again of Peru till its
+independence. The power of Spain in South America was destroyed at the
+battle of Ayacucho, Dec. 9, 1824. In 1830 Venezuela separated from
+Colombia, and Ecuador followed the same year. The first Congress was
+held in Riobamba; but Quito has ever since been the political focus. The
+first president was General Flores.</p>
+
+<p>Under the diadem of the Incas, Quito assumed a magnificence which it
+never saw before and has not displayed since. It was the worthy
+metropolis of a vast empire stretching from the equator to the desert of
+Atacama, and walled in by the grandest group of mountains in the world.
+On this lofty site, which amid the Alps would be buried in an avalanche
+of snow, but within the tropics enjoys an eternal spring, palaces more
+beautiful than the Alhambra were erected, glittering with the gold and
+emerald of the Andes. But all this splendor passed away with the sceptre
+of Atahuallpa. Where the pavilion of the Inca stood is now a gloomy
+convent, and a wheat-field takes the place of the Temple of the Sun.</p>
+
+<p>The colonial history of this favored spot is as lifeless as the history
+of Sahara. Not a single event occurred of which even Spain can be proud;
+not a monument was raised which reflects any credit upon the mother
+country. Every thing was prescribed by law, and all law emanated from a
+tribunal five thousand miles distant. There was no relation of private
+life with which the government did not interfere: what the colonist
+should plant and what trade he should follow; where he should buy and
+where he should sell; how much he should import and export; and where
+and when he should marry, were regulated by the "Council of the Indies"
+and the Inquisition. In the words<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> of a native writer, "The great
+majority of the people knew nothing of sciences, events, or men. Their
+religion consisted of outward observances, and an imperfect knowledge of
+the papal bulls; their morality, in asceticism and devotion to their
+king; their philosophy, in the subtleties of Aristotle; their history,
+in the history of the mother country; their geography, in the maps of
+Spanish America and of Spain; their press, in what sufficed to print
+bill-heads and blank forms; their commerce, in an insignificant coasting
+trade; their ambition and highest aspirations, in titles of nobility;
+their amusements, in bull-fights. The arrival of a mail was an event of
+great moment, and with ringing of bells was received the <i>cajon de
+Espa&ntilde;a</i> which announced the health of the sovereigns. Thus, while Europe
+was passing through the stormy times of Louis XIV.; while the
+philosophical writings of the illustrious men of those times found their
+way into the remotest corners of the globe; while the English colonies
+of North America conquered their independence; while the Old World was
+drenched in blood to propagate the ideas which the French Revolution had
+proclaimed, the Presidency of Quito, walled in by its immense
+cordilleras and the ocean, and ruled by monkish ignorance and bigotry,
+knew as little of men and events as we now know of men and events in the
+moon."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>From an iron despotism which existed for three centuries, Quito passed
+to a state of unbridled licentiousness. Without any political experience
+whatever, the people attempted to lay the foundation of a new system of
+government and society. With head and hearts perverted by monkish
+superstition and Spanish tyranny, yet set on fire by the French
+Revolution, what did they know of liberty!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> Endless civil wars have
+followed independence. "Political ambition," says a late United States
+minister, "personal jealousies, impracticable theories, official
+venality, reckless disregard of individual rights and legal obligations,
+foolish meddling and empirical legislation, and an absolute want of
+political morality, form the principal features of their republican
+history."<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> To-day they tread on the dust of an ancient race whose
+government was in every respect a most complete contrast to their own.</p>
+
+<p>At the foot of volcanic Pichincha, only five hours' travel from its
+smoking crater, lies "the city above the clouds," "the navel of the
+world," "magnificent Quito." On the north is the plain of Rumibamba, the
+battle-field where Gonzalo Pizarro routed the first viceroy of Peru, and
+the scene, two centuries later, of the nobler achievements of La
+Condamine, which made it the classic ground of astronomy. On the
+southern edge of the city rises Panecillo, reminding one of Mount Tabor
+by its symmetrical form, and over-looking the beautiful and well-watered
+plain of Turubamba. On the east flows the Rio Mach&aacute;ngara, and just
+beyond it stand the Puengasi hills hiding the Chillo valley, while the
+weary sun goes early to rest behind the towering peaks of Pichincha. So
+encircled is this sequestered spot, the traveler, approaching by the
+Guayaquil road, sees only a part of it, and is disappointed; and even
+when standing on Panecillo, with the entire city spread out before him,
+he is not wholly satisfied. Buried between treeless, sombre sierras, and
+isolated from the rest of the world by impassable roads and gigantic
+Cordilleras, Quito appears to us of the commercial nineteenth century as
+useless as the old feudal towns perched on the mountains of Middle
+Europe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> Not a chimney rises above the red-tiled roofs, telling of
+homely hearths beneath. No busy hum greets the ear; there are bugles
+instead of spindles, and jingling church bells in place of rattling
+carriages. The wandering eye does not look for a railroad or a
+telegraph, for even the highways, such as they are, seem deserted, and,
+save the music made for soldiers and saints, all is silent. The very
+mountains, too, with their snow-mantled heads, and their sides scarred
+by volcanic eruptions and ruptured by earthquake shocks, have a
+melancholy look. In the words of a great artist, "They look like a world
+from which not only the human, but the spiritual presences had perished,
+and the last of the archangels, building the great Andes for their
+monuments, had laid themselves down to eternal rest, each in his
+snow-white shroud."</p>
+
+<p>But let us enter. Passing the ruined chapel "Del Se&ntilde;or del buen pasaje,"
+and crossing by a substantial stone bridge the little Mach&aacute;ngara
+hastening to pay tribute to the Pacific, we leave behind us the dirty,
+dilapidated suburbs of the capital. Soon we cross another bridge&mdash;the
+Bridge of Buzzards&mdash;spanning a deep ravine, and gallop through the Plaza
+de Santo Domingo. Very different are the sights and sounds from the stir
+and style of Central Park. The scene has a semi-oriental cast&mdash;half
+Indian, half Egyptian, as if this were the confluence of the Mara&ntilde;on and
+Nile. Groups of men&mdash;not crowds, for there is plenty of elbow-room in
+Ecuador&mdash;in gay ponchos stand chatting in front of little shops, or lean
+against the wall to enjoy the sunshine; beggars in rags or sackcloth
+stretch forth their leprous hands for charity; monks in white, and
+canons in black, walk in the shade of immense hats; shoeless soldiers
+saunter to and fro; Indians from the mountains in every variety of
+costume cluster around heaps of vegetables for sale; women in red,
+brown, and blue frocks are peddling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> oranges and alligator pears, or
+bearing huge burdens on their heads; children, guiltless of clothing,
+and obtuse donkeys, wander whithersoever they will; and water-carriers,
+filling their jars at the fountain, start off on a dog-trot.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Quito" id="Quito"></a>
+<img src="images/059tb.png" alt="Quito, from the North." title="Quito, from the North." />
+<br /><a href="images/059.png">Quito, from the North.</a></p>
+
+<p>We cross the Plaza diagonally, pass down the Calle de San Fernando, up
+the Calle del Algodon, and through the busy Calle del Correo, till we
+reach the <i>Casa Frances</i>, opposite the mansion of the late General
+Flores. This is our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> hotel&mdash;owned by a Frenchman, but kept by an Indian.
+We ride under the low archway, bowing with ill grace, like all
+republicans unaccustomed to royalty, tie our beasts in the court-yard,
+ascend to our spacious quarters on the second floor, and, ordering
+coffee, seat ourselves in the beautiful balcony to talk of Quito and
+Quitonians.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Water" id="Water"></a>
+<img src="images/060tb.png"
+ alt="Water-carriers." title="Water-carriers." /><br />
+<a href="images/060.png">Water-carriers.</a></p>
+
+<p>Quito, though not the highest city on the globe, is two thousand feet
+higher than the Hospice of Great St. Bernard on the Alps, which is the
+only permanent place of abode in Europe above six thousand five hundred
+feet. When Mr. Hassaurek was appointed United States Minister to
+Ecuador, he thanked Mr. Lincoln for conferring upon him the <i>highest</i>
+gift in his power. The mean result of our numerous observations with
+Green's standard barometer places<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> the Grand Plaza nine thousand five
+hundred and twenty feet above the sea, or fifty feet lower than the
+calculation of Humboldt. Water boils at 194&deg;.5. Cuzco and Potosi may
+surpass it in altitude, but there is not a city in the world which can
+show at once such a genial climate, such magnificent views, and such a
+checkered history. It is unique likewise in its latitude, lying only
+fifteen miles below the equator; no other capital comes within three
+hundred miles of the equinoctial line.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Street" id="Street"></a>
+<img src="images/061tb.png" alt="" /><br />
+<a href="images/061.png">Street in Quito.</a></p>
+
+<p>Whatever may have been the plan of Quito in the days of Huayna-Capac, it
+is evident that the Spanish founders were guided more by the spurs of
+Pichincha than by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>astronomy. The streets make an angle of forty-five
+degrees with the meridian, so that not a single public building faces
+any one of the four cardinal points of the compass. Two deep ravines
+come down the mountain, and traverse the city from west to east. They
+are mostly covered by arches, on which the houses rest; but where they
+are open, they disclose as fit representatives of the place of torment
+as the Valley of Hinnom. The outline of the city is as irregular as its
+surface. It incloses one square mile. Twenty streets, all of them
+straiter than the apostolic one in Damascus, cross one another very
+nearly at right angles. None of them are too wide, and the walks are
+painfully narrow; but, thanks to Garcia Moreno, they are well paved. The
+inequality of the site, and its elevation above the Mach&aacute;ngara, render
+the drainage perfect.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> The streets are dimly lighted by tallow
+candles, every householder being obliged to hang out a lantern at 7
+<span class="smcap">P.M.</span>, unless there is moonshine. The candles, however, usually expire
+about ten o'clock. There are three "squares"&mdash;Plaza Mayor, Plaza de San
+Francisco, and Plaza de Santo Domingo. The first is three hundred feet
+square, and adorned with trees and flowers; the others are dusty and
+unpaved, being used as market-places, where Indians and donkeys most do
+congregate. All the plazas have fountains fed with pure water from
+Pichincha.</p>
+
+<p>Few buildings can boast of architectural beauty, yet Quito looks
+palatial to the traveler who has just emerged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> from the dense forest on
+the coast, "crossing bridgeless rivers, floundering over bottomless
+roads, and ascending and descending immense mountains." He is astonished
+to find such elegant edifices and such a proud aristocracy in this lofty
+lap of the Andes. The Indian habitations which girdle the city have no
+more architectural pretensions than an Arab dwelling. They are low mud
+hovels, the scene within and without of dirt and disorder.</p>
+
+<p>As we approach the Grand Plaza, the centre of the city, the buildings
+increase in size, style, and finish. The ordinary material is adobe, not
+only because it is cheap, but also because it best resists earthquake
+shocks. Fear of a <i>terremoto</i> has likewise led to a massiveness in
+construction which is slightly ludicrous when we see the poverty which
+it protects; the walls are often two or three feet thick. The ground
+floor is occupied by servants, whose rooms&mdash;small enough to be called
+niches&mdash;surround the paved court-yard, which is entered from the street
+by a broad doorway. Within this court is sometimes a fountain or
+flower-plot. Around it are arches or pillars supporting a gallery, which
+is the passage-way to the apartments of the second story. All the rooms
+are floored with large square bricks. With few exceptions, the only
+windows are folding glass doors leading to balconies overhanging the
+pavement. The tiled roofs project far over into the street, and from
+these project still farther uncouth water-spouts, such as used to be
+seen in Rio Janeiro, but have now been banished to the antiquarian
+museum. Only three or four private residences rise above two stories.
+The shops are small affairs&mdash;akin to the cupboards of Damascene
+merchants; half a dozen modern ladies can keep out any more customers.
+The door serves as entrance, exit, window, and show-case. The finest
+structures cluster around the plazas. Here are the public buildings,
+some of them dating back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> to the times of Philip II. They are modeled
+after the old Spanish style; there is scarcely a fragment of Gothic
+architecture. They are built of large brick, or a dark volcanic stone
+from Pichincha.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Palacio" id="Palacio"></a>
+<img src="images/064tb.png" alt="Palacio" title="Palacio" /><br /><a href="images/064.png">Palacio de Gobierno&mdash;Capitol.</a></p>
+
+<p>The Government House, which serves at once as "White House" and Capitol,
+is an imposing edifice fronting the Grand Plaza, and adorned with a fine
+colonnade. On its right rises the cathedral; on the left stands the
+unpretending palace of the nuncio. The former would be called beautiful
+were it kept in repair; it has a splendid marble porch, and a terrace
+with carved stone balustrade. The view above was taken from this
+terrace. The finest fa&ccedil;ade is presented by the old Jesuit church, which
+has an elaborate front of porphyry. The Church of San Francisco,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> built
+by the treasures of Atahuallpa, discovered by an Indian named Catuna, is
+the richest. It is surmounted by two lofty towers, and the interior is a
+perfect blaze of gilding. The monastery attached to it is one of the
+largest in the world, but the greater part of it is in ruins, and one of
+the wings is used as a barrack. Those unsightly, unadorned convents,
+which cling to every church save the cathedral, have neutralized nearly
+all architectural effect.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IV.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Population of
+Quito.&mdash; Dress.&mdash; Manners.&mdash; Character.&mdash; Commerce.&mdash;
+Agriculture.&mdash;
+Manufactures.&mdash;
+Arts.&mdash;
+Education.&mdash;
+Amusements.&mdash;
+Quito
+Ladies.</p>
+
+
+<p>Quitonians claim for their capital eighty thousand inhabitants; but when
+we consider that one fourth of the city is covered with ecclesiastical
+buildings, and that the dwelling-houses are but two stories high, we see
+that there is not room for more than half that number. From thirty
+thousand to forty thousand is the estimate of the venerable Dr. Jameson,
+who has resided here for a generation.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Census taking is as difficult
+as in Constantinople; the people hide themselves to escape taxation. The
+women far outnumber the men. The white population&mdash;a stiff aristocracy
+of eight thousand souls&mdash;is of Spanish descent, but not more than half a
+dozen can boast of pure blood. The coarse black hair, prominent
+cheek-bones, and low foreheads, reveal an Indian alliance. This is the
+governing class; from its ranks come those uneasy politicians who make
+laws for other people to obey, and hatch revolutions when a rival party
+is in power. They are blessed with fair mental capacity, quick
+perception, and uncommon civility; but they lack education and industry,
+energy and perseverance. Their wealth, which is not great, consists
+mainly in <i>haciendas</i>, yielding grain, cotton, and cattle. The Aguirre
+family is one of the noblest and wealthiest in the city; their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> mansion
+is on the Grand Plaza, facing the Capitol. The pure Indians of Quito
+number perhaps 10,000; not all those seen in the city are citizens, as
+many <i>serranos</i>, or mountaineers, come in to sell produce. They are the
+serfs that do the drudgery of the republic; they are the tillers of the
+soil, and beasts of burden. Many sell themselves for money in advance,
+and then are ever kept in debt. Excepting a few Zambos (the children of
+Indians and Negroes), and a very few foreigners and Negroes, the
+remainder, constituting the bulk of the population, are Cholos&mdash;the
+offspring of whites and Indians. They are not strictly half-breeds, for
+the Indian element stands out most prominent. Though a mixed race, they
+are far superior to their progenitors in enterprise and intelligence.
+They are the soldiers, artisans, and tradesmen who keep up the only
+signs of life in Quito. "I know not the reason," says Darwin, "but men
+of such origin seldom have a good expression of countenance." This may
+be true on the pampas, but Quito, where there is every imaginable
+mixture of Indian and Spaniard, is wonderfully free from ugly features.
+It may be owing to the more peaceful and civilized history of this
+mountain city.</p>
+
+<p>As to dress, black is the color of etiquette, but is not so national as
+in Madrid. The upper class follow <i>la mode de Paris</i>, gentlemen adding
+the classic cloak of Old Spain. This modern toga fits an Ecuadorian
+admirably; it favors habits of inactivity, preventing the arms from
+doing any thing, and covers a multitude of sins, especially pride and
+poverty. The <i>poncho</i>, so peculiar to the West Coast and to the Gauchos
+of Buenos Ayres, is a piece of cloth of divers colors, with a slit in
+the centre, through which the head is passed. It is the only variable
+article of the wardrobe. It is an excellent riding habit, and is made of
+heavy woolen for mountain travel, and of silk or cotton for warmer
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>altitudes. No gentleman will be seen walking in the streets of Quito
+under a poncho. Hence citizens are divided into men with ponchos, and
+gentlemen with cloaks. The pa&ntilde;uelon is the most essential article of
+female gear. It answers to the mantilla of the mother country, though it
+is not worn so gracefully as on the banks of the Tagus. Andean ladies
+are not troubled with the distressing fluctuations in the style of hats;
+a bonnet in Quito is as much out of place as a turban in New York. When
+the daughter of our late minister resident appeared in the cathedral
+with one, the innovation was the subject of severe remark. The Spanish
+hair is the glory of the sex. It is thick and black (red, being a
+rarity, is considered a beauty), and is braided in two long tresses. A
+silk dress, satin shoes, and fancy jewelry complete the visible attire
+of the belles of Quito.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary costume of the Indians and Cholos consists of a coarse
+cotton shirt and drawers, and silk, cotton, or woolen poncho of native
+manufacture, the females adding a short petticoat, generally of a light
+blue or "butter-nut" color, belted around the waist with a figured
+woolen belt woven by themselves. The head, arms, legs, and feet are
+often bare, but, by those who can afford it, the head is covered with a
+straw or white felt broad-brim, and the feet protected by sandals,
+called <i>alpargates</i>, made of the fibres of the aloe. They are very fond
+of bracelets and necklaces. Infants are usually swathed from neck to
+feet with a broad strip of cloth, so that they look like live mummies.</p>
+
+<p>Quitonians put us to shame by their unequaled courtesy, cordiality, and
+good-nature, and are not far below the grave and decorous Castilian in
+dignified politeness.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+<p>Rudeness, which some Northerners fancy is a proof of equality and
+independence, we never met with, and duels and street quarrels are
+almost unknown. We detected none of the touchy sensitiveness of the
+punctilious Spanish <i>hidalgos</i>. Their compliments and promises are
+without end; and, made in the magnificent and ceremonious language of
+Spain,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> are overwhelming to a stranger. Thus a fair Quitonian sends
+by her servant the following message to another lady: "Go to the
+Se&ntilde;orita Fulana de Tal, and tell her that she is my heart and the dear
+little friend of my soul; tell her that I am dying for not having seen
+her, and ask her why she does not come to see me; tell her that I have
+been waiting for her more than a week, and that I send her my best
+respects and considerations; and ask her how she is, and how her husband
+is, and how her children are, and whether they are all well in the
+family; and tell her she is my little love, and ask her whether she will
+be kind enough to send me that pattern which she promised me the other
+day."<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> This highly important message the servant delivers like a
+parrot, not omitting a single compliment, but rather adding thereto.</p>
+
+<p>A newly-arrived foreigner is covered with promises: houses, horses,
+servants, yea, every thing is at his disposal. But, alas! the traveler
+soon finds that this ceremony of words does not extend to deeds. He is
+never expected to call for the services so pompously proffered. So long
+as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> he stays in Quito he will not lose sight of the contrast between big
+promise and beggarly performance. This outward civility, however, is not
+hypocritical; it is mere mechanical prattle; the speaker does not expect
+to be taken at his word. The love of superlatives and the want of good
+faith may be considered as prominent characteristics. "The readiness
+with which they break a promise or an agreement (wrote Colonel Hall
+forty years ago) can only be equaled by the sophistical ingenuity with
+which they defend themselves for having done so." The Quitonians, who
+are sensible of their shortcomings, have this standing apology: "Our
+vices we owe to Spain; our virtues to ourselves."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such is the mutual distrust, partnerships are almost unknown; we do not
+remember a single commercial firm, save a few made up of brothers, or
+father and son. With this moral debility is joined the procrastinating
+spirit of the oriental. <i>Ma&ntilde;ana</i> (to-morrow), like the <i>Boukra</i> of the
+Arabs, is the universal winding up of promises. And very often, if one
+promises a thing to-morrow, he means the day after that. It is
+impossible to start a man into prompt compliance; he will not commence a
+piece of work when you wish nor when he promises. No amount of cajolery,
+bribery, or threats will induce a Quitonian to do any thing or be any
+where in season. If there were a railroad in Ecuador, every body would
+be too late for the first train. There are only one or two watch-tinkers
+in the great city, and, as may be inferred, very few watches are in
+running order. As a consequence, the people have very little idea of
+time. But this is not the sole reason for their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> dilatoriness; they are
+indifferent. Nobody seems to want to make money (though all are in sad
+need of it); nobody is in a hurry; nobody is busy save the tailors, who
+manifest a commendable diligence. Contempt for labor, a Spanish
+inheritance, and lack of energy, are traits which stand out in <i>alto
+relievo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>One can form his own judgment of the spiritless people from the single
+statement which we have from Dr. Jameson, that during the last forty
+years not ten Quitonians have visited the grand crater of Pichincha,
+though it is possible to ride horseback to its very edge. Plenty of
+gentlemen by profession walk the streets and cathedral terrace, proud as
+a Roman senator under his toga, yet not ashamed to beg a cup of coffee
+at the door of a more fortunate fellow-citizen. Society is in a constant
+struggle between ostentation and want.</p>
+
+<p>Nature has done more for Ecuador than for Ecuadorians. She laid out this
+beautiful valley for an Elysian field; "de Quito al Cielo" (from Quito
+to Heaven) is not an empty adage; and it is painful to look upon
+tottering walls and impassable roads, upon neglected fields and an idle
+population&mdash;poor as poverty in the lap of boundless natural wealth. The
+only really live man in the republic is the president, Se&ntilde;or G. Garcia
+Moreno, a man of wide views and great energy, standing in these respects
+head and shoulders above his fellow-citizens. Quito and Quito Valley owe
+nearly all their improvements to this one man.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to say what would be the industry of a people who spend much
+of their time repeating traditions of treasures buried by the Incas, and
+stories of gold deposits in the mountains. Of commerce there is scarcely
+enough to deserve the name. Quito is an ecclesiastical city, and is
+nearly supported by Guayaquil. Without capital, without energy, without
+business habits, Quitonians never embark<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> in grand commercial schemes
+and industrial enterprises. There is not a highway for commerce in any
+direction, only a natural path (called by the innocent natives a road),
+which rises to the altitude of fourteen thousand feet, by which the
+beasts of burden pick their way over the Cordillera. And this is open
+only six months in the year. Should a box designed for Quito arrive at
+Guayaquil at the beginning of the rainy season, it must tarry half a
+year till <i>Nature</i> makes the road passable.</p>
+
+<p>The unstable condition of the country does not encourage great
+undertakings; all business is periodically paralyzed by revolution.
+Merchants generally buy their goods in Lima, to which city and Guayaquil
+the fabrics of England and France are brought by foreigners in foreign
+ships. The shops of Quito, as we have remarked, are very small, without
+windows, and with only one wooden door. The door is double, and is
+fastened by a ponderous padlock. They are open from 7 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span> till sunset,
+excepting between nine and ten and between three and four, when the
+stores are closed for breakfast and dinner; the merchants never trusting
+their clerks, even when they have any, which is not usually the case.
+They have no fixed price, but get what they can. The majority know
+nothing of wholesale, and refuse to sell by the quantity, fearing a
+cheat. An Indian woman will sell you a real's worth of oranges any
+number of times, but she would object to parting with a dollar's
+worth&mdash;her arithmetic can not comprehend it.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>portals</i> or arcades of the Aguirre mansion and the nuncio's
+palace are the stalls of the haberdashers. Articles are not wrapped in
+paper; customers must get them home the best way they can. Ladies of the
+higher class seldom go out shopping, but send for samples. It is
+considered disgraceful to either sex to be seen carrying any thing
+through the streets of Quito. The common people buy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> only for immediate
+wants&mdash;a dose of medicine, or a handful of potatoes at a time. Nearly
+all liquids, kerosene as well as wine, are sold by the bottle.</p>
+
+<p>There was no bank in Quito in 1867, but an attempt has just been made to
+establish one. The paper money of Guayaquil is often at nine per cent.
+discount in the capital. The currency is silver adulterated with one
+third of copper. The smallest coin, the cal&eacute;, is worth about two and a
+half cents. Above that are medios (five cents), reals (ten cents), two,
+four, and eight reals. Eight reals make a soft dollar ($0 80); ten
+reals, a hard dollar ($1 00). There is no copper coin&mdash;oranges and
+loaves of bread are sometimes used to make change; and nearly all the
+gold in circulation are New Granada <i>condors</i> and Peruvian <i>onzas</i>. Many
+of the silver pieces have large holes cut in the centre, so that they
+resemble rings. Government set the example (and the people followed) on
+the plea that it would prevent the exportation of coin. The plan has
+succeeded, for it does not pass out of the valley.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly the only sign of progress is the late introduction of the grape
+and silk-worm; and these give so much promise of success that the
+threadbare nobility have already begun to count their coming fortunes.
+Husbandry is more pastoral than agricultural. Thousands of cattle are
+raised on the paramos, but almost wholly for beef. "A dislike to milk
+(observes Humboldt), or at least the absence of its use before the
+arrival of Europeans, was, generally speaking, a feature common to all
+nations of the New Continent, as likewise to the inhabitants of China."
+Some cheese (mostly unpressed curd) and a little butter are made, but in
+the patriarchal style. Only one American churn is in operation; the
+people insist upon first boiling the milk and then stirring with a
+spoon. Custom is omnipotent here, and its effects hereditary. Milking is
+done at any hour of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> the day, or whenever milk is wanted. The operation
+is a formidable one to these bull-fighting people. Stopping at a
+hacienda near Pelil&eacute;o for a drink of milk, we were eye-witness of a
+comical sight. A mild-looking cow was driven up to the door; the woman,
+evidently the bravest member of the household, seized the beast by the
+horns; a boy tied the hind legs with a long rope, and held on to one end
+of it at a respectful distance; while the father, with outstretched
+arms, milked into a calabash.</p>
+
+<p>Agricultural machinery is not in use. The first threshing-machine Quito
+ever saw was made in 1867 by some California miners, but it remained
+unsold when we last saw it. The spade is not known; the nearest approach
+to it is a crowbar flattened at one end. Hoes are clumsy and awkward.
+Yankee plows are bought more as curiosities than for use. Many a crooked
+stick is seen scratching the land, as in Egypt, which the cattle drag by
+their horns. Sometimes a number of sharp-nosed hogs are tied together
+and let into a field, and driven from place to place till the whole is
+rooted up. Corn is planted by making holes in the ground with a stick,
+and dropping in the seed. The soil and climate of Ecuador, so infinitely
+varied, offer a home to almost every useful plant. The productions of
+either India could be naturalized on the lowlands, while the highlands
+would welcome the grains and fruits of Europe. But intertropical people
+do not subdue nature like the civilized men of the North; they only pick
+up a livelihood.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish Americans, like Castilians on the banks of the Tagus, have a
+singular antipathy to trees. When Garcia Moreno made a park of the dusty
+Plaza Mayor, he was ridiculed, even threatened. To plant a fruit or
+shade tree (a thing of foresight and forethought for others) in a land
+where people live for self, and from hand to mouth, is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>considered
+downright folly in theory and practice. A large portion of the valley,
+left treeless, is becoming less favorable for cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, as it is, the traveler is charmed by the emerald verdure of the
+coast, and by "evergreen Quito"&mdash;more beautiful than the hanging gardens
+of Babylon&mdash;suspended far above the ordinary elevation of the clouds. In
+the San Francisco market we find wheat, barley, maize, beans, peas,
+potatoes, cabbages, beets, salads, pine-apples, chirimoyas, guavas,
+oranges, lemons, pears, quinces, peaches, apricots, melons, and
+strawberries&mdash;the last all the year round. Most of these are exotics;
+the early discoverers found not a cereal grain of the Old World, not an
+orange or apple, no sugar-cane or strawberries.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is but little manufacturing industry in the interior of Ecuador,
+but much more than on the coast. The chief articles manufactured are
+straw hats, shoes, baskets, carpets, embroidery, tape, thread, ponchos,
+coarse woolen and cotton cloth, saddles, sandals, soap, sugar, cigars,
+aguardiente, powder, sweetmeats, carved images, paints, and pottery.
+Wines, crockery, glassware, cutlery, silks, and fine cloth are imported.
+There are three cotton mills in the country; one in Chillo (established
+by Se&ntilde;ors Aguirre in 1842), another in Otovalo (built by Se&ntilde;or Parija in
+1859), and a third in Cuenca (1861). The machinery of the Chillo factory
+came from England; that of Otovalo from Patterson, N.J. The latter was
+utterly destroyed in the late great earthquake, and the proprietor
+killed. The cotton is inferior to that of New Orleans; it is not "fat,"
+as mechanics say; the seeds yield only two per cent. of oil. But it is
+whiter than American cotton, though coarse, and
+can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+be used only for
+very ordinary fabrics. The average length is five eighths of an inch.
+One pod will produce on an average three pennyweights. The mills of
+Chillo and Otovalo consume 425,000 pounds annually. The first sugar-mill
+was erected by the Aguirres in 1840 at Nanegal.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Indian" id="Indian"></a>
+<img src="images/076tb.png" alt="Indian Dwellings." title="Indian Dwellings." /><br /><a href="images/076.png">Indian Dwellings.</a></p>
+
+<p>Quito is more than a century behind this age of steam and lightning. To
+form an adequate idea of the mechanic and fine arts in that "city of the
+kings," we must transport ourselves to the Saxon period of European
+civilization. Both the material and the construction of the houses would
+craze Sir Christopher Wren. With fine quarries close at hand, they must
+build with mud mixed with stones, or plastered on wattles, like the
+Druses of Mount Lebanon. Living on the equatorial line and on the
+meridian so accurately measured by the highest mathematics of France and
+Spain, Quitonians must needs leave out every right angle or straight
+line in the walls, and every square beam and rafter. Except on the grand
+road from Quito to Ambato, commenced by President Moreno, there is not a
+wheel-barrow to be seen; paving-stones, lime, brick, and dirt, are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+usually carried on human backs. Saint Crispin never had the fortitude to
+do penance in the shoes of Quito, and the huge nails which enter into
+the hoofs of the quadrupedants remind one of the Cyclops. There are not
+six carts in Quito. If you wish to move, you must coax a dozen Indians,
+who care little for your money or your threats. Horse-hire, peonage, and
+most mechanical work must be paid for in advance. Carriages&mdash;antique
+vehicles, of which there are two or three in the city&mdash;are drawn by
+mules. The first was introduced by Se&ntilde;or Aguirre so late as 1859, and he
+was fined by the police for the privilege of riding in it. Quitonians
+are not a traveling people, and they are painfully ignorant of their own
+country. The most enterprising merchant ignores every thing but Quito
+and the road to Guayaquil.</p>
+
+<p>We can not praise the musical talent of Spanish Americans; their
+intonation is too nasal, while in their jumpings and chirpings they take
+after the grasshopper. A resident Englishman, who has traveled in many
+countries, and sings the songs of nearly every nation, told us he could
+not remember one of Ecuador. Pianos they have brought over the mountains
+at great expense; but they are more at home with the guitar. The
+embroidery and lace, wood carving and portrait painting of Quito, are
+commendable; but the grandeur of the Andes, like the beauty of the Alps,
+was never sketched by a native.</p>
+
+<p>Ecuador boasts of one University and eleven colleges; yet the people are
+not educated. Literature, science, philosophy, law, medicine, are only
+names. Nearly all young gentlemen are doctors of something; but their
+education is strangely dwarfed, defective, and distorted; and their
+knowledge, such as they have, is without power, as it is without
+practice. The University of Quito has two hundred and eighty-five
+students, of whom thirty-five are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>pursuing law, and eighteen medicine.
+There are eleven professors. They receive no fees from the students, but
+an annual salary of $300. The library contains eleven thousand volumes,
+nearly all old Latin, Spanish, and French works. The cabinet is a bushel
+of stones cast into one corner of a lumber-room, covered with dust, and
+crying out in vain for a man in the University to name them. The College
+of Tacunga has forty-five students; a fine chemical and philosophical
+apparatus, but no one to handle it; and a set of rocks from Europe, but
+only a handful from Ecuador. The College of Riobamba has four
+professors, and one hundred and twenty students. In the common schools,
+the pupils study in concert aloud, Arab fashion. There are four papers
+in the republic; two in Guayaquil, one in Cuenca, and one in Quito. <i>El
+Nacional</i>, of the capital, is an official organ, not a newspaper; it
+contains fourteen duodecimo pages, and is published occasionally by the
+Minister of the Interior. Like the <i>Gazeta</i> of Madrid, it is one of the
+greatest satires ever deliberately published by any people on itself.
+There is likewise but one paper in Cuzco, <i>El Triumfo del Pueblo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The amusements of Quito are few, and not very amusing. Indo-Castilian
+blood runs too slowly for merry-making. There are no operas or concerts,
+no theatres or lectures, no museums or menageries. For dramas they have
+revolutions; for menageries, bull-baitings. A bull-bait is not a
+bull-fight. There is no coliseum or amphitheatre; no <i>matador</i> gives the
+scientific death-wound. Unlike their fraternity in the ring of Seville,
+where they are doomed to die, the animals are only doomed to be
+pothered; they are "scotched, not killed." They are teased and tormented
+by yelling crowds, barking dogs, brass bands, red ponchos, tail-pulling,
+fire-crackers, wooden lances, and such like. The Plaza de Toros is the
+Plaza de San Francisco. This sport<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> is reserved for the most notable
+days in the calendar: Christmas, New Year's, Inauguration-day, and
+Independence-day&mdash;the 10th of August.</p>
+
+<p>Cock-fights come next in popularity, and are <i>bona fide</i> fights. Often
+the roosters are so heroic that both leave their blood in the arena, and
+never crow again. Little knives are fastened to the natural spurs, with
+which the fowls cut each other up frightfully. The interesting scene
+takes place on Sundays and Thursdays, near the Church of Santa Catalina,
+and is regulated by a municipal tribunal. The admission fee of five
+cents, and the tax of two per cent. on bets, yield the city a monthly
+revenue of $100.</p>
+
+<p>Other pastimes are carnivals and masquerades. Carnival is observed by
+pelting one another with eggs and sprinkling with water. Whoever
+invented this prelude to Lent should be canonized. Masquerades occur
+during the holidays, when all classes, in disguise or fancy dress, get
+up a little fun at each other's expense. The monotony of social life is
+more frequently disturbed by fashionable funerals than by these
+amusements; and, as the principal families are inter-related, the rules
+of condolence keep the best part of society in mourning, and the best
+pianos and guitars silent for at least six months in the year.</p>
+
+<p>A word about the ladies of Quito. We concur in the remark of our
+minister, Mr. Hassaurek, that "their natural dignity, gracefulness, and
+politeness, their entire self-possession, their elegant but unaffected
+bearing, and the choiceness of their language, would enable them to make
+a creditable appearance in any foreign drawing-room." Their natural
+talents are of a high order; but we must add that the se&ntilde;oras are
+uneducated, and are incapable of either great vices or great virtues.
+Their minds, like the soil of their native country, are fertile, but
+uncultivated; and their hearts, like the climate, are of a mean
+temperature.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>Prayer-books and French novels (imported, as wanted, for
+there is not a book-store in the city) are the alpha and the omega of
+their literature; Paris is considered the centre of civilization. They
+are comely, but not beautiful; Venus has given her girdle of fascination
+to few. Sensible of this, they paint.</p>
+
+<p>Holinski gives his impressions by contrasting the fair Quitonians with
+the fairer Guayaquilians: "Les yeux vifs et ardent, le pied fine et
+mignon, les teintes chaudes et dor&eacute;es" distinguish the latter. In the
+ladies of the high capital there is nothing of this: "Les yeux ne
+lancent pas de flammes, le pied est sans gentillesse, l'epiderme ne
+refl&egrave;te pas les rayons du soleil." The ladies on the coast take all
+possible pains to preserve the small size of the foot; a large foot is
+held in horror. Von Tschudi once overheard some ladies extolling in high
+terms the beauty of an English lady; all their praise, however, ending
+with this exclamation, "But what a foot! Good heavens! it is like a
+great boat!" Gibbon is continually talking of beautiful se&ntilde;oras and
+se&ntilde;oritas on the Andes; surely the lieutenant is in sport.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>The ladies of Quito give few entertainments for lack of ready money.
+They spend much of their time in needle-work and gossip, sitting like
+Turkish sultanas on divans or the floor. They do not rise at your
+entrance or departure. They converse in a very loud, unmusical voice. We
+never detected bashfulness in the street or parlor. They go to mass
+every morning, and make visits of etiquette on Sundays. They take more
+interest in political than in domestic affairs. Dust and cobwebs are
+unmistakable signs of indifference. Brooms are rarities; such as exist
+are besoms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> made of split stick. Since our return, we have sent to a
+Quitonian gentleman, by request, a package of broom-corn seed, which, we
+trust, will be the forerunner of a harvest of brooms and cleaner floors
+in the high city. Not only the lords, but also the ladies, are
+inveterate smokers. Little mats are used for spittoons.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Washerwomen" id="Washerwomen"></a>
+<img src="images/081tb.png" alt="Washerwomen." title="Washerwomen." /><br /><a href="images/081.png">Washerwomen.</a></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps Quitonian ladies have too many Indian servants about them to
+keep tidy; seven or eight is the average number for a family. These are
+married, and occupy the ground floor, which swarms with nude children.
+They are cheap, thievish, lazy, and filthy. No class, pure-blood or
+half-breed, is given to ablution, though there are two public baths in
+the city. Washerwomen repair to the Mach&aacute;ngara, where they beat the
+dirty linen of Quito over the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> smooth rocks. We remember but two or
+three table-cloths which entirely covered the table, and only one which
+was clean. There are but two daily meals; one does not feel the need of
+more; they are partaken at nine and three, or an hour earlier than in
+Guayaquil. When two unwashed, uncombed cooks bend over a charcoal fire,
+which is fanned by a third unkempt individual, and all three blinded by
+smoke (for there is no chimney), so that it is not their fault if
+capillaries and something worse are mingled with the stew, with onions
+to right of them, onions to left of them, onions in front of them, and
+<i>achote</i> already in the pot in spite of your repeated anathemas and
+expostulations&mdash;<i>achote</i>, the same red coloring matter which the wild
+Indians use for painting their bodies and dyeing their cloth&mdash;and with
+several aboriginal wee ones romping about the kitchen, keen must be the
+appetite that will take hold with alacrity as the dishes are brought on
+by the most slovenly waiter imagination can body forth.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> The aim of
+Ecuadorian cookery is to eradicate all natural flavor; you wouldn't know
+you were eating chicken except by the bones. Even coffee and chocolate
+somehow lose their fine Guayaquilian aroma in this high altitude, and
+the very pies are stuffed with onions. But the beef, minus the garlic,
+is most excellent, and the <i>dulce</i> unapproachable.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER V.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Ecuador.&mdash;
+Extent.&mdash;
+Government.&mdash;
+Religion.&mdash;
+A Protestant Cemetery in
+Quito.&mdash;
+Climate.&mdash;
+Regularity of Tropical Nature.&mdash;
+Diseases on the
+Highlands.</p>
+
+
+<p>The republic of Ecuador looks like a wedge driven into the continent
+between the Mara&ntilde;on and the Putumayo. It has 1200 miles of Pacific
+coast, and an area of about two hundred thousand square miles, including
+the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands. Peru, however, claims the oriental half, drawing
+her northern boundary from Tumbez through Can&eacute;los and Archidona; and she
+is entitled to much of it, for she has established a regular line of
+steamers on the Mara&ntilde;on, while the Quito government has not developed an
+acre east of the Andes. Ecuador is hung between and upon two
+cordilleras, which naturally divide it into three parts: the western
+slope, the Quitonian valley, and the Napo region. The fluvial system is
+mainly made up of the Napo, Pastassa, and Santiago, tributaries of the
+Mara&ntilde;on, and the Mira, Esmeraldas, and Guayaquil, flowing westward into
+the Pacific. There are no lakes proper, but the natives enumerate
+fifty-five lagunes, the largest of which, Capucuy, is not over five
+miles long.</p>
+
+<p>Villavicencio tells the world that his country has a total population of
+1,308,042. But Dr. Jameson believes it does not exceed 700,000. The
+government is based on the Constitution of 1845, amended in 1853. The
+president is chosen by a plurality of votes, holds his office for four
+years, and has a salary of $12,000. He can not be re-elect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>ed,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> nor
+can he exercise his functions more than twenty-five miles from the
+capital. But the law is often set aside by those in power. During the
+administration of Garcia Moreno, prominent citizens were shot or
+banished by his order, without trial by jury. To every plea for mercy
+the stern president replied, that as he could not save the country
+according to the Constitution, he should govern it according to his own
+views of public necessity.</p>
+
+<p>Congress assembles on the 15th of September every other year, and
+consists of eighteen senators and thirty representatives. The chambers
+are small, and literally barren of ornament. The members sit in two rows
+facing each other, have no desks, and give an affirmative vote by a
+silent bow. Politics has less to do with principles and parties than
+with personalities. Often it has a financial aspect; and the natural
+expression on learning of a revolution is, "Somebody is out of money."
+The party in feathers its nest as fast as possible; there is scarcely a
+public officer who is not open to bribery. The party out plots a
+premature resurrection to power by the ladders of corruption, slander,
+and revolution.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Revolution has so rapidly followed revolution that
+history has ceased to count them; and it may be said of them what Milton
+wrote of the wars of the Saxon Heptarchy, "that they are not more worthy
+of being recorded than the skirmishes of crows and kites." The Grand
+Plaza, the heart where all the great arteries of circulation meet and
+diverge, is where the high tides of Quito affairs ebb and flow.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+<p>The Supreme Court consists of five judges. Criminal cases only are tried
+by jury; and an attorney is not permitted to question a witness. There
+are no penitentiaries: second-class criminals are made to work for the
+public, while political offenders are banished to the banks of the Napo,
+or to Peru. Here, as in no other country, every man's house is his
+castle. No search-warrants are allowed; a policeman can be shot dead on
+the threshold. The person and property of a foreigner are safe; and no
+native in the employ of a foreigner can be taken by the government for
+military purposes. All, except pure Indians, can vote if over
+twenty-one, and can read and write. A man's signature is without value
+if it lacks his flourish&mdash;a custom of Spanish origin.</p>
+
+<p>The permanent army consists of two regiments. The soldiers are mostly
+half-breeds, and are generally followed by their wives. They are poorly
+paid; and as they are impressed into the service, they carry out the
+principle by helping themselves wherever they go. In marching, they have
+a quicker step than Northern soldiers. The chief expenditure of the
+republic is for the army, about $500,000; the next is for the payment of
+the national debt, $360,000. The foreign debt is &pound;1,470,374. Ecuadorians
+claim a revenue of a million and a half, of which one half is from the
+custom-house, and one fiftieth from the post-office.</p>
+
+<p>One would suppose that the people who breathe this high atmosphere, and
+enjoy this delightful climate, and are surrounded by all that is truly
+grand and beautiful, would have some corresponding virtues. But we find
+that Nature, here as every where, has mingled base and noble elements.
+The lofty mountains, bearing in their steadfastness the seal of their
+appointed symbol&mdash;"God's righteousness is like the great
+mountains"&mdash;look down upon one of the lowest and most corrupt forms of
+republican government on earth;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> their snowy summits preach sermons
+on purity to Quitonian society, but in vain; and the great thoughts of
+God written all over the Andes are unable to lift this proud capital out
+of the mud and mire of medi&aelig;val ignorance and superstition. The
+established religion is the narrowest and most intolerant form of
+Romanism. Mountains usually have a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> more elevating, religious influence
+than monotonous plains. The Olympian mythology of the Greek was far
+superior to the beastly worship on the banks of the Nile. And yet at the
+very feet of glorious Chimborazo and Pichincha we see a nation bowing
+down to little images of the rudest sculpture with a devotion that
+reminds us of the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Ecclesiastics" id="Ecclesiastics"></a>
+<img src="images/086tb.png" alt="Ecclesiastics." title="Ecclesiastics." /><br /><a href="images/086.png">Ecclesiastics.</a></p>
+
+<p>The belief is called <i>La Fe</i>, or the only true one. The oath of a
+Protestant is not regarded in courts of law. One fourth of Quito is
+covered by convents and churches. The convents alone number fifty-seven,
+and are very extensive, sometimes spreading over eight or nine acres.
+The Church revenue amounts to $800,000. There are more than four hundred
+priests, monks, and nuns in the capital. The native ecclesiastics are
+notorious for their ignorance and immorality. "It is a very common thing
+(says Dr. Terry) for a curate to have a whole flock of orphan nephews
+and nieces, the children of an imaginary brother." There is one
+ex-president who has the reputation of tying a spur on the leg of a
+game-cock better even than a curate. The imported Jesuits are the most
+intelligent and influential clergy. They control the universities and
+colleges, and education generally. Active and intellectual, though not
+learned, they have infused new life into the fat indolence of the
+Spanish system. Men of this world rather than the next, they have
+adopted a purely mundane policy, abjured the gloomy cowl, raised
+gorgeous temples, and say, "He that cometh unto us shall in no wise lose
+heaven." Their chief merit, however, is the discovery of the turkey and
+quinine.</p>
+
+<p>The Protestant in Quito is annoyed by an everlasting jingling of bells
+and blowing of bugles night and day. The latter are blown every third
+hour. The bells are struck by boys, not rung. A bishop, returning from a
+visit to London, was asked if there were any good bells in England.
+"Very fine," he replied, "but there is not a man<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> there who knows how to
+ring them." Foreign machinery is sprinkled with holy water to neutralize
+the inherent heresy; but a miller, for example, will charge more for his
+flour after the baptism.</p>
+
+<p>Lotteries are countenanced by both Church and State, and in turn help
+support them; we saw one "grand scheme" carried out on the cathedral
+terrace and defended by bayonets.</p>
+
+<p>At half past nine in the morning all Quito is on its knees, as the great
+bell of the cathedral announces the elevation of the Host. The effect is
+astonishing. Riders stop their horses; foot-passengers drop down on the
+pavement; the cook lets go her dishes and the writer his pen; the
+merchant lays aside his measure and the artisan his tool; the
+half-uttered oath (<i>car&aacute;jo</i>!) dies on the lips of the Cholo; the arm of
+the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his donkey, is paralyzed; and the
+smart repartee of the lively donna is cut short. The solemn stillness
+lasts for a minute, when the bell tolls again, and all rise to work or
+play. Holidays are frequent. Processions led by a crucifix or wooden
+image are attractive sights in this dull city, simply because little
+else is going on. Occasionally a girl richly dressed to represent the
+humble mother of God is drawn about in a carriage, and once a year the
+figures of the Virgin belonging to different churches are borne with
+much pomp to the Plaza, where they bow to each other like automatons.</p>
+
+<p>"This is a bad country to live in, and a worse one to die in," said Dr.
+Jameson. But times have changed, even in fossil Quito. Through the
+efforts of our late minister, Hon. W.T. Coggeshall, the bigoted
+government has at last consented to inclose a quarter of an acre outside
+the city for the subterranean burial of heretics. The cemetery is on the
+edge of the beautiful plain of I&ntilde;aquito, and on the right of the road
+leading to Gu&aacute;polo. "What a shame,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> said a Quitonian lady of position,
+"that there should be a place to throw Protestant dogs!"</p>
+
+<p>On St. Nathaniel's day died Colonel Phineas Staunton, Vice-Chancellor of
+Ingham University, New York. An artist by profession, and one of very
+high order, Colonel Staunton joined our expedition to sketch the glories
+of the Andes, but he fell a victim to the scourge of the lowlands one
+week after his arrival in Quito. We buried him at noon-day<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> in the
+new cemetery, "wherein was never man laid," and by the act consecrated
+the ground. Peace to his ashes; honor to his memory. That 8th of
+September, 1867, was a new day in the annals of Quito. On that day the
+imperial city beheld, for the first time in three centuries, the decent
+burial of a Protestant in a Protestant cemetery. Somewhere, mingled with
+the ashes of Pichincha, is the dust of Atahuallpa, who was buried in his
+beloved Quito at his own request after his murder in Caxamarca. But
+dearer to us is that solitary grave; the earth is yet fresh that covers
+the remains of one of nature's noblemen.</p>
+
+<p>Turn we now to a more delightful topic than the politics and religion of
+Quito. The climate is perfect. Fair Italy, with her classic prestige and
+ready access, will long be the land of promise to travelers expatriated
+in search of health. But if ever the ancients had reached this Andean
+valley, they would have located here the Elysian Fields, or the seat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> of
+"the blessed, the happy, and long-lived" of Anacreon.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> No torrid heat
+enervates the inhabitant of this favored spot; no icy breezes send him
+shivering to the fire. Nobody is sun-struck; nobody's buds are nipped by
+the frost. Stoves and chimneys, starvation and epidemics, are unknown.
+It is never either spring, summer, or autumn, but each day is a
+combination of all three. The mean annual temperature of Quito is 58&deg;.8,
+the same as Madrid, or as the month of May in Paris. The average range
+in twenty-four hours is about 10&deg;. The coldest hour is 6 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>; the
+warmest between 2 and 3 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> The extremes in a year are 45&deg; and 70&deg;;
+those of Moscow are-38&deg; and 89&deg;. It is a prevalent opinion that since
+the great earthquake of 1797 the temperature has been lower. "It was
+suddenly reduced (says the <i>Encycl. Metropolitana</i>) from 66&deg; or 68&deg; to
+40&deg; or 45&deg;"&mdash;a manifest error. The natives say that since the
+<i>terremote</i> of 1859 the seasons have not commenced so regularly, nor are
+they so well defined; there are more rainy days in summer than before.
+It remains to be seen whether the late convulsion has affected the
+climate.</p>
+
+<p>The mean diurnal variation of the barometer is only .084. So regular is
+the oscillation, as likewise the variations of the magnetic needle, that
+the hour may be known within fifteen minutes by the barometer or
+compass. Such is the clock-like order of Nature under the equator, that
+even the rains, the most irregular of all meteorological phenomena in
+temperate zones, tell approximately the hour of the day. The winds, too,
+have an orderly march&mdash;the ebb and flow of an aerial ocean. No wonder
+watch-tinkers
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>cannot live where all the forces in nature keep time.
+Nobody talks about the weather; conversation begins with benedictions or
+compliments.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest variations of the thermometer occur in autumn, and the
+greatest quantity of rain falls in April.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> While on the western side
+of the Andes, south of the equator, the dry season extends from June to
+January, on the eastern side of the Cordillera the seasons are reversed,
+the rain lasting from March to November. The climate of the central
+valley is modified by this opposition of seasons on either side of it,
+as also by the proximity of snowy peaks. Nine such peaks stand around
+Quito within a circle of thirty miles. The prevailing winds in summer
+are from the northeast; in the winter the southwest predominate.</p>
+
+<p>There are only three small drug-stores in the great city of Quito. The
+serpent is used as the badge of apothecary art. Physicians have no
+offices, nor do they, as a general rule, call upon their patients. When
+an invalid is not able to go to the doctor, he is expected to die.
+Yellow fever, cholera, and consumption are unknown; while intermittent
+fevers, dysentery, and liver complaints, so prevalent on the coast, are
+uncommon. The ordinary diseases are catarrhal affections and typhoid
+fever. Cases of inflammation of the lungs are rare; more coughing may be
+heard during a Sunday service in a New England meeting-house than in six
+months in Quito. The diseases to which the monks of St. Bernard are
+liable are pulmonary, and the greater number become asthmatic. Asthma is
+also common in Quito, while phthisis increases as we descend to the sea.
+Individuals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> are often seen with a handkerchief about the jaws, or bits
+of plaster on the temples; these are afflicted with headache or
+toothache, resulting from a gratified passion for sweetmeats, common to
+all ages and classes. Digestive disorders are somewhat frequent
+(contrary to the theory in Europe), but they spring from improper food
+and sedentary habits. The <i>cuisine</i> of the country does not tempt the
+stomach to repletion, and the climate is decidedly peptic. So the
+typhoid fever of Quito is due to filth, poor diet, and want of
+ventilation. Corpulency, especially among the men, is astonishingly
+rare.</p>
+
+<p>According to Dr. Lombard, mountain districts favor the development of
+diseases of the heart; and contagious diseases are not arrested by the
+atmosphere of lofty regions. This is true in Quito. But while nervous
+diseases are rare in the inhabited highlands of Europe, in Quito they
+are common. Sleep is said to be more tranquil and refreshing, and the
+circulation more regular at high altitudes; but our experience does not
+sustain this. Go&icirc;tre is quite common among the mountains. It is a sign
+of constitutional weakness, for the children of go&icirc;tred parents are
+usually deaf and dumb, and the succeeding generation idiots.
+Boussingault thinks it is owing to the lack of atmospheric air in the
+water; but why is it nearly confined to the women? In the southern
+provinces about Cuenca, cutaneous affections are quite frequent. In the
+highlands generally, scrofulous diseases are more common than in the
+plains. There are three hospitals for lepers; one at Cuenca with two
+hundred patients, one at Quito with one hundred and twelve patients, and
+one at Ambato. Near Riobamba is a community of dwarfs.</p>
+
+<p>D'Orbigny made a <i>post-mortem</i> examination of some Indians from the
+highest regions, and found the lungs of extraordinary dimensions, the
+cells larger and more in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>number. Hence the unnatural proportion of the
+trunk, which is plainly out of harmony with the extremities. The
+expanded chest of the mountaineers is evidently the result of larger
+inspirations to secure the requisite amount of oxygen, which is much
+less in a given space at Quito than on the coast. This is an instance,
+observes Prichard, of long-continued habit, and the result of external
+agencies modifying the structure of the body, and with it the state of
+the most important functions of life. We tried the experiment of burning
+a candle one hour at Guayaquil, and another part of the same candle for
+the same period at Quito. Temperature at Guayaquil, 80&deg;; at Quito, 62&deg;.
+The loss at Guayaquil was 140 grains; at Quito, 114, or 26 grains less
+at the elevation of 9500 feet. Acoustics will also illustrate the
+thinness of the air. M. Godin found (1745) that a nine-pounder could not
+be heard at the distance of 121,537 feet; and that an eight-pounder at
+Paris, at the distance of 102,664 feet, was louder than a nine-pounder
+at Quito at the distance of 67,240 feet.</p>
+
+<p>According to Dr. Archibald Smith, the power of muscular exertion in a
+native of the coast is greatly increased by living at the height of
+10,000 feet. But it is also asserted by observing travelers that dogs
+and bulls lose their combativeness at 12,000 feet, and that hence there
+can never be a good bull-fight or dog-fight on the Sierras. This is
+literally true: the dogs seem to partake of the tameness of their
+masters. Cats do not flourish at all in high altitudes; and probably the
+lion, transplanted from the low jungle to the table-lands, would lose
+much of his ferocity. Still, cock-fights seem to prosper; and the battle
+of Pichincha was fought on an elevation of nearly 11,000 feet. Bolivar
+and the Spaniards, also, fought like tigers on the high plain of
+Junin.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+<p>The sickness felt by some travelers at great elevations&mdash;violent
+headache and disposition to vomit&mdash;is called <i>veta</i>; and the difficulty
+of breathing from the rarity of the air is termed <i>puna</i>. Gerard
+complained of severe headache and depression of spirits at the height of
+15,000 feet on the Himalayas; Dr. Barry, in ascending Mont Blanc (15,700
+feet), speaks of great thirst, great dryness and constriction of skin,
+loss of appetite, difficult breathing, tendency to syncope, and utter
+indifference. Baron M&uuml;ller, in his ascent of Orizava (17,800 feet),
+found great difficulty in breathing, and experienced the sensation of a
+red-hot iron searing his lungs, and agonizing pains in the chest,
+followed by fainting-fits and torrents of blood from his mouth;
+Humboldt, in scaling Chimborazo, suffered from nausea akin to
+sea-sickness, and a flow of blood from the nose and lips; while Herndon,
+on the slope of Puy-puy (15,700 feet), said he thought his heart would
+break from his breast with its violent agitation. Though ascending the
+Andes to the height of 16,000 feet, and running up the last few rods, we
+experienced nothing of this except a temporary difficulty in
+respiration. We were exhilarated rather than depressed. The experience
+of Darwin on the Portillo ridge (14,000 feet) was only "a slight
+tightness across the head and chest." "There was some imagination even
+in this (he adds); for, upon finding fossil shells on the highest ridge,
+I entirely forgot the puna in my delight." De Saussure says truly: "The
+strength is repaired as speedily as it has been exhausted. Merely a
+cessation of movement for three or four minutes, without even seating
+one's self, seems to restore the strength so perfectly that, on resuming
+progress, one feels able to climb at a single stretch to the very peak
+of the mountain."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VI.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Astronomic Virtues of Quito.&mdash;
+Flora and Fauna of the Valley of
+Quito.&mdash;
+Primeval Inhabitants of the Andes.&mdash;
+Quichua Indians.</p>
+
+
+<p>Quito, with a position unparalleled for astronomical purposes, has no
+observatory. The largest telescope in the city is about five feet long,
+but the astute professor of natural philosophy in the Jesuit College who
+has charge of it had not the most distant idea that an eclipse of the
+sun would occur on the 29th of August, and an eclipse of the moon
+fifteen days later. In ancient days this "holy city" had within it the
+Pillar of the Sun, which cast no shadow at noon, and a temple was built
+for the god of light. The title of the sovereign Inca was the Child of
+the Sun; but there was very little knowledge of astronomy, for, being
+the national religion, it was beyond the reach of scientific
+speculation.</p>
+
+<p>The atmosphere of Quito is of transparent clearness. Humboldt saw the
+poncho of a horseman with the naked eye at a horizontal distance of
+ninety thousand feet. The sky is of a dark indigo color; the azure is
+less blended with white because of the extreme dryness of the air. The
+stars stand out with uncommon brilliancy, and the dark openings between
+them the great German compared to "tubes through which we look into the
+remotest depths of space." It is true at Quito, as Humboldt noticed at
+Cumana, that the stars do not twinkle when they are more than fifteen
+degrees high; "the soft planetary light" of the stars overhead is not
+mere rhetoric.</p>
+
+<p>Living under the equatorial line, Quitonians enjoy the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> peculiar
+privilege of beholding the stars of both hemispheres, the guiding stars
+of Ursa Major as well as the Magellanic Clouds and Southern Cross, not
+omitting that black spot near the latter, "the unappropriated region in
+the skies reserved by Manager Bingham for deposed American presidents."</p>
+
+<p>The zodiacal light here appears in all its glory. This strange
+phenomenon has long puzzled philosophers, and they are still divided. It
+is generally considered to be produced by a continuous zone of
+infinitesimal asteroids. The majority place this zone beyond the orbit
+of the earth, and concentric with the sun. But Rev. George Jones, of
+Philadelphia, who has spent several years in observing this light,
+including eight months in Quito, considers it geocentric, and possibly
+situated between the earth and its satellite. At New York only a short
+pyramidal light, and this only at certain seasons, is to be seen; but
+here, an arch twenty degrees wide, and of considerable intensity, shoots
+up to the zenith, and Mr. Jones affirms that a complete arch is visible
+at midnight when the ecliptic is at right angles to the spectator's
+horizon. We have not been so fortunate as to see it pass the zenith; and
+Professor Barnard contends that it never does pass. We may remark that
+the main part of the zodiacal light shifts to the south side of the
+celestial equator as we cross the line. To us the most magnificent sight
+in the tropical heavens is the "Milky Way," especially near Sobieski's
+Shield, where it is very luminous. We observed that this starry tract
+divided at &#945; Centauri, as Herschel says, and not at &#946;,
+as many maps and globes have it. The brightest stars in the southern
+hemisphere follow the direction of a great circle passing through
+&#949; Orionis and &#945; Crucis.</p>
+
+<p>Another thing which arrests the attention of the traveler is the
+comparatively well-defined boundary-line between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> day and night. The
+twilight at Quito lasts only an hour and a half; on the coast it is
+still shorter. Nor is there any "harvest moon," the satellite rising
+with nearly equal intervals of forty-eight minutes.</p>
+
+<p>From the stars we step down to the floral kingdom on the Andes, using as
+our ladder of descent the following sentence from Humboldt, at the age
+of seventy-five: "If I might be allowed to abandon myself to the
+recollections of my own distant travels, I would instance among the most
+striking scenes of nature the calm sublimity of a tropical night, when
+the stars&mdash;not sparkling, as in our Northern skies&mdash;shed their soft and
+planetary light over the gently heaving ocean; or I would recall the
+deep valleys of the Cordilleras, where the tall and slender palms pierce
+the leafy veil around them, and wave on high their feathery and
+arrow-like branches."</p>
+
+<p>Father Velasco praises Ecuador as "the noblest portion of the New
+World." Nature has doubtless gifted it with capabilities unsurpassed by
+those of any other country. Situated on the equinoctial line, and
+embracing within its limits some of the highest as well as lowest dry
+land on the globe, it presents every grade of climate, from the
+perpetual summer on the coast and in the Orient to the everlasting
+winter of the Andean summits, while the high plateau between the
+Cordilleras enjoys an eternal spring. The vegetable productions are
+consequently most varied and prolific. Tropical, temperate, and arctic
+fruits and flowers are here found in profusion, or could be successfully
+cultivated. As the Ecuadorian sees all the constellations of the
+firmament, so Nature surrounds him with representatives of every family
+of plants. There are places where the eye may embrace an entire zone,
+for it may look up to a barley-field and potato-patch, and down to the
+sugar-cane and pine-apple.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Confining our attention to the Quito Valley, we remark that the whole
+region from Pichincha to Chimborazo is as treeless as Palestine. The
+densest forest is near Ba&ntilde;os. The most common tree is the "Aliso"
+(<i>Betula acuminata</i>). Walnut is the best timber. There are no pines or
+oaks.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The slopes of the mountains, between twelve and fifteen
+thousand feet, are clothed with a shrub peculiar to the high altitudes
+of the Andes, called <i>Chuquiragua</i>. This is a very valuable shrub; the
+twigs are used for fuel, and the yellow buds as a febrifuge. The
+castor-oil-tree grows naturally by the road side, sometimes to the
+height of twelve feet.</p>
+
+<p>A very useful as well as the most ordinary plant in the valley is the
+American aloe, or "Century Plant."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> It is the largest of all herbs.
+Not naturally social, it imparts a melancholy character to the landscape
+as it rises solitary out of the arid plain. Most of the roads are fenced
+with aloe hedges. While the majority of tropical trees have naked stems
+with a crown of leaves on the top, the aloe reverses this, and looks
+like a great chandelier as its tall peduncle, bearing greenish-yellow
+flowers, rises out of a graceful cluster of long, thick, fleshy leaves.
+When cultivated, the aloe flowers in much less time than a century; but,
+exhausted by the efflorescence, it soon dies. Nearly every part serves
+some purpose; the broad leaves are used by the poorer class instead of
+paper in writing, or for thatching their huts; sirup flows out of the
+leaves when tapped, and, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> they contain much alkali, a soap (which
+lathers with salt water as well as fresh) is also manufactured from
+them; the flowers make excellent pickles; the flower-stalk is used in
+building; the pith of the stem is used by barbers for sharpening razors;
+the fibres of the leaves and the roots are woven into sandals and sacks;
+and the sharp spines are used as needles. A species of yucca, resembling
+the aloe, but with more slender leaves and of a lighter green, yields
+the hemp of Ecuador.</p>
+
+<p>The "crack fruit" of Quito, and, in fact, of South America, is the
+chirimoya.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Its taste is a happy mixture of sweetness and acidity.
+Hanke calls it "a masterwork of Nature," and Markham pronounces it "a
+spiritualized strawberry." It grows on a tree about fifteen feet high,
+having a broad, flat top, and very fragrant flowers. The ripe fruit,
+often attaining in Peru the weight of sixteen pounds, has a thick green
+skin, and a snow-white pulp containing about seventy black seeds. Other
+pomological productions are alligator pears, guavas, guayavas,
+granadillas, cherries (a small black variety), peaches (very poor),
+pears (equally bad), plums, quinces, lemons, oranges (not native),
+blackberries, and strawberries (large, but flavorless).<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> The
+cultivation of the grape has just commenced. Of vegetables there are
+onions (in cookery, "the first, and last, and midst, and without end"),
+beets, carrots, asparagus, lettuce, cabbages, turnips, tomatoes
+(indigenous, but inferior to ours), potatoes (also indigenous, but much
+smaller than their descendants),<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> red peppers, peas (always picked
+ripe, while green ones are imported from France!), beans, melons,
+squashes, and mushrooms. The last are eaten to a limited extent; Terra
+del Fuego, says Darwin, is the only country in the world where a
+cryptogamic plant affords a staple article of food.</p>
+
+<p>The most important grains are barley, red wheat, and corn, with short
+ears, and elongated kernels of divers colors. Near the coast three crops
+of corn a year are obtained; at Quito it is of slower growth, but
+fuller. The sugar-cane is grown sparingly in the valley, but chiefly on
+the Pacific coast. Its home is Polynesia. Quito consumes about one
+hundred and fifty barrels of flour daily. The best sells for four
+dollars a quintal. The common fodder for cattle is alfalfa, an imported
+lucerne. There is no clover except a wild, worthless, three-leaved
+species (<i>Trifolium amabile</i>). Nearly all in the above list are
+cultivated for home consumption only, and many valuable fruits and
+vegetables which would grow well are unknown to Quitonians. As Bates
+says of the Brazilians, the incorrigible nonchalance and laziness of the
+people alone prevent them from surrounding themselves with all the
+luxuries of a temperate as well as tropical country.</p>
+
+<p>It would be an endless task to speak of the flowers. It must suffice to
+state that a <i>Synopsis Plantarum &AElig;quatoriensium</i>, the life-work of the
+venerable Professor Jameson, of the University of Quito, has just been
+published by the tardy government. Botanists will find in these two
+small volumes many new species unknown to American<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> science, and others
+more correctly described by one who has dwelt forty years among the
+Andes. The last zone of vegetation nearest the snow-line consists
+chiefly of yellow-flowering <i>Composit&aelig;</i>. In fact, this family includes
+one fourth of the plants in the immediate vicinity of Quito. The next
+most numerous family is the <i>Labiat&aelig;</i>, and then follow <i>Leguminos&aelig;</i> and
+<i>Gentians</i>. Although the <i>Rosace&aelig;</i> is represented, there is not one
+species of the genus <i>Rosa</i> not even in the whole southern hemisphere.
+The magnificent <i>Befaria</i>, found in the lower part of the valley, is
+called "the Rose of the Andes." Fuchsias may be considered
+characteristic of South America, since they are so numerous; only one or
+two kinds occur in any other part of the world. Flowers are found in
+Quito all the year round, but the most favorable months are December and
+May. Yellow is the predominating color. The higher the altitude, the
+brighter the hues of any given species. Thus the <i>Gentiana sedifolia</i> is
+a small, light blue flower in the lowlands, but on the Assuay it has
+bright blue petals three times as large and sensitive. This accords with
+Herschel's statement: "The chemical rays of the spectrum are powerfully
+absorbed in passing through the atmosphere, and the effect of their
+greater abundance aloft is shown in the superior brilliancy of color in
+the flowers of Alpine regions."</p>
+
+<p>America is plainly the continent of vegetation; and wherever the
+vegetable element predominates, the animal is subordinated. We must not
+look, therefore, for a large amount or variety of animal life in the
+Ecuadorian forests. Time was when colossal megatheroids, mastodons, and
+glyptodons browsed on the foliage of the Andes and the Amazon; but now
+the terrestrial mammals of this tropical region are few and diminutive.
+They are likewise old-fashioned, inferior in type as well as bulk to
+those of the eastern hemisphere, for America was a finished continent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+long before Europe. "It seems most probable (says Darwin) that the North
+American elephants, mastodons, horse, and hollow-horned ruminants
+migrated, on land since submerged near Behring's Straits, from Siberia
+into North America, and thence, on land since submerged in the West
+Indies, into South America, where for a time they mingled with the forms
+characteristic of that southern continent, and have since become
+extinct."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The rise of the Mexican table-land split up the New World
+into two well-defined zoological provinces. A few species, as the puma,
+peccari, and opossum, have crossed the barrier; but South America is
+characterized by possessing a family of monkeys, the llama, tapir, many
+peculiar rodents, and several genera of edentates.</p>
+
+<p>The tapir, the largest native quadruped, is sometimes found on the
+mountains, but never descends into the Quito Valley. A link between the
+elephant and hog, its true home is in the lowlands. The tapir and
+peccari (also found on the Andean slopes) are the only indigenous
+pachyderms in South America, while the llama<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> and deer (both
+abounding in the valley) are the only native ruminants; there is not one
+native hollow-horned ruminant on the continent. The llama is the only
+native domesticated animal; indeed, South America never furnished any
+other animal serviceable to man: the horse, ox, hog, and sheep (two,
+four, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> six-horned), are importations. Of these animals, which
+rendered such important aid in the early civilization of Asia and
+Europe, the genera even were unknown in South America four centuries
+ago; and to-day pure Indians with difficulty acquire a taste for beef,
+mutton, and pork. The llama is still used as a beast of burden; but it
+seldom carries a quintal more than twelve miles a day. The black bear of
+the Andes ascends as high as Mont Blanc, and is rarely found below three
+thousand five hundred feet. The puma, or maneless American lion, has an
+immense range, both in latitude and altitude, being found from Oregon to
+the Straits of Magellan, and nearly up to the limit of eternal snow. It
+is as cowardly as the jaguar of the lowlands is ferocious. It is a very
+silent animal, uttering no cry even when wounded. Its flesh, which is
+very white, and remarkably like veal in taste, is eaten in Patagonia.
+Squirrels, hares, bats (a small species), opossums, and a large
+guinea-pig (<i>Cuye del Monte</i>), are found in the neighborhood of Quito.</p>
+
+<p>As only about sixty species of birds are common to North and South
+America, the traveler from the United States recognizes few ornithic
+forms in the Valley of Quito. Save the hummers, beautiful plumage is
+rare, as well as fine songsters. But the moment we descend the Eastern
+Cordillera into the interior of the continent, we find the feathered
+race in robes of richest colors. The exact cause of this brilliant
+coloring in the tropics is still a problem. It can not be owing to
+greater light and heat, for the birds of the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, directly
+under the equator, are dull.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+<p>The males, both of birds and butterflies, are the most gaudily dressed.
+In the highlands the most prominent birds are the condor and the
+humming-bird. These two extremes in size are found side by side on the
+summit of Pichincha. The condor appears in its glory among the mountains
+of Quito. Its ordinary haunt is at the height of Etna. No other living
+creature can remove at pleasure to so great a distance from the earth;
+and it seems to fly and respire as easily under the low barometric
+pressure of thirteen inches as at the sea-shore. It can dart in an
+instant from the dome of Chimborazo to the sultry coast of the Pacific.
+It has not the kingly port of the eagle, and is a cowardly robber: a
+true vulture, it prefers the relish of putrescence and the flavor of
+death. It makes no nest, but lays two eggs on a jutting ledge of some
+precipice, and fiercely defends them. The usual spread of wings is nine
+feet. It does not live in pairs like the eagle, but feeds in flocks like
+its loathsome relative, the buzzard. It is said to live forty days
+without food in captivity, but at liberty it is very voracious. The
+usual method of capture is to kill an old mare (better than horse, the
+natives say), and allow the bird to gorge himself, when he becomes so
+sluggish as to be easily lassoed. It is such a heavy sleeper, it is
+possible to take it from its roost. The evidences in favor of and
+against its acute smelling powers are singularly balanced. For reasons
+unknown, the condor does not range north of Darien, though it extends
+its empire through clouds and storms to the Straits of Magellan. In the
+Inca language it was called <i>cuntur</i>, and was anciently an object of
+worship. The condor, gallinazo, turkey-buzzard, and caracara eagle (says
+Darwin) "in their habits well supply the place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> of our carrion crows,
+magpies, and ravens&mdash;a tribe of birds widely distributed over the rest
+of the world, but entirely absent in South America." The condor appears
+on the gold coins of New Granada and Chile. Of <i>Trochilid&aelig;</i> there are
+hosts. The valley swarms with these "winged jewels" of varied hues, from
+the emerald green of Pichincha to the white of Chimborazo. They build
+long, purse-like nests by weaving together fine vegetable fibres and
+lichens, and thickly lining them with silk-cotton. In this delicate
+cradle, suspended from a branch, the female lays two eggs, which are
+hatched in about twelve days. The eggs are invariably white, with one
+exception, those of a species on the Upper Amazon, which are spotted.
+The young have much shorter bills than their parents. The humming-bird
+is exclusively American: the nearest form in the Old World is the
+nectarinia, or sunbird. Other birds most commonly seen in the valley
+are: <i>Cyanocitta turcosa</i> (Jay), <i>P&oelig;cilothraupis atrierissa</i>,
+<i>Pheuticus chrysogaster</i>, <i>Chlorospingus superciliaris</i>, <i>Buthraupis
+chloronata</i>, <i>Tanagra Darwini</i>, <i>Dubusia selysia</i>, <i>Buarremon
+latinuchus</i>, and <i>B. assimilis</i>. The only geese in the valley are a few
+imported from Europe by Se&ntilde;or Aguirre, of Chillo, and these refuse to
+propagate.</p>
+
+<p>Reptiles are so rare in the highlands the class can hardly be said to be
+represented. During a residence of nearly three months in the Quito
+Valley we saw but one snake.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> Nevertheless, we find the following
+sentence in such a respectable book as Bohn's Hand-book of Modern
+Geography: "The inhabitants of Quito are dreadfully tormented by
+reptiles, which it is scarcely possible to keep out of the beds!" Of
+frogs there are not enough to get up a choir,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> and of fishes there is
+but one solitary species, about a finger long.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> The entomology of
+Quito is also brief, much to the satisfaction of travelers from the
+insectiferous coast. Musquitoes and bedbugs do not seem to enjoy life at
+such an altitude, and jiggers<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> and flies are rare. Fleas, however,
+have the hardihood to exist and bite in the summer months, and if you
+attend an Indian fair you will be likely to feel something "gently o'er
+you creeping." But fleas and lice are the only blood-thirsty animals, so
+that the great Valley of Quito is an almost painless paradise. Of
+beetles and butterflies there are a few species, the latter belonging
+for the most part to the familiar North American genera <i>Pyrameis</i> and
+<i>Colias</i>. At Vinces, on the coast, we found the pretty brown butterfly,
+<i>Anartia Jatroph&aelig;</i>, which ranges from Texas to Brazil. A light-colored
+coleopter is eaten roasted by the inhabitants. The cochineal is raised
+in the southern part of the valley, particularly in Guananda, at the
+foot of Tunguragua, where the small, flat-leaved cactus (<i>Opuntia
+tuna</i>), on which, the insect feeds, is extensively cultivated. The male
+is winged, but the female is stationary, fixed to the cactus, and is of
+a dark brown color. It takes seventy thousand to make a pound, which is
+sold in the valley for from sixty cents to $3. The best cochineal comes
+from Teneriffe, where it was introduced from Honduras in 1835. The
+silk-worm is destined to work a revolution in the finances of Ecuador;
+Quito silk gained a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition. No bees are
+hived in the republic; the people seem to be content<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> with treacle. The
+Italian species would undoubtedly thrive here. The bees of Ecuador, like
+all the bees of the New World, are inferior to those of the Old World.
+Their cells are not perfectly hexagonal, and their stings are
+undeveloped. They are seldom seen feeding on flowers. Mollusca in the
+Quito Valley are not great in number or variety. They belong principally
+to the genera <i>Bulimus</i>, <i>Cyclostoma</i>, and <i>Helix</i>. The first is as
+characteristic of the Southern Continent as <i>Helix</i> of the North and
+<i>Achatina</i> of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>From the animal creation we mount by a short step to the imbruted
+Indian. When and by whom the Andes were first peopled is a period of
+darkness that lies beyond the domain of history. But geology and
+arch&aelig;ology are combining to prove that Sorata and Chimborazo have looked
+down upon a civilization far more ancient than that of the Incas, and
+perhaps coeval with the flint-flakes of Cornwall, and the shell-mounds
+of Denmark. On the shores of Lake Titicaca are extensive ruins which
+antedate the advent of Manco Capac, and may be as venerable as the
+lake-dwellings of Geneva. Wilson has traced six terraces in going up
+from the sea through the province of Esmeraldas toward Quito; and
+underneath the living forest, which is older than the Spanish invasion,
+many gold, copper, and stone vestiges of a lost population were found.
+In all cases these relics are situated below high-tide mark, in a bed of
+marine sediment, from which he infers that this part of the country
+formerly stood higher above the sea. If this be true, vast must be the
+antiquity of these remains, for the upheaval and subsidence of the coast
+is exceedingly slow.</p>
+
+<p>Philology can aid us little in determining the relations of the primeval
+Quitonians, for their language is nearly obscured by changes introduced
+by the Caras, and afterward by the Incas, who decreed that the Quichua,
+the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>language of elegance and fashion three hundred years ago, should be
+the universal tongue throughout the empire.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> Quichua is to-day spoken
+from the equator to 28&deg; S. (except by the Aymar&aacute; people), or by nearly a
+million and a half. We found it used, corrupted, however, by Spanish, at
+the month of the Napo. There are five dialects, of which the purest is
+spoken in Cuzco, and the most impure in Quito. The Indians of the
+northern valley are descendants of the ancient Quitus, modified by Cara
+and Peruvian blood. They have changed little since the invasion of
+Pizarro. They remember their glory under the Incas, and when they steal
+any thing from a white man, they say they are not guilty of theft, as
+they are only taking what originally belonged to them. Some see in their
+sacred care of Incarial relics a lingering hope to regain their
+political life. We noticed that the pure mountaineers, without a trace
+of Spanish adulteration, wore a black poncho underneath, and we were
+informed by one well acquainted with their customs that this was in
+mourning for the Inca. We attended an Indian masquerade dance at
+Machachi, which seemed to have an historical meaning. It was performed
+in full view of that romantic mountain which bears the name of the last
+captain of Atahuallpa. There is a tradition that after the death of his
+chief, Rumi&ntilde;agui burned the capital, and, retiring with his followers to
+this cordillera, threw himself from the precipice. The masquerade at
+Machachi was evidently intended to keep alive the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>memory of the Incas.
+Three Indians, fantastically adorned with embroidered garments, plumed
+head-dresses, and gold and silver tinsel, representing Atahuallpa and
+his generals, danced to music of the rudest kind, one individual
+pounding on a drum and blowing on a pipe at the same time. Before them
+went three clowns, or <i>diablos</i>, with masks, fit caricatures of the
+Spaniards. Like all other Indian feasts, this ended in getting gradually
+and completely drunk. During the ceremony a troop of horsemen, gayly
+dressed, and headed by one in regimentals with a cocked hat, galloped
+twice around the Plaza, throwing oranges at the people; after which
+there was a bull-bait.</p>
+
+<p>The features of the Quichuans have a peculiar cast, which resembles, in
+D'Orbigny's opinion, no other American but the Mexican, and some
+ethnologists trace a striking similarity to the natives of Van Diemen's
+Land. They have an oblong head (longitudinally), somewhat compressed at
+the sides and occiput; short and very slightly arched forehead;
+prominent, long, aquiline nose, with large nostrils; large mouth, but
+not thick lips; beautiful enduring teeth; short chin, but not receding;
+cheek-bones not prominent; eyes horizontal, and never large; eyebrows
+long; thick, straight, coarse, yet soft jet black hair; little or no
+beard; a long, broad, deep, highly-arched chest; small hands and feet;
+short stature, seldom reaching five feet, and the women still shorter; a
+mulatto color (olive-brown says D'Orbigny, bronze says Humboldt), and a
+sad, serious expression. Their broad chests and square shoulders remind
+one of the gorilla; but we find that, unlike the anthropoid ape, they
+have very weak arms; their strength lies in their backs and legs. They
+have shrewdness and penetration, but lack independence and force. We
+never heard one sing.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Always submissive to your face, taking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> off
+his hat as he passes, and muttering, "Blessed be the altar of God," he
+is nevertheless very slow to perform. Soured by long ill treatment, he
+will hardly do any thing unless he is compelled. And he will do nothing
+well unless he is treated as a slave. Treat him kindly, and you make him
+a thief; whip him, and he will rise up to thank you and he your humble
+servant. A certain curate could never trust his Indian to carry
+important letters until he had given him twenty-five lashes. Servile and
+timid, superstitious and indolent, the Quichuans have not half the
+spirit of our North American Indians. It has passed into a proverb that
+"the Indian lives without shame, eats without repugnance, and dies
+without fear." Abject as they are, however, they are not wholly without
+wit. By a secret telegraph system, they will communicate between Quito
+and Riobamba in one hour. When there was a battle in Pasto, the Indians
+of Riobamba knew of it two hours after, though eighty leagues distant.</p>
+
+<p>The civilization of South America three centuries ago was nearly
+confined to this Andean family, though they had attained only to the
+bronze period. In the milder character of their ancient religion and
+gentleness of disposition they are strongly distinguished from the
+nations that encircled the vale of Anahuac, the centre of civilization
+on the northern continent. But little of this former glory is now
+apparent. The Incas reached an astronomical knowledge which astonished
+the Spaniards, but the Quichuans of to-day count vaguely by moons and
+rains. Great is the contrast between the architecture of this century
+and that in the days of Huayna-Capac. There are few Incarial relics,
+however, in the Valley of Quito, for the Incas ruled there only half a
+century. The chief<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> monuments are the tolas or mounds (mostly at
+Cuenca), containing earthen vessels and bronze hatchets and earrings;
+the <i>Inga-pirrca</i>, or oval fortress, and the <i>Intihuaicu</i>, or temple of
+the sun, near Ca&ntilde;ar; the <i>Inga-chungana</i>, a massive stone resembling a
+sofa, where the Inca reposed to enjoy the delightful prospect over the
+Valley of Gul&aacute;n; and remnants of causeways and roads.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VII.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Geological History of South America.&mdash;
+Rise of the Andes.&mdash;
+Creation
+of the Amazon.&mdash;
+Characteristic Features of the Continent.&mdash;
+Andean
+Chain.&mdash;
+The Equatorial Volcanoes.</p>
+
+
+<p>Three cycles ago an island rose from the sea where now expands the vast
+continent of South America. It was the culminating point of the
+highlands of Guiana. For ages this granite peak was the solo
+representative of dry land in our hemisphere south of the Canada hills.
+In process of time, a cluster of islands rose above the thermal waters.
+They were the small beginnings of the future mountains of Brazil,
+holding in their laps the diamonds which now sparkle in the crown of Dom
+Pedro II. Long protracted eons elapsed without adding a page to the
+geology of South America. The Creator seems to have been busy elsewhere.
+Decorating the north with the gorgeous flora of the carboniferous
+period, till, in the language of Hugh Miller, "to distant planets our
+earth must have shone with a green and delicate ray," he rubbed the
+picture out, and ushered in the hideous reptilian age, when monstrous
+saurians, footed, paddled, and winged, were the lords of this lower
+world. All the great mountain chains were at this time slumbering
+beneath the ocean. The city of New York was sure of its site; but huge
+dinotheria wallowed in the mire where now stand the palaces of Paris,
+London, and Vienna.</p>
+
+<p>At length the morning breaks upon the last day of creation, and the fiat
+goes forth that the proud waves of the Pacific, which have so long
+washed the table-lands of Guiana and Brazil, shall be stayed. Far away
+toward the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> setting sun the white surf beats in long lines of foam
+against a low, winding archipelago&mdash;the western outline of the coming
+continent. Fierce is the fight for the mastery between sea and land,
+between the denuding power of the waves and the volcanic forces
+underneath. But slowly&mdash;very slowly, yet surely&mdash;rises the long chain of
+islands by a double process; the submarine crust of the earth is
+cooling, and the rocks are folded up as it shrivels, while the molten
+material within, pressed out through the crevices, overflows and helps
+to build up the sea-defiant wall. A man's life would be too short to
+count even the centuries consumed in this operation. The coast of Peru
+has risen eighty feet since it felt the tread of Pizarro: supposing the
+Andes to have risen at this rate uniformly and without interruption,
+seventy thousand years must have elapsed before they reached their
+present altitude. But when we consider that, in fact, it was an
+intermittent movement&mdash;alternate upheaval and subsidence&mdash;we must add an
+unknown number of millennia.</p>
+
+<p>Three times the Andes sank hundreds of feet beneath the ocean level, and
+again were slowly brought up to their present height. The suns of
+uncounted ages have risen and set upon these sculptured forms, though
+geologically recent, casting the same line of shadows century after
+century. A long succession of brute races roamed over the mountains and
+plains of South America, and died out ages ere man was created. In those
+pre-Adamite times, long before the Incas ruled, the mastodon and
+megatherium, the horse and the tapir, dwelt in the high valley of Quito;
+yet all these passed away before the arrival of the aborigines: the wild
+horses now feeding on the pampas of Buenos Ayres were imported from
+Europe three hundred and thirty-three years ago.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+<p>And now the Andes<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> stand complete in their present gigantic
+proportions, one of the grandest and most symmetrical mountain chains in
+the world. Starting from the Land of Fire, it stretches northward and
+mounts upward until it enters the Isthmus of Panama, where it bows
+gracefully to either ocean, but soon resumes, under another name, its
+former majesty, and loses its magnificence only where the trappers chase
+the fur-bearing animals over the Arctic plains. Nowhere else does Nature
+present such a continuous and lofty chain of mountains, unbroken for
+eight thousand miles, save where it is rent asunder by the Magellanic
+Straits, and proudly tossing up a thousand pinnacles into the region of
+eternal snow. Nowhere in the Old World do we see a single well-defined
+mountain chain, only a broad belt of mountainous country traversing the
+heart of the continent.</p>
+
+<p>The moment the Andes arose, the great continental
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>valley of the Amazon
+was sketched out and moulded in its lap. The tidal waves of the Atlantic
+were dashing against the Cordilleras, and a legion of rivulets were
+busily plowing up the sides into deep ravines; the sediment produced by
+this incessant wear and tear was carried eastward, and spread out
+stratum by stratum, till the shallow sea between the Andes and the
+islands of Guiana and Brazil was filled up with sand and clay. Huge
+glaciers (thinks Agassiz), afterward descending, moved over the inclined
+plane, and ground the loose rock to powder.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Eddies and currents,
+throwing up sand-banks as they do now, gradually defined the limits of
+the tributary streams, and directed them into one main trunk, which
+worked for itself a wide, deep bed, capable of containing its
+accumulated flood. Then and thus was created the Amazon.</p>
+
+<p>In South America Nature has framed her works on a gigantic scale. Where
+else combined do we see such a series of towering mountains, such a
+volume of river-water, and such wide-spreading plains? We have no proper
+conception of Andine grandeur till we learn that the top of the tallest
+mountain in North America is nearly a mile beneath the untrodden dome of
+Chimborazo; nor any just view of the vast dimensions of the Amazonian
+Valley till we find that all the United States could be packed in it
+without touching its boundaries; nor any adequate idea of the Amazon
+itself till we ascertain that it drains a million square miles more than
+the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>South America is a triangular continent, with its axis, the Andes, not
+central, as in Europe, but lying on its extreme western edge, and in
+harmony with the well-known law that the highest mountains and the
+grandest volcanoes face the broadest ocean. The highlands of Brazil and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+Guiana have neither volcanic nor snow-clad peaks.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> Like all the dry
+land which first appeared, these primitive mountains on the Atlantic
+border trend east and west. The result of this position is a triple
+river system&mdash;the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata, draining three immense
+plains&mdash;the llanos of Venezuela, the sylvas of Brazil, and the pampas of
+the Argentine Republic. The continuity and extent of these vast
+depressions are more remarkable even than the height and length of the
+mountain chains.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such are the characteristic features of South America; they are not
+repeated in any other continent.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> Not one feature could be changed
+without destroying those peculiarities of soil and climate which so
+remarkably distinguish South America. Its position on the equator places
+it in the path of the vapory trade winds, which continually sweep over
+it westward till they strike the Andes, which, like a great condenser,
+roll a thousand streams eastward again to feed the mighty Amazon. So
+effectual is that barrier, not a drop of moisture passes it, and the
+trade wind is not felt again on the Pacific till you are one hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+and fifty miles from the coast. Were the Andes on the Atlantic side,
+South America would be turned into a vast Sahara. As it is, the interest
+which attaches to this continent, save a few relics of the Incas, is
+exclusively that of pure nature. Nowhere does Nature affect us more
+deeply with the feeling of her grandeur; nowhere does she exhibit wilder
+freaks or more startling contrasts; nowhere do we find such a theatre
+for the free development of vegetable and animal life.</p>
+
+<p>The long and lofty chain of the Andes is certainly one of the grandest
+results of the plications and uplifts of the earth's crust. While the
+waves of the Pacific, from Panama to Patagonia, submissively kiss the
+feet of the Andes, and the showers that swell the Amazon fall within
+sight of the mariner on that peaceful ocean, the Rocky Mountains are
+situated five hundred miles from the sea. The space west of the Andes
+does not contain 20,000 square leagues, while the country east of it
+equals 424,600. While the compact Andes have an average width of only
+sixty miles,<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> the straggling mountain system beyond the Mississippi
+has the breadth of the Empire State; but the mean elevation of the
+latter would scarcely reach the bottom of the Quito Valley. The
+mountains of Asia may surpass the Cordilleras in height, but, situated
+beyond the tropics, and destitute of volcanoes, they do not present that
+inexhaustible variety of phenomena which characterizes the latter. The
+outbursts of porphyry and trachytic domes, so characteristic of the high
+crests of the Cordilleras, impart a physiognomy quite distinct from that
+presented by the mountains of Europe. The Andes offer, in the least
+space, the greatest possible variety of impressions.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> There is near
+Huanca, Peru,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> a coal-bed lifted up to the enormous height of 14,700
+feet, and on the side of Chimborazo there is a salt spring 13,000 feet
+above the sea. Marine shells have not been found in Europe above the
+summit of the Pyrenees, or 11,700 feet; but the Andes can show some a
+thousand feet higher. A strange sight, to see shells once crawling on
+the bottom of the ocean now resting at an elevation twice the height of
+Mount Washington!</p>
+
+<p>Beneath the Southern Cross, out of a sea perpetually swept by fearful
+gales, rise the rocky hills of Terra del Fuego. It is the starting-point
+of that granite chain which winds around the earth in a majestic curve,
+first northwesterly to the Arctic Sea, thence by the Aleutian and
+Japanese Isles to Asia, crossing the Old World southwesterly from China
+to South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Skirting the bleak shores of Patagonia in a single narrow sierra, the
+Andes enter Chile, rising higher and higher till they culminate in the
+gigantic porphyritic peak of Aconcagua. At the boundary-line of Bolivia,
+the chain, which has so far followed a precise meridional direction,
+turns to the northwest, and, at the same time, separates into two
+Cordilleras, inclosing the great table-land of Desaguadero. This
+wonderful valley, the Thibet of the New World, has four times the area
+of New York State, and five times the elevation of the Catskill Mountain
+House. At one end of the valley, perched above the clouds, is silvery
+Potosi, the highest city in the world; at the other stands the once
+golden capital of Cuzco. Between them is Lake Titicaca
+<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a><span class='pagenum'>
+<a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> (probably an
+ancient crater), within which is an island celebrated as the cradle of
+the strange empire of Peru, which, though crushed by Pizarro in its
+budding civilization, ranks as the most extraordinary and extensive
+empire in the annals of American history. The Cordillera, of which
+Sahama, Sorata, and Illimani are the pinnacles, so completely inclose
+this high valley that not a drop of water can escape except by
+evaporation. At the silver mines of Pasco the Andes throw off a third
+cordillera, and with this triple arrangement and a lower altitude, enter
+the republic of Ecuador. There they resume the double line, and surpass
+their former magnificence. Twenty volcanoes, presided over by the
+princely Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a sublime congregation of
+mountains surrounding the famous valley of Quito. In New Granada there
+is a final and unique display of Andine grandeur: the Cordilleras
+combine just above the equator into one dizzy ridge, and then spread out
+like a fan, or, rather, like the graceful branches of the palm. One
+sierra bends to the east, holding in its lap the city of Bogota, and,
+rolling off a thousand streams to swell the Orinoco, terminates in the
+beautiful mountains of Caracas; the central range culminates in the
+volcanic Tolima,<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> but is soon lost in the Caribbean Sea; the western
+chain turns to the left, humbling itself as it threads the narrow
+isthmus, and expands into the level table-land of Mexico. You may cross
+Mexico from ocean to ocean in a carriage, but no wheeled vehicle ever
+crossed South America.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<br /><br /></p>
+<h4>Ecuadorian Volcanoes</h4>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Volcanoes" id="Volcanoes"></a>
+<img src="images/121a.png" alt="10,000 ft. Chimborazo." title="10,000 ft. Chimborazo." /><br />
+10,000 ft. Chimborazo.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/121b.png" alt="10,000 ft. Cotopaxi." title="10,000 ft. Cotopaxi." /><br />
+10,000 ft. Cotopaxi.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/121c.png" alt="10,000 ft. Caraguairazo." title="10,000 ft. Caraguairazo." /><br />
+10,000 ft. Caraguairazo.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/121d.png" alt="10,000 ft. Pichincha." title="10,000 ft. Pichincha." /><br />
+10,000 ft. Pichincha.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<br /><br /></p>
+<p>We will now speak more particularly of the Andes of the equator. The
+mountain chain is built up of granite, gneissoid, and schistose rocks,
+often in vertical position, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> capped with trachyte and porphyry.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>
+Large masses of <i>solid</i> rock are rarely seen; every thing is cracked,
+calcined, or triturated. While in Bolivia the Eastern Cordillera shows a
+succession of sharp, ragged peaks, in contrast with the conical summits
+of the Cordillera of the coast, there is no such distinction in the
+Andes of the equator.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> The Eastern Cordillera has a greater mean
+height, and it displays more volcanic activity. Twenty volcanic
+mountains surround the valley, of which twelve are in the oriental
+chain. Three of the twenty are now active (Cotopaxi, Sangai, and
+Pichincha), and five others are known to have erupted since the Conquest
+(Chiles, Imbabura, Guamani, Tunguragua, and Quirotoa). The truncated
+cone of Cotopaxi, the jagged, Alpine crest of ruined Altar, and the dome
+of Chimborazo, are the representative forms of the volcanic summits. The
+extinct volcanoes usually have double domes or peaks, while the active
+peaks are slender cones. Antisana and Cayambi are fashioned after
+Chimborazo, though the latter is table-topped rather than convex;
+Caraguairazo, Quirotoa, Iliniza, Sincholagua, Rumi&ntilde;agui, and Corazon,
+resemble Altar; Tunguragua, Sangai, Llanganati, Cotocach&iacute;, Chiles, and
+Imbabura, imitate Cotopaxi; Pichincha, Atacatzo, and Guamani are
+irregular. The Ecuadorian volcanoes have rarely ejected liquid lava, but
+chiefly water, mud, ashes, and fragments of trachyte and porphyry.
+Cotopaxi alone produces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> pure, foam-like pumice, and glossy,
+translucent obsidian.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> The paucity of quartz, and the absence of
+basalt, are remarkable. Some of the porphyroids are conglomerate, but
+the majority are true porphyries, having a homogeneous base. Dr. T.
+Sterry Hunt calls them porphyroid trachytes. They have a black, rarely
+reddish, vitreous, or impalpable base, approaching obsidian, with a
+specific gravity of 2.59 in pure specimens, and holding crystals or
+crystalline grains of glassy feldspar, and sometimes of pyroxene and
+hematite. They differ from the Old World porphyries in containing no
+quartz, and seldom mica.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> D'Orbigny considers the porphyries of the
+Andes to have been ejected at the close of the cretaceous period, and
+formed the first relief of the Cordillera. The prevalence of trachyte
+shows that the products have cooled under feeble pressure.</p>
+
+<p>From the deluges of water lately thrown out have resulted deep furrows
+in the sides; and from the prevalence of the east wind, which is always
+met by the traveler on the crest of either Cordillera, there is a
+greater accumulation of ashes, and less snow on the west slope. Cotopaxi
+is a fine example of this. In Pichincha, Altar, and Rumi&ntilde;agua, however,
+the western wall is lowest, apparently broken down.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> There is no
+synchronism in the eruptions of Cotopaxi and Pichincha. These volcanoes
+must have independent reservoirs, for the former is 3000 feet higher
+than the latter, and only thirty miles distant. The reputed eruptions of
+Pichincha are dated 1534, 1539, 1566, 1575, 1588, and 1660; that of 1534
+resting on the assertions of Checa,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> Garcilazo, and Herrera, indorsed by
+Humboldt. Excepting the traditional eruption in 1534, which probably is
+confounded with that of Pichincha, Cotopaxi did not open till 1742; then
+followed the eruptions of 1743, 1744, 1746, 1766, 1768, 1803, 1851, and
+1855. We must mention, however, that, since the recent awakening of
+Pichincha, Cotopaxi has been unusually silent. There is also a
+remarkable coincidence (which may not be wholly accidental) in the
+renewed activity of Pichincha, and the great eruption of Mauna Loa, both
+occurring in March, 1868. It is generally believed by the natives that
+Cotopaxi and Tunguragua are sympathetic.</p>
+
+<p>There are fifty-one volcanoes in the Andean chain. Of these, twenty
+girdle the Valley of Quito, three active, five dormant, and twelve
+extinct.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Besides these are numerous mountain peaks not properly
+volcanic. Nowhere on the face of the earth is there such a grand
+assemblage of mountains. Twenty-two summits are covered with perpetual
+snow, and fifty are over ten thousand feet high.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p><p>All of these would be visible from a single stand-point&mdash;the summit of
+Cotopaxi. The lofty peaks shoot up with so much method as almost to
+provoke the theory that the Incas, in the zenith of their power, planted
+them as signal monuments along the royal road to Cuzco. The eastern
+series is called the <i>Cordillera real</i>, because along its flank are the
+remnants of the splendid highway which once connected Quito and the
+Peruvian capital.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> It can also boast of such tremendous volcanoes as
+Cotopaxi and Sangai. The Western Cordillera contains but one active
+volcano; but then it can point to peerless Chimborazo and the deep
+crater of Pichincha. These twenty volcanic mountains rise within a space
+only two hundred miles long and thirty miles wide. It makes one tremble
+to think of the awful crevice over which they are placed.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VIII.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">The Volcanoes of Ecuador.&mdash;
+Western
+Cordillera.&mdash;
+Chimborazo.&mdash;
+Iliniza.&mdash;
+Corazon.&mdash;
+Pichincha.&mdash;
+Descent into its Crater.</p>
+
+
+<p>Coming up from Peru through the cinchona forests of Loja, and over the
+barren hills of Assuay, the traveler reaches Riobamba, seated on the
+threshold of magnificence&mdash;like Damascus, an oasis in a sandy plain,
+but, unlike the Queen of the East, surrounded with a splendid retinue of
+snowy peaks that look like icebergs floating in a sea of clouds.</p>
+
+<p>On our left is the most sublime spectacle in the New World. It is a
+majestic pile of snow, its clear outline on the deep blue sky describing
+the profile of a lion in repose. At noon the vertical sun, and the
+profusion of light reflected from the glittering surface, will not allow
+a shadow to be cast on any part, so that you can easily fancy the figure
+is cut out of a mountain of spotless marble. This is Chimborazo&mdash;yet not
+the whole of it&mdash;you see but a third of the great giant. His feet are as
+eternally green as his head is everlastingly white; but they are far
+away beneath the bananas and cocoa-palms of the Pacific coast.</p>
+
+<p>Rousseau was disappointed when he first saw the sea; and the first
+glimpse of Niagara often fails to meet one's expectations. But
+Chimborazo is sure of a worshiper the moment its overwhelming grandeur
+breaks upon the traveler. You feel that you are in the presence-chamber
+of the monarch of the Andes. There is sublimity in his kingly look, of
+which the ocean might be proud.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"All that expands the spirit, yet appals,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Gathers around this summit, as if to show<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How earth may pierce to heaven, yet leave vain man below."<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>Well do we remember our disappointment as we stood before that wonder of
+the world&mdash;St. Peter's. We mounted the pyramid of steps and looked up,
+but were not overcome by the magnificence. We read in our guide-book
+that the edifice covers eight acres, and to the tip-top of the cross is
+almost five hundred feet; that it took three hundred and fifty years and
+twelve successive artists to finish it, and an expenditure of
+$50,000,000, and now costs $30,000 per annum to keep it in repair; still
+we did not appreciate its greatness. We pushed aside the curtain and
+walked in&mdash;walked a day's journey across the transept and up and down
+the everlasting nave, and yet continued heterodox. We tried hard to
+believe it was very vast and sublime, and knew we ought to feel its
+grandeur, but somehow we did not. Then we sat down by the Holy of
+Holies, and there we were startled into a better judgment by the
+astounding fact that the Cathedral of St. Paul&mdash;the largest edifice in
+Great Britain&mdash;could stand upright, spire, dome, body, and all, inside
+of St. Peter's! that the letters of the inscription which run around the
+<i>base</i> of the dome, though apparently but an inch, are in reality six
+feet high! Then, for the first time, the scales fell from our eyes; the
+giant building began to grow; higher and higher still it rose, longer
+and deeper it expanded, yet in perfect proportions; the colossal
+structure, now a living temple, put on its beautiful garments and the
+robe of majesty. And that dome! the longer we looked at it the vaster it
+grew, till finally it seemed to be a temple not made with hands; the
+spacious canopy became the firmament; the mosaic figures of cherubim and
+seraphim were endowed with life; and as we fixed our eyes on the zenith
+where the Almighty is represented in glory, we thought we had the vision
+of Stephen. Long we gazed upward into this heaven of man's creation, and
+gazed again till we were lost in wonder.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But the traveler needs no such steps to lift him up to the grand
+conception of the divine Architect as he beholds the great white dome of
+Chimborazo. It looks lofty from the very first. Now and then an expanse
+of thin, sky-like vapor would cut the mountain in twain, and the dome,
+islanded in the deep blue of the upper regions, seemed to belong more to
+heaven than to earth. We knew that Chimborazo was more than twice the
+altitude of Etna. We could almost see the great Humboldt struggling up
+the mountain's side till he looked like a black speck moving over the
+mighty white, but giving up in despair four thousand feet below the
+summit. We see the intrepid Bolivar mounting still higher; but the hero
+of Spanish-American independence returns a defeated man. Last of all
+comes the philosophic Boussingault, and attains the prodigious elevation
+of nineteen thousand six hundred feet&mdash;the highest point reached by man
+without the aid of a balloon; but the dome remains unsullied by his
+foot. Yet none of these facts increase our admiration. The mountain has
+a tongue which speaks louder than all mathematical calculations.</p>
+
+<p>There must be something singularly sublime about Chimborazo, for the
+spectator at Riobamba is already nine thousand feet high, and the
+mountain is not so elevated above him as Mont Blanc above the vale of
+Chamoun&icirc;, when, in reality, that culminating point of Europe would not
+reach up even to the snow-limit of Chimborazo by two thousand feet.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>
+It is only while sailing on the Pacific that one sees Chimborazo in its
+complete proportions. Its very
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>magnitude diminishes the impression of
+awe and wonder, for the Andes on which it rests are heaved to such a
+vast altitude above the sea, that the relative elevation of its summit
+becomes reduced by comparison with the surrounding mountains. Its
+altitude is 21,420 feet, or forty-five times the height of Strasburg
+Cathedral; or, to state it otherwise, the fall of one pound from the top
+of Chimborazo would raise the temperature of water 30&deg;. One fourth of
+this is perpetually covered with snow, so that its ancient name,
+Chimpurazu&mdash;the mountain of snow&mdash;is very appropriate.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> It is a
+stirring thought that this mountain, now mantled with snow, once gleamed
+with volcanic fires. There is a hot spring on the north side, and an
+immense amount of d&eacute;bris covers the slope below the snow-limit,
+consisting chiefly of fine-grained, iron-stained trachyte and coarse
+porphyroid gray trachyte; very rarely a dark vitreous trachyte.
+Chimborazo is very likely not a solid mountain: trachytic volcanoes are
+supposed to be full of cavities. Bouguer found it made the plumb-line
+deviate 7" or 8".</p>
+
+<p>The valleys which furrow the flank of Chimborazo are in keeping with its
+colossal size. Narrower, but deeper than those of the Alps, the mind
+swoons and sinks in the effort to comprehend their grim majesty. The
+mountain appears to have been broken to pieces like so much thin crust,
+and the strata thrown on their vertical edges, revealing deep, dark
+chasms, that seem to lead to the confines of the lower world. The
+deepest valley in Europe, that of the Ordesa in the Pyrenees, is 3200
+feet deep; but here are rents in the side of Chimborazo in which
+Vesuvius could be put away out of sight. As you look down into the
+fathomless fissure, you see a white fleck rising out of the gulf,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> and
+expanding as it mounts, till the wings of the condor, fifteen feet in
+spread, glitter in the sun as the proud bird fearlessly wheels over the
+dizzy chasm, and then, ascending above your head, sails over the dome of
+Chimborazo.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Could the condor speak, what a glowing description could
+he give of the landscape beneath him when his horizon is a thousand
+miles in diameter. If</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+"Twelve fair counties saw the blaze from Malvern's lonely height,"
+</p>
+<p>what must be the panorama from a height fifteen times higher!</p>
+
+<p>Chimborazo was long supposed to be the tallest mountain on the globe,
+but its supremacy has been supplanted by Mount Everest in Asia, and
+Aconcagua in Chile.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> In mountain gloom and glory, however, it still
+stands unrivaled. The Alps have the avalanche, "the thunderbolt of
+snow," and the glaciers, those icy Niagaras so beautiful and grand. Here
+they are wanting.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> The monarch of the Andes sits motionless in calm
+serenity and unbroken silence. The silence is absolute and actually
+oppressive. The road from Guayaquil to Quito crosses Chimborazo at the
+elevation of fourteen thousand feet. Save the rush<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> of the trade wind in
+the afternoon, as it sweeps over the Andes, not a sound is audible; not
+the hum of an insect, nor the chirp of a bird, nor the roar of the puma,
+nor the music of running waters. Mid-ocean is never so silent. You can
+almost hear the globe turning on its axis. There was a time when the
+monarch deigned to speak, and spoke with a voice of thunder, for the
+lava on its sides is an evidence of volcanic activity. But ever since
+the morning stars sang together over man's creation, Chimbo has sat in
+sullen silence, satisfied to look "from his throne of clouds o'er half
+the world." There is something very suggestive in this silence of
+Chimborazo. It was once full of noise and fury; it is now a <i>completed</i>
+mountain, and thunders no more. How silent was Jesus, a completed
+character! The reason we are so noisy is that we are so full of wants;
+we are <i>unfinished</i> characters. Had we perfect fullness of all things,
+the beatitude of being without a want, we should lapse into the eternal
+silence of God.</p>
+
+<p>Chimborazo is a leader of a long train of ambitious crags and peaks; but
+as he who comes after the king must not expect to be noticed, we will
+only take a glimpse of these lesser lights as we pass up the Western
+Cordillera, and then down the Eastern.</p>
+
+<p>The first after leaving the monarch is Caraguairazo. The Indians call it
+"the wife of Chimborazo." They are separated only by a very narrow
+valley. One hundred and seventy years ago the top of this mountain fell
+in, and torrents of mud flowed out containing multitudes of fishes. It
+is now over seventeen thousand feet high, and is one of the most Alpine
+of the Quitonian volcanoes, having sharp pinnacles instead of the smooth
+trachytic domes&mdash;usually double domes&mdash;so characteristic of the Andean
+summits. And now we pass in rapid succession numerous picturesque
+mountains, some of them extinct volcanoes, as Iliniza,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>presenting two
+pyramidal peaks, the highest seventeen thousand feet above the sea, and
+Corazon, so named from its heart-shaped summit, till we reach Pichincha,
+whose smoking crater is only five miles distant in a straight line from
+the city of Quito, or eleven by the traveled route.</p>
+
+<p>The crown of this mountain presents three groups of rocky peaks. The
+most westerly one is called Rucu-Pichincha, and alone manifests
+activity. To the northeast of Rucu is Guagua-Pichincha, a ruined flue of
+the same fiery furnace; and between the two is Cundur-guachana.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>
+Pichincha is the only volcano in Ecuador which has not a true
+cone-crater. Some violent eruption beyond the reach of history or
+tradition has formed an enormous funnel-shaped basin 2500 feet deep,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a>
+1500 in diameter at the bottom, and expanding upward to a width of three
+fourths of a mile. It is the <i>deepest</i> crater on the globe. That of
+Kilauea is 600 feet; Orizaba, 500; Etna, 300; Hecla, 100. Vesuvius is a
+portable furnace in comparison. The abyss is girt with a ragged wall of
+dark trachyte, which rises on the inside at various angles between 45&deg;
+and perpendicularity. As we know of but one American besides the members
+of our expedition (Mr. Farrand, a photographer) who has succeeded in
+entering the crater of this interesting volcano, we will give a brief
+sketch of our visit.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Crater" id="Crater"></a>
+<img src="images/133tb.png" alt="Crater of Pichincha." title="Crater of Pichincha." /><br /><a href="images/133.png">Crater of Pichincha.</a></p>
+
+<p>Leaving Quito in the afternoon by the old arched gateway at the foot of
+Panecillo, and crossing a spur of the mountain, we stopped for the night
+at the Jesuit hacienda, situated in the beautiful valley of Lloa, but
+nearly ruined by the earthquake of 1859. On the damp walls of this
+monastery, perched 10,268 feet above the ocean, we found several old
+paintings, among them a copy of the <i>Visitation</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> by Rubens. The sunset
+views in this heart of the Andes were surpassingly beautiful. Mounting
+our horses at break of day, and taking an Indian guide, we ascended
+rapidly, by a narrow and difficult path, through the forest that belts
+the volcano, up to the height of 12,000 feet, emerging gradually into a
+thicket of stunted bushes, and then entered the dreary paramo. Splendid
+was the view of the Eastern Cordillera. At least six dazzling white
+volcanoes were in sight just across the Valley of Quito, among them
+table-topped Cayambi, majestic Antisana, and princely Cotopaxi, whose
+tapering summit is a mile above the clouds. Toiling upward, we reached
+the base of the cone, where vegetation ceased entirely; and, tying our
+horses to some huge rocks that had fallen from the mural cliff above,
+started off on hands and feet for the crater. The cone is deeply covered
+with sand and cinders for about two hundred feet, and the sides are
+inclined at an angle of about 35&deg;. At ten o'clock we reached the brim of
+the crater, and the great gulf burst suddenly into view. We can never
+forget the impression made upon us by the sight. We speak of many things
+here below as awful, but that word has its full meaning when carried to
+the top of Pichincha. There you see a frightful opening in the earth's
+crust nearly a mile in width and half a mile deep, and from the dark
+abyss comes rolling up a cloud of sulphurous vapors. Monte Somma in the
+time of Strabo was a miniature; but this crater is on the top of a
+mountain four times the height of the Italian volcano. Imagination finds
+it difficult to conceive a spectacle of more fearful grandeur or such
+solemn magnificence. It well accords with Milton's picture of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+bottomless pit. The united effect of the silence and solitude of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+place, the great depth of the cavity, the dark precipitous sides, and
+the column of smoke standing over an unseen crevice, was to us more
+impressive than thundering Cotopaxi or fiery
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+Vesuvius. Humboldt,
+after standing on this same brink, exclaimed, "I have never beheld a
+grander or more remarkable picture than that presented by this volcano;"
+and La Condamine compared it to "the Chaos of the poets." Below us are
+the smouldering fires which may any moment spring forth into a
+conflagration; around us are black, ragged cliffs&mdash;fit boundary for this
+gateway to the infernal regions. They look as if they had just been
+dragged up from the central furnace of the earth. Life seems to have
+fled in terror from the vicinity; even lichens, the children of the bare
+rocks, refuse to clothe the scathed and beetling crags. For some
+moments, made mute by the dreadful sight, we stood like statues on the
+rim of the mighty caldron, with our eyes riveted on the abyss below,
+lost in contemplating that which can not be described. The panorama from
+this lofty summit is more pleasing, but equally sublime. Toward the
+rising sun is the long range of the Eastern Cordillera, hiding from our
+view the great valley of the Amazon. To right and left are the peaks of
+another procession of august mountains from Cotocach&iacute; to Chimborazo. We
+are surrounded by the great patriarchs of the Andes, and their speaker,
+Cotopaxi, ever and anon sends his muttering voice over the land. The
+view westward is like looking down from a balloon. Those parallel ridges
+of the mountain chain, dropping one behind the other, are the gigantic
+staircase by which the ice-crowned Chimborazo steps down to the sea. A
+white sea of clouds covers the peaceful Pacific and the lower parts of
+the coast. But the vapory ocean, curling into the ravines, beautifully
+represents little coves and bays, leaving islands and promontories like
+a true ocean on a broken shore. We seem raised above the earth, which
+lies like an opened map below us; we can look down on the upper surface
+of the clouds, and, were it night, down too upon the lightnings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The crater of Pichincha has a sharp, serrated edge, which, happily for
+Quito, is broken down on the west side, so that in the next eruption the
+volcano will doubtless pour its contents into the wilds of Esmeraldas.
+The highest pinnacle is 15,827 feet; so that the mountain just enters
+the region of perpetual winter. Water boils at 185&deg;. The summit is
+generally bare, though snow is always found in the clefts of the rocks.
+It is not compact or crystalline, but resembles a conglomerate of little
+hailstones.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> Out of the mingled snow and pumice-dust rise a few
+delicate flowers, particularly the violet <i>Sida Pichinchensis</i>, the same
+which we had observed on the side of Chimborazo. Think of gay flowers a
+thousand feet higher than the top of Mont Blanc!</p>
+
+<p>The first to reach the brink of the crater were the French Academicians
+in 1742. Sixty years after, Humboldt stood on the summit. But it was not
+till 1844 that any one dared to enter the crater. This was accomplished
+by Garcia Moreno, now President of Ecuador, and Sebastian Wisse, a
+French engineer. Humboldt pronounced the bottom of the crater
+"inaccessible, from its great depth and precipitous descent." We found
+it accessible, but exceedingly perilous. The moment we prepared to
+descend<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> our guide ran away. We went on without him, but when halfway
+down were stopped by a precipice.</p>
+
+<p>On the 22d of October, 1867, we returned to Pichincha with another
+guide, and entered the crater by a different route. Manuel, our Indian,
+led us to the south side, and over the brink we went. We were not long
+in realizing the danger of the undertaking. Here the snow concealed an
+ugly fissure or covered a treacherous rock (for nearly all the rocks are
+crumbling); there we must cross a mass of loose sand moving like a
+glacier down the almost vertical side of the crater; and on every hand
+rocks were giving way, and, gathering momentum at each revolution, went
+thundering down, leaping over precipices, and jostling other rocks,
+which joined in the race, till they all struck the bottom with a deep
+rumbling sound, shivered like so many bombshells into a thousand pieces,
+and telling us what would be our fate it we made a single misstep. We
+followed our Indian in single file, keeping close together, that the
+stones set free by those in the rear might not dash those below from
+their feet; feeling our way with the greatest caution, clinging with our
+hands to snow, sand, rock, tufts of grass, or any thing that would hold
+for a moment; now leaping over a chasm, now letting ourselves down from
+rock to rock; at times paralyzed with fear, and always with death
+staring us in the face; thus we scrambled for two hours and a half, till
+we reached the bottom of the crater.</p>
+
+<p>Here we found a deeply-furrowed plain, strewn with ragged rocks, and
+containing a few patches of vegetation, with half a dozen species of
+flowers. In the centre is an irregular heap of stones, two hundred and
+sixty feet high by eight hundred in diameter. This is the cone of
+eruption&mdash;its sides and summit covered with an imposing group of vents,
+seventy in number, all lined with sulphur and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> exhaling steam, black
+smoke, and sulphurous gas. The temperature of the vapor just within the
+fumarole is 184&deg;, water boiling beside it at 189&deg;. The central vent, or
+chimney, gives forth a sound like the violent bubbling of boiling water.
+As we sat on this fiery mount, surrounded by a circular rampart of
+rocks, and looked up at the immense towers of dark dolerite which ran up
+almost vertically to the height of twenty-five hundred feet above us,
+musing over the tremendous force which fashioned this awful
+amphitheatre&mdash;spacious enough for all the gods of Tartarus to hold high
+carnival&mdash;the clouds which hung in the thin air around the crest of the
+crater pealed forth thunder after thunder, which, reverberating from
+precipice to precipice, were answered by the crash of rocks let loose by
+the storm, till the whole mountain seemed to tremble like a leaf. Such
+acoustics, mingled with the flash of lightning and the smell of
+brimstone, made us believe that we had fairly got into the realm of
+Pluto. It is the spot where Dante's <i>Inferno</i> ought to be read.</p>
+
+<p>Finishing our observations, and warming our dinner over the steaming
+crevices, we prepared to ascend. The escape from this horrid hole was
+more perilous than the entrance, and on reaching the top we sang, with
+grateful hearts, to the tune of "Old Hundred,"</p>
+
+<p class="center">"Praise God, from whom all blessings flow."</p>
+
+<p>We doubt whether that famous tune and glorious doxology were ever sung
+so near to heaven.</p>
+
+<p>The second line,</p>
+
+<p class="center">"Praise him all creatures here below,"</p>
+
+<p>had a strange meaning fifteen thousand feet high.</p>
+
+<p>There have been five eruptions of Pichincha since the Conquest. The last
+was in 1660; that of 1566 covered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> Quito three feet deep with ashes and
+stones, while boiling water and bitumen descended in torrents. In 1867
+the column of smoke did not rise above the crest of the crater, but the
+volcano has lately been showing signs of activity, such as it has not
+exhibited since the last grand eruption two centuries ago. On the 19th
+of March, 1868, detonations were audible at Quito, and three days after
+there were more thunderings, with a great column of vapor visible from
+Chillo, twelve miles to the east. These phenomena were accompanied by an
+unusual fall of rain. Since the great earthquake of August 16th,
+Pichincha has continued to send forth dense columns of black smoke, and
+so much fine sand that it is not possible to reach the crater. The solid
+products of Pichincha since the Conquest have been chiefly pumice,
+coarse-grained and granular trachyte, and reddish porphyroid trachyte.
+The roads leading to Quito cut through hills of pumice-dust. On the
+plain of I&ntilde;aquito and in the valley of Esmeraldas are vast erratic
+blocks of trachyte, some containing twenty-five cubic yards, having
+sharp angles, and in some cases a polished, unstriated surface. M. Wisse
+does not consider them to have been thrown out of Pichincha, as La
+Condamine and others have judged. It is true, as he says, that they
+could not have come out of the present cone at a less angle than 45&deg;,
+for they would have hit the sides of the high rocky rampart and rolled
+back again; and at a higher angle they would not have reached their
+present location. But we see no reason why they could not be the upper
+portion of the solid trachyte cone blown into the air at the great
+eruption which cleared out this enormous crater. There is a <i>rumipamba</i>,
+or "field of stones," around each of the Quitonian volcanoes.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Pichincha, we travel northward along the battlemented Andes,
+passing by the conical mountains of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> Yana-urcu and Cotocach&iacute;. Yana-urcu,
+or "black mountain," is a mass of calcined rocks. Cotocach&iacute; (from
+<i>cota</i>? and <i>cach&iacute;</i>, salt) is always snow-clad. On its side is Cuycocha,
+one of the highest lakes in the world (10,200 feet), and formed by the
+subsidence of a part of the volcano.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IX.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">The Volcanoes of Ecuador.&mdash;
+Eastern
+Cordillera.&mdash;
+Imbabura.&mdash;
+Cayambi.&mdash;
+Antisana.&mdash;
+Cotopaxi.&mdash;
+Llanganati.&mdash;
+Tunguragua.&mdash;
+Altar.&mdash;
+Sangai.</p>
+
+
+<p>Near the once busy city of Otovalo, utterly destroyed in the late
+earthquake, the two Cordilleras join, and, turning to the right, we go
+down the eastern range. The first in order is Imbabura,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> which poured
+forth a large quantity of mud, with thousands of fishes, seven years
+before the similar eruption of Caraguairazo. At its feet is the
+beautiful lake of San Pablo, five miles in circumference, and very deep.
+It contains the little black fish (<i>Pimelodes cyclopum</i>) already
+referred to as the only species in the valley, and the same that was
+cast out by Imbabura and Caraguairazo. Next comes the square-topped
+Cayambi&mdash;the loftiest mountain in this Cordillera, being nineteen
+thousand five hundred feet. It stands exactly on the equator, a colossal
+monument placed by the hand of Nature to mark the grand division of the
+globe. It is the only snowy spot, says Humboldt, which is crossed by the
+equator. Beautiful is the view of Cayambi from Quito, as its enormous
+mass of snow and ice glows with crimson splendor in the farewell rays of
+the setting sun. No painter's brush could do justice to the prismatic
+tints which hover around the higher peaks. But this flood of glory is
+soon followed by the pure whiteness of death. "Like a gigantic ghost
+shrouded in sepulchral sheets, the mountain now hovers in the background
+of the landscape, towering ghastly through the twilight until darkness
+closes upon the scene."</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
+<p>Ten miles farther south is the bare-headed Guamani range, over which
+passes the road to the wild Napo country.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> The view from the crest is
+magnificent; but, like every grand panorama, eludes description. As we
+look eastward over the beginnings of the mighty forest which stretches
+unbroken to the Atlantic, the vast ridges, trending north and south, and
+decreasing in height as they increase in distance, seem like the waves
+of a great ocean rolling toward the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Near by stands Antisana in his snowy robe. This volcano ranks next to
+Chimborazo in dignity. It has a double dome, and an elevation of 19,000
+feet. Snow of Dian purity covers it for over 3000 feet; but, judging
+from the enormous streams of lava on its sides, it must have been a
+fierce volcano in ages past. The lava streams are worthy of the great
+mountain from which they flowed. One of them (called "Volcan d'Ansango")
+is ten miles long and five hundred feet deep, with an average slope of
+15&deg;. It is a magnificent sight, as seen from the surrounding paramo&mdash;a
+stream of dark, ragged rocks coming down out of the clouds and snows
+which cover the summit. The representative products of Antisana are a
+black, cellular, vitreous trachyte, a fine-grained, tough porphyroid
+trachyte, and a coarse reddish porphyroid trachyte. An eruption, as late
+as 1590, is recorded in <i>Johnston's Phys. Atlas</i>. Humboldt saw smoke
+issuing from several openings in March, 1802.</p>
+
+<p>We ascended this volcano to the height of sixteen thousand feet. On its
+side is the celebrated hacienda of Antisana, which, more than sixty
+years ago, sheltered the great Humboldt from the sleet and rain and
+blast of this lofty region. It was a welcome refuge to us, for we had
+well nigh perished with cold on the dreary paramo. It is one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> the
+highest human habitations in the world, being thirteen thousand three
+hundred feet above the sea, or a thousand feet higher than the Peak of
+Teneriffe.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> The mean temperature is the same as that of Quebec, so
+that thirteen thousand feet in elevation at the equator is equal to 47&deg;
+in latitude.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Here is an extensive corral, inclosing thousands of
+cattle, owned by a rheumatic old gentleman, Se&ntilde;or Valdevieso, who
+supplies the beef-market of Quito.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> A desire for beef has alone
+brought man and his beast to this chilly altitude. It is difficult to
+get a quart of milk, and impossible to find a pound of butter at this
+hacienda. The predominant colors of the cattle are red and black. They
+feed on the wild paramo grass, and the beef is not only remarkably
+cheap, but superior in quality. The lasso is used in catching the
+animals, but not so skillfully as by the Gauchos of Rio Plata. It is a
+singular fact that cattle have followed men over the whole earth, from
+the coast of Africa to the highlands of Antisana. The same species is
+attacked by crocodiles and condors.</p>
+
+<p>The atmospheric pressure is here so small that they frequently bleed at
+the nose and mouth when hunted. We have already given our experience in
+ascending high altitudes. We may add that while the pulse of
+Boussingault beat 106 pulsations at the height of 18,600 feet on
+Chimborazo, ours was 87 at 16,000 feet on Antisana. De Saussure says
+that a draught of liquor which would inebriate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> in the lowlands no
+longer has that effect on Mont Blanc. This appears to be true on the
+Andes; indeed, there is very little drunkenness in Quito. So the higher
+we perch our inebriate asylums, the better for the patients.</p>
+
+<p>Near the hacienda is a little lake called Mica, on which we found a
+species of grebe, with wings so short it could not fly. Its legs, also,
+seem fitted only for paddling, and it goes ashore only to lay its eggs.
+It peeps like a gosling. Associated with them were penguins (in
+appearance); they were so shy we could not secure one. The query is, How
+came they there? Was this a centre of creation, or were the fowls
+upheaved with the Andes? They could not have flown or walked to this
+lofty lake, and there are no water-courses leading to it; it is
+surrounded with a dry, rolling waste, where only the condor lives. We
+turn to Darwin for an answer.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p>The ragged Sincholagua<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> and romantic Rumi&ntilde;agui follow Antisana, and
+then we find ourselves looking up at the most beautiful and most
+terrible of volcanoes. This is the far-famed Cotopaxi, or more properly
+Cutu-pacsi, meaning "a brilliant mass." Humboldt calls it the most
+regular and most picturesque of volcanic cones. It looks like a huge
+truncated cone rising out of the Valley of Quito, its sides deeply
+furrowed by the rivers of mud and water which have so often flowed out.
+The cone itself is about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> six thousand feet high. The east side is
+covered with snow, but the west is nearly bare, owing to the trade
+winds, which, sweeping across the continent, carry the ashes westward.
+Cotopaxi is the loftiest of active volcanoes, though its grand eruptions
+are a century apart, according to the general rule that the higher a
+volcano the less frequent its eruptions, but all the more terrible when
+they do occur. Imagine Vesuvius on the summit of Mont Blanc, and you
+have the altitude of Cotopaxi.</p>
+
+<p>The top just reaches the middle point of density in the atmosphere, for
+at the height of three miles and a half the air below will balance that
+above. The crater has never been seen by man; the steepness of the sides
+and the depth of the ashes covering them render it inaccessible. The
+valiant Col. Hall tried it with scaling ladders, only to fail. The
+telescope reveals a parapet of scoria on the brim, as on Teneriffe.
+Humboldt's sketch of the volcano, so universally copied, is overdrawn.
+It makes the slope about 50&deg;, while in truth it is nearer 30&deg;. The
+apical angle is 122&deg; 30'.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cotopaxi is slumbering now; or, as Mr. Coan says of Hilo, it is "in a
+state of solemn and thoughtful suspense." The only signs of life are the
+deep rumbling thunders and a cloud of smoke lazily issuing from the
+crater.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> Sometimes at night the smoke looks like a pillar of fire,
+and fine ashes and sand often fall around the base, to the great
+annoyance of the farmers. On the south side is a huge rock of porphyry,
+called the Inca's Head. Tradition has it that this was the original
+summit of the volcano, torn off and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> hurled down by an eruption on the
+very day Atahuallpa was murdered by Pizarro. The last great eruption
+occurred in 1803, though so late as 1855 it tossed out stones, water,
+and sand. Heaps of ruins, piled up during the lapse of ages, are
+scattered for miles around the mountain, among them great boulders
+twenty feet square. In one place (Quinchevar) the accumulation is 600
+feet deep. Between Cotopaxi and Sincholagua are numerous conical hills
+covering the paramo, reminding one of the mud volcanoes of Jorullo.</p>
+
+<p>Pumice and trachyte are the most common rocks around this mountain, and
+these are augitic or porphyroid. Obsidian also occurs, though not on the
+immediate flank, but farther down near Chillo. In plowing, thousands of
+pieces as large as "flints" are turned up. The natives know nothing
+about their origin or use; the large specimens were anciently polished
+and used for mirror. But Cotopaxi is the great pumice-producing volcano.
+The new road up the valley cuts through a lofty hill formed by the
+successive eruptions; the section, presenting alternate layers of mud,
+ashes, and pumice, is a written history of the volcano.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> The cone
+itself is evidently composed of similar beds super-imposed, and holding
+fragments of porphyry and trachyte. What is Vesuvius, four thousand feet
+high, to Cotopaxi, belching forth fire from a crater fifteen thousand
+feet higher, and shooting its contents three thousand feet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> above its
+snow-bound summit, with a voice of thunder heard six hundred miles!</p>
+
+<p>Leaving this terrible "safety-valve" to the imprisoned fires under our
+feet, we travel along the wooded flanks and savage valleys of the
+Llanganati Mountains, whose lofty blue ridge is here and there pointed
+with snow.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> It is universally believed that the Incas buried an
+immense quantity of gold in an artificial lake on the sides of this
+mountain during the Spanish invasion, and many an adventurous expedition
+has been made for it. The inhabitants will tell you of one Valverde, a
+Spaniard, who, from being very poor, had suddenly become very rich,
+which was attributed to his having married an Indian girl whose father
+showed him where the treasure was hidden, and accompanied him on various
+occasions to bring away portions of it; and that Valverde returned to
+Spain, and on his death-bed bequeathed the secret of his riches to the
+king. But since Padre Longo suddenly disappeared while leading an
+expedition, the timid Ecuadorians have been content with their
+poverty.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p>
+
+<p>And now we have reached the perfect cone of Tunguragua, the rival of
+Cotopaxi in symmetry and beauty.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> It stands 16,500 feet above the
+Pacific, its upper part covered with a splendid robe of snow, while the
+sugar-cane grows in the romantic town of Ba&ntilde;os, 10,000 feet below the
+summit. A cataract, 1500 feet high, comes down at three bounds from the
+edge of the snow to the warm valley beneath; and at Ba&ntilde;os a hot
+ferruginous spring and a stream<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> of ice-water flow out of the volcano
+side by side. Here, too, the fierce youth of the Pastassa, born on the
+pumice slopes of Cotopaxi, dashes through a deep tortuous chasm and down
+a precipice in hot haste, as if conscious of the long distance before it
+ere it reaches the Amazon and the ocean. Tunguragua was once a
+formidable mountain, for we discovered a great stream of lava reaching
+from the clouds around the summit to the orange-groves in the valley,
+and blocking up the rivers which tumble over it in beautiful cascades.
+It has been silent since 1780; but it can afford to rest, for then its
+activity lasted seven years.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>
+
+<p>Close by rises beautiful Altar, a thousand feet higher. The Indians call
+it Capac-urcu, or the "Chief." They say it once overtopped Chimborazo;
+but, after a violent eruption, which continued eight years, the walls
+fell in. Its craggy crest is still more Alpine than Caraguairazo; eight
+snowy peaks shoot up like needles into the sky, and surround an altar to
+whose elevated purity no mortal offering will ever attain. The trachyte
+which once formed the summit of this mountain is now spread in fragments
+over the plain of Riobamba.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving this broken-down volcano, but still the most picturesque in the
+Andes, we travel over the rough and rugged range of Cubillin, till our
+attention is arrested by terrific explosions like a naval broadside, and
+a column of smoke that seems to come from the furnace of the Cyclops. It
+is Sangai, the most active volcano on the globe. From its unapproachable
+crater, three miles high, it sends forth a constant stream of fire,
+water, mud, and ashes.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+<p>No intermission has been noticed since the Spaniards first saw it three
+hundred years ago. Stromboli is the only volcano that will compare with
+it. Its ashes are almost always falling on the city of Guayaquil, one
+hundred miles distant, and its explosions, generally occurring every
+hour or two, are sometimes heard in that city. Wisse, in 1849, counted
+267 explosions in one hour.</p>
+
+<p>We have now completed the series. What an array of snow-clad peaks wall
+in the narrow Valley of Quito&mdash;Nature's Gothic spires to this her
+glorious temple! If ever there was a time when all these volcanoes were
+active in concert, this secluded vale must have witnessed the most
+splendid pyrotechnics conceivable. Imagine fifty mountains as high as
+Etna, three of them with smoking craters, standing along the road
+between New York and Washington, and you will have some idea of the ride
+down this gigantic colonnade from Quito to Riobamba. If, as Ruskin says,
+the elements of beauty are in proportion to the increase of mountainous
+character, Ecuador is artistically beautiful to a high degree.</p>
+
+<p>Here, amid these Plutonic peaks, are the energies of volcanic action
+best studied. The constancy of the volcanic fires is a striking fact.
+First we have the deluges of submarine lavas, which were poured out long
+before the Andes lifted their heads above the waters; then alternate
+porphyritic strata, feldspathic streams, and gypseous exhalations; then,
+at a later day, floods of basaltic lava; next the old tertiary
+eruptions; and, lastly, the vast accumulations of boulders, gravel,
+ashes, pumice, and mud of the present day, spread over the Valley of
+Quito and the west slope of the Cordilleras to an unknown depth beneath
+the sea. The incessant eruptions of Sangai, and the frequent
+earthquakes, show that the subterranean energy which heaved the Andes is
+not yet expended.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER X.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">The Valley of Quito.&mdash;
+Riobamba.&mdash;
+A Bed of "Fossil Giants."&mdash;
+Chillo Hacienda.&mdash;
+Otovalo and Ibarra.&mdash;
+The Great Earthquake of 1868.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Valley of Quito has about the same size and shape as the basin of
+Salt Lake, but it is five thousand feet higher.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> The two cordilleras
+inclosing it are tied by the mountain-knots of Assuay and Chisinchi, so
+that the valley is subdivided into three basins, those of Cuenca,
+Ambato, and Quito proper, which increase in beauty and altitude as we
+travel north. There are several subordinate transversal dikes and some
+longitudinal ridges, but all the basins lie parallel to the axes of the
+cordilleras&mdash;a characteristic feature of the Andes. The deep valleys on
+the outside flanks are evidently valleys of erosion, but the basins
+between the cordilleras were created with them.</p>
+
+<p>The first is fifty miles long. It contains the cities of Loja and
+Cuenca,<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> the former distinguished for its cinchona forests, the
+latter for Inca graves and mines of precious metals. The middle basin
+(130 miles in length) is covered with vast quantities of volcanic
+d&eacute;bris, the outpourings of Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, and Altar, on one side,
+and of Chimborazo and Caraguairazo on the other. Nothing relieves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> the
+barrenness of the landscape but hedges of century plant, cactus, and
+wild heliotrope, which border the roads. Whirlwinds of sand are often
+seen moving over the plain. The mean temperature is 61&deg;.5. Here exist,
+we can not say thrive, the cities of Riobamba, Ambato, and Tacunga,
+already noticed. Riobamba,<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> properly Rayobamba, the plain of
+lightning, was founded at the beginning of this century, or shortly
+after the destruction of the old city. Excepting the ecclesiastical
+buildings, the houses are of one story, built of stone plastered with
+mud, sometimes of adobe or bamboo, and the windows are grated like those
+of a prison. As in all Spanish-American towns, the main church fronts
+the great Plaza where the weekly fairs are held. Save on fair-day, the
+city is lifeless. Nothing is exported to the coast except a few eggs and
+fowls, lard and potatoes. Such is the power of habit, an Indian will
+take a hen to Bodegas and sell it for four reals (50 cents) when he
+could get three for it in Riobamba, and six on the road. Another
+instance of this dogged adherence to custom was related to us by Dr.
+Taylor: The Indians were accustomed to bring the curate of a certain
+village a bundle of alfalfa every day. A new curate, having no use for
+so much, ordered them not to bring any more. He was besieged by five
+hundred of his wild parishioners, and had he not been a powerful man,
+they would have killed him. They told him they were accustomed to bring
+the curate that much of alfalfa, and should continue.</p>
+
+<p>Old Riobamba (Cajabamba) is situated twelve miles to the west. This has
+been the scene of some of the most terrible paroxysms that over shook
+the Andes. In 1797 a part of Mount Cicalfa was thrown down, crushing the
+city at its foot; hills arose where valleys existed; rivers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+disappeared, and others took their places; and the very site of the
+city was rent asunder. The surviving inhabitants could not tell where
+their houses had stood, and property was so mingled that litigation
+followed the earthquake. Judging from the numerous sculptured columns
+lying broken and prostrate throughout the valley, the city must have had
+a magnificence now unknown in Ecuador. Around a coat of arms (evidently
+Spanish) we read these words: <i>Malo mori quam fedari</i>, "I would rather
+die than be disgraced." In the spring of 1868 another convulsion caused
+a lake to disappear and a mountain to take its place.</p>
+
+<p>Near Pun&iacute;n, seven miles southwest of Riobamba, we discovered in a deep
+ravine numerous fossil bones, belonging chiefly to the mastodon, and
+extinct species of the horse, deer, and llama. They were imbedded in the
+middle of an unstratified cliff, four hundred feet high, of very compact
+silt or trachytic clay, free from stones, and resting on a hard
+quartzoze sandstone. In the bed of the stream which runs through the
+ravine (charged with nitrate of soda) are some igneous rocks. The bones
+were drifted to this spot and deposited (many of them in a broken state)
+in horizontal layers along with recent shells. We have, then, this
+remarkable fact, that this high valley was tenanted by elephantine
+quadrupeds, all of which passed away before the arrival of the human
+species, and yet while the land, and probably the sea also, were peopled
+with their present molluscan inhabitants. This confirms the statement of
+Mr. Lyell, that the longevity of mammalian species is much inferior to
+that of the testacea. It is interesting to speculate on the probable
+climate and the character of the vegetation in this high valley when
+these extinct mammifers lived. The great pachyderm would have no
+difficulty in thriving at the present day at Quito, on the score of
+temperature or altitude. The mammoth once<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> flourished in Siberia; and
+Gibbon met an elephant on the high table-lands of Bolivia that had
+walked over the Cordillera at the pass of Antarangua, sixteen thousand
+feet above the sea. Darwin thinks that the climate of the Cordilleras
+has changed since the pleistocene period. "It is a marvelous fact in the
+history of mammalia (says this naturalist) that in South America a
+native horse should have lived and disappeared, to be succeeded in after
+ages by the countless herds descended from the few introduced with the
+Spanish colonists."</p>
+
+<p>The high ridge of Chisinchi, stretching across the great plateau from
+Cotopaxi to Iliniza, separates the evergreen Valley of Quito from the
+arid and melancholy valleys of Cuenca and Ambato. It rolls out like a
+rich carpet of emerald verdure between the towering mountains of
+Pichincha and Antisana, Cotacachi and Cayambi. This was the centre of
+the most ancient native civilization after that of Titicaca. Here, while
+the darkness of the Middle Ages was settling over Europe, dwelt the
+Quitus, whose origin is lost in the mists of fable. Then, while Peter
+the Hermit was leading his fanatic host against the Saracens, the Cara
+nation waged a more successful crusade, and supplanted the Quitus. Here,
+too, in the bloody days of Pizarro, reigned, and was buried, the last of
+the Incas, ill-fated Atahuallpa. To him, indeed, it was a more
+delightful spot than the vale of Vilcamayu&mdash;the paradise of Peru.</p>
+
+<p>The Puengasi Hills, running through the valley from north to south,
+partially divide the capital and its vicinity from the charming Valley
+of Chillo, spread out at the foot of Antisana. Here is the venerable
+hacienda of Chillo, where Humboldt and Bonpland resided for some time.
+It is owned by the Aguirres, who are grand-nephews of Don Carlos
+Montufar, the companion of the famous travelers. The hacienda contains
+two valuable paintings&mdash;an original<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> "Crucifixion" by Titian, and a
+portrait of the great German from life, as he appeared in 1803. This
+latter relic interested us exceedingly, and, through the kindness of Sr.
+Aguirre, we were allowed to photograph it. It represents Humboldt in his
+prime, a traveler on the Andes, dressed after the court-fashion of
+Berlin; very different from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> usual portrait&mdash;an old man in his
+library, his head, thinly covered with gray hair, resting on his bosom.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Humboldt" id="Humboldt"></a>
+<img src="images/154tb.png" alt="Humboldt in 1802." title="Humboldt in 1802." /><br /><a href="images/154.png">Humboldt in 1802.</a></p>
+
+<p>Thirty miles north of Quito, near the volcanic Imbabura, is the ruined
+city of Otovalo, a thousand feet lower than the capital. It was well
+built, and contained 7000 inhabitants. Quichua was the prevailing
+language. Its chief trade was in saddles, ponchos, straw hats, and
+fruit. Here was the cotton factory, or <i>quinta</i>, of Sr. Pareja. Three
+miles from Otovalo was the enterprising Indian village of Cotocach&iacute;, at
+the mountain of the same name. It was noted for its hand-loom products.
+A heap of ruins now marks the locality. It is a doomed spot, suffering
+more than any other town in 1859.</p>
+
+<p>Four miles northwest of Otovalo was the city of Ibarra, picturesquely
+seated on a plain 2000 feet lower than Quito, and surrounded with
+orchards and gardens. It numbered nearly 10,000 souls. It was not a
+commercial place, but the residence of landed proprietors. The
+neighborhood produced cotton, sugar, and fruit. A league distant was
+Carranqui, the birthplace of Atahuallpa. And, finally, the great valley
+fitly terminates in the plain of Atuntaqui,<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> where the decisive
+battle was fought which ushered in the reign of the Incas.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Ibarra" id="Ibarra"></a>
+<img src="images/156tb.png" alt="Ibarra." title="Ibarra." /><br /><a href="images/156.png">Ibarra.</a></p>
+
+<p>This northern province of Imbabura was the focus of the late terrible
+earthquake. At half past one on Sunday morning, August 16, 1868, with
+scarcely a premonitory sign (save a slight trembling at 3 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> the
+previous day), there was an upheaving of the ground, and then one
+tremendous shock and rocking of the earth, lasting one minute. In that
+brief moment the rich and flourishing province became a wilderness, and
+"Misericordia!" went up, like tho sound of many waters, from ten
+villages and cities. Otovalo, Ibarra,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> Cotocach&iacute;, and Atantaqui are
+heaps of ruins. At Otovalo 6000 perished. After the first shock, not a
+wall a yard high remained. Houses, in some instances, seemed to have
+been cut from their foundation, and thrown ten feet distant. The large
+stone fountain in the Plaza was thrown many yards. The cotton factory,
+which was built on the edge of a ravine, was by one stroke reduced to
+fragments. Such was the force of the concussion, the looms smashed each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+other, the carding-machines were thrown on their sides, and the roof,
+with part of the machinery, was found in the river below. The proprietor
+was killed. Throughout this whole region roads were broken up, and vast
+chasms created crossing the country in all directions. One is 2000 yards
+long, 500 yards broad, and 80 yards deep. Large fissures were opened on
+the sides of Cotocach&iacute; and Imbabura, from which issued immense torrents
+of water, mud, and bituminous substances, carrying away and drowning
+hundreds of cattle. A caravan of mules going to Chillo with cotton-bales
+was found four days after grazing on a narrow strip of land, on each
+side of which was a fearful chasm, while the muleteers were killed.</p>
+
+<p>At Quito comparatively little damage was done. Fifteen lives were lost,
+and the churches, convents, and many private houses are in a state of
+dilapidation. Domes and arches, which are much used because of the
+scarcity of timber, were first to fall.</p>
+
+<p>In the fierceness of the shock, and the extent of the territory shaken,
+the earthquake of August, 1868, is without a parallel in the New World.
+The destruction of life (50,000 officially reported in Ecuador alone)
+has not been equaled in any other earthquake during this century. The
+tremor was felt over four republics, and from the Andes to the Sandwich
+Islands. The water-wave was felt on the coast of New Zealand sixteen
+hours after it had set a United States gunboat, on the sand-hills of
+Arica. In some respects it is surpassed only by the Lisbon earthquake,
+which reached from Sweden to the West Indies, and from Barbary to
+Scotland. The loss of property seems to have been greatest in Peru, and
+the loss of life greatest in Ecuador. The commotion seemed to be most
+violent along the Western Cordillera, though it was felt even on the
+Napo.</p>
+
+<p>There are few places where the crust of our planet is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> long at rest.
+Brazil, Egypt, Russia, and Greenland are comparatively free from
+earthquakes. But had we delicate instruments scattered throughout the
+world, upheaval and subsidence would doubtless be detected in every part
+of the so-called <i>terra firma</i>. The sea, and not the land, is the true
+image of stability.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Time writes no wrinkle on thy azure brow:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Earthquakes have occurred in every period of geological history, and are
+independent of latitude. The first well-known earthquake came in the
+year 63, and shattered Pompeii and Herculaneum sixteen years before they
+were overwhelmed by the first recorded eruption of Vesuvius. The most
+celebrated earthquake, and perhaps the most terrible manifestation of
+force during the human period, was in 1755. The shock, which seemed to
+originate in the bed of the Atlantic, pervaded one twelfth of the
+earth's surface. Unhappy Lisbon stood in its path.</p>
+
+<p>An earthquake is a vertical vibration, having an undulatory progression.
+An example of the simple bounding movement occurred in 1797, when the
+city of Riobamba, in the Quito Valley, was buried under part of a
+mountain shaken down by the violent concussion, and men were tossed
+several hundred feet. We saw one massive structure which had nearly
+turned a somersault. The ordinary vibrations seldom exceed two feet in
+height. The wave-movement has a rate of from twenty to thirty miles a
+minute, depending on the elasticity of the rock and the elevations on
+the surface. When two undulations cross each other, a rotatory or
+twisting motion is produced. The waves are generally transmitted along
+the lines of primary mountain chains, which are doubtless seated on a
+fracture. The Lisbon waves moved from southwest to northeast, or
+parallel to the mountain system of the Old World; those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> of the United
+States, in 1843, ran parallel to the volcanic chain in Mexico. In South
+America they roll along the Andes. That of 1797 left its tracks along a
+westerly line from Tunguragua through Pelil&eacute;o and Gu&aacute;no. It is a little
+singular, that while the late trembling at Quito seemed to come from the
+north, the great shock in Peru preceded that in Ecuador by three days.
+Though the origin of earthquakes is deep-seated, the oscillation is
+mostly superficial, as deep mines are little disturbed. The most damage
+is done where the sedimentary plains abut against the hard, upturned
+strata of the mountains. The shock is usually brief. That of Caracas
+lasted fifty seconds, that of Lisbon six minutes; but Humboldt witnessed
+one in South America which continued a quarter of an hour.</p>
+
+<p>Several hypotheses have been advanced to account for earthquakes. Rogers
+ascribes them to billowy pulsations in the molten matter upon which the
+flexible crust of the earth floats. Mallet thinks they may be viewed as
+an uncompleted effort to establish a volcano. Dana holds that they are
+occasioned by the folding up of the rocks in the slow process of cooling
+and consequent contraction of the earth's crust. In this process there
+would occur enormous fractures to relieve the tension; tilted strata
+would slip, and caverns give way. All this no doubt takes place; but the
+sudden, paroxysmal heavings incline us to refer the cause to the same
+eruptive impulse which makes Vesuvius and Cotopaxi discharge pent-up
+subterranean vapor and gas. The most destructive earthquakes occur when
+the overlying rocks do not break and give vent to the imprisoned gas.
+There is some connection between volcanoes and earthquakes; the former
+are, to a certain extent, "safety-valves." The column of smoke from the
+volcano of Pasto suddenly disappeared just before the great earthquake
+at Riobamba. In the spring of 1868 Pichincha and Cotopaxi showed signs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+of increasing activity, but in the summer became quiet again. Cotocach&iacute;
+and Sangai, 200 miles apart, were awaked simultaneously; the former,
+silent for centuries, sent forth dense masses of earth and volcanic
+matter to a distance of many miles, covering thousands of acres; the
+latter thundered every half hour instead of hourly, as before. Still,
+the greatest earthquakes do not occur in the vicinity of active
+volcanoes. Lisbon and Lima (where, on an average, forty-five shocks
+occur annually, and two fearful ones in a century) are far distant from
+any volcanic vent; likewise Northern India, South Africa, Scotland, and
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>An earthquake is beyond the reach of calculation. Professor Perrey, of
+Dijon, France, is endeavoring to prove that there is a periodicity in
+earthquakes, synchronous with that in the tides of the ocean, the
+greatest number occurring at the time of new and full moon.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> If this
+theory be sustained, we must admit the existence of a vast subterranean
+sea of lava. But all this is problematical. Earthquakes appear
+independently of the geology of a country, though the rate of undulation
+is modified by the mineral structure. Earthquake waves seem to move more
+rapidly through the comparatively undisturbed beds of the Mississippi
+Valley than through the contorted strata of Europe. Meteorology is
+unable to indicate a coming earthquake, for there is no sure prophecy in
+sultry weather, sirocco wind,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> and leaden sky. The Lisbon shock came
+without a warning. Sudden changes of the weather, however, often occur
+after an earthquake. Since the great convulsion of 1797 the climate of
+the Valley of Quito is said to be much colder. A heavy rain often
+follows a violent earthquake in Peru.</p>
+
+<p>No amount of familiarity with earthquakes enables one to laugh during
+the shock, or even at the subterranean thunders which sound like the
+clanking of chains in the realm of Pluto. All animated nature is
+terror-stricken. The horse trembles in his stall; the cow moans a low,
+melancholy tune; the dog sends forth an unearthly yell; sparrows drop
+from the trees as if dead; crocodiles leave the trembling bed of the
+river and run with loud cries into the forest; and man himself becomes
+bewildered and loses all capacity. When the earth rocks beneath our feet
+(the motion resembling, in the words of Darwin, "that felt by a person
+skating over thin ice which bends under the weight of his body"),
+something besides giddiness is produced. We feel our utter
+insignificance in the presence of a mysterious power that shakes the
+Andes like a reed. But more: there is an awful sensation of insecurity.
+"A moment (says Humboldt) destroys the illusion of a whole life: our
+deceptive faith in the repose of nature vanishes, and we feel
+transported, as it were, into a region of unknown destructive forces." A
+judgment day seems impending, and each moment is an age when one stands
+on a world convulsed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XI.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">"The Province of the Orient," or the Wild Napo Country.&mdash;
+The Napos,
+Zaparos, and J&iacute;varos Indians.&mdash;
+Preparations to cross the Continent.</p>
+
+
+<p>On the eastern slope of the Ecuadorian Andes, between the Mara&ntilde;on and
+its tributary the Putumayo, lies the Napo country. This almost unknown
+region has the area of New York and New England together. The government
+of Quito, by a sonorous decree in 1854, baptized it "La Provincia del
+Oriente." Peru likewise claims it, but neither republic has done any
+thing to colonize it. A dense primeval forest, broken only by the
+rivers, covers the whole territory, and is the home of wild races
+untouched by civilization.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> There is not a road in the whole
+province. A footpath, open only in the dry season, and barely passable
+then, connects Quito and the Rio Napo. Congress lately promised to put
+Can&eacute;los in communication with the capital; but the largest villages in
+this vast and fertile region&mdash;Archidona, Can&eacute;los, and Mac&aacute;s&mdash;still
+remain isolated from the outer world.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> Ecuador once appointed a
+functionary under the high-sounding title of "Governor of the Orient,"
+with a salary of $700; but now the Indians are not troubled with any
+higher official than an alcalde.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p><p>The country is very thinly inhabited. The chief tribes are the
+semi-Christianized Napos (sometimes called Quijos), dwelling on the
+north bank of the Napo; the peaceful but uncivilized Zaparos, living
+between the Napo and Pastassa, and the warlike J&iacute;varos, spread over the
+unexplored region between the Pastassa and Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>These oriental tribes would probably be assigned by D'Orbigny to the
+Antisian branch of the Alpine races of South America. Dwelling amid the
+darkness of primeval forests, and on the gloomy banks of mountain
+torrents, they have acquired modifications of character, physical and
+moral, which distinguish them from the natives of the high and open
+regions, or the steaming lowlands of the Amazon. In color, however, they
+do not appear to us to be entitled to the name of "white men;" they
+approach nearer to the bronze complexion of the Quichuans than the
+yellow cast of the Brazilians. We see no evidence of that "bleaching
+process" resulting from a life under the dense canopy of foliage of
+which the learned French naturalist speaks, neither did we perceive the
+force of his statement that the color of the South American bears a very
+decided relation to the humidity of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The features of the Napo Indians are Quichuan, especially the low
+forehead, squarely-built face, and dull expression; but in stature they
+exceed the mountaineers. From a skull in our possession we take the
+following measurements, adding for comparison the dimensions of an
+ancient Peruvian cranium in Dr. Morton's collection:</p>
+
+<table summary="" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Napo.</td><td>&nbsp; </td><td align="right">Peruvian.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Longitudinal&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td> diameter&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>6&frac12; </td><td> in. </td><td align="center"> 6.1</td><td align="left"> in.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Parietal </td><td align="center"> " </td><td> 5&#8540;</td><td> " </td><td align="center"> 6. </td><td align="left"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Frontal </td><td align="center"> " </td><td> 4 </td><td> " </td><td align="center"> 4.7</td><td align="left"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Vertical </td><td align="center"> " </td><td> 4&frac12; </td><td> " </td><td align="center"> 5.5</td><td align="left"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Capacity </td><td> &nbsp;</td><td> 83<sup>1</sup>/<sub>64</sub></td><td>cub. in.&nbsp;&nbsp; </td><td align="center">83</td><td align="left"> cub. in.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Facial angle </td><td> &nbsp;</td><td> 70&deg;</td><td>&nbsp; </td><td align="center"> 81&deg;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>From this it will be seen that the capacity of this individual Napo is 8
+cubic inches greater than the average bulk (75 cubic inches) of the old
+Peruvians; a trifle less than the average North American (84); 10 cubic
+inches less than the European (94); and the same as the average
+Polynesian and native African. He has a rounded head, somewhat prominent
+vertex, not an excessive protuberance of brain behind&mdash;a line through
+the meatus dividing it into very nearly equal parts; but a narrow front
+as viewed from above, small vertical diameter, quadrangular orbits,
+vertical teeth, and low facial angle. These characters place him between
+the Toltecan and the more barbarous tribes of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>The Napos are nominally subject to the Ecuadorian government, which is
+represented by three or four petty alcaldes; but the Jesuit
+missionaries, who have established a bishopric and three curacies,
+generally control affairs&mdash;spiritual, political, and commercial. The
+Indians of each village annually elect one of their number governor, who
+serves without salary, and whose only show of authority is a
+silver-headed cane about four feet long. He is attended by half a dozen
+"justices," whose duty it is to supply the curate, alcalde, and any
+traveling <i>blanco</i> who may happen to be in town with daily food at a
+reasonable rate.</p>
+
+<p>The religion of the Napos is a mixture of Paganism and Christianity. In
+common with all the other orient tribes, they believe in good and evil
+principles, and in metempsychosis. They swear in the name of the devil.
+They bury their dead horizontally, in a coffin made of a part of a
+canoe, with a lid of bamboo. They are very kind to the aged. Monogamy is
+the rule: the usual age of wedlock is sixteen or seventeen. The parents
+negotiate the marriage, and the curate's fee is one castellano ($3.50).
+When a person dies they hold an Irish "wake" over the body, and then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+take the widow to the river and wash her. They have seven semi-religious
+feasts in a year. To us they appeared to be nothing more than
+meaningless drunken frolics. Attired in their best, with head-dresses
+consisting of a circlet of short, richly-colored feathers from the
+breast of the toucan, surmounted with the long tail-feathers of the
+macaw, and with necklaces of beads, seeds, and monkeys' teeth, they keep
+up a constant monotonous tapping on little drums, and trot around a
+circle like dogs on a treadmill, stopping only to drink chicha. This is
+kept up for three weeks, when they all start off, with wives and
+children, for the forest to hunt monkeys for meat.</p>
+
+<p>Chicha, the favorite drink of all the Andean Indians, is here brewed
+from yuca, not from corn and barley as in the Quito Valley. So true is
+it, as Humboldt remarks, that almost every where man finds means of
+preparing some kind of beverage from the vegetable kingdom. The
+Chilotans, Darwin informs us, make chicha from a species of <i>Bromelia</i>.
+In every zone, too, we find nations in a low degree of civilization
+living almost exclusively upon a single animal or plant. Thus the
+Laplander has his reindeer, the Esquimaux his seal, the Sandwich
+Islander his tara-root, the Malay his sago-palm, the Napo Indian his
+yuca.</p>
+
+<p>Yuca is the staple food in this region. It is more commonly roasted, but
+is sometimes ground into flour. The manufacture of chicha is primitive,
+and not a little disgusting. A "bee," usually old women, sit around a
+wooden trough; each one takes a mouthful of yuca root, and, masticating
+it, throws it into the trough. The mass is then transferred to large
+earthen jars containing water, and left to ferment. The liquor is
+slightly acid, but not intoxicating unless taken in excess. This is done
+on feast-days, when the poor Indian keeps his stomach so constantly
+distended for weeks that the abdominal protrusion is not only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+unsightly, but alarming to a stranger. Chicha-drinking is a part of the
+worship of these simple aborigines. They seem to think that the more
+happy they make themselves while paying their devotions to the Creator,
+the better he is satisfied. The Jesuits have found it impossible to
+change this method of praise. Here, as among all rude nations, an
+ancient custom is one half the religion. In eating meat (usually monkey,
+sea-cow, and peccari), we observed that they did not tear or bite it,
+but, putting one end of a long piece in the mouth, cut off what they
+could not get in, as Darwin noticed among the Fuegians. They keep no
+domestic animals except fowls.</p>
+
+<p>As to dress, they make use of a coarse cotton cloth, called <i>lienzo</i>,
+woven by the more enlightened Indians of Quito, dyeing it a dull brown
+by means of achote juice. The men wear a strip of this around the loins,
+and the women a short skirt. On feast-days, or when musquitoes are
+thick, the men add a little poncho and pantaloons. They do not properly
+tattoo, but color the skin with achote or anatto. This substance, which
+serves so many purposes in this part of the world, is the red powder
+which covers the seeds contained in the prickly bur of the <i>Bixa
+orellana</i>. The pigment is an article of commerce on the Amazon, and is
+exported to Europe, where it is used for coloring butter, cheese, and
+varnish. They have no fixed pattern; each paints to suit his fancy.
+Usually, however, they draw horizontal bands from the month to the ears,
+and across the forehead; we never saw curved lines in which higher
+savages, like the Tahitians, tattoo.</p>
+
+<p>The Napos have the provoking apathy of all the New World aborigines. As
+Humboldt observed of another tribe, "their poverty, stoicism, and
+uncultivated state render them so rich and so free from wants of every
+kind, that neither money nor other presents will induce them to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> turn
+three steps out of their ways." They maintain a passive dignity in their
+bearing not seen in the proudest pope or emperor. They seldom laugh or
+smile, even under the inspiration of chicha, and months of intercourse
+with them did not discover to us the power of song, though Villavicencio
+says they do sometimes intone fragments of prose in their festival
+orgies. They manifest little curiosity, and little power of mimicry, in
+which wild men generally excel the civilized.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> The old Spartans were
+never so laconic. In conversation each says all he has to say in three
+or four words till his companion speaks, when he replies in the same
+curt, ejaculatory style. A long sentence, or a number of sentences at
+one time, we do not remember of hearing from the lips of a Napo
+Indian.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>The women do most of the work, while their lazy lords drink up the
+chicha and swing in their hammocks, or possibly do a little
+hunting.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> They catch fish with bone hooks, seines, spears, and by
+poisoning the water with <i>barbasco</i>.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> This last method is quite
+common throughout equatorial America. Mashing the root, they throw it
+into the quiet coves of the river, when almost immediately the fish rise
+to the surface, first the little fry and then the larger specimens. The
+poison seems to stupefy rather than kill,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> for we observed that some
+individuals behaved in a most lively manner shortly after they were
+caught. The Indians drink the water with impunity.</p>
+
+<p>The Napos are not brave; their chief weapons for hunting are spears of
+chonta wood, and blowpipes (<i>bodaqueras</i>) made of a small palm having a
+pith, which, when removed, leaves a polished bore, or of two separate
+lengths of wood, each scooped out with patient labor and considerable
+skill by means of the incisor teeth of a rodent. The whole is smeared
+with black wax, a mouth-piece fitted to the larger end, and a sight made
+of bone imbedded in the wax. Through this tube, about ten feet long,
+they blow slender arrows cut from the leaf-stalks of a palm. These are
+winged with a tuft of silk-cotton (common cotton would be too heavy),
+and poisoned with <i>urar&iacute;</i>, of which we shall speak hereafter. This
+noiseless gun is universally used on the Upper Amazon.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Zaparos in physiognomy somewhat resemble the Chinese, having a
+middle stature, round face, small eyes set angularly, and a broad, flat
+nose. Their language is of simple construction, but nasal and guttural.
+They have no words for numbers above three, but show their fingers;
+above ten they know nothing. They take to themselves single names, not
+double. They reckon time by moons and the ripening of certain fruits.
+Their name for God is Pi&aacute;tzo, but we could not learn that it conveyed
+any distinct idea. They believe the evil spirit, "Mungia," is a black
+spectre dwelling in the woods. They think the souls of the good and
+brave enter beautiful birds and feed on delicious fruits, while cowardly
+souls become dirty reptiles. Polygamy is common. They bury in the
+sitting posture,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> with the hammock of the deceased wrapped around him.
+The very old men are buried with the mouth downward. They make use of a
+narcotic drink called <i>Ayahuasca</i>, which produces effects similar to
+those of opium. The Zaparos are pacific and hospitable, but there is
+little social life among them; they never cluster into large villages,
+but inhabit isolated ranchos. Nomadic in their habits, they wander along
+the banks of the Napo, between the Andes and the Mara&ntilde;on. They
+manufacture, from the twisted fibre of the chambiri-palm,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> most of
+the twine and hammocks seen in Eastern Ecuador. Their government is
+patriarchal.</p>
+
+<p>The J&iacute;varos, or "Red Indians" <i>par excellence</i>, are the most numerous
+and the most spirited of the oriental tribes. They are brave and
+resentful, yet hospitable and industrious. While the Napos and Zaparos
+live in rude, often temporary huts of split bamboo, the warlike J&iacute;varos
+erect houses of hard wood with strong doors. Blood relations live
+together on the communal principle, the women keeping the rear half of
+the house, which is divided by a partition. Many J&iacute;varos approach the
+Caucasian type, the beard and lighter skin hinting a percentage of
+Spanish blood; for this tribe was never conquered by the Incas, nor did
+it brook Spanish avarice and cruelty, but in one terrible conflict
+(1599) the intruder was swept out of existence. The wives of the El
+Dorado adventurers spent the rest of their days in the harems of the
+J&iacute;varos. These Indians have the singular custom and art of compressing
+the heads of their notable captives; taking off the skin entire and
+drying it over a small mould, they have a hideous mummy which preserves
+all the features of the original face, but on a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>reduced scale."<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a>
+They also braid the long black hair of their foes into girdles, which
+they wear as mementoes of their prowess. They use chonta-lances with
+triangular points, notched and poisoned, and shields of wood or hide.
+They have a telegraphic system which enables them to concentrate their
+forces quickly in time of war; large drums are placed on the tops of the
+hills, and a certain number of strokes, repeated along the line, rapidly
+convey intelligence to the most distant habitation.</p>
+
+<p>An odd custom prevails among these wild Indians when an addition is made
+to the family circle. The woman goes into the woods alone, and on her
+return washes herself and new-born babe in the river; then the husband
+immediately takes to his bed for eight days, during which time the wife
+serves him on the choicest dainties she can procure.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> They have also
+the unique practice of exchanging wives. The J&iacute;varo speech is sonorous
+and energetic. They do not use salt; so that they distinguish the Napo
+tribes as the "Indians who eat salt." The chief articles manufactured by
+them are cotton goods and blowpipes. They trade mostly at Can&eacute;los and
+Mac&aacute;s, generally purchasing iron implements, such as hatchets and
+knives.</p>
+
+<p>Can&eacute;los consists of about seventy families of Quichua-speaking Indians,
+and lies on the south bank of the Bobonaza. A trail connects it with
+Ba&ntilde;os, at the foot of Tunguragua. Can&eacute;los was founded in 1536, and
+derives its name from its situation in the Can&eacute;la, or American cinnamon
+forest. The bark of the tree has the flavor of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> Ceylon aromatic;
+but, according to Dr. Taylor, it is cassia. Mac&aacute;s, in the days of
+Spanish adventure a prosperous city under the name of "Sevilla de Oro,"
+is now a cluster of huts on the banks of the Upano. Its trade is in
+tobacco, vanilla, canela, wax, and copal. The Spaniards took the trouble
+to transplant some genuine cinnamon-trees from Ceylon to this locality,
+and they flourished for a time.</p>
+
+<p>On the 30th of October we left Quito on our march across the continent,
+by the way of the Napo wilderness. The preparations for our departure,
+however, commenced long before that date. To leave Quito in any
+direction is the work of time. But to plunge into that <i>terra incognita</i>
+"el Oriente," where for weeks, perhaps months, we should be lost to the
+civilized world and cut off from all resources, east or west, demanded
+more calculation and providence than a voyage round the world.</p>
+
+<p>We were as long preparing for our journey to the Amazon as in making it.
+In the first place, not a man in Quito could give us a single item of
+information on the most important and dangerous part of our route.
+Quitonians are not guilty of knowing any thing about trans-Andine
+affairs or "oriental" geography. From a few petty traders who had, to
+the amazement of their fellow-citizens, traversed the forest and reached
+the banks of the Napo, we gleaned some information which was of service.
+But on the passage down the Napo from Santa Rosa to the Mara&ntilde;on, a
+distance of over five hundred miles, nobody had any thing to say except
+the delightful intelligence that in all probability, if we escaped the
+fever, we would be murdered by the savages. The information we received
+was about as definite and reliable as Herndon obtained respecting any
+tributary to the Lower Amazon: "It runs a long way up: it has rapids;
+savages live upon its banks; every thing grows there." From M. Gillette,
+a Swiss gentleman
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>trading at Par&aacute; in Moyabamba hats, we learned about
+the movements of the Peruvian steamer on the Mara&ntilde;on; but how long it
+would take us to cross the mountains and the forest, and descend the
+river, we must find out by trial.</p>
+
+<p>The commissary department was of primal importance. As, from all we
+could learn, we could not depend upon obtaining supplies from the
+Indians or with our guns,<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> it was necessary to take provisions to
+last till we should reach the Mara&ntilde;on. But how long we should be in the
+forest and on the river, or what allowance to make for probable delays,
+it was impossible to prophesy. The utmost caution and forethought were
+therefore needed, for to die of starvation in the wilderness was, for
+all practical purposes, equivalent to falling into the hands of
+cannibals. As it turned out, however, we made a most fortunate hit, for
+on arriving at Pebas&mdash;the first village on the Mara&ntilde;on&mdash;we found we had
+just enough solid food left to have one grand jubilee dinner.</p>
+
+<p>For the benefit of future travelers, and for the curiosity of others, we
+give the bill of fare we provided for this journey&mdash;stomachs, five;
+time, forty-two days:</p>
+
+<table summary="weights"  cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Flour </td><td align="center">100</td><td align="center"> lbs.</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px;">&nbsp;Sugar </td><td align="center">90 </td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Soda</td><td align="center"> 1</td><td align="center">lbs.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td align="left">Corn meal</td><td align="center"> 27 </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Chocolate </td><td align="center">25</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Tea </td><td align="center">2 </td><td align="center">"</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td align="left">Pea flour</td><td align="center"> 30</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Dried meat <a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a>
+</td><td align="center"> 47</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Ham</td><td align="center"> 10</td><td align="center"> "</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td align="left">Mashka</td><td align="center"> 47</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Salt</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Tamarinds</td><td align="center"> 9</td><td align="center"> "</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td align="left">Crackers </td><td align="center">100</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Lard </td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Eggs </td><td align="center">170.</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td align="left">Rice</td><td align="center"> 50</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Cream tartar</td><td align="center"> 1&frac12;</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="left" style="border-left:solid 1px">&nbsp;Anisado pts.</td><td align="center"> 5.</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>To this we added by purchase from the Indians a few chickens and eggs,
+five gallons of sirup, and a peck of rice;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> and on the river we helped
+ourselves to a little wild game, as fish, peccari, deer, and turtles'
+eggs. But these made only a drop in the commissary bucket; had we
+depended upon finding provisions on the road, we must have perished from
+sheer hunger. Game, in the dry season, is exceedingly scarce. Our
+provisions were packed in kerosene cans, a part of which were soldered
+up to keep out moisture (for the Valley of the Napo is a steaming
+vapor-bath) and to keep out the hands of Indians. More than once have
+these treacherous yet indispensable guides robbed the white man of his
+food, and then left him to his fate; we lost not a pound by theft. A
+four-gallon keg of aguardiente,<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> from which we dealt out half a gill
+daily to each man, kept our Indians in good humor.</p>
+
+<p>As we must ascend to the cold altitude of fifteen thousand feet, and
+then descend to the hot Valley of the Amazon, we were obliged to carry
+both woolen and cotton garments, besides rubber ponchos to shield them
+from the rain by day, and to form the first substratum of our bed at
+night. Two suits were needed in our long travel afoot through the
+forest; one kept dry for the nightly bivouac, the other for day service.
+At the close of each day's journey we doffed every thread of our wearing
+apparel, and donned the reserved suit, for we were daily drenched either
+from the heavens above or by crossing swollen rivers and seas of mud.
+Then, too, as boots would not answer for such kind of travel, we must
+take <i>alpargates</i>, a native sandal made of the aloe fibre, and of these
+not a few, for a pair would hardly hold together two days. Two bales of
+<i>lienzo</i>, besides knives, fish-hooks, thread, beads, looking-glasses,
+and other trinkets, were also needed; for the Napo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> Indians must be paid
+in such currency. There <i>lienzo</i>, not gold and silver, is the cry. On
+this we made a small but lawful profit, paying in Quito eighteen cents
+per yard, and charging on the river twenty-five.</p>
+
+<p>An extensive culinary apparatus, guns and ammunition, taxidermal and
+medicinal chests, physical instruments, including a photographic
+establishment, rope, macheta, axe, saw, nails, candles, matches, and a
+thousand <i>et c&aelig;tera</i>, completed our outfit. Among the essential <i>et
+c&aelig;tera</i> were generous passports and mandatory letters from the President
+of Ecuador and the Peruvian Charg&eacute; d'Affaires, addressed to all
+authorities on the Napo and the Mara&ntilde;on. They were obligingly procured
+for us by Se&ntilde;or Hurtado, the Chilian minister (then acting for the
+United States), through the influence of a communication from our own
+government, and were of great value to the expedition.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XII.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Departure from Quito.&mdash;
+Itulcachi.&mdash;
+A Night in a Bread-tray.&mdash;
+Crossing the
+Cordillera.&mdash;
+Guamani.&mdash;Papallacta.&mdash;
+Domiciled at the
+Governor's.&mdash;
+An Indian Aristides.&mdash;
+Our Peon Train.&mdash;
+In the
+Wilderness.</p>
+
+
+<p>Forty miles east-southeast of Quito, on the eastern slope of the Eastern
+Cordillera, and on the western edge of the great forest, is the Indian
+village of Papallacta. From the capital to this point there is a path
+just passable for horses; but thence to the Napo travelers must take to
+their feet. Through the intervention of the curate of Papallacta, who
+has great influence over his wild people, but who has wit enough to
+reside in Quito instead of his parish, we engaged the Indian governor to
+send over thirteen beasts and three peons to carry our party and baggage
+to Papallacta. Wednesday morning the quadrupeds were at the door of our
+hotel, five of them <i>bestias de silla</i>. These horses, judging by size,
+color, shape, and bony prominences, were of five different species. The
+saddles, likewise, differed from one another, and from any thing we had
+ever seen or desired to see. One of them was so narrow and deep none of
+us could get into it; so, filling up the cavity with blankets, we took
+turns in riding on the summit. By noon, October 30th, we had seen our
+Andean collections in the hands of arrieros bound for Guayaquil, whence
+they were to be shipped by way of Panama to Washington, and our baggage
+train for Napo headed toward the rising sun. So, mounting our jades, we
+defiled across the Grand Plaza and through the street of St. Augustine,
+and down the Carniceria to the Alameda, amid the <i>vivas</i> and <i>adeos</i> of
+our
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>Quitian friends, who turned out to see the largest expedition
+that ever left the city for the wild Napo country since the days of
+Pizarro. Few there were who expected to hear of our safe arrival on the
+shores of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>Crossing the magnificent plain of I&ntilde;aquito, we reached in an hour the
+romantic village of Gu&aacute;pulo. Here is an elegant stone church dedicated
+to the Virgin of Guadaloupe, to which the faithful make an annual
+pilgrimage. Thence the road led us through the valley of the
+Guaillabamba (a tributary to the Esmeraldas), here and there blessed
+with signs of intelligent life&mdash;a mud hut, and little green fields of
+cane and alfalfa, and dotted with trees of wild cherry and myrtle, but
+having that air of sadness and death-like repose so inseparable from a
+Quitonian landscape. The greater part of this day's ride was over a
+rolling country so barren and dreary it was almost repulsive. What a
+pity the sun shines on so much useless territory!</p>
+
+<p>Just before sunset we arrived at Itulcachi, a great cattle estate at the
+foot of the eastern chain of mountains. The hacienda had seen better
+days, and was poorly fitted to entertain man or beast. The major-domo,
+however, managed to make some small potato soup, and find us shelter for
+the night. In the room allotted us there were three immense
+kneading-troughs and two bread-boards to match, for a grist-mill and
+bakery were connected with the establishment. In default of beds, we
+made use of this furniture. Five wiser men have slept in better berths,
+but few have slept more soundly than we did in the bread-trays of
+Itulcachi.</p>
+
+<p>The following day we advanced five miles to Tablon, an Indian hamlet on
+the mountain side. Here we waited over night for our cargo train, which
+had loitered on the road. This was the only spot in South America where
+we found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> milk to our stomachs' content; Itulcachi, with its herds of
+cattle, did not yield a drop. Our dormitory was a mud hovel, without an
+aperture for light or ventilation, and in this dark hole we all slept on
+a heap of barley. Splendid was the view westward from Tablon. Below us
+were the beautiful valleys of Chillo and Puembo, separated by the
+isolated mountain of Ilal&oacute;; around them, in an imposing semicircle,
+stood Cayambi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Corazon, Iliniza, Rumi&ntilde;agui,
+Cotopaxi, Sincholagua, and Antisana. As the sun went down in his glory
+behind the western range, the rocky head of Pichincha stood out in bold
+relief, and cast a long shadow over the plain. At this halting-place we
+made the mortifying discovery that the bare-legged Indian who had
+trotted by our side as a guide and body-servant, and whom we had ordered
+about with all the indifference of a surly slaveholder, was none other
+than his Excellency Eugenio Mancheno, governor of Papallacta! After this
+we were more respectful.</p>
+
+<p>The next morning, our baggage having come up, we pushed up the mountain
+through a grand ravine, and over metamorphic rocks standing on their
+edges with a wavy strike, till we reached a polylepis grove, 12,000 feet
+above the sea. We lunched under the wide-spreading branches of these
+gnarled and twisted trees, which reminded us of the patriarchal olives
+in the Garden of Gethsemane, and then, ascending over the monotonous
+paramo, we stood at the elevation of 15,000 feet on the narrow summit of
+the Guamani ridge. Some priest had been before us and planted a cross by
+the roadside, to guide and bless the traveler on his way.</p>
+
+<p>Of the magnificent prospect eastward, over the beginning of the
+Amazonian Valley, which this lofty point commands, we have already
+spoken. There was a wild grandeur in the scene&mdash;mountain behind
+mountain, with deep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> intervening valleys, all covered with one thick,
+unbroken mass of foliage. A tiny brook, the child of everlasting snows
+still higher up, murmured at our feet, as if to tell us that we were on
+the Atlantic slope, and then dashed into the great forest, to lose
+itself in the mighty Amazon, and be buried with it in the same ocean
+grave. The trade-wind, too, came rushing by us fresh from that sea of
+commerce which laves the shores of two worlds. Guamani gave us also our
+finest view of Antisana, its snow-white dome rising out of a wilderness
+of mountains, and presenting on the north side a profile of the human
+face divine.</p>
+
+<p>And now we rapidly descended by a steep, narrow path, and over paramo
+and bog, to a little tambo, where we had the luxury of sleeping on a bed
+of straw. Here we made the acquaintance of two Indians from the Napo,
+who were on the way to Quito with the mail&mdash;probably half a dozen
+letters. A strip of cloth around the loins, and a short cape just
+covering the shoulders, were all their habiliments. We noticed that they
+never sat down, though a bench was close by them; they would squat for
+an hour at a time. The day following we took our last horseback ride in
+South America. It was short, but horrible. Through quagmire and swamp,
+and down a flight of rocky stairs, in striking imitation of General
+Putnam's famous ride&mdash;over rocks, too, made wondrously slippery by a
+pitiless rain, but which our unshod Indian horses descended with great
+dexterity, only one beast and his rider taking a somerset&mdash;thus we
+traveled two hours, reaching Papallacta at 11 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span></p>
+
+<p>We put up at the governor's. This edifice, the best in town, had sides
+of upright poles stuccoed with mud, a thatched roof, and ground floor,
+on which, between three stones, a fire was built for cookery and
+comfort. Three or four earthen kettles, and as many calabashes and
+wooden spoons, were the sum total of kitchen utensils. A large<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> flat
+stone, with another smaller one to rub over it, was the mill for
+grinding corn; and we were astonished to see how quickly our hostess
+reduced the grains to an impalpable meal. The only thing that looked
+like a bed was a stiff rawhide thrown over a series of round poles
+running lengthwise. This primitive couch, and likewise the whole house,
+the obsequious governor gave up to us, insisting upon sleeping with his
+wife and little ones outside, though the nights were cold and
+uncomfortable. Parents and children were of the earth, earthy&mdash;unwashed,
+uncombed, and disgustingly filthy. We found the governor one day taking
+lice for his lunch. Sitting behind his little boy, he picked out the
+little parasites with his nails, and crushed them between his teeth with
+a look of satisfaction. Eating lice is an old Indian custom, and
+universal in the Andes. In Inca times it was considered an infallible
+remedy against sore eyes. We have seen half a dozen women sitting on the
+ground in a row, picking out vermin from each other's heads. We thought
+the arrangement was a little unfair, for the first in the series had no
+lice to eat, and the animals were left to roam undisturbed in the
+capillary forest of the last.</p>
+
+<p>Papallacta is a village of thirty dwellings, situated in a deep valley
+on the north slope of Antisana, nearly surrounded by an amphitheatre of
+sandstone and basaltic precipices. Here, too, is the terminus of the
+fourth great lava stream from the volcano; it is not mentioned by
+Humboldt. Papallacta is a thousand feet higher than Quito, yet
+vegetation is more tropical. Its name signifies "the potato country,"
+but not a potato could we find here. Though Mancheno was governor, he
+was not really the greatest man in Papallacta. This was Carlos
+Caguatijo; he was the ruling man, for he could read, write, and speak
+Spanish, while the governor knew nothing but Quichua.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>Carlos, moreover,
+was a good man; he had an honest, Quaker-like air about him, and his
+face reminded us of George Washington's. In all his transactions we
+noticed no attempt to prevaricate or deceive; what he promised he
+performed to the letter. It was refreshing to meet one such upright soul
+in Ecuador, though we found him not of Caucasian blood, nor dwelling
+under the tiled roofs of the proud capital. The old man was the
+spiritual father of Papallacta, and, in the absence of the curate,
+officiated in the little church. With him, therefore, and not with our
+host the governor, we negotiated for peons to take us through the
+wilderness.</p>
+
+<p>The journey from Papallacta to the Napo occupied us thirteen days,
+including four days of rest. It was performed on foot, for the "road" is
+a trail. But the untraveled reader can have little idea of a trail in a
+tropical forest: fording bridgeless rivers, wading through interminable
+bogs, fens, marshes, quagmires, and swamps, and cutting one's way
+through dense vegetation, must be done to be understood. Half the year
+there is no intercourse between Quito and its Oriental province, for the
+incessant heavy rains of summer swell every rivulet into a furious
+torrent, and the path is overgrown and rendered impassable even by an
+Indian. The only time for travel is between November and April, for
+then, though it rains nearly every day, the clouds drop down in showers,
+not floods. But even then the traveler must sometimes wait two or three
+weeks beside a swollen river in imminent danger of starving, and
+throughout the journey entertain the comforting prospect that his
+Indians may eat up his provisions to lighten their load, or suddenly
+desert him as they did Dr. Jameson. There are other routes across South
+America much more feasible than the one we chose; these will be
+described in Chapter XXIII. But they all yield in interest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> to this
+passage along the equatorial line, and especially in the line of
+history. Who has not heard of Gonzalo Pizarro and his fatal yet famous
+expedition into "the land of cinnamon?" How he was led farther and
+farther into the wilderness by the glittering illusions of an El
+Dorado,<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> till the faithless Orellana, deserting him, floated down
+the Napo and made the magnificent discovery of the mighty Amazon.
+Gonzalo, "who was held to be the best lancer that ever went to these
+countries&mdash;and all confess that he never showed his back to the
+enemy"&mdash;returned to Quito with a few survivors to tell a tale of almost
+unparalleled suffering. A century elapsed (1530-1637) before any one
+ascended from Par&aacute; to Quito by way of the Rio Napo; this was
+accomplished by Pedro Teixeira.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Napo" id="Napo"></a>
+<img src="images/182tb.png" alt="Napo Peon." title="Napo Peon." /><br /><a href="images/182.png">Napo Peon.</a></p>
+
+<p>An Indian will carry three arrobas (seventy-five pounds) besides his own
+provisions, his provisions for the journey consisting of about
+twenty-five pounds of roasted corn and barley-meal. The trunk or bundle
+is bound to his back by withes, which pass across the forehead and
+chest; a poncho or a handful of leaves protects the bare back from
+chafing. All our luggage (amounting to nearly fifteen hundred pounds)
+was divided and packed to suit this method of transportation, so that we
+required twenty Indians. So many, however, of the right kind&mdash;for they
+must be athletic young men to endure the fatigues of such a
+journey&mdash;could not be furnished by the little village of Papallacta, so
+we were obliged to wait a few days till more Indians could be summoned
+from a neighboring town. When these arrived, the little world of
+Papallacta, men, women, and children, assembled in front of the
+governor's house, while Don Carlos sat by our side on a raised seat by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+the doorway. A long parley ensued, resulting in this: that we should pay
+one hundred Ecuadorian dollars for the transfer of our baggage to
+Archidona; while Carlos solemnly promised for the young men that they
+should start the next morning, that they should arrive at Archidona
+within a stipulated time, and that they should not depend upon us for an
+ounce of food. The powerful influence of the curate, which we had
+secured, and the proclamation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> from the president, which Carlos read
+aloud in the ears of all the people, together with the authoritative
+charge of Carlos himself, had the desired effect; not a transportation
+company in the United States ever kept its engagement more faithfully
+than did these twenty peons&mdash;and this, too, though we paid them in
+advance, according to the custom of the country. Upon a blanket spread
+at our feet the money was counted out, and Carlos slowly distributed it
+with a grave and reverend air, to every Indian five dollars.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+
+<p>Tuesday morning, November 5th, the peons promptly shouldered their
+burdens, and we, shod with <i>alpargates</i>, and with Alpine staff in hand
+(more needed here than in Switzerland), followed after, leaving the
+governor to sleep inside his mansion, and to eat his lice unmolested. On
+a little grassy knoll just outside the town our train halted for a
+moment&mdash;the Indians to take their fill of chicha, and bid their friends
+good-by, and we to call the roll and take an inventory. Our leader was
+Isiro, a bright, intelligent, finely-featured, stalwart Indian. He could
+speak Spanish, and his comrades acknowledged his superiority with marked
+deference. Ten women and children followed us for two days, to relieve
+the men of their burdens. Their assistance was not needed in the latter
+part of the journey, for our keen appetites rapidly lightened the
+provision cans. Starting again, we plunged at once into the forest,
+taking a northeasterly course along the left bank of a tributary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> to the
+Coca. The ups and downs of this day's travel of twelve miles were
+foreshadowings of what might come in our "views afoot" in South America.
+We encamped at a spot the Indians called Maspa. Herndon says: "The
+(Peruvian) Indians take no account of time or distance; they stop when
+they get tired, and arrive when God pleases."<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> But our Napo
+companions measured distance by hours quite accurately, and they always
+traveled as far as we were willing to follow. In ten minutes they built
+us a booth for the night; driving two crotchets into the ground, they
+joined them with a ridge-pole, against which they inclined a number of
+sticks for rafters. These they covered with palm-leaves, so adroitly put
+together that our roof was generally rain-proof. After ablution and an
+entire change of garments, we built a fire, using for fuel a green tree
+called <i>sindicaspi</i> (meaning the wood that burns), a special provision
+in these damp forests where every thing is dripping with moisture. The
+fall of a full-grown tree under the strokes of a Yankee axe was a marvel
+in the eyes of our Indians. Our second day's journey was far more
+difficult than the first, the path winding up steep mountains and down
+into grand ravines, for we were crossing the outlying spurs of the
+Eastern Cordillera. Every where the track was slippery with mud, and
+often we sank two feet into the mire. How devoutly we did wish that the
+Ecuadorian Congress was compelled to travel this horrid road once a
+year! At 10 o'clock we reached a lone habitation called Guila, where
+wooden bowls are made for the Quito market. Here we procured a fresh
+Indian to take the place of one of our peons who had given out under his
+burden. We advanced this day sixteen miles in ten hours, sleeping under
+an old bamboo hut beside a babbling brook bearing the euphonious name of
+Pachamama.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIII.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Baeza.&mdash;
+The Forest.&mdash;
+Crossing the
+Cosanga.&mdash;
+Curi-urcu.&mdash;
+Archidona.&mdash;
+Appearance, Customs, and Belief
+of the Natives.&mdash;
+Napo and Napo River.</p>
+
+
+<p>Eight hours' hard travel from Pachamama brought us to Baeza. This
+"Antigua Ciudad," as Villavicencio calls it, was founded in 1552 by Don
+Egilio Ramirez D&aacute;valos, and named after the quite different spot where
+Scipio the Younger routed Asdrubal a thousand years before. It consists
+of two habitations, the residence of two families of Tumbaco Indians,
+situated in a clearing of the forest on the summit of a high ridge
+running along the right bank of the Coca. This point, about one hundred
+miles east of Quito, is important in the little traffic of the Oriente.
+All Indian trains from the capital to the province pass through Baeza,
+where the trail divides; one branch passing on easterly to San Jos&eacute;, and
+thence down through Abila and Loreto to Santa Rosa; the other leading to
+the Napo through Archidona. Here we rested one day, taking possession of
+one half of the larger hut&mdash;a mere stockade with a palm-leaf roof,
+without chairs, chimney, or fire-place, except any place on the floor.
+We swung our hammocks, while our Indians stretched themselves on the
+ground beneath us. The island of Juan Fernandez is not a more isolated
+spot than Baeza. A dense forest, impenetrable save by the trails,
+stretches away on every side to the Andes and to the Atlantic, and
+northerly and southerly along the slope of the entire mountain chain.
+The forest is such an entangled mass of the living and the fallen, it is
+difficult to say which is the predominant spirit&mdash;life or death. It is
+the cemetery, as well as the birthplace, of a world of vegetation. The
+trees are more lofty than on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> Lower Amazon, and straight as an
+arrow, but we saw none of remarkable size. A perpetual mist seems to
+hang on the branches, and the dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults,
+which the sunlight never enters. The soil and air are always cool, and
+never dry. Every thing is penetrated with dampness. All our watches
+stopped, and remained immovable till we reached Par&aacute;. It is this
+constant and excessive humidity which renders it so difficult to
+transport provisions or prepare an herbarium. The pending branches of
+moss are so saturated with moisture that sometimes the branches are
+broken off to the peril of the passing traveler. Yet the climate is
+healthy. The stillness and gloom are almost painful; the firing of a gun
+wakes a dull echo, and any unlooked-for noise is startling. Scarce a
+bird or a flower is to be seen in these sombre shades. Nearly the only
+signs of animal life visible thus far were insects, mostly butterflies,
+fire-flies, and beetles. The only quadruped seen on our journey to the
+Napo was a long-tailed marten caught by the Indians. The silence is
+almost perfect; its chief interruption is the crashing fall of some old
+patriarch of the forest, overcome by the embrace of loving parasites
+that twine themselves about the trunk or sit upon the branches. The most
+striking singularity in these tropical woods is the host of lianas or
+air-roots of epiphytous plants, which hang down from the lofty boughs,
+straight as plumb-lines, some singly, others in clusters; some reaching
+half way to the ground, others touching it and striking their rootlets
+into the earth. We found lianas over one hundred feet long. Sometimes a
+toppling tree is caught in the graceful arms of looping <i>sip&ocirc;s</i>, and
+held for years by this natural cable. It is these dead trunks, standing
+like skeletons, which give a character of solemnity to these primeval
+woods. The wildest disorder is seen along the mountain torrents, where
+the trees, prostrated by the undermining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> current, lie mingled with huge
+stones brought down by the force of the water. In many places the crowns
+of stately monarchs standing on the bank interlock and form a sylvan
+arch over the river.</p>
+
+<p>We left Baeza by the southerly trail for Archidona. From Papallacta we
+had traveled east, or parallel to the streams which flow down from the
+mountains. We were now to cross them (and their name is legion), as also
+the intervening ridges; so that our previous journey was nothing to that
+which followed. Sometimes we were climbing up an almost vertical ascent,
+then descending into a deep, dark ravine, to ford a furious river; while
+on the lowlands the path seemed lost in a jungle of bamboos, till our
+Indian "bushwhackers" opened a passage with their machetas, and we crept
+under a low arcade of foliage. This day we enjoyed something unusual in
+our forest trail&mdash;a distant view. The path brought us to the verge of a
+mountain, whence we could look down on the savage valley of the Cosanga
+and upward to the dazzling dome of Antisana; it was our farewell view of
+that glorious volcano. At the distance of twelve miles from Baeza we
+reached the banks of the Rio Cosanga, camping at a spot called
+Chiniplaya. This is the river so much dreaded by Indians and whites
+traversing the Napo wilderness. It is fearfully rapid&mdash;a very Tigris
+from its source to its junction with the Coca. The large, smooth
+boulders strewn along its bed show its power. Here, sixty miles from its
+origin in the glaciers of Antisana, it is seventy-five feet wide, but in
+the wet season it is one hundred yards. The day following we threaded
+our difficult way, a <i>via dolorosa</i>, fifteen miles up the left bank of
+the Cosanga, where we crossed and camped on the opposite side. The
+Indians had thrown a log over the deepest part of the river, and the
+rest we forded without much danger; but that very night the rain raised
+the river to such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> a magnitude that the little bridge was carried off.
+Had we been one day later, we might have waited a week on the other side
+of the impassable gulf. Between this point where we forded and
+Chiniplaya, fifteen miles below, the barometer indicated a fall of five
+hundred feet. The roar of the rushing waters is like that of the sea. In
+the beautiful language of Darwin (<i>Journal</i>, p. 316): "The sound spoke
+eloquently to the geologist; the thousands and thousands of stones,
+which, striking against each other, made the one dull, uniform sound,
+were all hurrying in one direction. It was like thinking on time, when
+the minute that now glides past is irrecoverable. So was it with these
+stones. The ocean is their eternity, and each note of that wild music
+told of one more step toward their destiny."</p>
+
+<p>On account of the heavy rain and the sickness of a peon, whom finally we
+were obliged to leave behind, we rested one day; but on the morrow we
+traveled fourteen miles, crossing the lofty Guacamayo ridge,<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>
+fording at much risk the deep Cochachimbamba, and camping at a spot (the
+Indians have a name for almost any locality in the forest) called
+Guayusapugaru. The next day we must have advanced twenty miles, besides
+crossing the furious Hondachi. This river was very much swollen by the
+rains, and it was only by the aid of a rope that we made the passage.
+One stout Indian was carried down stream, but soon recovered himself.</p>
+
+<p>As we had lowered our altitude since leaving Papallacta seven thousand
+feet, the climate was much warmer, and vegetation more prolific. Nowhere
+else between the Andes and the Atlantic did we notice such a majestic
+forest. The tree-ferns, ennobled by the tropical sun and soil, have a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+palm-like appearance, but with rougher stems and a usual height of fifty
+feet. Plants akin to our "scouring rush" rise twenty-five feet. We saw
+to-day the "water tree," or <i>huadhuas</i> of the natives, a kind of bamboo,
+which sometimes yields between the joints two quarts of clear,
+taste-less water. Late in the evening we reached an old rancho called
+<i>Curi-urcu</i> ("the mountain of gold"); but we had traveled so far ahead
+of our cargo-train we did not see it again till the next morning. We
+were obliged, therefore, to sleep on the ground in our wet clothes, and
+put up with hard commons&mdash;half parched corn, which our Indian guides
+gave us, and unleavened cakes or flour-paste baked on the coals. Thence,
+after a short day's journey of ten miles, we arrived at Archidona, by a
+path, however, that was slippery with a soft yellow clay. We were a
+sorry-looking company, soaked by incessant rains, exhausted by
+perspiration, plastered with mud, tattered, and torn; but we were kindly
+met by the Jesuit bishop, who took us to his own habitation, where one
+Indian washed our feet, and another prepared a most refreshing drink of
+<i>guayusa</i> tea. We then took up our quarters at the Government House,
+opposite the bishop's, sojourning several days on account of our swollen
+feet, and also on account of a swollen river which ran between us and
+the Napo. Here we made a valuable collection of birds, lizards, fishes,
+and butterflies.</p>
+
+<p>Archidona is situated in a beautiful plain on the high northern bank of
+the Misagualli, two thousand feet above the Atlantic. The site is a
+cleared spot in the heart of an almost boundless forest; and it was a
+relief, not easily conceived, to emerge from beneath the dense leafy
+canopy into this open space and look up to the sky and to the snowy
+Andes. The climate is uniform and delightful, the mean annual
+temperature being seventy-seven degrees. Sand-flies, however, resembling
+our "punkies," abound; and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> natives are constantly slapping their
+naked sides, eating the little pests as the Papallactans do their
+lice.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> Archidona is the largest village in the Napo country,
+containing about five hundred souls. The houses are of split bamboo and
+palm-thatch, often hid in a plantation of yuca and plantain. The central
+and most important structure is the little church; its rude belfry,
+portico, chancel, images, and other attempts at ornament remind us of
+the fitting words of Mrs. Agassiz, that "there is something touching in
+the idea that these poor, uneducated people of the forest have cared to
+build themselves a temple with their own hands, lavishing upon it such
+ideas of beauty and taste as they have, and bringing at least their best
+to their humble altar." Founded by D&aacute;valos in 1560, Archidona has been a
+missionary station for two hundred years. The people are child-like and
+docile, but the bishop confessed there was no intellectual advance.
+Every morning and evening, at the tinkling of a little bell, all
+Archidona assembled in the open porch, where the bishop taught them to
+sing and pray. It was a novel sight to see these children of the forest
+coming out of the woods on all sides and running up to the temple&mdash;for
+these natives, whenever they move, almost invariably go on a run. The
+men are tall and slim and of a dark red color, and their legs are bent
+backward at the knees. The governor was the only portly individual we
+saw. The women are short, with high shoulders, and are very timid; they
+seldom stand erect, and with the knees bent forward they run sneakingly
+to church. Their eyes have a characteristic, soft, drooping look. They
+carry their babes generally on the hip; not on the back, as in Quito.
+The men are hatless, shirtless, and shoeless; their only
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>garments are
+short drawers, about six inches long, and little ponchos, both of
+lienzo, dyed a dark purple with achote&mdash;the red seeds of the bixa, which
+the cooks of Quito use to color their soups. All paint their bodies with
+the same pigment. The women wear a frock reaching from the waist to the
+knees; it is nothing more than a yard or two of lienzo wound around the
+body. The Archidonians are the most Christianized of all the Napo
+Indians, but they can not be called religious. Their rites (they can
+hardly be said to have a creed) are the <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, of Romanism,
+mingled with some strange notions&mdash;the relics of a lost paganism. They
+are very superstitious, and believe, as before remarked, in the
+transmigration of souls. Maniacs they think are possessed by an evil
+demon, and therefore are treated with great cruelty. Negroes (of whom a
+few specimens have come up the Napo from Brazil) are held to be under
+the ban of the Almighty, and their color is ascribed to the singeing
+which they got in the flames of hell. They do not believe in disease;
+but, like the Mundurucus on the Tapajos, say that death is always caused
+by the sorceries of an enemy. They usually bury in the church or in the
+tambo of the deceased. Celibacy and polygamy, homicide and suicide, are
+rare.</p>
+
+<p>The only sign of industry in Archidona is the manufacture of pita thread
+from the aloe. It is exported to Quito on human backs. The inhabitants
+also collect copal at the headwaters of the Hondachi, and use it for
+illumination. It can be bought in Archidona for three or four cents a
+pound. The gum exudes from a lofty leguminous tree having an oak-like
+bark. It resembles the anim&eacute; of Madagascar rather than the copal of
+India, which flows from an entirely different tree. Guayusa, or "Napo
+tea," is another and celebrated production of Archidona. It is the large
+leaf of a tall shrub growing wild. An infusion of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> guayusa, like the
+<i>mat&eacute;</i> of Paraguay (which belongs to the same genus <i>Ilex</i>), is so
+refreshing it supplies for a long time the place of food. The Indians
+will go to Quito on this beverage alone, its virtues being similar to
+those of <i>coca</i>, on the strength of which the posts of the Incas used to
+travel incredible distances. It is by no means, however, such a
+stimulant. It is a singular fact, observes Dr. Jameson, that tea,
+coffee, cacao, mat&eacute;, and guayusa contain the same alkaloid caffeine. The
+last, however, contains only one fifteenth as much of the active
+principle as tea, and no volatile oil. Herndon found guayusa on the
+Ucayali.</p>
+
+<p>At Archidona we took a new set of peons for Napo, as the Papallactans do
+not travel farther. The distance is sixteen miles, and the path is
+comparatively good, though it crosses two rivers, the Misagualli and
+Tena. On this journey we found the only serpent seen since leaving
+Quito. This solitary specimen was sluggish and harmless, but exceedingly
+beautiful. It was the <i>Amphisb&oelig;na fuliginosa</i>, or "slow-worm." It
+lives in the chambers of the Sa&uuml;ba ants. We met a procession of these
+ants, each carrying a circular piece of a leaf vertically over its head.
+These insects are peculiar to tropical America, and are much dreaded in
+Brazil, where they soon despoil valuable trees of their foliage. They
+cut the leaves with their scissor-like jaws, and use them to thatch the
+domes at the entrance of their subterranean dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>At Napo we took possession of the governor's house. Each village in the
+Napo province was obliged to build an edifice of split bamboo for that
+dignitary; and, as he no longer exists, they are left unoccupied. They
+generally stand on the highest and best site in the town, and are a
+god-send to travelers. Immediately on our arrival, the Indian governor
+and his staff of justices called to see what we wanted, and during our
+stay supplied us with chickens,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> eggs, plantains, yucas, and fuel. His
+excellency would always come, silver-headed cane in hand, though the
+justices had only six eggs or a single fowl to bring us. The alcalde
+also paid us his respects. He is an old blanco (as the whites are
+called), doing a little traffic in gold dust, lienzo, and pita, but is
+the highest representative of Ecuador in the Napo country. Here, too, we
+met, to our great delight, Mr. George Edwards, a native of Connecticut,
+who has settled himself, probably for life, in the depths of this
+wilderness. He was equally rejoiced to see the face and hear the speech
+of a countryman. His industry and upright character have won for him the
+respect and good-will of the Indians, and he is favorably known in
+Quito. The government has given him a tract of land on the Yusupino, two
+miles west of Napo village. Here he is cultivating vanilla, of which he
+has now three thousand plants, and also his patience, for six years
+elapse after transplanting before a pod appears. He has been so long in
+the country (thirteen years) his English would now and then run off into
+Spanish or Quichua.</p>
+
+<p>Napo is prettily situated on the left bank of the Rio Napo, a dense
+forest inclosing it on every side. The maximum number of inhabitants is
+eighty families; but many of these are in town only in festival seasons.
+It was well for us that we reached the Napo during the feasts; otherwise
+we might not have found men enough to man our canoes down the river.
+There are three or four blancos, petty merchants, who follow the old
+Spanish practice of compulsory sales, forcing the Indians to take
+lienzo, knives, beads, etc., at exorbitant prices, and making them pay
+in gold dust and pita. This kind of commerce is known under the name of
+<i>repartos</i>. It is hard to find an Indian whose gold or whose labor is
+not claimed by the blancos. The present and possible productions of this
+region are:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> bananas, plantains, yucas,<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> yams, sweet potatoes, rice,
+beans, corn, lemons, oranges, chirimoyas, anonas (a similar fruit to the
+preceding), pine-apples, palm cabbages, guavas, guayavas, castor-oil
+beans, coffee, cacao, cinnamon, India-rubber, vanilla (two kinds),<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>
+chonta-palm nuts, sarsaparilla, contrayerva (a mint), tobacco (of
+superior quality), and guayusa; of woods, balsam, red wood, Brazil wood,
+palo de cruz, palo de sangre, ramo caspi, quilla caspi, guayacan (or
+"holy wood," being much used for images), ivory palm, a kind of ebony,
+cedar, and aguana (the last two used for making canoes); of dyewoods,
+sarne (dark red), tinta (blue), terriri, and quito (black); of gums,
+estoraque (a balsam) and copal, besides a black beeswax, the production
+of a small (Trigona) bee, that builds its comb in the ground; of
+manufactures, pita, hammocks, twine, calabashes, aguardiente (from the
+plantain), chicha (from the yuca),<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> sugar and molasses (from the
+cane, which grows luxuriantly), and manati-lard; of minerals, gold dust.
+The gold, in minute spangles, is washed down by the rivers at flood
+time, chiefly from the Llanganati Mountains. The articles desired in
+exchange are lienzo, thread, needles, axes, hoes, knives, fish-hooks,
+rings, medals, crosses, beads, mirrors, salt, and poison. Quito nearly
+monopolizes the trade; though a few canoes go down the Napo to the
+Mara&ntilde;on after salt and poison. The salt comes from near Chasuta, on the
+Huallaga;<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> the <i>urari</i> from the Ticuna Indians. It takes about
+twenty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> days to paddle down to the Mara&ntilde;on, and three months to pole up.
+The Napo is navigable for a flat-bottomed steamer as far as Santa
+Rosa,<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> and it is a wonder that Anglo-Saxon enterprise has not put
+one upon these waters. The profits would be great, as soon as commercial
+relations with the various tribes were established.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> Four yards of
+coarse cotton cloth, for example, will exchange for one hundred pounds
+of sarsaparilla. <i>Urari</i> is sold at Napo for its weight in silver. By a
+decree of the Ecuadorian Congress, there will be no duty on foreign
+goods entering the Napo for twenty years. The Napo region, under proper
+cultivation, would yield the most valuable productions of either
+hemisphere in profusion. But agriculture is unknown; there is no word
+for plow. The natives spend most of their time in idleness, or feasting
+and hunting. Their weapons are blow-guns and wooden spears; our guns
+they call by a word which signifies "thunder and lightning." Laying up
+for the future or for commerce is foreign to their ideas. The houses are
+all built of bamboo tied together with lianas, and shingled with leaves
+of the sunipanga palm. The Indians are peaceful, good-natured, and idle.
+They seldom steal any thing but food. Their only stimulants are chicha,
+guayusa, and tobacco. This last they roll up in plantain leaves and
+smoke, or snuff an infusion of it through the nose from the upper bill
+of a toucan. "The Peruvians (says Prescott, quoting Garcilasso) differ
+from every other Indian nation to whom tobacco was known by using it
+only for medicinal purposes in the form of snuff." There is no bread on
+the Napo; the nearest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>approach to flour is yuca starch. There are no
+clocks or watches; time is measured by the position of the sun. The mean
+temperature at Napo village is about one degree warmer than that of
+Archidona. Its altitude above the sea is 1450 feet. The nights are cool,
+and there are no musquitoes; but sand-flies are innumerable. Jiggers
+also have been seen. There are no well-defined wet and dry seasons; but
+the most rain falls in May, June, and July. The lightning, Edwards
+informed us, seldom strikes. Dysentery, fevers, and rheumatism are the
+prevailing diseases; and we saw one case of go&icirc;tre. But the climate is
+considered salubrious. Few twins are born; and there are fewer children
+than in Archidona&mdash;a difference ascribed by some to the exposure of the
+Napo people in gold washing; by others to the greater quantity of
+guayusa drunk by the Archidonians.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Napo is the largest river in the republic. From its source in the
+oriental defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua to its embouchure at the
+Mara&ntilde;on, its length is not far from eight hundred miles, or about twice
+that of the Susquehanna.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> From Napo village to the mouth of the
+river our barometer showed a fall of a thousand feet. At Napo the
+current is six miles an hour; between Napo and Santa Rosa there are
+rapids; and between Santa Rosa and the Mara&ntilde;on the rate is not less than
+four miles an hour. At Napo the breadth is about forty yards; at Coca
+the main channel is fifteen hundred feet wide; and at Camindo it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> is a
+full Spanish mile. Below Coca the river throws out numerous canals,
+which, isolating portions of the forest-clad lowlands, create numerous
+picturesque islands. Around and between them the river winds, usually
+making one bend in every league. The tall trees covering them are bound
+together by creeping plants into a thick jungle, the home of capybaras
+and the lair of the jaguar. The islands, entirely alluvial, are
+periodically flooded, and undergo a constant round of decay and
+renovation. Indeed, the whole river annually changes its channel, so
+that navigation is somewhat difficult. The Indians, on coming to a fork,
+were frequently at a loss to know which was the main channel. Then, too,
+the river is full of snags and <i>plaias</i>, or low, shelving sand-banks,
+rising just above the water-level&mdash;the resort of turtles during the egg
+season. It was interesting to trace the bed of the river as we floated
+down; on the rapid slope of the Cordilleras rushing over or rolling
+along huge boulders, which farther on were rapidly reduced in size,
+till, in time, boulders were broken into pebbles, pebbles turned into
+sand, and sand reduced to impalpable mud.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> The <i>plaias</i> are not
+auriferous. Below Coca there is a wilderness of lagunes, all connected
+with the river, the undisturbed retreat of innumerable water-fowl. The
+only spot on the Napo where the underlying rocks are exposed is near
+Napo village. There it is a dark slate, gently dipping east. Farther
+west, in fact, throughout this side of the Andes, the prevailing rock is
+mica-schist. But the entire Napo country is covered with an alluvial
+bed, on the average ten feet thick.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIV.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Afloat on the Napo.&mdash;
+Down the Rapids.&mdash;
+Santa Rosa and its mulish
+Alcalde.&mdash;
+Pratt on Discipline.&mdash;
+Forest Music.&mdash;Coca.&mdash;
+Our Craft and
+Crew.&mdash;
+Storm on the Napo.</p>
+
+
+<p>We embarked November 20th on our voyage down the river. It is no easy
+matter to hire or cajole the Indians for any service. Out of feast-time
+they are out of town, and during the festival they are loth to leave, or
+are so full of chicha they do not know what they want. We first woke up
+the indolent alcalde by showing him the President's order, and then used
+him to entice or to compel (we know not his motive power) eight Indians,
+including the governor, to take us to Santa Rosa. We paid them about
+twenty-four yards of lienzo, the usual currency here. They furnished
+three canoes, two for baggage and one covered with a palm-leaf awning
+for ourselves. The canoes were of red cedar, and flat-bottomed; the
+paddles had oval blades, to which short, quick strokes were given
+perpendicularly to the water entering and leaving. But there was little
+need of paddling on this trip.</p>
+
+<p>The Napo starts off in furious haste, for the fall between Napo village
+and Santa Rosa, a distance of eighty miles, is three hundred and fifty
+feet. We were about seven hours in the voyage down, and it takes seven
+days to pole back. The passage of the rapids is dangerous to all but an
+Indian. As Wallace says of a spot on the Rio Negro, you are bewildered
+by the conflicting motions of the water. Whirling and boiling eddies
+burst as if from some subaqueous explosion; down currents are on one
+side of the canoe, and an up current on the other; now a cross stream<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+at the bows and a diagonal one at the stern, with a foaming Scylla on
+your right and a whirling Charybdis on the left. But our nervousness
+gave way to admiration as our popero, or pilot, the sedate governor,
+gave the canoe a sheer with the swoop of his long paddle, turning it
+gracefully around the corner of a rock against which it seemed we must
+be dashed, and we felt like joining in the wild scream of the Indians as
+our little craft shot like an arrow past the danger and down the rapids,
+and danced on the waters below.</p>
+
+<p>In four hours we were abreast the little village of Aguano; on the
+opposite bank we could see the tambos of the gold washers. At 5 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> we
+reached the deserted site of Old Santa Rosa, the village having been
+removed a few years ago on account of its unhealthy location. It is now
+overgrown with sour orange and calabash trees, the latter bearing large
+fruit shells so useful to the Indians in making pilches or cups. In
+pitch darkness and in a drizzling rain we arrived at New Santa Rosa, and
+swung our hammocks in the Government House.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Papaya" id="Papaya"></a>Santa Rosa, once the prosperous capital of the Provincia del Oriente,
+now contains about two hundred men, women, and children. The town is
+pleasantly situated on the left bank of the river, about fifteen feet
+above the water level. A little bamboo church, open only when the
+missionary from Archidona makes his annual visit, stood near our
+quarters.
+<span class="figleft">
+<img src="images/200tb.png" alt="Papaya-tree." title="Papaya-tree." /><br />
+<a href="images/200.png">Papaya-tree.</a></span>
+The Indians were keeping one of their seven feasts in a hut
+near by, and their drumming was the last thing we heard as we turned
+into our hammocks, and the first in the morning. The alcalde, Pablo
+Sandoval, is the only white inhabitant, and he is an Indian in every
+respect save speech and color. His habitation is one of the largest
+structures on the Napo; the posts are of chonta-palm, the sides and roof
+of the usual material&mdash;split bamboo and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> palm leaves. It is embowered in
+a magnificent grove of plantains and papayas. In the spacious vestibule
+is a bench, on which the Indian governor and his staff seat themselves
+every morning to confer with the alcalde. In one corner stands a table
+(the only one we remember seeing on the Napo); on the opposite side are
+heaped up jars, pots, kettles, hunting and fishing implements, paddles,
+bows and arrows. Between the posts swing two chambiri hammocks. From
+Santa Rosa to Par&aacute; the hammock answers for chair, sofa, <i>t&ecirc;te-&agrave;-t&ecirc;te</i>,
+and bed. When a stranger enters, he is invited to sit in a hammock; and
+at Santa Rosa we were always presented with a cup of guayusa; in Brazil
+with a cup of coffee. Sandoval wore nothing but shirt and pantaloons;
+the dignity of the barefooted functionary was confined to his Spanish
+blood. He had lived long among the Zaparos; and from him, his daughter,
+and a Zaparo servant, we obtained much valuable information respecting
+that wild and little-known tribe.</p>
+
+
+<p>At Santa Rosa we procured Indians and canoes for the Mara&ntilde;on. This was
+not easily done. The Indians seemed reluctant to quit their feasts and
+go on such a long voyage,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> and the alcalde was unwilling they should go,
+and manufactured a host of lies and excuses. He declared there was but
+one large canoe in town, and that we must send to Suno for another, and
+for men to man it. There were indeed few Indians in Santa Rosa, for
+while we were disputing a largo number went off with shoutings down the
+river, to spend weeks in the forest hunting monkeys.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> It was a
+stirring sight to see these untamed red men in the depths of the Napo
+wilderness starting on a monkey crusade; but it was still more stirring
+to think of paddling our own canoe down to Brazil. After some time lost
+in word-fighting, we tried the virtues of authority. We presented the
+president's order, which commanded all civil and military powers on the
+Napo to aid, and not to hinder, the expedition; then we put into his
+hand an official letter from the alcalde of Napo (to whom Pablo was
+subordinate), which, with a flourish of dignified Spanish, threatened
+Santa Rosa with the doom of Sodom and Gomorrah if any impediment was
+placed in our way.</p>
+
+<p>To all this Edwards, who had kindly accompanied us down the river thus
+far, added, with frightful gestures, that he purposed to report him to
+the Quito government. After this bombardment Sandoval was another man,
+and the two canoes and four Indians we wanted were forthcoming. We had
+to wait, however, two days for the Indians to prepare their chicha for
+the journey and to cover the canoes with palm awnings. The price of a
+canoe for the Mara&ntilde;on is twenty-five varas of lienzo, and the same for
+each Indian. Unfortunately we had only fifty varas left; but, through
+the influence of the now good-natured alcalde, we induced the Indians to
+take the balance in coin. After many
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>delays, we put our baggage into
+one canoe, and ourselves into the other, and pushed off into the rapid
+current of the Napo. We had three styles of valediction on leaving. Our
+Indian quartet, after several last drinks of chicha, bade their friends
+farewell by clasping hands, one kissing the joined hands, and then the
+other. Sandoval muttered <i>adios</i> in reply to ours, meaning, no doubt,
+good riddance, while we shouted a hearty good-bye to Edwards as he
+pushed his way up stream to continue his lonely but chosen Indian life
+on the banks of the Yusupino.</p>
+
+<p>The Napo at Santa Rosa runs at least five miles an hour, and we were
+soon picking our way&mdash;now drifting, now paddling&mdash;through a labyrinth of
+islands and snags. The Indians, so accustomed to brutal violence from
+the hands of the whites, had begged of us, before our departure, that we
+would not beat them. But shortly after we left, one of them, who was
+literally filled with chicha, dropped his paddle and tumbled into a heap
+at the bottom of the canoe, dead drunk. Pratt, our gigantic Mississippi
+boatman, whom we had engaged at Quito as captain and cook down the
+river, and who was an awful Goliath in the eyes of the red-skins, seized
+the fellow and gave him a terrible shaking, the like of which was never
+seen or heard of in all Napo. At once the liquor left the muddled brain
+of the astonished culprit, and, taking his paddle, he became from that
+hour the best of the crew. This was the only case of discipline on the
+voyage. Always obsequious, they obeyed us with fear and trembling. None
+of them could speak Spanish, so we had provided ourselves with a
+vocabulary of Quichua. But some English words, like the imperative
+<i>paddle</i>! were more effective than the tongue of the Incas. Indeed, when
+we mixed up our Quichua with a little Anglo-Saxon, they evidently
+thought the latter was a terrible anathema, for they sprang to their
+places without delay.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In seven hours we arrived at Suno, a collection of half a dozen palm
+booths, five feet high, the miserable owners of which do a little
+fishing and gold-washing. They gave us possession of their largest hut,
+in which they had been roasting a sea-cow, and the stench was
+intolerable. Nevertheless, one of our number bravely threw down his
+blanket within, and went to sleep; two swung their hammocks between the
+trees, and the rest slept in the canoe. Here, for the first time since
+leaving Guayaquil, we were tormented by musquitoes. Bats were also quite
+numerous, but none of them were blood-thirsty; and we may add that
+nowhere in South America were we troubled by those diabolical imps of
+imaginative travelers, the leaf-nosed species. So far as our experience
+goes, we can say, with Bates, that the vampire, so common on the Amazon,
+is the most harmless of all bats. It has, however, a most hideous
+physiognomy. A full-grown specimen will measure twenty-eight inches in
+expanse of wing. Bates found two species on the Amazon&mdash;one black, the
+other of a ruddy line, and both fruit-eaters.</p>
+
+<p>The nocturnal music of these forests is made by crickets and tree-toads.
+The voice of the latter sounds like the cracking of wood. Occasionally
+frogs, owls, and goat-suckers croak, hoot, and wail. Between midnight
+and 3 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> almost perfect silence reigns. At early dawn the animal
+creation awakes with a scream. Pre-eminent are the discordant cries of
+monkeys and macaws. As the sun rises higher, one musician after another
+seeks the forest shade, and the morning concert ends at noon. In the
+heat of the day there is an all-pervading rustling sound, caused by the
+fluttering of myriad insects and the gliding of lizards and snakes. At
+sunset parrots and monkeys resume their chatter for a season, and then
+give way to the noiseless flight of innumerable bats chasing the
+hawk-moth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> and beetle. There is scarcely a sound in a tropical forest
+which is joyous and cheering. The birds are usually silent; those that
+have voices utter a plaintive song, or hoarse, shrill cry. Our
+door-yards are far more melodious on a May morning. The most common
+birds on the Napo are macaws, parrots, toucans, and ciganas. The
+parrots, like the majority in South America, are of the green type. The
+toucan, peculiar to the New World, and distinguished by its enormous
+bill, is a quarrelsome, imperious bird. It is clumsy in flight, but
+nimble in leaping from limb to limb. It hops on the ground like a robin,
+and makes a shrill yelping&mdash;<i>pia-po-o-co</i>. Ecuadorians call it the
+<i>predicador</i>, or preacher, because it wags its head like a priest, and
+seems to say, "God gave it you." The feathers of the breast are of most
+brilliant yellow, orange, and rose colors, and the robes of the royal
+dames of Europe in the sixteenth century were trimmed with them. The
+cigana or "gypsy" (in Peru called "chansu") resembles a pheasant. The
+flesh has a musky odor, and it is for this reason, perhaps, that they
+exist in such numbers throughout the country. The Indians never eat
+them. In no country as in the Amazonian Valley is there such a variety
+of insects; nowhere do we find species of larger size or greater beauty.
+It is the richest locality for butterflies; Bates found twelve hundred
+species in Brazil alone, or three times as many as in all Europe. The
+splendid metallic-blue, and the yellow and transparent-winged, are very
+abundant on the Napo; some rise high in the air; others, living in
+societies, look like fluttering clouds. Moths are comparatively rare.
+The most conspicuous beetle on the river is a magnificent green species
+(<i>Chrysophora chrysochlora</i>), always found arboreal, like the majority
+of tropical coleopters; they look like emerald gems clinging to the
+branches. There are two kinds of bees, the black and yellow, which the
+Napos name
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>respectively <i>cushillo mishke</i> (monkey honey) and <i>sara
+mishke</i> (corn honey). It is singular these Indians have no term for
+bees, but call them honey, and distinguish them by their color. The
+black species is said to make the most honey, and the yellow the best.
+The quadrupeds of the Oriente are few and far between in the dry season.
+Not a sloth nor armadillo did we see. But when the rains descend the
+wilderness is a menagerie of tigers and tapirs, pumas and bears, while a
+host of reptiles, led by the gigantic boa, creep forth from their
+hiding-places. The most ferocious carnivores are found in the mountains,
+and the most venomous serpents haunt the lowlands. Darwin says that we
+ought not to expect any closer similarity between the organic beings on
+the opposite sides of the Andes than on the opposite shores of the
+ocean. We will remark that we obtained a peccari, a number of birds not
+accustomed to high flights, and five reptilian species, on the Pacific
+slope, identical with species found on the Napo.</p>
+
+<p>Breakfasting on fried yucas, roasted plantains, fish, and guayusa, we
+set sail, arriving at Coca at 2 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span> This little village, the last we
+shall see till we come within sight of the Amazon, is beautifully
+located on the right bank, twenty-five feet above the river, and
+opposite the confluence of the Rio Coca. Though founded twenty years
+ago, it contains only five or six bamboo huts, a government-house,
+church, alcalde's residence, and a <i>trapiche</i> for the manufacture of
+aguardiente and sirup from the cane.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> The alcalde was a worthless
+blanco, who spent most of his time swinging in a hammock slung between
+the posts of his veranda, and playing with a tame parrot when not drunk
+or asleep. This spot is memorable in history. Pizarro having reached it
+from Quito by way of Baeza and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> the Coca, halted and built a raft or
+canoe (Prescott says a brig), in which Orellana was sent down the river
+to reconnoitre, but who never returned. Up to this point the Napo has an
+easterly course; but after receiving the Coca, it turns to the
+southeast. We remained here two days to construct a more comfortable
+craft for our voyage to the Amazon, a distance of at least five hundred
+miles. The canoe is the only means of navigation known to the Indians.
+But the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> idea of spending fifteen days cooped, cribbed, and cramped in a
+narrow canoe, exposed to a tropical sun and furious rains, was
+intolerable.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Trapiche" id="Trapiche"></a>
+<img src="images/206tb.png" alt="Trapiche." title="Trapiche." /><br /><a href="images/206.png">Trapiche.</a></p>
+
+<p>Our Santa Rosa canoes were about thirty feet long. These were placed
+about five feet apart and parallel, and then firmly secured by bamboo
+joists. Over these we spread a flooring of split bamboo, and planted
+four stout chonta sticks to support a palm-thatched roof. A rudder (a
+novel idea to our red-skinned companions), and a box of sand in the
+stern of one of the boats for a fire-place, completed our rig. The
+alcalde, with a hiccough, declared we would be forever going down the
+river in such a huge craft, and the Indians smiled ominously. But when
+our gallant ship left Coca obediently to the helm, and at the rate of
+six miles an hour when paddles and current worked together, they shouted
+"<i>bueno</i>!" Our trunks and provision-cans were arranged along the two
+sides of the platform, so that we had abundance of from for exercise by
+day and for sleeping under musquito-tents at night. A little canoe,
+which we bought of the alcalde, floated alongside for a tender, and was
+very serviceable in hunting, gathering fuel, etc. In the
+"forecastle"&mdash;the bows of the large canoes which projected beyond our
+cabin&mdash;sat three Indians to paddle. The fourth, who was the governor of
+Santa Rosa, we honored with the post of steersman; and he was always to
+be seen on the poop behind the kitchen, standing bolt upright, on the
+alert and on the lookout. On approaching any human habitation, the
+Indians blew horns to indicate that they came as friends. These horns
+must have come from Brazil, as there are no bovines on the Napo.
+Whenever they enter an unknown lagune they blow their horns also to
+charm the <i>yacu-mama</i>, or mother-of-waters, as they call the imaginary
+serpent.</p>
+
+<p>At different points down the river they deposited pots
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> of chicha for
+use on their return. The mass breeds worms so rapidly, however, as
+Edwards informed us, that after the lapse of a month or two it is a
+jumble of yuca scraps and writhing articulates. But the owner of the
+heap coolly separates the animal from the vegetable, adds a little
+water, and drinks his chicha without ceremony. During leisure hours the
+Indians busied themselves plaiting palm leaves into ornaments for their
+arms and heads. Not a note did they whistle or sing. Yet they were
+always in good humor, and during the whole voyage we did not see the
+slightest approach to a quarrel. At no time did we have the least fear
+of treachery or violence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Napos are not savages. Their goodness, however, as Bates says of the
+Cuc&aacute;ma tribe, consists more in the absence of active bad qualities than
+in the possession of good ones. Of an apathetic temperament and dull<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+imagination, we could not stir them into admiration or enthusiasm by any
+scientific wonder; the utmost manifestation of surprise was a cluck with
+the tongue.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Upon presenting the governor with a vest, he
+immediately cut off the buttons, and, dividing the cloth into four
+parts, shared it with his fellows.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127">
+</a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> When it rained they invariably
+took off their ponchos, but in all our intercourse with these wild men
+we never noticed the slightest breach of modesty. They strictly
+maintained a decent arrangement of such apparel as they possessed. A
+canoe containing a young Indian, his bride, and our governor's wife and
+babe, accompanied us down to the Mara&ntilde;on. They were going after a load
+of salt for Sandoval. The girl was a graceful paddler, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+had some well-founded pretensions to beauty. Her coarse, black hair was simply
+combed back, not braided into plaits as commonly done by the Andean
+women. All, both male and female, painted their faces with achote to
+keep off the sand-flies.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Craft" id="Craft"></a>
+<img src="images/209tb.png" alt="Our Craft on the Napo." title="Our Craft on the Napo." /><br /><a href="images/209.png">Our Craft on the Napo.</a></p>
+
+<p>Pratt managed the helm (the governor could not work the Yankee notion)
+and the kitchen. At Santa Rosa we had added to our Quito stock of
+provisions some manati-lard (bottled up in a joint of a bamboo) and
+sirup, and at Coca we took in three fowls, a bag of rice, and a bunch of
+bananas. So we fared sumptuously every day. We left Coca on Thanksgiving
+Day, November 28th, and to imitate our distant friends, we sacrificed an
+extra meal&mdash;fricasseed chicken, jerked beef, boiled yucas, bananas,
+oranges, lemonade, and guayusa. Favored by a powerful current and the
+rhythmic paddling of our Santa Rosans, we made this day sixty miles; but
+our average daily run was fifty miles. The winds (doubtless the trades)
+were almost unchangeably from the east; but an occasional puff would
+come from the northwest, when we relieved our paddlers by hoisting a
+blanket for a sail. Six o'clock was our usual hour of departure, and ten
+or twelve hours our traveling time, always tying up at a plaia or
+island, of which there are hosts in the Napo, but never to the main
+land, for fear of unfriendly Indians and the still more unwelcome tiger.
+Our crew encamped at a respectful though hailing distance.</p>
+
+<p>On the second day from Coca we were caught in a squall, and to save our
+roof we ran ashore. Nearly every afternoon we were treated to a shower,
+accompanied by a strong wind, but seldom by thunder and lightning,
+though at Coca we had a brilliant thunder-storm at night. They always
+came after a uniform fashion and at a regular hour, so that we learned
+when to expect them. About noon the eastern horizon would become
+suddenly black,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> and when this had spread to the zenith we heard the
+rush of a mighty wind sweeping through the forest, and the crash of
+falling trees, and then down fell the deluge. The Indians have a saying
+that "the path of the sun is the path of the storm." These storm-clouds
+moved rapidly, for in half an hour all was quiet on the Napo. At Quito,
+two hundred miles west, the usual afternoon shower occurs two hours
+later. To-day we enjoyed our last glimpse of the Andes. Far away across
+the great forest we had traversed we could see the beautiful cone of
+Cotopaxi and the flat top of Cayambi standing out in proud pre-eminence.
+Long will it be ere we forget this farewell view of the magnificent
+Cordillera.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XV.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Sea-Cows and Turtles' Eggs.&mdash;
+The Forest.&mdash;
+Peccaries.&mdash;
+Indian Tribes
+on the Lower Napo.&mdash;
+Anacondas and Howling Monkeys.&mdash;
+Insect
+Pests.&mdash;
+Battle with Ants.&mdash;
+Barometric Anomaly.&mdash;
+First View of the
+Amazon,&mdash;
+Pebas.</p>
+
+
+<p>The thirtieth of November was an exciting day on the monotonous Napo. We
+fell in with numerous sea-cows sporting in the middle of the stream.
+They were greatly disturbed by the sight of our huge craft, and, lifting
+their ugly heads high out of the water, gave a peculiar snort, as if in
+defiance, but always dived out of sight when fired upon. The sea-cow is
+called <i>vaca marina</i> by the Spaniards, <i>peixe boy</i> by the Brazilians,
+and <i>manati</i> in the West Indies. It has no bovine feature except in its
+upper lip. The head and skin remind one of a large seal. In many
+respects it may be likened to a hippopotamus without tusks or legs. It
+has a semicircular flat tail, and behind the head are two oval fins,
+beneath which are the breasts, which yield a white milk. The flesh
+resembles pork, with a disagreeable, fishy flavor.</p>
+
+<p>To-day we anchored at several plaias to hunt turtles' eggs. Our Indians
+were very expert in finding the nests. Guided approximately by the
+tracks of the <i>tortugas</i>, as the turtles are called, they thrust a stick
+into the sand, and wherever it went down easily they immediately
+commenced digging with their hands, and invariably "struck" eggs. In
+four nests, whose contents we counted, there were one hundred and
+thirty-two, one hundred and fourteen, one hundred and twelve, and
+ninety-seven; but we have heard of one hundred and sixty eggs in a
+single nest. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>turtles lay in the night, and in pits about two feet
+deep, which they excavate with their broad, webbed paws. The eggs are
+about an inch and a half in diameter, having a thin, leathery shell, a
+very oily yolk, and a white which does not coagulate. The Indians ate
+them uncooked. We used them chiefly in making corn griddles.</p>
+
+<p>Here, as throughout its whole course, the Napo runs between two walls of
+evergreen verdure. On either hand are low clay banks (no rocks are
+visible), and from these the forest rises to a uniform height of seventy
+or eighty feet. It has a more cheerful aspect than the sombre, silent
+wilderness of Baeza. Old aristocrats of the woods are overrun by a gay
+democracy of creepers and climbers, which interlace the entire forest,
+and, descending to take root again, appear like the shrouds and stays of
+a line-of-battle ship. Monkeys gambol on this wild rigging, and mingle
+their chatter with the screams of the parrot. Trees as lofty as our oaks
+are covered with flowers as beautiful as our lilies. Here are orchids of
+softest tints;<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> flowering ferns, fifty feet high; the graceful
+bamboo and wild banana; while high over all countless species of palm
+wave their nodding plumes. Art could not arrange these beautiful forms
+so harmoniously as nature has done.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Hunting" id="Hunting"></a>
+<img src="images/215tb.png" alt="Hunting Turtles' Eggs" title="Hunting Turtles' Eggs" /><br /><a href="images/215.png">Hunting Turtles' Eggs</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The tropics, moreover, are strangers to the uniformity of association
+seen in temperate climes. We have so many social plants that we speak of
+a forest of oaks, and pines, and birches; but there variety is the law.
+Individuals of the same species are seldom seen growing together.
+Every
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+tree is surrounded by strangers that seemingly prefer its room
+to its company; and, such is the struggle for possession of the soil, it
+is difficult to tell to which stem the different leaves and flowers
+belong. The peculiar charm of a tropical forest is increased by the
+mystery of its impenetrable thicket. Within that dense, matted
+shrubbery, and behind that phalanx of trees, the imagination of the
+traveler sees all manner of four-footed beasts and creeping things.
+Tropical vegetation is of fresher verdure, more luxuriant and succulent,
+and adorned with larger and more shining leaves than the vegetation of
+the north. The leaves are not shed periodically&mdash;a character common, not
+only to the equator, but also to the whole southern hemisphere. Yet
+there is a variety of tints, though not autumnal. The leaves put on
+their best attire while budding instead of falling&mdash;passing, as they
+come to maturity, through different shades of red, brown, and green. The
+majority of tropical trees bear small flowers. The most conspicuous
+trees are the palms, to which the prize of beauty has been given by the
+concurrent voice of all ages. The earliest civilization of mankind
+belonged to countries bordering on the region of palms. South America,
+the continent of mingled heat and moisture, excels the rest of the world
+in the number and perfection of her palms. They are mostly of the
+feathery and fan-like species; the latter are inferior in rank to the
+former. The peculiarly majestic character of the palm is given not only
+by their lofty stems, but also in a very high degree by the form and
+arrangement of their leaves. How diverse, yet equally graceful, are the
+aspiring branches of the jagua and the drooping foliage of the cocoa,
+the shuttlecock-shaped crowns of the ubuss&uacute; and the plumes of the
+jupati, forty feet in length. The inflorescence always springs from the
+top of the trunk, and the male flowers are generally yellowish. Unlike
+the oak, all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> species of which have similar fruit, there is a vast
+difference in the fruits of the palm: compare the triangular cocoa-nut,
+the peach-like date, and grape-like assai. The silk-cotton tree is the
+rival of the palm in dignity; it has a white bark and a lofty flat
+crown. Among the loveliest children of Flora we must include the mimosa,
+with its delicately pinnated foliage, so endowed with sensibility that
+it seems to have stepped out of the bounds of vegetable life. The
+bamboo, the king of grasses, forms a distinctive feature in the
+landscape of the Napo, frequently rising eighty feet in length, though
+not in height, for the fronds curve downward. Fancy the airy grace of
+our meadow grasses united with the lordly growth of the poplar, and you
+have a faint idea of bamboo beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The first day of winter (how strangely that sounds under a vertical
+sun!) was Sunday; but it was folly to attempt to rest where punkies were
+as thick as atoms, so we floated on. It was only by keeping in mid-river
+and moving rapidly enough to create a breeze through our cabin, that
+life was made tolerable. A little after noon we were again obliged to
+tie up for a storm. Not a human being nor a habitation have we seen
+since leaving Coca; and to-day nothing is visible but the river, with
+its islands, and plains, and the green palisades&mdash;the edges of the
+boundless forest. Not a hill over one hundred feet high are we destined
+to see till we reach Obidos, fifteen hundred miles eastward. Were it not
+for the wealth of vegetation&mdash;all new to trans-tropical eyes&mdash;and the
+concerts of monkeys and macaws, oppressively lonely would be the sail
+down the Napo between its uninhabited shores. But we believe the day,
+though distant, will come when its banks will be busy with life. Toward
+evening three or four canoes pulled out from the shore and came
+alongside. They were filled with the lowest class of Indians we have
+seen in South America.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> The women were nearly nude; the man (there was
+only one) had on a sleeveless frock reaching to the knees, made from the
+bark of a tree called <i>llanchama</i>. All were destitute of eyebrows; their
+hair was parted in the middle, and their teeth and lips were dyed black.
+They had rude pottery, peccari meat, and wooden lances to sell. Like all
+the Napo Indians, they had a weakness for beads, and they wore necklaces
+of tiger and monkey teeth. They were stupid rather than brutal, and
+probably belonged to a degraded tribe of the great Zaparo family. With
+Darwin, "one's mind hurries back over past centuries, and then asks,
+could our progenitors have been men like these?&mdash;men whose very signs
+and expressions are less intelligible to us than those of the
+domesticated animals; men who do not possess the instinct of those
+animals, nor yet appear to boast of human reason, or, at least, of arts
+consequent on that reason. I do not believe it is possible to describe
+or paint the difference between savage and civilized man. It is the
+difference between a wild and tame animal; and part of the interest in
+beholding a savage is the same which would lead every one to desire to
+see the lion in his desert, the tiger tearing his prey in the jungle, or
+the rhinoceros wandering over the wild plains of Africa."</p>
+
+<p>On the morrow our falcon-eyed Indians whispered "<i>cuche</i>" long before we
+saw any thing.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> Williams went ashore and came upon a herd of
+peccaries, killing two. The peccari is a pugnacious, fearless animal. It
+is not frightened by the noise of fire-arms, and when wounded is a
+dangerous foe; but captured when young, it is easily tamed. It has a
+higher back than the domestic hog, and cleanlier habits; an odoriferous
+gland on the loins, and three-toed hind feet. We preserved the skins for
+science and a ham for the table; the rest we gave to our crew and
+fellow-voyagers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> who devoured every thing, even the viscera. They sat
+up late that night, around their camp-fire, cooking peccari meat: part
+they parboiled in a pot, and some they roasted, skewered on sticks which
+slanted over the flames; the rest they cured with smoke, for lack of
+salt. The meat, though rank, is palatable, but not equal to macaw, which
+we served up the next day.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p>
+
+<p>We had now passed the mouth of the Aguarico, leaving behind us the
+Christian Quitus and the peaceful Zaparos. Henceforth the right bank of
+the Napo is inhabited by the Mazanes and Iquitos; while on the left are
+the wilder Santa Marias, Anguteros, Oritos, and Orejones. The Orejones,
+or "Big Ears," enlarge those appendages to such an extent that they are
+said to lie down on one ear and cover themselves with the other. This
+practice is now going out of fashion. These Indians received their name,
+Orejones, or Oregones, from the Spaniards, on account of this singular
+custom of inserting disks of wood in the ears to enlarge them; the like
+practice prevailed among the tribes on the Columbia River, Oregon. They
+trade in hammocks, poisons, and provisions. The Anguteros, or Putumayos,
+have a bad reputation. They are reported to have killed and robbed
+sarsaparilla traders coming up stream. Nevertheless, we kept watch only
+one night during the voyage, though we always anchored to an island, and
+between Coca and the Amazon we did not see twenty-five men. Equally rare
+were the savage brutes&mdash;not a jaguar showed himself, and only one
+anaconda. The anaconda, or water-boa (<i>Eunectes murinus</i><a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a>), is
+larger and more formidable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> than the boa-constrictor which lives on the
+land. It has a hideous appearance, broad in the middle, and tapering
+abruptly at both ends. We did not learn from the natives that anacondas
+over twenty feet long had been seen on the Napo, but specimens twice
+that size are found on the Amazon. Land boas do not often exceed fifteen
+feet in length.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Howler" id="Howler"></a>
+<img src="images/221tb.png" alt="A Howler." title="A Howler." /><br /><a href="images/221.png">A Howler.</a></p>
+
+<p>Gangs of the large howling monkeys often entertained us with their
+terrific, unearthly yells, which, in the truthful language of Bates,
+"increased tenfold the feeling of inhospitable wildness which the forest
+is calculated to inspire." They are of a maroon color (the males wear a
+long red beard), and have under the jaw a bony go&icirc;tre&mdash;an expansion of
+the os hyoides&mdash;by means of which they produce their loud, rolling
+noise. They set up an unusual chorus whenever they saw us, scampering to
+the tops of the highest trees, the dams carrying the young upon their
+backs. They are the only monkeys which the natives have not been able to
+tame. Vast numbers of screaming parrots and macaws flew over our heads,
+always going in pairs and at a great height. Groups of "gypsy-birds"
+were perched on the trees overhanging the river, and black<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> ducks,
+cormorants, and white cranes floated on the water or stalked along the
+plaias.</p>
+
+<p>But one form of life superabounded. From the rising of the sun to the
+going down thereof clouds of ubiquitous sand-flies filled our cabin,
+save when the wind was high. As soon as the sand-flies ceased, myriads
+of musquitoes began their work of torture, without much preparatory
+piping, and kept it up all night.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> These pests were occasionally
+relieved or assisted by piums&mdash;minute flies that alight unnoticed, and
+squatting close to the skin, suck their fill of blood, leaving dark
+spots and a disagreeable irritation. Our hands were nearly black with
+their punctures. We also made the acquaintance of the mont&uacute;ca, a large
+black fly whose horny lancets make a gash in the flesh, painless but
+blood-letting. All these insects are most abundant in the latter part of
+the rainy season, when the Mara&ntilde;on is almost uninhabitable. The
+apostrophe of Midshipman Wilberforce was prompted by sufferings which we
+can fully appreciate: "Ye greedy animals! I am ashamed of you. Can not
+you once forego your dinner, and feast your mind with the poetry of the
+landscape?" Right welcome was the usual afternoon squall, which sent
+these pests "kiting" over the stern.</p>
+
+<p>On Wednesday we fell in with a petty sarsaparilla trader, with two
+canoes, bound for the Mara&ntilde;on. He was sick with fever. Sarsaparilla
+(written <i>salsaparrilha</i> in Brazil, and meaning "bramble vine") is the
+root of a prickly, climbing plant found throughout the whole Amazonian
+forest, but chiefly on dry, rocky ground. On the morning of the seventh
+day from Coca we passed the mouth of the Curaray, the largest tributary
+of the Napo. It rises on the slopes of the Llanganati mountains, and is
+considered
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>auriferous. It is probably derived from <i>curi</i>, gold. Seeing
+a hut on the banks, we sent an Indian to purchase provisions; he
+returned with a few yucas and eggs. The day following we were attacked
+from a new quarter. Stopping to escape a storm, a party went ashore to
+cut down a tree of which we desired a section. It fell with its top in
+the river, just above our craft; when lo! to our consternation, down
+came countless hosts of ants (<i>Ecitons</i>). Myriads were, of course, swept
+down stream, but myriads more crawled up the sides of our canoes, and in
+one minute after the tree fell our whole establishment, from hold to
+roof, was swarming with ants. We gave one look of despair at each other,
+our provisions and collections, and then commenced a war of
+extermination. It was a battle for life. The ants, whose nest we had so
+suddenly immersed in the Napo, refused to quit their new lodgings. As we
+were loosely dressed, the tenacious little creatures hid themselves
+under our clothing, and when plucked off would leave their heads and
+jaws sticking in the skin. At last the deck was cleared by means of
+boots, slippers, and towels; but, had the ants persevered, they might
+have taken possession of the boat.</p>
+
+<p>To-day we saw a high bank (called in Quichua <i>pucaurcu</i>, or red hill)
+consisting of fine laminated clays of many colors&mdash;red, orange, yellow,
+gray, black, and white. This is the beginning of that vast deposit which
+covers the whole Amazonian Valley. It rests upon a bed of lignite, or
+bituminous shale, and a coarse, iron-cemented conglomerate. The latter
+is not visible on the Napo, but crops out particularly at Obidos and
+Par&aacute;. The Indians prepare their paints from these colored clays.</p>
+
+<p>Our Santa Rosans seemed to have little tact in fishing; still their
+spears and our hooks gathered not a few representatives of ichthyic life
+in the Napo. The species most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> common belong to the genus <i>Pimelodus</i>,
+or catfish tribe. Below tho Curaray the sand bars yielded turtles' eggs
+of a different kind from those found above, the <i>tracaj&aacute;</i>. They were
+smaller and oval, and buried only six or eight inches deep, thirty in a
+nest.</p>
+
+<p>December 9.&mdash;Passed early this morning the mouth of the Mazan; four huts
+at the junction. To-day we noticed the anomaly first observed by
+Herndon. From Papallacta to the Curaray the rise of the mercury was
+regular, but on the lower Napo there were great fluctuations. At one
+time both barometer and boiling apparatus, with which we made daily and
+simultaneous observations, unanimously declared that our canoes were
+gliding up stream, though we were descending at the rate of five miles
+an hour. The temperature is decidedly lower and the winds are stronger
+as we near the Amazon.</p>
+
+<p>December 10.&mdash;Our last day on the Napo. In celebration of the event we
+killed a fine young doe as it was crossing the river. It closely
+resembled the Virginia deer. At 9 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span> the Indians shouted in their
+quiet way&mdash;"<i>Mara&ntilde;on</i>!" It was as thrilling as <i>Thalatta</i> to Xenophon's
+soldiers. We were not expecting to reach it till night, being deceived
+by Villavicencio's map, which, in common with all others, locates the
+Curaray and Mazan too far to the north. We halted for an hour at
+Camindo, a little fishing hamlet claimed by Peru, and then hastened to
+get our first sight of the Amazon. With emotions we can not express, we
+gazed upon this ocean-stream. The march of the great river in its silent
+grandeur is sublime. In its untamed might it rolls through the
+wilderness with a stately, solemn air, showing its awful power in
+cutting away the banks, tearing down trees, and building up islands in a
+day. Down the river we can look till the sky and water meet as on the
+sea, while the forest on either hand dwindles in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> perspective to a
+long black line. Between these even walls of ever-living green the
+resistless current hurries out of Peru, sweeps past the imperial guns of
+Tabatinga into Brazil, and plows its way visibly two hundred miles into
+the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>At a small island standing where the Napo pays tribute to the monarch of
+rivers, mingling its waters with the Huallaga and Ucayali, which have
+already come down from the Peruvian Andes, we bade adieu to our captain
+and cook, who, in the little canoe, paddled his way westward to seek his
+fortune in Iquitus. At this point the Mara&ntilde;on (for so the natives call
+the Upper Amazon) does not appear very much broader than the Napo; but
+its depth is far greater, and there are few sand-bars.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> The water is
+always of a turbid yellow; while the Napo, though muddy during our
+voyage, is usually clear. The forest, moreover, on the banks of the
+Mara&ntilde;on, is not so striking as on the tributary. The palms are not so
+numerous, and the uniform height of the trees gives a monotonous,
+sea-like horizon.</p>
+
+<p>We arrived at Pebas December 12, ten hours after leaving the mouth of
+the Napo, and a month and a half from Quito. The first individual we met
+addressed us in good English, and proved to be Mr. Hauxwell of birds and
+insects, who has resided thirty years on the Amazon. His house, the
+largest and best in town, though but a roofed stockade, was generously
+placed at our disposal, and the fatted calf&mdash;an immense turtle&mdash;was
+immediately killed. To us, after the transit of the Andes and the
+dangers and hardships of the wilderness and the river, it seemed as if
+we had reached the end of our
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>journey, though we were over two thousand
+miles from the Atlantic. Pebas is situated on a high clay bluff beside
+the Ambiyacu, a mile above its entrance into the Mara&ntilde;on. Excepting Mr.
+Hauxwell, the Peruvian governor, and two or three other whites, the
+inhabitants are Indians of the Orejones and Yagua tribes. The
+exportations are hammocks, sarsaparilla, palo de cruz, and urar&iacute;. Palo
+de cruz is the very hard, dark-colored wood of a small leguminous tree
+bearing large pink flowers. Urar&iacute; is the poison used by all the
+Amazonian Indians; it is made by the Ticunas on the Putumayo, by boiling
+to a jelly the juices of certain roots and herbs, chiefly of the
+<i>Strychnos toxifera</i>, though it does not contain any trace of
+strychnine. Tipped with urar&iacute;, the needle-like arrow used in blow-guns
+will kill an ox in twenty minutes and a monkey in ten. "We have reason
+to congratulate ourselves (wrote the facetious Sidney Smith) that our
+method of terminating disputes is by sword and pistol, and not by these
+medicated pins." But the poison appears to be harmless to man and other
+salt-eating animals, salt being an antidote.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> We were not troubled
+with sand-flies after leaving the plaias of the Napo, but the musquitoes
+at Pebas were supernumerary. Perhaps, however, it was a special
+gathering on our account, for the natives have a notion that just before
+the arrival of a foreigner the musquitoes come in great numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Indians are disfigured by dark blotches on the skin, the
+effect of a cutaneous disease very prevalent in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> Central Amazonia. Here
+we first noticed the singular habit among the children of eating clay.
+This habit is not confined to the Otomacs on the Oronoco, nor to Indians
+altogether; for negroes and whites have the same propensity&mdash;Mr.
+Hauxwell found it impossible to restrain his own children. Bates
+ascribes the morbid craving to the meagre diet. This may be true to some
+extent, but it is certainly strange that the extraordinary desire to
+swallow earth (chiefly unctuous clays) is found only in the tropics,
+where vegetation is so rank and fruit so abundant.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVI.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Down the Amazon.&mdash;
+Steam on the Great River.&mdash;
+Loreto.&mdash;
+San
+Antonio.&mdash;
+Tabatinga.&mdash;
+Brazilian Steamers.&mdash;
+Scenery on the
+Amazon.&mdash;
+Tocant&iacute;ns.&mdash;
+Fonte Boa.&mdash;
+Ega.&mdash;
+Rio Negro.&mdash;
+Man&aacute;os.</p>
+
+
+<p>We left Pebas for Tabatinga in the Peruvian steamer "Morona," Captain
+Raygado. Going up to Jerusalem by railroad, or ascending the Nile by a
+screw whisking the sacred waters, is not so startling as the sight of a
+steamer in the heart of South America. There is such a contrast between
+the primeval wildness of the country and the people and this triumph of
+civilized life; and one looks forward to the dazzling future of this
+great valley, when the ships of all nations will crowd the network of
+rivers for the gold and perfumes, the gems and woods of this western
+Ophir. The natives call the steamer the "devil's boat," or "big canoe;"
+but they manifest little curiosity. Our Napo Indians were evidently
+afraid of it, and stood afar off. The first steamers that broke the deep
+solitude of the Mara&ntilde;on were the "Huallaga" and "Tirado," brought out in
+1853 by Dr. Whittemore, for Peru. They were built in New York, of
+Georgia pine, costing Peru $75,000, and reflected no credit on the
+United States; they lie rotting near Nauta. Peru has now two iron
+steamers of London make&mdash;the "Morona" and "Pastassa"&mdash;besides two
+smaller craft for exploring the tributaries. These steamers are for
+government service, but three more are building in England with
+passenger accommodations. The "Morona" has a tonnage of five hundred,
+and an engine of one hundred and fifty horse-power. The engineers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> are
+English, and the cook is a Chinaman. She makes monthly trips between
+Yurimaguas, on the Huallaga River, and Tabatinga, on the Brazilian
+frontier. Her rate down stream is eighteen miles an hour, and from
+eleven to twelve against the current. These steamers do not pay expenses
+at present; but they preserve the authority of Peru on the Mara&ntilde;on, and
+supply with material the government works at Iquitos. They also do a
+little commerce, taking down sarsaparilla and Moyabamba hats, and
+bringing up English dry-goods. There were not half a dozen passengers on
+board.</p>
+
+<p>The only towns of any consequence west of Pebas are Iquitos, Nauta, and
+Yurimaguas. Peru claims them&mdash;in fact, all the villages on the Mara&ntilde;on.
+Iquitos is the most thriving town on the Upper Amazon. It is situated on
+an elevated plain on the left bank of the river, sixty miles above the
+mouth of the Napo. In Herndon's time it was "a fishing village of 227
+inhabitants;" it now contains 2000. Here are the government iron-works,
+carried on by English mechanics. In 1867 there were six engineers, two
+iron-molders, two brass-molders, two coppersmiths, three blacksmiths,
+three pattern-makers, two boiler-makers, five shipwrights, three
+sawyers, besides bricklayers, brick-makers, carpenters, coopers, etc.;
+in all forty-two. All the coal for the furnaces is brought from
+England&mdash;the lignite on the banks of the Mara&ntilde;on is unfit for the
+purpose. A floating dock for vessels of a thousand tons has just been
+built. Nauta lies on the north bank of the Mara&ntilde;on, opposite the
+entrance of the Ucayali. Its inhabitants, about 1000, trade in fish,
+sarsaparilla, and wax from Ucayali. Yurimaguas is the port of Moyabamba,
+a city of 10,000 souls, six days' travel southwest. This vast eastern
+slope, lying on the branches of the Mara&ntilde;on, is called the Monta&ntilde;a of
+Peru. It is a region of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>inexhaustible fertility, and would yield ample
+returns to energy and capital. The villages are open to foreign
+commerce, free of duty; but at present the voice of civilized man is
+seldom heard, save on the main fluvial highway between Moyabamba and the
+Brazilian frontier. The Portuguese are the most adventurous traders. The
+value of imports to Peru by the Amazonian steamers during 1867 was
+$324,533; of exports, $267,748.</p>
+
+<p>In two hours and a half we arrive at Maucallacta, or "Old Town," an
+Indian village on the right bank of the river. Here our passports were
+vis&eacute;d by the Peruvian governor, and the steamer wooded up. One of the
+hands on the "Morona" was Manuel Medina, a mameluco, who was employed by
+Bates and Agassiz in their explorations. We left at noon of the
+following day, and anchored for the night off Caballococha, for the
+Peruvian steamers run only in the daytime. Caballococha, or
+"Horse-lake," is a Ticuna town, situated on a level tract of light loam,
+closely surrounded by the dense forest, and beside a ca&ntilde;o of clear water
+leading to a pretty lake. Ecuador claims this town, and likewise all the
+settlements on the Mara&ntilde;on; but her learned geographer, Villavicencio,
+with characteristic ignorance of the country, has located it on the
+<i>north</i> bank of the river!</p>
+
+<p>We passed in the afternoon the little tug "Napo," having on board
+Admiral Tucker, the rebel, who, with some associates, is exploring the
+tributaries of the Upper Amazon for the Peruvian government. They had
+just returned from a voyage of two hundred and fifty miles up the
+Javar&iacute;. One of the party had a tame tiger-cat in his arms. We arrived at
+Loreto early the next morning. This village of twenty houses and a
+church is prettily situated on the left bank, with a green slope in
+front. It is the most easterly town of Peru on the Amazon. Here resides
+Mr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> Wilkens, the Brazilian consul, of German birth, but North American
+education. The inhabitants are Peruvians, Portuguese, Negroes, and
+Ticuna Indians. The musquitoes hold high carnival at this place. In two
+hours we were at San Antonio, a military post on the Peruvian frontier,
+commanded by a French engineer, Manuel Charon, who also studied in the
+United States. One large building, and a flag-staff on a high bluff of
+red clay, were all that was visible of San Antonio; but the "Morona"
+brought down a gang of Indians (impressed, no doubt) to build a fort for
+twenty guns. The site is in dispute, a Brazilian claiming it as private
+property. The white barracks of Tabatinga, the first fortress in Brazil,
+are in plain sight, the voyage consuming but twenty minutes. Between San
+Antonio and Tabatinga is a ravine, on either side of which is a white
+pole, marking the limits of the republic and the empire.</p>
+
+<p>Tabatinga has long been a military post, but, excepting the government
+buildings, there are not a dozen houses. Numerous Indians, however, of
+the Ticuna tribe, dwell in the neighboring forest. The commandante was O
+Illustrissimo Se&ntilde;or Tenente Aristides Juste Mavignier, a tall, thin,
+stooping officer, dressed in brown linen. He received us with great
+civility, and tendered a house and servant during our stay in port. We
+preferred, however, to accept the hospitalities of the "Morona" till the
+arrival of the Brazilian steamer. Se&ntilde;or Mavignier was commandante of
+Man&aacute;os when visited by Agassiz, and presented the Professor with a
+hundred varieties of wood. With the like courtesy, he gave us a
+collection of reptiles, all of them rare, and many of them new species.
+He showed us also a live raposa, or wild dog, peculiar to the Amazon,
+but seldom seen. Tabatinga stands on an eminence of yellow clay, and is
+defended by twelve guns. The river in front is quite narrow,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> only about
+half a mile wide. Here our passports, which had been signed at
+Maucallacta and Loreto, were indorsed by the commandante. They were
+afterward examined at Ega, Man&aacute;os, and Par&aacute;. The mean temperature of
+Tabatinga we found to be 82&deg;.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> Some rubber and salt fish are
+exported, but nothing of consequence is cultivated. Grapes, the people
+say, grow well, but are destroyed by the ants. The only fruit-trees we
+noticed were the mama&iuml; (in Spanish, papaya), arac&aacute;, and ab&iacute;o. The
+papaw-tree bears male and female flowers on different trees, and hence
+receives the name of <i>papaya</i> or <i>mama&iuml;</i>, according to one's view of the
+pre-eminence of the sex. The juice of this tree is used by the ladies of
+the West Indies as a cosmetic, and by the butchers to render the
+toughest meat tender. The fruit is melon-shaped, and of an orange-yellow
+color. Vauquelin discovered in it <i>fibrine</i>, till lately supposed to be
+confined to the animal kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The Peruvian steamers connect at Tabatinga with the Brazilian line.
+There are eight imperial steamers on the Amazon: the "Icamiaba," running
+between Tabatinga and Man&aacute;os; the "Tapajos" and "Belem," plying between
+Man&aacute;os and Par&aacute;; the "Inca" and "Man&aacute;os," between Obidos and Par&aacute;;
+besides two steamers on the Tocant&iacute;ns, one between Par&aacute; and Chares, and
+projected lines for the Negro, Tapajos, and Madeira. The captains get a
+small salary, but the perquisites are large, as they have a percentage
+on the freight. One captain pocketed in one year $9000.</p>
+
+<p>We embarked, December 12, on the "Icamiaba," which promptly arrived at
+Tabatinga. The commander, formerly a lieutenant in the Imperial Navy,
+and for twelve years a popular officer on the Upper Amazon, was a
+polished gentleman, but rigid disciplinarian. As an example of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
+Brazilian etiquette, we give his full address from one of our letters of
+introduction:</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+"Ilmo. Sr. Capn. de Fragata<br />
+Nuno Alvez Pereira de Mello Cardozo,<br />
+Digno Commandante de Vapor<br />
+Icamiaba."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The "Icamiaba" was an iron boat of four hundred and fifty tons, with two
+engines of fifty horse-power each. The engineer was an Austrian, yet the
+captain gave his orders in English, though neither could speak the
+language. The saloon, with berths for twenty-five passengers, was above
+deck, and open at both ends for ventilation. The passengers, however,
+usually swung their hammocks on the upper deck, which was covered by an
+awning. This was a delightfully breezy and commanding position; and
+though every part of the steamer was in perfect order, this was
+scrupulously neat. Here the table was spread with every tropical luxury,
+and attentively served by young men in spotless attire. Happy the
+traveler who sits at the table of Commandante Cardozo. The refreshment
+hours were: Coffee as soon as the passengers turned out of their
+hammocks, and sometimes before; breakfast at ten, dinner at five, and
+tea at eight. Live bullocks, fowls, and turtles were kept on board, so
+that of fresh meat, particularly beef (the first we had tasted since
+leaving Quito), there was no lack. At breakfast we counted nine
+different courses of meat. The Peruvian steamers are limited to turtle
+and salt fish. Rice and farina are extensively used in Brazil, but we
+saw very little tapioca. Farina is the flour of the country, and is
+eaten in hard, dry grains; it will not keep in any other form. It can
+not be very nutritious, as it contains little gluten. All bread and
+butter are imported from the United States and England. The captains of
+Brazilian steamers are their own stewards; and in the midst of other
+business in port, they stop to negotiate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> for a chicken, or a dozen
+eggs, with an Indian or Negro. The "Icamiaba" left Tabatinga with only
+three first-class passengers, besides our own party. On no Amazon
+steamer did we meet with a lady passenger. Madame Godin, who came down
+the river from the Andes, and Mrs. Agassiz, who ascended to Tabatinga,
+were among the few ladies who have seen these upper waters. But how
+differently they traveled! one on a raft, the other on the beautiful
+"Icamiaba."</p>
+
+<p>Between Tabatinga and Teff&eacute;, a distance of five hundred miles, is
+perhaps the most uncivilized part of the main river. Ascending, we find
+improvements multiply as we near the mountains of Peru; descending, we
+see the march of civilization in the budding cities and expanding
+commerce culminating at Grand Par&aacute;. The scenery from the deck of an
+Amazonian steamer, if described, appears monotonous. A vast volume of
+smooth, yellow water, floating trees and beds of aquatic grass, low,
+linear-shaped, wooded islets, a dark, even forest&mdash;the shores of a
+boundless sea of verdure, and a cloudless sky occasionally obscured by
+flocks of parrots: these are the general features. No busy towns are
+seen along the banks of the Middle Amazon; only here and there a palm
+hut or semi-Indian village half buried in the wilderness. We agree with
+Darwin (speaking of the Plata), that "a wide expanse of muddy water has
+neither grandeur nor beauty." The real grandeur, however, of a great
+river like this is derived from reflecting upon its prospective
+commercial importance and its immense drainage. A lover of nature,
+moreover, can never tire of gazing at the picturesque grouping and
+variety of trees, with their mantles of creeping plants; while a little
+imagination can see in the alligators, ganoid fishes, sea-cows, and tall
+gray herons, the ichthyosaurus, holoptychius, dinotherium, and
+brontozoum of ancient days. Here and there the river is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> bordered with
+low alluvial deposits covered with feathery-topped arrow-grass and
+amphibious vegetation; but generally the banks are about ten feet high
+and magnificently wooded; they are abrupt, and land-slides are frequent.</p>
+
+<p>A few minutes after leaving Tabatinga we passed the mouth of the Javar&iacute;,
+which forms the natural boundary between Peru and Brazil. Henceforth the
+river loses the name of Mara&ntilde;on, and is called Solimoens, or, more
+commonly, simply Amazon. We were ten hours in reaching San Paulo, a
+wretched Ticuna village of five hundred souls, built on a grassy
+table-land nearly one hundred feet high. Steps have been cut in the
+slippery clay bluff to facilitate the ascent. Swamps lie back of the
+town, rendering it unhealthy. "On damp nights (says the Naturalist on
+the Amazon) the chorus of frogs and toads which swarm in weedy
+back-yards creates such a bewildering uproar that it is impossible to
+carry on a conversation in doors except by shouting."</p>
+
+<p>In ten hours more we had passed the Putumayo and entered the Tunant&iacute;ns,
+a sluggish, dark-colored tributary emptying into the Amazon about two
+hundred miles below the Javar&iacute;.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> On the bank of white earth, which
+strongly contrasts with the tinted stream, is a dilapidated hamlet of
+twenty-five hovels, built of bamboo plastered with mud and whitewashed.
+We saw but one two-storied house; and all have ground-floors and
+double-thatched roofs. The inhabitants are semi-civilized Shum&aacute;na and
+Pass&eacute; Indians and half-breeds; but in the gloomy forest which hugs the
+town live the wild Caish&aacute;nas. The atmosphere is close and steaming, but
+not hot, the mercury at noon standing at 83&deg;. The place is alive with
+insects and birds. The nights on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> the Amazon were invariably cool; on
+the Lower Amazon, cold, so that we required a heavy blanket.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Kitchen" id="Kitchen"></a>
+<img src="images/236tb.png" alt="Kitchen on the Amazon." title="Kitchen on the Amazon." /><br /><a href="images/236.png">Kitchen on the Amazon.</a></p>
+
+<p>Taking on board wood, beeves, turtles, salt fish, and water-melons, we
+left at half past 2 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> The Brazilian steamers run all night, and with
+no slackening of speed. At one o'clock we were awakened by a cry from
+the watch,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> "Stop her!" And immediately after there was a crash; but it
+was only the breaking of crockery caused by the sudden stoppage. The
+night was fearfully dark, and for aught we knew the steamer was running
+headlong into the forest. Fortunately there was no collision, and in a
+few minutes we were again on our way, arriving at Fonte Boa at 4 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>
+This little village stands in a palm grove, on a high bank of
+ochre-colored sandy clay, beside a slue of sluggish black water, eight
+miles from the Amazon.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> The inhabitants, about three hundred, are
+ignorant, lazy mamelucos. They dress like the majority of the
+semi-civilized people on the Amazon: the men content with shirt and
+pantaloons, the women wearing cotton or gauze chemises and calico
+petticoats. Fonte Boa is a museum for the naturalist, but the
+headquarters of musquitoes, small but persistent. Taking in a large
+quantity of turtle-oil, the "Icamiaba" turned down the ca&ntilde;o, but almost
+immediately ran aground, and we were two hours getting off. These yearly
+shifting shoals in the Amazon can not be laid down in charts, and the
+most experienced pilots often run foul of them. In twelve hours we
+entered the Teff&eacute;, a tributary from the Bolivian mountains. Just before
+reaching the Great River it expands into a beautiful lake, with a white,
+sandy beach. On a grassy slope, stretching out into the lake, with a
+harbor on each side of it, lies the city of Ega. A hundred palm-thatched
+cottages of mud and tiled frame houses, each with an inclosed orchard of
+orange, lemon, banana, and guava trees, surround a rude church, marked
+by a huge wooden crucifix on the green before it, instead of a steeple.
+Cacao, assa&iuml;, and pupunha palms rise above the town, adding greatly to
+its beauty; while back of all, on the summit of the green slope, begins
+the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>picturesque forest, pathless, save here and there a faint hunter's
+track leading to the untrodden interior. The sheep and cattle grazing on
+the lawn, a rare sight in Alto Amazonas, gives a peaceful and inviting
+aspect to the scene. The inhabitants, numbering about twelve hundred,
+are made up of pure Indians, half-castes, negroes, mulattoes, and
+whites. Ega (also called Teff&eacute;) is the largest and most thriving town
+between Man&aacute;os and Iquitos, a distance of twelve hundred miles. It is
+also one of the oldest settlements on the river, having been founded
+during the English revolution, or nearly two centuries ago. Tupi is the
+common idiom. The productions of the country are cacao, sarsaparilla,
+Brazil nuts, bast for caulking vessels, copaiba balsam, India-rubber,
+salt fish, turtle-oil, manati, grass hammocks, and tiles. Bates
+calculates the value of the annual exports at nearly forty thousand
+dollars. The "Icamiaba" calls here twice a month; besides which there
+are small schooners which occupy about five months in the round trip
+between Ega and Par&aacute;. "The place is healthy (writes the charming
+Naturalist on the Amazon), and almost free from insect pests; perpetual
+verdure surrounds it; the soil is of marvelous fertility, even for
+Brazil; the endless rivers and labyrinths of channels teem with fish and
+turtle; a fleet of steamers might anchor at any season of the year in
+the lake, which has uninterrupted water communication straight to the
+Atlantic. What a future is in store for the sleepy little tropical
+village!" Here Bates pursued butterflies for four years and a half, and
+Agassiz fished for six months.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Natives" id="Natives"></a>
+<img src="images/239tb.png" alt="Natives on the Middle Amazon." title="Natives on the Middle Amazon." /><br /><a href="images/239.png">Natives on the Middle Amazon.</a></p>
+
+<p>Ega is the half-way point across the continent, but its exact altitude
+above the sea is unknown. Herndon's boiling apparatus gave two thousand
+feet, and, what is worse, the lieutenant believed it. Our barometer made
+it one hundred feet; but as our instrument, though perfect in itself,
+behaved <i>very</i> strangely on the Middle Amazon, we do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> not rely on the
+calculation. The true height is not far from one hundred and twenty-five
+feet, or one fifth the elevation of the middle point in the North
+American continent.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> Taking on board salt fish, turtle-oil, and
+tiles, we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> left Ega two hours after midnight, reaching Coary at noon.
+The Amazon began to look more like a lake than a river, having a width
+of four or five miles. Floating gulls and rolling porpoises remind one
+of the sea. Coary is a huddle of fifteen houses, six of them plastered
+without, whitewashed, and tiled. It is situated on a lake of the same
+name&mdash;the expanded outlet of a small river whose waters are dark brown,
+and whose banks are low and covered with bushes. Here we took in turtles
+and turtle-oil, Brazil nuts and cocoa-nuts, rubber, salt fish, and wood;
+and, six hours after leaving, more fish and rubber were received at
+Cudaj&aacute;. Cudaj&aacute; is a lonely spot on the edge of an extensive system of
+back-waters and lakes, running through a dense unexplored forest
+inhabited by M&uacute;ra savages.</p>
+
+<p>At three in the afternoon of Christmas, seventy-four hours' running time
+from Tabatinga, we entered the Rio Negro. Strong is the contrast between
+its black-dyed waters and the yellow Amazon. The line separating the two
+rivers is sharply drawn, the waters meeting, not mingling. Circular
+patches of the dark waters of the Negro are seen floating like oil amid
+the turbid waters of the Amazon. The sluggish tributary seems to be
+dammed up by the impetuous monarch. The banks of the latter are low,
+ragged, perpendicular beds of clay, covered with a bright green foliage;
+the Negro is fringed with sandy beaches, with hills in the background
+clothed with a sombre, monotonous forest containing few palms or
+leguminous trees. Musquitoes, piums, and montucas never trouble the
+traveler on the inky stream. When seen in a tumbler, the water of the
+Negro is clear, but of a light-red color; due, undoubtedly, to vegetable
+matter. The visible mouth of the river at this season of the year
+(December) is three miles wide, but from main-land to main-land it can
+not be less than twenty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Siesta" id="Siesta"></a>
+<img src="images/242tb.png" alt="A Siesta." title="A Siesta." /><br /><a href="images/242.png">A Siesta.</a></p>
+
+<p>In forty minutes after leaving the Amazon we arrived at Man&aacute;os. This
+important city lies on the left bank of the Negro, ten miles from its
+mouth and twenty feet above high-water level. The site is very uneven,
+and consists of ferruginous sandstone. There was originally a fort here,
+erected by the Portuguese to protect their slave-hunting expeditions
+among the Indians on the river&mdash;hence the ancient name of Barra. On the
+old map of Father Fritz (1707) the spot is named <i>Taromas</i>. Since 1852
+it has been called Man&aacute;os, after the most warlike tribe. Some of the
+houses are two-storied, but the majority are low adobe structures, white
+and yellow washed, floored and roofed with tiles, and having green doors
+and shutters. Every room is furnished with hooks for hanging hammocks.
+We did not see a bed between Quito and New York except on the steamers.
+The population, numbering two thousand,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> is a mongrel
+set&mdash;Brazilians, Portuguese, Italians, Jews, Negroes, and Indians, with
+divers crosses between them. Laziness is the prominent characteristic. A
+gentleman offered an Indian passing his door twenty-five cents if he
+would bring him a pitcher of water from the river, only a few rods
+distant. He declined. "But I will give you fifty cents." Whereupon the
+half-clothed, penniless aboriginal replied: "I will give you a dollar to
+bring me some."<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> While every inch of the soil is of exuberant
+fertility, there is always a scarcity of food. It is the dearest spot on
+the Amazon. Most of the essentials and all of the luxuries come from
+Liverpool, Lisbon, and New York. Agriculture is at a discount on the
+Amazon. Brazilians will not work; European immigrants are traders;
+nothing can be done with Indians; and negroes are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> few in number, the
+slave-trade being abolished, emancipation begun, and the Paraguayan war
+not ended. A laboring class will ever be a desideratum in this tropical
+country. With a healthy climate,<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> and a situation at the juncture
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> two great navigable rivers, Man&aacute;os is destined to become the St.
+Louis of South America. In commercial advantages it is hardly to be
+surpassed by any other city in the world, having water communication
+with two thirds of the continent, and also with the Atlantic. It is now
+the principal station for the Brazilian line of steamers. Here all goods
+for a higher or lower point are reshipped. The chief articles of export
+are coffee (of superior quality), sarsaparilla, Brazil nuts, piassaba,
+and fish. The Negro at this point is really five or six miles wide, but
+the opposite shore is masked by low islands, so that it appears to be
+but a mile and a half.</p>
+
+<p>The country around Man&aacute;os is quite romantic for the Amazonian Valley.
+The land is undulating and furrowed by ravines, and the vegetation
+covering it is marvelously rich and diversified. In the forest, two
+miles from the city, there is a natural curiosity celebrated by all
+travelers from Spix and Martius down. A rivulet coming out of the
+wilderness falls over a ledge of red sandstone ten feet high and fifty
+feet broad, forming a beautiful cascade. The water is cool, and of a
+deep orange color. The foundation of a fine stone cathedral was laid in
+Man&aacute;os fourteen years ago, but this generation is not likely to witness
+the dedication. Life in this Amazonian city is dull enough: commerce is
+not brisk, and society is stiff; balls are about the only amusements. On
+Sunday (the holiday) every body who can afford it comes out in Paris
+fashions. There are carts, hut no coaches. We called upon the President
+at his "Palace"&mdash;an odd term for a two-storied, whitewashed edifice. His
+excellency received us with less formality and more cordiality than we
+expected to find in the solemn officials of the empire. The first glance
+at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> reception-room, with the four chairs for visitors set in two
+lines at right angles to the chair of state, promised cold etiquette;
+but he addressed us with considerable familiarity and evident good-will.
+We found, however, that his authority was quite limited, for a written
+order which he gave us for a subordinate did not receive the slightest
+consideration. At the house of a Jew named Levy we met a party of
+Southerners, Captains Mallory, Jones, Sandedge, and Winn, commanded by
+Dr. Dowsing, who, since "the late onpleasantness," as Nasby calls it,
+have determined to settle in this country. The government grants them
+twenty square leagues of land on any tributary, on condition that they
+will colonize it. They were about to start for the Rio Branco on an
+exploring tour.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVII.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Down the Amazon.&mdash;
+Serpa.&mdash;Villa Nova.&mdash;
+Obidos.&mdash;
+Santarem.&mdash;
+A Colony
+of Southerners.&mdash;
+Monte Al&eacute;gre.&mdash;
+Porto do Moz.&mdash;
+Leaving the
+Amazon.&mdash;Breves.&mdash;
+Par&aacute; River.&mdash;
+The City of Par&aacute;.&mdash;
+Legislation and
+Currency.&mdash;
+Religion and Education.&mdash;
+Nonpareil Climate.</p>
+
+
+<p>At 10 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span> we left Man&aacute;os in the "Tapajos," an iron steamer of seven
+hundred tons. We missed the snow-white cleanliness and rigid regularity
+of the "Icamiaba," and Captain Jos&eacute; Antunes Rodrigues de Oliveira
+Catramby was quite a contrast to Lieutenant Nuno. There were only five
+first-class passengers besides ourselves (and four of these were
+"dead-heads"), though there were accommodations for sixty-four. Between
+Man&aacute;os and Par&aacute;, a distance of one thousand miles, there were fourteen
+additions. Passing the mouth of the Madeira, the largest tributary to
+the Amazon, we anchored thirty miles below at Serpa, after nine hours'
+sailing. Serpa is a village of ninety houses, built on a high bank of
+variegated clay, whence its Indian name, <i>Ita-coatiara</i>, or painted
+rock. It was the most animated place we had seen on the river. The town
+is irregularly laid out and overrun with weeds, but there is a busy tile
+factory, and the port was full of canoes, montarias, and cubertas. The
+African element in the population began to show itself prominently here,
+and increased in importance as we neared Par&aacute;. The Negroes are very
+ebony, and are employed as stevedores. The Indians are well-featured,
+and wear a long gown of bark-cloth reaching to the knees.</p>
+
+<p>Taking on board rubber and salt fish, the "Tapajos" steamed down stream,
+passing the perpendicular pink-clay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> cliffs of Cararauc&uacute;, arriving in
+ten hours at Villa Nova,<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> one hundred and fifty miles below Serpa.
+Villa Nova is a straggling village of mud huts standing on a
+conglomerate bank. The trade is chiefly in rubber, copaiba, and fish.
+The location is healthy, and in many respects is one of the most
+desirable places on the river. Here the Amazon begins to narrow, being
+scarcely three miles wide; but the channel, which has a rocky bed, is
+very deep. One hundred miles from Villa Nova is Obidos, airily situated
+on a bluff of pink and yellow clay one hundred feet above the river. The
+clay rests on a white calcareous earth, and this on red sandstone. It is
+a picturesque, substantially-built town, with a population, mostly
+white, engaged in raising cacao and cattle. Cacao is the most valuable
+product on the Amazon below Villa Nova. The soil is fertile, and the
+surrounding forest is alive with monkeys, birds, and insects, and
+abounds with precious woods and fruits. Obidos is blessed with a church,
+a school, and a weekly newspaper, and is defended by thirty-two guns.
+This is the Thermopyl&aelig; of the Amazon, the great river contracting to a
+strait not a mile in width, through which it rushes with tremendous
+velocity. The depth is forty fathoms, and the current 2.4 feet per
+second. As Bates remarks, however, the river valley is not contracted to
+this breadth, the southern shore not being continental land, but a low
+alluvial tract subject to inundation. Back of Obidos is an eminence
+which has been named <i>Mount Agassiz</i> in honor of the Naturalist. There
+is no mountain between it and Cotopaxi save the spurs from the Eastern
+Cordillera. Five miles above the town is the mouth of the Trombetas,
+where Orellana had his celebrated fight with the fabulous Amazons.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Santarem" id="Santarem"></a>
+<img src="images/248tb.png" alt="Santarem." title="Santarem." /><br /><a href="images/248.png">Santarem.</a></p>
+
+<p>Adding to her cargo wood, hides, horses, and Paraguayan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> prisoners
+(short, athletic men), the "Tapajos" sailed for Santarem. The river
+scenery below Obidos loses its wild and solitary character, and is
+relieved with scattered habitations, factories, and cacao plantations.
+We arrived at Santarem in seven hours from Obidos, a distance of fifty
+miles. This city, the largest on the Amazon save Par&aacute;, stands on a
+pretty slope at the mouth of the Rio Tapajos, and five hundred miles
+from the sea.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> It mainly consists of three long-rows of whitewashed,
+tiled houses, girt with green gardens. The citizens, made up of
+Brazilians, Portuguese, mulattoes, and blacks, number about two thousand
+five hundred. The surrounding country, which is an undulating campo,
+with patches of wood, is sparsely inhabited by Tapajocos. Cattle estates
+and cacao plantations are the great investments, but the soil is poor.
+Considerable sarsaparilla of superior quality, rubber, copaiba, Brazil
+nuts, and farina come down the Tapajos. The climate is delightful, the
+trade-winds tempering the heat and driving away all insect pests.
+Leprosy is somewhat common among the poorer class. At Santarem is one of
+the largest colonies which migrated from the disaffected Gulf States for
+Brazil. One hundred and sixty Southerners pitched their tents here. Many
+of them, however, were soon disgusted with the country, and, if we are
+to believe reports, the country was disgusted with them. On the 1st of
+January, 1868, only seventy-five remained. The colony does not fairly
+represent the United States, being made up in great part of the "roughs"
+of Mobile. A few are contented and are doing well. Amazonia will be
+indebted to them for some valuable ideas. Bates says: "Butter-making is
+unknown in this country; the milk, I was told, was too poor." But these
+Anglo-Saxon immigrants have no difficulty in making but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>ter. Santarem
+sends to Par&aacute; for sugar; but the cavaliers of Alabama are proving that
+the sugar-cane grows better than in Louisiana, attaining the height of
+twenty feet, and that it will yield for ten or twelve years without
+transplanting or cultivation. It is not, however, so sweet or juicy as
+the Southern cane. Some of the colonists are making tapioca and casha&ccedil;a
+or Brazilian rum; others have gone into the pork business; while one,
+Dr. Jones, expects to realize a fortune burning lime. Here we met the
+rebel ex-General Dobbins, who had been prospecting on the Tapajos River,
+but had not yet located himself.</p>
+
+<p>Below Santarem the Amazon vastly increases in width; at one point the
+southern shore was invisible from the steamer. The waves often run very
+high. At 10 <span class="smcap">A.M</span>., eight hours from Santarem, we entered the romantic
+port of Monte Al&eacute;gre. The road from the river to the village, just
+visible inland, runs through a pretty dell. Back of the village, beyond
+a low, swampy flat, rise the table-topped blue hills of Almeyrim. It was
+an exhilarating sight and a great relief to gaze upon a mountain range
+from three hundred to one thousand feet high, the greatest elevations
+along the Amazon east of the Andes. Agassiz considers these singular
+mountains the remnants of a plain which once filled the whole valley of
+the Amazon; but Bates believes them to be the southern terminus of the
+high land of Guiana. Their geological constitution&mdash;a pebbly
+sandstone&mdash;favors the Professor's theory. The range extends ninety miles
+along the north bank of the river, the western limit at Monte Al&eacute;gre
+bearing the local name of Serra Erer&eacute;. Mount Agassiz, at Obidos, is a
+spur of the same table-land. The Amazon is here about five miles wide,
+the southern shore being low, uninhabited, and covered with coarse
+grass. Five schooners were anchored in the harbor of Monte Al&eacute;gre, a
+sign of considerable trade for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> the Amazon. The place exports cattle,
+cacao, rubber, and fish.</p>
+
+<p>In four hours we reached Prayinha, a dilapidated village of forty
+houses, situated on a low, sandy beach. The chief occupation is the
+manufacture of turtle-oil. In ten hours more we were taking in wood at
+Porto do Moz, situated just within the mouth of the Xing&uacute;, the last
+great tributary to the Amazon. Dismal was our farewell sail on the great
+river. With the highlands came foul weather. We were treated to frequent
+and furious showers, accompanied by a violent wind, and the atmosphere
+was filled with smoke caused by numerous fires in the forest. Where the
+Xing&uacute; comes in, the Amazon is ten miles wide, but it is soon divided by
+a series of islands, the first of which is Grand Island. Twenty miles
+below Porto do Moz is Gurup&aacute;, where we took in rubber. The village,
+nearly as inanimate as Pompeii, consists of one street, half deserted,
+built on an isolated site. Forty miles below Gurup&aacute; we left the Amazon
+proper, turning to the right down a narrow channel leading into the
+river Par&aacute;. The forest became more luxuriant, the palms especially
+increasing in number and beauty. At one place there was a forest of
+palms, a singularity, for trees of the same order are seldom associated.
+The forest, densely packed and gloomy, stands on very low, flat banks of
+hard river mud. Scarcely a sign of animal life was visible; but, as we
+progressed, dusky faces peered out of the woods; little shanties
+belonging to the <i>seringeros</i>, or rubber-makers, here and there broke
+the solitude, and occasionally a large group of half-clad natives
+greeted us from the shore. A labyrinth of channels connects the Amazon
+with the Par&aacute;; the steamers usually take the Tajapur&uacute;. This natural
+canal is of great depth, and from fifty to one hundred yards in width;
+so that, hemmed in by two green walls, eighty feet-high, we seemed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> to
+be sailing through a deep gorge; in some places it was so narrow it was
+nearly overarched by the foliage. One hundred and twenty-five miles from
+Gurup&aacute; is Breves, a busy little town on the southwest corner of the
+great island of Maraj&oacute;. The inhabitants, mostly Portuguese, are engaged
+in the rubber trade; the Indians in the vicinity manufacture fancy
+earthen-ware and painted cuyas or calabashes.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after leaving Breves we entered the Par&aacute; River, which suddenly
+begins with the enormous width of eight miles. It is, however, shallow,
+and contains numerous shoals and islands. It is properly an estuary,
+immense volumes of fresh water flowing into it from the south. The tides
+are felt through its entire length of one hundred and sixty miles, but
+the water is only slightly brackish. It has a dingy orange-brown color.
+A narrow blue line on our left, miles away, was all that was visible, at
+times, of the island of Maraj&oacute;; and as we passed the broad mouth of the
+Tocant&iacute;ns, we were struck with the magnificent sea-like expanse, for
+there was scarcely a point of mainland to be seen.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Para" id="Para"></a>
+<img src="images/253tb.png" alt="Par&aacute;." title="Par&aacute;." /><br /><a href="images/253.png">Par&aacute;.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
+At 4 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span>, eighteen hours from Breves, we entered the peaceful bay of
+Goajara, and anchored in front of the city of Par&aacute;. Beautiful was the
+view of the city from the harbor in the rays of the declining sun. The
+towering spires and cupolas, the palatial government buildings, the long
+row of tall warehouses facing a fleet of schooners, ships, and steamers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>
+
+and pretty white villas in the suburbs, nestling in luxuriant gardens,
+were to us, who had just come down the Andes from medi&aelig;val Quito, the
+<i>ultima thule</i> of civilization. We seemed to have stepped at once from
+the Amazon to New York or London. We might, indeed, say <i>ne plus ultra</i>
+in one respect&mdash;we had crossed the continent, and Par&aacute; was the terminus
+of our wanderings, the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>
+end of romantic adventures, of privations and
+perils. We were kindly met on the pier by Mr. James Henderson, an
+elderly Scotchman, whom a long residence in Par&aacute;, a bottomless fund of
+information, and a readiness to serve an Anglo-Saxon, have made an
+invaluable cicerone. We shot through the devious, narrow streets to the
+Hotel Diana, where we made our toilet, for our habiliments, too, had
+reached their <i>ultima thule</i>. As La Condamine said on his arrival at
+Quito: "<i>Je me trouvai hors d'&eacute;tat de paroitre en public avec d&eacute;cence</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The same year which saw Shakspeare carried to his grave beside the Avon
+witnessed the founding of Par&aacute;, or, speaking more respectfully, of Santa
+Maria de Bel&eacute;m do Gram Par&aacute;. The city stands on a low elbow of land
+formed by the junction of the rivers Guam&aacute; and Par&aacute;, seventy-five miles
+from the ocean. The great forest comes close up to the suburbs; and, in
+fact, vegetation is so rapid the city fathers have a hard struggle to
+keep the jungle out of the streets. The river in front is twenty miles
+wide, but the vast expanse is broken by numerous islets. Ships of any
+size will float within, one hundred and fifty yards of the shore. All
+passengers and goods are landed by boats at the custom-house wharf. The
+city is regularly laid out, there are several public squares, and many
+of the streets, especially in the commercial part, are well paved.
+Magnificent avenues, lined with silk-cotton trees, cocoa-palms, and
+almonds, lead out to beautiful <i>rocinhas</i>, or country residences, of one
+story, but having spacious verandas. The President's house, built in the
+Italian style, whose marble staircase is a wonder to Brazil; the six
+large churches, including the cathedral, after patterns from Lisbon; the
+post-office, custom-house, and convent-looking warehouses on the
+mole&mdash;these are the most prominent buildings. The architecture is
+superior to that of Quito. The houses,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> generally two-storied, are
+tiled, plastered, and whitewashed or painted; the popular colors are
+red, yellow, and blue. A few have porcelain facing. The majority have
+elegant balconies and glass windows, but not all the old projecting
+lattice casements have disappeared. Some of the buildings bear the marks
+of the cannonading in the Revolution of 1835. Instead of bedrooms and
+beds, the largest apartments and verandahs have hooks in the wall for
+hammocks. A carpeted, cushioned room is seldom seen, and is out of place
+in the tropics. Coaches and gas are supplanting ox-carts and candles.
+There are two hotels, but scant accommodations for travelers. Beef is
+almost the only meat used; the fish are poor and dear; the oysters are
+horrible. Bananas, oranges, and coffee are the best native productions
+on the table.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Par&aacute; is thirty-five thousand, or double what it was
+when Wallace and Bates entered it twenty years ago. It is the largest
+city on the largest river in the world, and the capital of a province
+ten times the size of New York State. The enterprising, wealthy class
+consists of Portuguese and pure Brazilians, with a few English, Germans,
+French, and North Americans. The multitude is an amalgamation of
+Portuguese, Indian, and Negro. The diversity of races, and the mingled
+dialects of the Amazon and Europe, make an attractive street scene. Side<a name="Fruit" id="Fruit"></a>
+by side we see the corpulent Brazilian planter, the swarthy Portuguese
+trader, the merry Negro porter, and the apathetic Indian boatman. Some
+of the more recent offspring are dressed <i>&agrave; la Adam</i> before the fall;
+numbers wear only a shirt or skirt; the negro girls who go about the
+streets with trays of sweetmeats on their heads are loosely yet prettily
+dressed in pure white, with massive gilded chains and earrings; but the
+middle and upper classes generally follow Paris fashions. The
+mechanic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>
+arts are in the hands of free Negroes and Indians, mulattoes and
+mamelucos.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Commerce is carried on almost exclusively by Portuguese
+<span class="figright">
+<img src="images/257.png" alt="Fruit Peddlers." title="Fruit Peddlers." /><br />Fruit Peddlers.</span>and other foreigners. Dry-goods come chiefly from England and France;
+groceries from Portugal; flour and hardware from the United States. The
+principal exports are rubber, cacao, coffee,<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> sugar, cotton, Brazil
+nuts, sarsaparilla, vanilla, farina, copaiba, tobacco, rum, hides, fish,
+parrots, and monkeys.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> Par&aacute; exceeds in the number of its indigenous
+commodities any other port in the world, but the trade at present is
+insignificant when we consider the vast extent and resources of the
+country. The city can never have a rival at the mouth of the Amazon, and
+is destined to become a great emporium. But Brazilian legislation stands
+in the way. Heavy import duties are charged&mdash;from 35 to 45 per cent.;
+and on the 1st of January, 1868, it was ordered that 15 per cent. must
+be paid in English gold. The consequence has been that gold has risen
+from 28 to 30 above par, creating an additional tax. Exportation is
+equally discouraging. There is a duty of nine per cent. to be paid at
+the custom-house, and seven<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> per cent. more at the consulado. But this
+is not the sum total. Those who live outside of the province of Par&aacute;,
+say above Obidos, must first pay an import of thirteen per cent. to get
+their produce into Par&aacute;. For example: up the river crude rubber can be
+bought for twenty-five cents a pound; the trader pays twenty-five cents
+an arroba (thirty-two pounds) for transportation to Par&aacute; from Santarem,
+exclusive of canoe hire and shipping; thirteen per cent. duty in
+entering Par&aacute;, ten per cent. to the commission merchant, and sixteen per
+cent. more as export tax; making a total loss on labor of about fifty
+per cent. Brazil abounds with the most valuable woods in the world, but
+is prevented from competing with other nations by this system of
+self-strangulation. In 1867 the import duty on timber was twelve per
+cent. Though situated on the edge of a boundless forest, Par&aacute; consumes
+large quantities of North American pine. There is not a grist-mill on
+the Amazon, and only two or three saw-mills. A dozen boards of red cedar
+(a very common timber) costs 60$000 per thousand (about thirty dollars)
+at Santarem. There is no duty on goods going to Peru. The current money,
+besides foreign gold, consists of copper coins and imperial treasury
+notes. The basis of calculation is the imaginary <i>rey</i>, equivalent to
+half a mill. The coins in use are the vintem (twenty reys), answering to
+our cent, the half vintem, and double vintem. The currency has so
+fluctuated in value that many of the pieces have been restamped. Fifty
+vintems make a <i>milrey</i>, expressed thus: 1$000. This is the smallest
+paper issue. Unfortunately, the notes may suddenly fall below par. As a
+great many counterfeits made in Portugal are in circulation, the
+government recalls the issue which has been counterfeited, notifying
+holders, by the provincial papers, that all such bills must be exchanged
+for a new issue within six months. Those not brought in at the end of
+that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>period lose ten per cent. of their value, and ten per cent. for
+each following month, until the value of the note is <i>nil</i>. The result
+has been that many persons trading up the river have lost heavily, and
+now demand hard money. Change is very scarce in Par&aacute;.</p>
+
+<p>The province of Par&aacute; is governed by a president chosen at Rio, and every
+four years sends representatives to the Imperial Parliament. The
+Constitution of Brazil is very liberal; every householder, without
+distinction of race or color, has a vote, and may work his way up to
+high position. There are two drawbacks&mdash;the want of intelligence and
+virtue in the people, and the immense staff of officials employed to
+administer the government. There are also many formalities which are not
+only useless, but a hinderance to prosperity. Thus, the internal trade
+of a province carried on by Brazilian subjects is not exempt from the
+passport system. A foreigner finds as much trouble in getting his
+passport <i>en r&egrave;gle</i> in Par&aacute; as in Vienna. The religion of Par&aacute; is
+Romish, and not so tolerant as in Rio. We arrived during <i>festa</i>. (When
+did a traveler enter a Portuguese town on any other than a feast day?)
+That night was made hideous with rockets, fire-crackers, cannon, and
+bells. "Music, noise, and fireworks," says Wallace, "are the three
+essentials to please a Brazilian populace." The most celebrated shrine
+in Northern Brazil is Our Lady of Nazareth. The little chapel stands
+about a mile out of the city, and is now rebuilding for the third time.
+The image is a doll about the size of a girl ten years old, wearing a
+silver crown and a dress of blue silk glittering with golden stars.
+Hosts of miracles are attributed to Our Lady, and we were shown votive
+offerings and models of legs, arms, heads, etc., etc., the grateful <i>in
+memoriam</i> of wonderful cures, besides a boat whose crew were saved by
+invoking the protection of Mary. The facilities for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>edication are
+improving. There are several seminaries in Par&aacute;, of which the chief is
+the <i>Lyceo da Capital</i>. Too many youths, however, as in Quito, are
+satisfied with a little rhetoric and law. The city supports four
+newspapers.</p>
+
+<p>Par&aacute;enses may well be proud of their delightful climate. Wallace says
+the thermometer ranges from 74&deg; to 87&deg;; our observation made the mean
+annual temperature 80.2&deg;. The mean daily temperature does not vary more
+than two or three degrees. The climate is more equable than that of any
+other observed part of the New World.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> The greatest heat is reached
+at two o'clock, but it is never so oppressive as in New York. The
+greater the heat, the stronger the sea-breeze; and in three hundred out
+of three hundred and sixty-five days, the air is farther cooled by an
+afternoon shower. The rainiest month is April; the dryest, October or
+November. Lying in the delta of a great river, in the middle of the
+tropics, and half surrounded by swamps, its salubrity is remarkable. We
+readily excuse the proverb, "<i>Quem vai para Par&aacute; para</i>" ("He who goes to
+Par&aacute; stops there"); and we might have made it good, had we not been
+tempted by the magnificent steamer "South America," which came up from
+Rio on the way to New York. On the moonlit night of the 7th of January,
+when the ice-king had thrown his white robes over the North, we turned
+our backs upon the glimmering lights of Par&aacute;, and noiselessly as a canoe
+glided down the great river. As the sun rose for the last time to us
+upon the land of perpetual verdure, our gallant ship was plowing the
+mottled waters on the edge of the ocean&mdash;mingled yellow patches of the
+Amazon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> and dark streaks from the Par&aacute; floating on the Atlantic green.
+Far behind us we could see the breakers dashing against the Braganza
+Banks; a moment after Cape Magoary dropped beneath the horizon, and with
+it South America vanished from our view.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">The River Amazon.&mdash;
+Its Source and Magnitude.&mdash;
+Tributaries and
+Tints.&mdash;
+Volume and Current.&mdash;
+Rise and
+Fall.&mdash;
+Navigation.&mdash;
+Expeditions on the Great River.</p>
+
+
+<p>Near the silver mines of Cerro Pasco, in the little Lake of Lauricocha,
+just below the limit of perpetual winter, rises the "King of
+Waters."<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> For the first five hundred miles it flows northerly, in a
+continuous series of cataracts and rapids, through a deep valley between
+the parallel Cordilleras of Peru. Upon reaching the frontier of Ecuador,
+it turns to the right, and runs easterly two thousand five hundred miles
+across the great equatorial plain of the continent.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> No other river
+flows in the same latitude, and retains, therefore, the same climatic
+conditions for so great a distance. The breadth of the Amazon, also, is
+well proportioned to its extraordinary length. At Tabatinga, two
+thousand miles above its mouth, it is a mile and a half wide; at the
+entrance of the Madeira, it is three miles; below Santarem, it is ten;
+and if the Par&aacute; be considered a part of the great river, it fronts the
+Atlantic one hundred and eighty miles. Brazilians proudly call it the
+Mediterranean of the New World. Its vast expanse, presenting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> below
+Teff&eacute; magnificent reaches, with blank horizons, and forming a barrier
+between different species of animals; its system of back channels,
+joining the tributaries, and linking a series of lagunes too many ever
+to be named; its network of navigable waters stretching over one third
+of the continent; its oceanic fauna&mdash;porpoises and manatis, gulls and
+frigate-birds&mdash;remind the traveler of a great inland sea, with endless
+ramifications, rather than a river. The side-channels through the
+forest, called by the Indians <i>igarap&eacute;s</i>, or canoe-paths, are one of the
+characteristic features<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> of the Amazon.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> They often run to a great
+distance parallel to the great river, and intersecting the tributaries,
+so that one can go from Santarem a thousand miles up the Amazon without
+once entering it. These natural highways will be of immense advantage
+for inter-communication.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Igarap" id="Igarap"></a>
+<img src="images/263tb.png" alt="Igarap&eacute;, or Canoe-path." title="Igarap&eacute;, or Canoe-path." /><br /><a href="images/263.png">Igarap&eacute;, or Canoe-path.</a></p>
+
+<p>But extraordinary as is this network of natural canals, the tributaries
+of the Amazon are still more wonderful. They are so numerous they appear
+on the map like a thousand ribbons streaming from a main mast, and many
+of the obscure affluents, though large as the Hudson, are unknown to
+geography. From three degrees north to twenty degrees south, every river
+that flows down the eastern slope of the Andes is a contributor&mdash;as
+though all the rivers between Mexico and Mount Hooker united their
+waters in the Mississippi. While the great river of the northern
+continent drains an area of one million two hundred thousand square
+miles, the Amazon (not including the Tocant&iacute;ns) is spread over a million
+more, or over a surface equal to two thirds of all Europe. Let us
+journey around the grand trunk and take a glimpse of the main branches.</p>
+
+<p>The first we meet in going up the left bank is the Rio Negro. It rises
+in the Sierra Tunuhy, an isolated mountain group in the llanos of
+Colombia, and enters the Amazon at Man&aacute;os, a thousand miles from the
+sea. The upper part, down to the parallel of one degree north, has a
+very rapid current; at San Gabriel are the first rapids in ascending;
+between San Gabriel and Barcellos the rate is not over two or three
+miles per hour; between Barcellos and Man&aacute;os it is a deep but sluggish
+river, and in the annual rise of the Amazon its waters are stagnant for
+several hundred miles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> up, or actually flow back. Its extreme length is
+twelve hundred miles, and its greatest breadth is at Barcellos, where it
+is twelve or fifteen miles. Excepting this middle section, the usual
+breadth of the Negro below the equatorial line is about one mile. It is
+joined to the Orinoco by the navigable Cassiquiari,<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> a natural canal
+three fourths of a mile wide, and a portage of only two hours divides
+the head of its tributary, the Branco, from the Essequibo of Guiana. The
+Negro yields to commerce coffee, cacao, farina, sarsaparilla, Brazil
+nuts, pitch, piassaba, and valuable woods. The commerce of Brazil with
+Venezuela by the Rio Negro amounted in 1867 to $22,000, of which $9000
+was the value of imports. The principal villages above Man&aacute;os are San
+Miguel and Moroa (which contain about fifty dwellings each), Tireguin,
+Barcellos, Toma, San Carlos, Coana, San Gabriel, and Santa Isabel.</p>
+
+<p>The next great affluent is the Japur&aacute;. It rises in the mountains of New
+Granada, and, flowing southeasterly a thousand miles, enters the Amazon
+opposite Ega, five hundred miles above Man&aacute;os. Its principal mouth is
+three hundred feet wide, but it has a host of distributing channels, the
+extremes of which are two hundred miles apart. Its current is only three
+quarters of a mile an hour, and it has been ascended by canoes five
+hundred miles. A natural canal like the Cassiquiari is said to connect
+it with the Orinoco. The products of the Japur&aacute; are sarsaparilla,
+copaiba, rubber, cacao, farina, Brazil nuts, moira-pir&aacute;nga&mdash;a hard,
+fine-grained wood of a rich, cherry-red color&mdash;and carajur&uacute;, a brilliant
+scarlet dye.</p>
+
+<p>Parallel to the Japur&aacute; is the Putumayo or Iss&aacute;. Its source is the Lake
+of San Pablo, at the foot of the volcano<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> of Pasto; its mouth, as given
+by Herndon, is half a mile broad, and its current two and three fourths
+miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>Farther west are the Napo and Pastassa, starting from the volcanoes of
+Quito. The former is nearly seven hundred miles long, navigable five
+hundred. The latter is an unnavigable torrent. One of its branches, the
+Topo, is one continued rapid; "of those who have fallen into it, only
+one has come out alive." Another, the Patate, rises near Iliniza, runs
+through the plain to a little south of Cotopaxi, receives all streams
+flowing from the eastern side of the western Cordillera from Iliniza to
+Chimborazo, and unites near Tunguragua with the Chambo, which rises near
+Sanga&iacute;. Castelnau and Bates saw pumice floating on the Amazon; it was
+probably brought from Cotopaxi by the Pastassa.</p>
+
+<p>Crossing the Mara&ntilde;on, and going eastward, we first pass the Huallaga, a
+rapid river of the size of the Cumberland, coming down the Peruvian
+Andes from an altitude of eight thousand six hundred feet, and entering
+the great river nearly opposite the Pastassa. Its mouth is a mile wide,
+and for a hundred miles up its average depth is three fathoms. In July,
+August, and September the steamers are not able to ascend to Yurimaguas.
+Canoe navigation begins at Tinga Maria, three hundred miles from Lima.
+The fertile plain through which the river flows is very attractive to an
+agriculturist. Cotton is gathered six months after sowing, and rice in
+five months. At Tarapoto a large amount of cotton-cloth is woven for
+export.</p>
+
+<p>The next great tributary from the south is the Ucayali. This magnificent
+stream originates near ancient Cuzco, and has a fall of .87 of a foot
+per mile, and a length nearly equal to that of the Negro. For two
+hundred and fifty miles above its mouth it averages half a mile in
+width, and has a current of three miles an hour. At Sarayacu it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
+twenty feet deep. The Ucayali is navigable for at least seven hundred
+miles. The "Morona," a steamer of five hundred tons, has been up to the
+entrance of the Pachit&eacute;a in the dry season, a distance of six hundred
+miles, and in the wet season ascended that branch to Mayro. A small
+Peruvian steamer has recently ascended the Tambo to within sixty miles
+of Fort Ramon, or seven hundred and seventy-three miles from Nauta.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving the Ucayali, we pass by six rivers rising in the unknown lands
+of Northern Bolivia: the Javar&iacute;, navigable by steam for two hundred and
+fifty miles; the sluggish Jutah&iacute;, half a mile broad and four hundred
+miles long; the Juru&aacute;, four times the size of our Connecticut, and
+navigable nearly its entire length; the unhealthy, little-known Teff&eacute;
+and Coary; and the Purus, a deep, slow river, over a thousand miles
+long, and open to navigation half way to its source. Soldan and Pinto
+claim to have ascended the Javar&iacute;, in a steamer, about one thousand
+miles, and it is said Chandlers went up the Purus one thousand eight
+hundred miles. The Teff&eacute; is narrow, with a strong current. Of all these
+six rivers, the Purus is the most important. It is probably the
+Amaru-mayu, or "serpent-river," of the Incas, and its affluents enjoy
+the privilege of draining the waters of those beautiful Andes which
+formed the eastern boundary of the empire of Manco Capac, and
+fertilizing the romantic valley of Paucar-tambo, or "Inn of the Flowery
+Meadow." The banks of this noble stream are now held by the untamable
+Chunchos; but the steam-whistle will accomplish what the rifle can not.
+The Purus communicates with the Madeira, proving the absence of rapids
+and of intervening mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Sixty miles below the confluence of the Negro, the mighty Madeira, the
+largest tributary of the Amazon, blends its milky waters with the turbid
+king of rivers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> It is about two thousand miles in length; one branch,
+the Beni, rising near Lake Titicaca, drains the fertile valleys of
+Yungus and Apollo, rich in cinchona, chocolate, and gold; the Marmor&eacute;
+springs from the vicinity of Chuquisaca, within fifteen miles of a
+source of the Paraguay, traversing the territory of the brave and
+intelligent Moxos; while the Itinez washes down the gold and diamonds of
+Matto Grosso. Were it not for the cascade four hundred and eighty miles
+from its mouth, large vessels might sail from the Amazon into the very
+heart of Bolivia. When full, it has a three-mile current, and at its
+junction with the Amazon it is two miles wide and sixty-six feet deep.
+Five hundred miles from its mouth it is a mile wide and one hundred feet
+deep. It contains numerous islands, and runs in a comparatively straight
+course. It received its name from the vast quantity of drift-wood often
+seen floating down. The value of Brazilian commerce with Bolivia by the
+Madeira was, in 1867, $43,000.<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p>
+
+<p>At Santarem the Amazon receives another great tributary, the Tapajos (or
+Rio Preto, as the Portuguese call it), a thousand miles long, and, for
+the last eighty miles, from four to twelve miles in breadth. It rises
+amid the glittering mines of Matto Grosso, only twenty miles from the
+headwaters of the Rio Plata, and flows rapidly down through a
+magnificent hilly country to the last cataract, which is one hundred and
+sixty miles above Santarem, and is the end of navigation to sailing
+vessels. Thence to the Amazon it has little current and no great depth.
+From Santarem to Diamantino it is about twenty-six days' travel. Large
+quantities of sarsaparilla, rubber, tonka beans, mandioca, and guarana
+are brought down this river.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Parallel to the Tapajos, and about two hundred miles distant, flows the
+Xing&uacute;. It rises in the heart of the empire, has the length of the Ohio
+and Monongahela, and can be navigated one hundred and fifty miles. This
+is the last great tributary of the Amazon proper; if, however, we
+consider the Par&aacute; as only one of the outlets of the great river, we may
+then add to the list the grand Tocant&iacute;ns.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> This splendid river has
+its source in the rich province of Minas (the source, also, of the San
+Francisco and Uruguay), not six hundred miles from Rio Janeiro&mdash;a region
+possessing the finest climate in Brazil, and yielding diamonds and
+rubies, the sapphire, topaz and opal, gold, silver, and petroleum. The
+Tocant&iacute;ns is sixteen hundred miles long, and ten miles broad at its
+mouth; but, unfortunately, rapids commence one hundred and twenty miles
+above Camet&aacute;. The Araguaia, its main branch, is, according to Castelnau,
+one mile wide, with a current of three fourths of a mile an hour.</p>
+
+<p>Here are six tributaries, all of them superior to any river in Europe,
+outside of Russia, save the Danube, and ten times greater than any
+stream on the west slope of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> Andes. While the Arkansas joins the
+Mississippi four hundred miles above New Orleans, the Madeira, of equal
+length, enters the Amazon nine hundred miles from Par&aacute;. But, vast as are
+these tributary streams, they seem to make no impression on the Amazon;
+they are lost like brooks in the ocean. Our ideas of the magnitude of
+the great river are wonderfully increased when we see the Madeira coming
+down two thousand miles, yet its enormous contribution imperceptible
+half way across the giant river; or the dark waters of the Negro
+creeping along the shore, and becoming undistinguishable five miles from
+its mouth. Though the Amazon carries a larger amount of sediment than
+any other river, it has no true delta, the archipelago in its mouth
+(for, like our own St. Lawrence, it has its Bay of a Thousand Isles) not
+being an alluvial formation, but having a rocky base. The great island
+of Maraj&oacute;, in physical configuration, resembles the mainland of Guiana.
+The deltoid outlet is confined to the tributaries, nearly all of them,
+like "the disembogning Nile," emptying themselves by innumerable
+embouchures. To several tributaries the Amazon gives water before it
+receives their tribute. Thus, by ascending the Negro sixty miles, we
+have the singular spectacle of water pouring in from the Amazon through
+the Guariba Channel.</p>
+
+<p>The waters of this great river system are of divers tints. The Amazon,
+as it leaps from the Andes, and as far down as the Ucayali, is blue,
+passing into a clear olive-green; likewise the Pastassa, Huallaga,
+Tapajos, Xing&uacute;, and Tocant&iacute;ns. Below the Ucayali it is of a pale,
+yellowish olive; the Madeira,<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> Purus, Juru&aacute;, Jutah&iacute;, Javar&iacute;,
+Ucayali, Napo, I&ccedil;a, and Japur&aacute; are of similar color. The Negro, Coary,
+and Teff&eacute; are black. Humboldt observes that "a cooler<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> atmosphere, fewer
+musquitoes, greater salubrity, and absence of crocodiles, as also of
+fish, mark the region of these black rivers." This is not altogether
+true. The Amazon throughout is healthy, being swept by the trade-winds.
+The branches, which are not so constantly refreshed by the ocean
+breezes, are occasionally malarious; the "white-water" tributaries,
+except when they have a slack current in the dry season, have the best
+reputation, while intermittent fevers are nearly confined to the
+dark-colored streams. Much of the sickness on these tropical waters,
+however, is due to exposure and want of proper food rather than to the
+climate. The river system of South America will favorably compare, in
+point of salubrity, with the river system of its continental
+neighbor.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p>
+
+<p>As we might expect, the volume of the Amazon is beyond all parallel.
+Half a million cubic feet of water pour through the narrows of Obidos
+every second, and fresh water may be taken up from the Atlantic far out
+of sight of land. The fall of the main easterly trunk of the Amazon is
+about six and a half inches per mile, equivalent to a slope of 21'&mdash;the
+same as that of the Nile, and one third that of the Mississippi. Below
+Jaen there are thirty cataracts and rapids; at the Pongo de Manseriche,
+at the altitude of 1164 feet (according to Humboldt), it bids adieu to
+mountain scenery. Between Tabatinga and the ocean the average current is
+three miles an hour. It diminishes toward Par&aacute;, and is every where at a
+minimum in the dry season; but it always has the "swing" of an ocean
+current.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Though not so rapid as the Mississippi, the Amazon is deeper. There are
+seven fathoms of water at Nauta (2200 miles from the Atlantic), eleven
+at Tabatinga, and twenty-seven on the average below Mand&aacute;os.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Amazon and its branches are subject to an annual rise of great
+regularity. It does not take place simultaneously over the whole river,
+but there is a succession of freshets. At the foot of the Andes the rise
+commences in January; at Ega it begins about the end of February.
+Coinciding with this contribution from the west, the October rains on
+the highlands of Bolivia and Brazil swell the southern tributaries,
+whose accumulated floods reach the main stream in February; and the
+latter, unable to discharge the avalanche of waters, inundates a vast
+area, and even crowds up the northern tributaries. As the Madeira,
+Tapajos, and Purus subside, the Negro, fed by the spring rains in Guiana
+and Venezuela, presses downward till the central stream rolls back the
+now sluggish affluents from the south. There is, therefore, a rhythmical
+correspondence in the rise and fall of the arms of the Amazon, so that
+this great fresh-water sea sways alternately north and south; while the
+onward swell in the grand trunk is a progressive undulation eastward. As
+the Cambridge Professor well says: "In this oceanic river the tidal
+action has an annual instead of a daily ebb and flow; it obeys a larger
+orb, and is ruled by the sun and not the moon." As the southern
+affluents have the greatest volume, the Amazon receives its largest
+accession after the sun has been in the southern hemisphere. The rise is
+gradual, increasing to one foot per day. One lowland after another sinks
+beneath the flood; the forest stands up to its middle in the water, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>
+shady dells are transformed into navigable creeks.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> Swarms of
+turtles leave the river for the inland lakes; flocks of wading birds
+migrate to the banks of the Negro and Orinoco to enjoy the cloudless sky
+of the dry season; alligators swim where a short time before the jaguar
+lay in wait for the tapir; and the natives, unable to fish, huddle in
+their villages to spend the "winter of their discontent." The Lower
+Amazon is at its minimum in September or October. The rise above this
+lowest level is between seven and eight fathoms. If we consider the
+average width of the Amazon two miles, we shall have a surface of at
+least five thousand square miles raised fifty feet by the inundation. An
+extraordinary freshet is expected every sixth year.</p>
+
+<p>The Atlantic tide is perceptible at Obidos, four hundred and fifty miles
+above Par&aacute;, and Bates observed it up the Tapajos, five hundred and
+thirty miles distant. The tide, however, does not flow up; there is only
+a rising and falling of the waters&mdash;the momentary check of the great
+river in its conflict with the ocean. The "bore," or <i>piror&oacute;co</i>, is a
+colossal wave at spring tide, rising suddenly along the whole width of
+the Amazon to a height of twelve or fifteen feet, and then collapsing
+with a frightful roar.</p>
+
+<p>The Amazon presents an unparalleled extent of water communication. So
+many and far reaching are its tributaries, it touches every country on
+the continent except Chile and Patagonia. South America is well nigh
+quartered by its river system: the Amazon starts within sixty miles of
+the Pacific; the Tapajos and Madeira reach down to the La Plata; while
+the Negro mingles its waters with those of the Orinoco. The tributaries
+also communicate with each other by intersecting canals, so numerous
+that central Amazonia is truly a cluster of islands. Wagons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> and
+railroads will be out of the question for ages hence in this aquatic
+basin. No other river runs in so deep a channel to so great a distance.
+For two thousand miles from its month there are not less than seven
+fathoms of water. Not a fall interrupts navigation on the main stream
+for two thousand five hundred miles; and it so happens that while the
+current is ever east (for even the ocean can not send up its tide
+against it), there is a constant trade-wind westward, so that navigation
+up or down has always something in its favor. As a general rule, the
+breeze is not so strong during the rise of the river. There are at least
+six thousand miles of navigation for large vessels. It was lately said
+that the Mississippi carries more vessels in a month, and the
+Yang-tse-Kiang in a day, than the Amazon all the year round. But this is
+no longer true. Steamers already ascend regularly to the port of
+Moyabamba, which is less than twenty days' travel from the Pacific
+coast. The Amazon was opened to the world September 7, 1867; and the
+time can not be far distant when the exhaustless wealth of the great
+valley&mdash;its timber, fruit, medicinal plants, gums, and dye-stuffs&mdash;will
+be emptied by this great highway into the commercial lap of the
+Atlantic; when crowded steamers will plow all these waters&mdash;yellow,
+black, and blue&mdash;and the sloths and alligators, monkeys and jaguars,
+toucans and turtles, will have a bad time of it.</p>
+
+<p>Officially free to the world, the great river is, however, for the
+present practically closed to foreign shipping, as it is difficult to
+compete with the Brazilian steamers. For, by the contract which lasts
+till 1877, the company is allowed an annual subsidy of $4,000,000, which
+has since been increased by 250 milreys per voyage. In 1867 the steamers
+and sailing vessels on the Amazon were divided as follows, though it
+must be remembered that few of the foreign ships, excepting Portuguese,
+ascended beyond Par&aacute;:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<table summary="tonnage" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td>Nationality.    </td><td align="right">No.   </td><td align="right">Tonnage</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>United States  </td><td align="right"> 37   </td><td align="right"> 39,901</td><td>&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brazil     </td><td align="right">     49    </td><td align="right">28,639</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>England    </td><td align="right">     52   </td><td align="right"> 13,276</td><td>&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Portugal   </td><td align="right">     24   </td><td align="right">  7,871</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France    </td><td align="right">      18  </td><td align="right">   5,344</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Prussia   </td><td align="right">       4     </td><td align="right">  889</td><td>&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Holland     </td><td align="right">     3     </td><td align="right">  538</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Denmark   </td><td align="right">       2   </td><td align="right">    525</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Holstein    </td><td align="right">     3   </td><td align="right">    498</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Norway      </td><td align="right">     1    </td><td align="right">   135</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spain     </td><td align="right">       1     </td><td align="right">   90</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The vessels carrying the stars and stripes exported from Par&aacute; to the
+value of 3,235,073$950, or eight times the amount carried by Brazilian
+craft, and 50,000 milreys more than England. While, therefore, the
+Imperial Company has the monopoly of trade on the Amazon, our ships
+distribute one third of the products to the world. The United States is
+the natural commercial partner with Brazil; for not only is New York the
+half-way house between Par&aacute; and Liverpool, but a chip thrown into the
+sea at the mouth of the Amazon will float close by Cape Hatteras. The
+official value of exports from Par&aacute; in 1867 was 9,926,912$557, or about
+five millions of dollars, an increase of one million over 1866.</p>
+
+<p>The early expeditions into the Valley of the Amazon, in search of the
+"Gilded King," are the most romantic episodes in the history of Spanish
+discovery. To the wild wanderings of these worshipers of gold succeeded
+the more earnest explorations of the Jesuits, those pioneers of
+geographical knowledge. Pinzon discovered the mouth of the river in
+1500; but Orellana, who came down the Napo in 1541, was the first to
+navigate its waters. Twenty years later Aguirre descended from Cuzco; in
+1637, Texeira ascended to Quito by the Napo; Cabrera descended from Peru
+in 1639; Juan de Palacios by the Napo in 1725; La Condamine from Jaen in
+1744, and Madame Godin by the Pastassa in 1769. The principal travelers
+who preceded us in crossing the continent this century were Mawe (1828),
+P&oelig;ppig (1831), Smyth (1834), Von Tschudi (1845),
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>Castelnau (1846),
+Herndon and Gibbon (1851), and Marcoy (1867), who came down through
+Peru, and a Spanish commission (Almagro, Spada, Martinez, and Isern),
+who made the Napo transit in 1865. To Spix and Martius (1820), Bates and
+Wallace (1848-1857), Azevedo and Pinto (1862-1864), and Agassiz (1865),
+the world is indebted for the most scientific surveys of the river in
+Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the Amazon, the mightiest river in the world, rising amid the
+loftiest volcanoes on the globe, and flowing through a forest
+unparalleled in extent. "It only wants (wrote Father Acu&ntilde;a), in order to
+surpass the Ganges, Euphrates, and the Nile in felicity, that its source
+should be in Paradise." As if one name were not sufficient for its
+grandeur, it has three appellations: Mara&ntilde;on, Solimoens, and Amazon; the
+first applied to the part in Peru, the second to the portion between
+Tabatinga and Man&aacute;os, and the third to all below the Rio Negro.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> We
+have no proper conception of the vast dimensions of the thousand-armed
+river till we sail for weeks over its broad bosom,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>beholding it
+sweeping disdainfully by the great Madeira as if its contribution was of
+no account, discharging into the sea one hundred thousand cubic feet of
+water per second more than our Mississippi, rolling its turbid waves
+thousands of miles exactly as it pleases,&mdash;plowing a new channel every
+year, with tributaries twenty miles wide, and an island in its mouth
+twice the size of Massachusetts.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIX.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">The Valley of the Amazon.&mdash;
+Its Physical
+Geography.&mdash;
+Geology.&mdash;
+Climate.&mdash;
+Vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>From the Atlantic shore to the foot of the Andes, and from the Orinoco
+to the Paraguay, stretches the great Valley of the Amazon. In this vast
+area the United States might be packed without touching its boundaries.
+It could contain the basins of the Mississippi, the Danube, the Nile,
+and the Hoang-Ho. It is girt on three sides by a wall of mountains: on
+the north are the highlands of Guiana and Venezuela; on the west stand
+the Andes; on the south rise the table-lands of Matto Grosso. The valley
+begins at such an altitude, that on the western edge vegetation differs
+as much from the vegetation at Par&aacute;, though in the same latitude, as the
+flora of Canada from the flora of the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of the region drained by the Amazon, however, is not a
+valley proper, but an extensive plain. From the mouth of the Napo to the
+ocean, a distance of eighteen hundred miles in a straight line, the
+slope is one foot in five miles.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> At Coca, on the Napo, the altitude
+is 850 feet, according to our observations; at Tinga Maria. on the
+Huallaga, it is 2200 according to Herndon; at the junction of the Negro
+with the Cassiquiari, it is 400 according to Wallace; at the mouth of
+the Marmor&eacute;, it is 800 according to Gibbon; at the Pongo de Manseriche,
+below<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> all rapids, it is 1160 according to Humboldt; and at the junction
+of Araguaia with the Tocant&iacute;ns, it is 200 according to Castelnau. These
+barometrical measurements represent the basin of the Amazon as a shallow
+trough lying parallel to the equator, the southern side having double
+the inclination of the northern, and the whole gently sloping eastward.
+Farthermore, the channel of the great river is not in the centre of the
+basin, but lies to the north of it: thus, the hills of Almeyrim rise
+directly from the river, while the first falls on the Tocant&iacute;ns, Xing&uacute;,
+and Tapajos are nearly two hundred miles above their mouths; the rapids
+of San Gabriel, on the Negro, are one hundred and seventy-five miles
+from the Amazon, while the first obstruction to the navigation of the
+Madeira is a hundred miles farther from the great river.</p>
+
+<p>Of the creation of this valley we have already spoken. No region on the
+face of the globe of equal extent has such a monotonous geology. Around
+the rim of the basin are the outcroppings of a cretaceous deposit; this
+rests on the hidden mezozoic and pal&aelig;ozoic strata which form the ribs of
+the Andes. Above it, covering the whole basin from New Granada to the
+Argentine Republic,<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> are the following formations: first, a
+stratified accumulation of sand; second, a series of laminated clays, of
+divers colors, without a pebble; third, a fine, compact sandstone;
+fourth, a coarse, porous sandstone, so ferruginous as to resemble bog
+iron-ore. This last was, originally, a thousand feet in thickness, but
+was worn down, <i>perhaps</i>, in some sudden escape of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> pent-up waters
+of the valley. The table-topped hills of Almeyrim are almost the sole
+relics.<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> Finally, over the undulating surface of the denuded
+sandstone an ochraceous, unstratified sandy clay was deposited.</p>
+
+<p>It is a question to what period this great accumulation is to be
+assigned. Humboldt called it "Old Red Sandstone;" Martius pronounced it
+"New Red;" Agassiz says "Drift"&mdash;the glacial deposit brought down from
+the Andes and worked over by the melting of the ice which transported
+it.<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> The Professor farther declares that "these deposits are
+fresh-water deposits; they show no sign of a marine origin; no
+sea-shells nor remains of any marine animal have as yet been found
+throughout their whole extent; tertiary deposits have never been
+observed in any part of the Amazonian basin." This was true up to 1867.
+Neither Bates, Wallace, nor Agassiz found any marine fossil on the banks
+of the great river. But there is danger in building a theory on negative
+evidence. These explorers ascended no farther than Tabatinga. Two
+hundred miles west of that fort is the little Peruvian village of Pebas,
+at the confluence of the Ambiyacu. We came down the Napo and Mara&ntilde;on,
+and stopped at this place. Here we discovered a fossiliferous bed
+intercalated between the variegated clays so peculiar to the Amazon. <i>It
+was crowded with marine tertiary shells!</i> This was Pebas <i>vs</i>.
+Cambridge. It was unmistakable proof that the formation was not drift,
+but tertiary; not of fresh, but salt water origin. The species,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> as
+determined by W.M. Gabb, Esq., of Philadelphia, are: <i>Neritina pupa,
+Turbonilla minuscula</i>, <i>Mesalia Ortoni</i>, <i>Tellina Amazonenis</i>, <i>Pachydon
+obliqua</i>, and <i>P. tenua</i>.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> All of these are new forms excepting the
+first, and the last is a new genus. It is a singular fact that the
+<i>Neritina</i> is now living in the West India waters, and the species found
+at Pebas retains its peculiar markings. So that we have some ground for
+the supposition that not many years ago there was a connection between
+the Caribbean Sea and the Upper Amazon; in other words, that Guiana has
+only very lately ceased to be an island. There is no mountain range on
+the water-shed between the Orinoco and the Negro and Japur&aacute;, but the
+three rivers are linked by natural canals.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> Interstratified with the
+clay deposit are seams of a highly bituminous lignite; we traced it from
+near the mouth of the Curaray on the Rio Napo to Loreto on the Mara&ntilde;on,
+a distance of about four hundred miles. It occurs also at Iquitos. This
+is farther testimony against the glacial theory of the formation of the
+Amazonian Valley. The paucity of shells in such a vast deposit is not
+astonishing. It is as remarkable in the similar accumulation of reddish
+argillaceous earth, called "Pampean mud," which overspreads the Rio
+Plata region.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> Some of the Pampa shells, like those at Pebas, are
+proper to brackish water, and occur only on the highest banks. The
+Pampean formation is believed by Mr. Darwin to be an estuary or delta
+deposit. We will mention, in this connection, that silicified wood is
+found at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> head waters of the Napo; the Indians use it instead of
+flint (which does not occur there) in striking a light. Darwin found
+silicified trees on the same slope of the Andes as the Uspallata Pass.</p>
+
+<p>The climatology of the Valley of the Amazon is as simple as its physical
+geography. There is no circle of the seasons as with us&mdash;nature moves in
+a straight line. The daily order of the weather is uniform for months.
+There is very little difference between the dry and hot seasons; the
+former, lasting from July to December, is varied with showers, and the
+latter, from January to June, with sunny days, while the daily
+temperature is the same within two or three degrees throughout the year.
+On the water-shed between the Orinoco and Negro it rains throughout the
+year, but most water falls between May and November, the coolest season
+in that region. On the Middle Negro the wet season extends from June 1st
+to December 1st, and is the most sultry time.</p>
+
+<p>Comparatively few insects, birds, or beasts are to be seen in summer;
+but it is the harvest-time of the inhabitants, who spend the glorious
+weather rambling over the plaias and beaches, fishing and
+turtle-hunting. The middle of September is the midsummer of the valley.
+The rainy season, or winter, is ushered in by violent thunder-storms
+from the west. It is then that the woods are eloquent with buzzing
+insects, shrill cicadas, screaming parrots, chattering monkeys, and
+roaring jaguars. The greatest activity of animal and vegetable life is
+in June and July. The heaviest rains fall in April, May, and June.
+Scarcely ever is there a continuous rain for twenty-four hours.
+Castelnau witnessed at Pebas a fall of not less than thirty inches in a
+single storm. The greatest amount noticed in New York during the whole
+month of September was 12.2 inches. The humidity of the atmosphere, as
+likewise the luxuriance of vegetation and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> the abundance and beauty of
+animal forms, increases from the Atlantic to the Andes. At the foot of
+the Andes, P&oelig;ppig found that the most refined sugar in a few days
+dissolved into sirup, and the best gunpowder became liquid even when
+inclosed in canisters. So we found the Napo steaming with vapor. Fogs,
+however, are rarely seen on the Amazon.</p>
+
+<p>The animals and plants are not all simultaneously affected by the change
+of seasons. The trees retain their verdure through the dry <i>vera&#333;</i>,
+and have no set time for renewing their foliage. There are a few trees,
+like Mongruba, which drop their leaves at particular seasons; but they
+are so few in number they create the impression of a few dead leaves in
+a thick-growing forest. Leaves are falling and flowers drooping all the
+year round. Each species, and, in some cases, each individual, has its
+own particular autumn and spring. There is no hibernation nor &aelig;stivation
+(except by land shells); birds have not one uniform time for
+nidification; and moulting extends from February to May.</p>
+
+<p>Amazonia, though equatorially situated, has a temperate climate. It is
+cooler than Guinea or Guiana. This is owing to the constant evaporation
+from so much submerged land, and the ceaseless trade winds. The mean
+annual temperature of the air is about 81&deg;.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> The nights are always
+cool. There are no sudden changes, and no fiery "dog days." Venereal and
+cutaneous affections are found among the people; but they spring from an
+irregular life. A traveler on the slow black tributaries may take the
+tertiana, but only after weeks of exposure. Yellow fever and cholera
+seldom ascend the river above Par&aacute;; and on the Middle Amazon there are
+neither endemics nor epidemics,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> though the trades are feebly felt
+there, and the air is stagnant and sultry. According to Bates, swampy
+and weedy places on the Amazon are generally more healthy than dry ones.
+Whatever exceptions be taken to the branches, the main river is
+certainly as healthy as the Mississippi: the rapid current of the water
+and the continual movement of the air maintaining its salubrity. The few
+English residents (Messrs. Hislop, Jeffreys, and Hauxwell), who have
+lived here thirty or forty years, are as fresh and florid as if they had
+never left their native country. The native women preserve their beauty
+until late in life. Great is the contrast between the gloomy winters and
+dusty summers, the chilly springs and frosty autumns of the temperate
+zone, and the perennial beauty of the equator! No traveler on the Amazon
+would exchange what Wallace calls "the magic half-hour after sunset" for
+the long gray twilight of the north. "The man accustomed to this climate
+(wrote Herndon) is ever unwilling to give it up for a more bracing one."</p>
+
+<p>The mineral kingdom is represented only by sand, clay, and loam. The
+solid rock (except the sandstone already mentioned) begins above the
+falls on the tributaries. The precious gems and metals are confined to
+the still higher lands of Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and the slopes of the
+Andes. The soil on the Lower Amazon is sandy; on the Solimoens and
+Mara&ntilde;on it is a stiff loam or vegetable mould, in many places twenty
+feet deep.</p>
+
+<p>Both in botany and zoology, South America is a natural and
+strongly-marked division, quite as distinct from North America as from
+the Old World; and as there are no transverse barriers, there is a
+remarkable unity in the character of the vegetation. No spot on the
+globe contains so much vegetable matter as the Valley of the Amazon.
+From the grassy steppes of Venezuela to the treeless Pampas of Buenos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+Ayres, expands a sea of verdure, in which we may draw a circle of eleven
+hundred miles in diameter, which shall include an ever green, unbroken
+forest. There is a most bewildering diversity of grand and beautiful
+trees&mdash;a wild, unconquered race of vegetable giants, draped, festooned,
+corded, matted, and ribboned with climbing and creeping plants, woody
+and succulent, in endless variety. The exuberance of nature displayed in
+these million square acres of tangled, impenetrable forest offers a bar
+to civilization nearly as great as its sterility in the African deserts.
+A <i>macheta</i> is a necessary predecessor: the moment you land (and it is
+often difficult to get a footing on the bank), you are confronted by a
+wall of vegetation. Lithe lianas, starred with flowers, coil up the
+stately trees, and then hang down like strung jewels; they can be
+counted only by myriads, yet they are mere superfluities. The dense dome
+of green overhead is supported by crowded columns, often branchless for
+eighty feet. The reckless competition among both small and great adds to
+the solemnity and gloom of a tropical forest. Individual struggles with
+individual, and species with species, to monopolize the air, light, and
+soil. In the effort to spread their roots, some of the weaker sort,
+unable to find a footing, climb a powerful neighbor, and let their roots
+dangle in the air; while many a full-grown tree has been lifted up, as
+it were, in the strife, and now stands on the ends of its stilt-like
+roots, so that a man may walk upright between the roots and under the
+trunk.<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p>
+
+<p>The mass of the forest on the banks of the great river is composed of
+palms (about thirty species<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>), leguminous or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> pod-bearing trees,
+colossal nut-trees, broad-leaved Musace&aelig; or bananas, and giant grasses.
+The most prominent palms are the architectural Pupunha, or "peach-palm,"
+with spiny stems, drooping, deep green leaves, and bunches of mealy,
+nutritious fruit; the slender Assa&iuml;, with a graceful head of delicate
+green plumes; the Ubuss&uacute;, with mammoth, undivided fronds; the stiff,
+serrated-leaved Buss&uacute;, and gigantic Mirit&iacute;. One of the noblest trees of
+the forest is the Massaranduba, or "cow-tree" (<i>Brosimum
+galactodendron</i>), often rising one hundred and fifty feet. It is a hard,
+fine-grained, durable timber, and has a red bark, and leathery, fig-like
+foliage. The milk has the consistency of cream, and may be used for tea,
+coffee, or custards. It hardens by exposure, so as to resemble
+gutta-percha. Another interesting tree, and one which yields the chief
+article of export, is the Caucho, or India-rubber tree<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> (<i>Siphonia
+Brasiliensis</i>), growing in the lowlands of the Amazon for eighteen
+hundred miles above Par&aacute;. It has an erect, tall trunk, from forty to
+eighty feet high, a smooth, gray bark, and thick, glossy leaves. The
+milk resembles thick, yellow cream, and is colored by a dense smoke
+obtained by burning palm-nuts. It is gathered between August and
+December. A man can collect six pounds a day, though this is rarely
+done. It is frequently adulterated with sand. The tree belongs to the
+same apetalous family as our castor-oil and the mandioca; while the tree
+which furnishes the caoutchouc of the East Indies and Africa is a
+species of Ficus, and yields an inferior article to the rubber of
+America. Other characteristic trees are the Mongruba, one of the few
+which shed their foliage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> before the new leaf-buds expand; the giant
+Sama&uuml;ma, or silk-cotton tree (called <i>huimba</i> in Peru); the Calabash, or
+<i>cuieira</i>, whose gourd-like fruit furnishes the cups used throughout the
+Amazon; the Itauba, or stone-wood, furnishing ship-timber as durable as
+teak; the red and white Cedar, used for canoes (not coniferous like the
+northern evergreen, but allied to the mahogany); the Jacarand&aacute;, or
+rose-wood, resembling our locust; Palo de sangre, one of the most
+valuable woods on the river; Huacap&uacute;, a very common timber; Capirona,
+used as fuel on the steamers; and Tauar&iacute;, a heavy, close-grained wood,
+the bark of which splits into thin leaves, much used in making
+cigarettes. The Piassaba, a palm yielding a fibre extensively
+manufactured into cables and ropes, and exported to foreign countries
+for brushes and brooms, being singularly elastic, strong, and more
+durable than hemp; and the Moira-pinima, or "tortoise-shell wood," the
+most beautiful wood in all Amazonia, if not in the world, grow on the
+Upper Rio Negro. A small willow represents the great catkin family.</p>
+
+<p>The valley is as remarkable for the abundance, variety, and value of its
+timber as for any thing else. Within an area of half a mile square,
+Agassiz counted one hundred and seventeen different kinds of woods, many
+of them eminently fitted, by their hardness, tints, and beautiful grain,
+for the finest cabinet-work. Enough palo de sangre or moira-pinima is
+doubtless wasted annually to veneer all the palaces of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>While most of our fruits belong to the rose family, those of the Amazon
+come from the myrtle tribe. The delicious flavor, for which our fruits
+are indebted to centuries of cultivation, is wanting in many of the
+torrid productions. We prefer the sweetness of Pomona in temperate
+climes to her savage beauty in the sunny south. It is a curious fact,
+noticed by Herndon, that nearly all the valuable fruits of the valley
+are inclosed in hard shells or acid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> pulps. They also reach a larger
+size in advancing westward. The common Brazil nut is the product of one
+of the tallest trees in the forest (<i>Bertholletia excelsa</i>). The fruit
+is a hard, round shell, resembling a common ball, which contains from
+twenty to twenty-four nuts. Eighteen months are required for the bud to
+reach maturity. This tree, says Humboldt, offers the most remarkable
+example of high organic development. Akin to it is the Sapucaya or
+"chickens' nuts" (<i>Lecythis sapucaya</i>), whose capsule has a natural lid,
+and is called "monkey's drinking-cup." The nuts, about a dozen in
+number, are of irregular shape and much richer than the preceding. But
+they do not find their way to market, because they drop out of the
+capsule as soon as ripe, and are devoured by peccaries and monkeys. The
+most luscious fruit on the Amazon is the atta of Santarem. It has the
+color, taste, and size of the chirimoya; but the rind, which incloses a
+rich, custardly pulp, frosted with sugar, is scaled. Next in rank are
+the melting pine-apples of Par&aacute;, and the golden papayas, fully equal to
+those on the western coast. This is the original home of the cacao. It
+grows abundantly in the forests of the upper river, and particularly on
+the banks of the Madeira. The wild nut is smaller but more oily than the
+cultivated. The Amazon is destined to supply the world with the bulk of
+chocolate. The aromatic tonka beans (Cumar&uacute;) used in flavoring snuff,
+and the Brazilian nutmegs (Puxiri), inferior to the Ceylon, grow on
+lofty trees on the Negro and Lower Amazon. The Guaran&aacute; beans are the
+seeds of a trailing plant; from these the Mauh&eacute;s prepare the great
+medicine, on the Amazon, for diarrh&oelig;a and intermittent fevers. Its
+active principle, caffeine, is more abundant than in any other
+substance, amounting to 5.07 per cent.; while black tea contains only
+2.13. Coffee, rice, tobacco, and sugar-cane are grown to a limited
+extent. Rio Negro coffee,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> if put into the market, would probably
+eclipse that of Cear&aacute;, the best Brazilian. Wild rice grows abundantly on
+the banks of the rivers and lakes. The cultivated grain is said to yield
+forty fold. Most of the tobacco comes down from the Mara&ntilde;on and Madeira.
+It is put up in slender rolls from three to six feet long, tapering at
+each end, and wound with palm fibre. The sugar-cane is an exotic from
+Southeastern Asia, but grows well. The first sugar made in the New World
+was by the Dutch in the island of St. Thomas, 1610. Farina is the
+principal farinaceous production of Brazil. The mandioca or cassava
+(<i>Manihot utilissima</i>) from which it is made is supposed to be
+indigenous, though it is not found wild. It does not grow at a higher
+altitude than 2000 feet. Life and death are blended in the plant, yet
+every part is useful. The cattle eat the leaves and stalks, while the
+roots are ground into pulp, which, when pressed and baked, forms farina,
+the bread of all classes. The juice is a deadly poison: thirty-five
+drops were sufficient to kill, in six minutes, a negro convicted of
+murder; but it deposits a fine sediment of pure starch that is the
+well-known tapioca; and the juice, when fermented and boiled, forms a
+drink. On the upper waters grow the celebrated coca, a shrub with small,
+light-green leaves, having a bitter, aromatic taste. The powdered
+leaves, mixed with lime, form <i>ypad&uacute;</i>. This is to Peruvians what opium
+is to the Turk, betel to the Malay, and tobacco to the Yankee. Thirty
+million pounds are annually consumed in South America. It is not,
+however, an opiate, but a powerful stimulant. With it the Indian will
+perform prodigies of labor, traveling days without fatigue or food. Von
+Tschudi considers its moderate consumption wholesome, and instances the
+fact that one coca-chewer attained the good old age of one hundred and
+thirty years; but when used to excess it leads to idiocy. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> signs of
+intemperance are an uncertain step, sallow complexion, black-rimmed,
+deeply-sunken eyes, trembling lips, incoherent speech, and stolid
+apathy. Coca played an important part in the religious rights of the
+Incas, and divine honors were paid to it. Even to-day the miners of Peru
+throw a quid of coca against the hard veins of ore, affirming that it
+renders them more easily worked; and the Indians sometimes put coca in
+the mouth of the dead to insure them a welcome in the other world. The
+alkaloid coca&iuml;ne was discovered by W&ouml;hler.</p>
+
+<p>Flowers are nearly confined to the edges of the dense forest, the banks
+of the rivers and lagunes. There are a greater number of species under
+the equator, but we have brighter colors in the temperate zone. "There
+is grandeur and sublimity in the tropical forest (wrote Wallace, after
+four years of observation), but little of beauty or brilliancy of
+color." Perhaps the finest example of inflorescence in the world is seen
+in the <i>Victoria Regia</i>, the magnificent water-lily discovered by
+Sch&ouml;mberg in 1837. It inhabits the tranquil waters of the shallow lakes
+which border the Amazon. The leaves are from fifteen to eighteen feet in
+circumference, and will bear up a child twelve years old; the upper part
+is dark, glossy green, the under side violet or crimson. The flowers are
+a foot in diameter, at first pure white, passing, in twenty-four hours,
+through successive hues from rose to bright red. This queen of
+water-plants was dedicated to the Queen whose empire is never at once
+shrouded in night.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Coca" id="Coca"></a>
+<img src="images/291tb.png" alt="Coca-plant." title="Coca-plant." /><br /><a href="images/291.png">Coca-plant.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XX.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Life within the Great River.&mdash;
+Fishes.&mdash;
+Alligators.&mdash;
+Turtles.&mdash;
+Porpoises
+and Manat&iacute;s.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Amazon is a crowded aquarium, holding representatives of every
+zoological class&mdash;infusoria, hydras, fresh-water shells (chiefly
+Ampullaria, Melania, and Unios), aquatic beetles (belonging mostly to
+new genera), fishes, reptiles, water birds, and cetaceans. The abundance
+and variety of fishes are extraordinary; so also are the species. This
+great river is a peculiar ichthyic province, and each part has its
+characteristics. According to Agassiz, the whole river, as well as its
+tributaries, is broken up into numerous distinct fauna.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> The
+<i>piraruc&uacute;</i>, or "redfish" (the <i>Sudis gigas</i> of science), is at once the
+largest, most common, and most useful fish. The Peruvian Indians call it
+<i>payshi</i>. It is a powerful fish, often measuring eight feet in length
+and five in girth, clad in an ornamental coat-of-mail, its large scales
+being margined with bright red. It ranges from Peru to Par&aacute;. It is
+usually taken by the arrow or spear. Salted and dried, the meat will
+keep for a year, and forms, with farina, the staple food on the Amazon.
+The hard, rough tongue is used as a grater. Other fishes most frequently
+seen are the prettily-spotted catfish, Pescada, Piranha, Acar&aacute;, which
+carries its young in its mouth, and a long, slender needle-fish. There
+are ganoids in the river, but no sturgeons proper. Pickerel, perch, and
+trout are also wanting. The sting-ray<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>
+represents the shark family. As a
+whole, the fishes of the Amazon have a marine character peculiarly their
+own.</p>
+
+<p>The reptilian inhabitants of this inland sea are introduced by numerous
+batrachians, water-snakes (<i>Heliops</i>), and anacondas. But alligators
+bear the palm for ugliness, size, and strength. In summer the main river
+swarms with them; in the wet season they retreat to the interior lakes
+and flooded forests. It was for this reason that we did not see an
+alligator on the Napo. At low water they are found above the entrance of
+the Curaray. About Obidos, where many of the pools dry up in the fine
+months, the alligator buries itself in the mud, and sleeps till the
+rainy season returns. "It is scarcely exaggerating to say (writes Bates)
+that the waters of the Solimoens are as well stocked with large
+alligators in the dry season as a ditch in England is in summer with
+tadpoles." There are three or four species in the Amazon. The largest,
+the Jacar&eacute;-uass&uacute; of the natives, attains a length of twenty feet. The
+Jacar&eacute;-tinga is a smaller kind (only five feet long when full grown),
+and has the long, slender muzzle of the extinct teleosaurus. The South
+American alligators are smaller than the crocodiles of the Nile or
+Ganges, and they are also inferior in rank. The head of the Jacar&eacute;-uass&uacute;
+(the ordinary species) is broad, while the gavial of India has a long,
+narrow muzzle, and that of the Egyptian lizard is oblong. The dentition
+differs: while in the Old World saurian the teeth interlock, so that the
+two jaws are brought close together, the teeth in the upper jaw of the
+Amazonian cayman pass by the lower series outside of them. The latter
+has therefore much less power. It has a ventral cuirass as well as
+dorsal, and it is web-footed, while the crocodile has the toes
+free&mdash;another mark of inferiority. Sluggish on land, the alligator is
+very agile in its element. It never attacks man when on his guard, but
+it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> cunning enough to know when it may do this with safety. It lays
+its eggs (about twenty) some distance from the river bank, covering them
+with leaves and sticks. They are larger than those of Guayaquil, or
+about four inches long, of an elliptical shape, with a rough, calcareous
+shell. Negro venders sell them cooked in the streets of Par&aacute;.</p>
+
+<p>Turtles are, perhaps, the most important product of the Amazon, not
+excepting the piraruc&uacute;. The largest and most abundant species is the
+Tortaruga grande. It measures, when full grown, nearly three feet in
+length and two in breadth, and has an oval, smooth, dark-colored shell.
+Every house has a little pond (called <i>curr&uacute;l</i>) in the back yard to hold
+a stock of turtles through the wet season. It furnishes the best meat on
+the Upper Amazon. We found it very tender, palatable, and wholesome; but
+Bates, who was obliged to live on it for years, says it is very cloying.
+Every part of the creature is turned to account. The entrails are made
+into soup; sausages are made of the stomach; steaks are cut from the
+breast; and the rest is roasted in the shell.<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> The turtle lays its
+eggs (generally between midnight and dawn) on the central and highest
+part of the plaias, or about a hundred feet from the shore. The Indians
+say it will lay only where itself was hatched out. With its hind
+flippers it digs a hole two or three feet deep, and deposits from eighty
+to one hundred and sixty eggs (Gibbon says from one hundred and fifty to
+two hundred). These are covered with sand, and the next comer makes
+another deposit on the top, and so on until the pit is full. Egg-laying
+comes earlier on the Amazon than on the Napo, taking place in August and
+September. The tracaj&aacute;, a smaller species, lays in July and August; its
+eggs are smaller and oval, but richer than those of the great turtles.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span></p>
+<p>The mammoth tortoise of the Gal&aacute;pagos lays an egg very similar in size
+and shape to that of the Tortaruga, but a month later, or in October.
+The hunting of turtle eggs is a great business on the Amazon. They are
+used chiefly in manufacturing oil (mant&eacute;ca) for illumination. Thrown
+into a canoe, they are broken and beaten up by human feet; water is then
+poured in, and the floating oil is skimmed off, purified over the fire
+in copper kettles, and finally put up in three-gallon earthen jars for
+the market. The turtles are caught for the table as they return to the
+river after laying their eggs. To secure them, it suffices to turn them
+over on their backs. The turtles certainly have a hard time of it. The
+alligators and large fishes swallow the young ones by hundreds; jaguars
+pounce upon the full-grown specimens as they crawl over the plaias, and
+vultures and ibises attend the feast. But man is their most formidable
+foe. The destruction of turtle life is incredible. It is calculated that
+fifty millions of eggs are annually destroyed. Thousands of those that
+escape capture in the egg period are collected as soon as hatched and
+devoured, "the remains of yolk in their entrails being considered a
+great delicacy." An unknown number of full-grown turtles are eaten by
+the natives on the banks of the Mara&ntilde;on and Solimoens and their
+tributaries, while every steamer, schooner, and little craft that
+descends the Amazon is laden with turtles for the tables of Man&aacute;os,
+Santarem, and Par&aacute;. When we consider, also, that all the mature turtles
+taken are females, we wonder that the race is not well-nigh extinct.
+They are, in fact, rapidly decreasing in numbers. A large turtle which
+twenty years ago could be bought for fifty cents, now commands three
+dollars. One would suppose that the males, being unmolested, would far
+outnumber the other sex, but Bates says "they are immensely less
+numerous than the females."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> The male turtles, or <i>Capitaris</i>, "are
+distinguishable by their much smaller size, more circular shape, and the
+greater length and thickness of their tails." Near the Tapajos we met a
+third species, called <i>Mat&aacute;-mat&aacute;</i>. It has a deeply-keeled carapax,
+beautifully bossed, and a hideous triangular head, having curious,
+lobed, fleshy appendages, and nostrils prolonged into a tube. It is
+supposed to have great virtues as a remedy for rheumatism. But the most
+noticeable feature of the Amazonian fauna, as Agassiz has remarked, is
+the abundance of cetaceans through its whole extent. From the brackish
+estuary of Par&aacute; to the clear, cool waters at the base of the Andes,
+these clumsy refugees from the ocean may be seen gamboling and blowing
+as in their native element. Four different kinds of porpoises have been
+seen. A black species lives in the Bay of Maraj&oacute;. In the Middle Amazon
+are two distinct porpoises, one flesh-colored;<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> and in the upper
+tributaries is the <i>Inia Boliviensis</i>, resembling, but specifically
+different from the sea-dolphin and the soosoo of the Ganges. "It was
+several years (says the Naturalist on the Amazon) before I could induce
+a fisherman to harpoon dolphins (<i>Boutos</i>) for me as specimens, for no
+one ever kills these animals voluntarily; the superstitious people
+believe that blindness would result from the use of the oil in lamps."
+The herbivorous manati (already mentioned, Chap. XV.) is found
+throughout the great river. It differs slightly from the Atlantic
+species. It rarely measures over twelve feet in length. It is taken by
+the harpoon or nets of chambiri twine. Both Herndon and Gibbon mention
+seals as occurring in the Peruvian tributaries; but we saw none, neither
+did Bates, Agassiz, or Edwards. They probably meant the manati.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXI.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Life around the Great River.&mdash;
+Insects.&mdash;
+Reptiles.&mdash;
+Birds.&mdash;
+Mammals.</p>
+
+
+<p>The forest of the Amazon is less full of life than the river. Beasts,
+birds, and reptiles are exceedingly scarce; still there is, in fact, a
+great variety, but they are widely scattered and very shy. In the
+animal, as in the vegetable kingdom, diversity is the law; there is a
+great paucity of individuals compared with the species.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> Insects are
+rare in the dense forest; they are almost confined to the more open
+country along the banks of the rivers. Ants are perhaps the most
+numerous. There is one species over an inch long. But the most
+prominent, by their immense numbers, are the dreaded sa&uuml;bas. Well-beaten
+paths branch off in every direction through the forest, on which broad
+columns may be seen marching to and fro, each bearing vertically a
+circular piece of leaf. Unfortunately they prefer cultivated trees,
+especially the coffee and orange. They are also given to plundering
+provisions; in a single night they will carry off bushels of farina.
+They are of a light red color, with powerful jaws. In every formicarium
+or ant colony there are three sets of individuals&mdash;males, females, and
+workers; but the sa&uuml;bas have the singularity of possessing three classes
+of workers. The light-colored mounds often met in the forest, sometimes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>
+measuring forty feet in diameter by two feet in height, are the domes
+which overlie the entrances to the vast subterranean galleries of the
+sa&uuml;ba ants. These ants are eaten by the Rio Negro Indians, and esteemed
+a luxury; while the Tapajos tribes use them to season their mandioca
+sauce. Akin to the vegetable-feeding sa&uuml;bas are the carnivorous ecitons,
+or foraging ants, of which Bates found ten distinct species. They hunt
+for prey in large organized armies, almost every species having its own
+special manner of marching and hunting. Fortunately the ecitons choose
+the thickest part of the forest. The fire-ant is the great plague on the
+Tapajos. It is small, and of a shiny reddish color; but its sting is
+very painful, and it disputes every fragment of food with the
+inhabitants. All eatables and hammocks have to be hung by cords smeared
+with copaiba balsam.</p>
+
+<p>The traveler on the Amazon frequently meets with conical hillocks of
+compact earth, from three to five feet high, from which radiate narrow
+covered galleries or arcades. The architects of these wonderful
+structures are the termites, or "white ants," so called, though they
+belong to a higher order of insects, widely differing from the true
+ants. The only thing in common is the principle of division of labor.
+The termite neuters are subdivided into two classes, soldiers and
+workers, both wingless and blind. Their great enemy is the ant-eater;
+but it is a singular fact, noticed by Bates, that the soldiers only
+attach themselves to the long worm-like tongue of this animal, so that
+the workers, on whom the prosperity of the termitarum depends, are saved
+by the self-sacrifice of the fighting caste. The office of the termites
+in the tropics seems to be to hasten the decomposition of decaying
+vegetation. But they also work their way into houses, trunks, wardrobes,
+and libraries. "It is principally owing to their destructiveness" (wrote
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>Humboldt) "that it is so rare to find papers in tropical America older
+than fifty or sixty years."</p>
+
+<p>Dragon-flies are conspicuous specimens of insect life on the Amazon. The
+largest and most brilliant kinds are found by the shady brooks and
+creeks in the recesses of the forest, some of them with green or crimson
+bodies seven inches long, and their elegant lace-like wings tipped with
+white or yellow. Still more noticeable are the butterflies. There is a
+vast number of genera and species, and great beauty of dress, unequaled
+in the temperate zone. Some idea of the diversity is conveyed by the
+fact mentioned by Mr. Bates that about 700 species are found within an
+hour's walk of Par&aacute;, and 550 at Ega; while the total number found in the
+British Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports
+only 300. After a shower in the dry season the butterflies appear in
+fluttering clouds (for they live in societies), white, yellow, red,
+green, purple, black, and blue, many of them bordered with metallic
+lines and spots of a silvery or golden lustre. The sulphur-yellow and
+orange-colored kinds predominate. A colossal morpho, seven and a half
+inches in expanse, and visible a quarter of a mile off, frequents the
+shady glades; splendid swallow-tailed papilios, green, rose, or
+velvety-black, are seen only in the thickets; while the <i>Hetaira
+esmeralda</i>, with transparent wings, having one spot of a violet hue, as
+it flies over the dead leaves in the dense forest looks "like a
+wandering petal of a flower." Very abundant is the <i>Heliconius</i>, which
+plays such an important figure, by its variations, in Wallace's theory
+of the origin of species. On the Mara&ntilde;on we found <i>Callidryas eubule</i>, a
+yellow butterfly common in Florida. The most brilliant butterflies are
+found on the Middle Amazon, out of reach of the strong trade winds. The
+males far outnumber the other sex, are more richly colored, and
+generally lead a sunshiny life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The females are of dull hues, and spend their lives in the gloomy
+shadows of the forest. Caterpillars and nocturnal moths are rare.</p>
+
+<p>There are no true hive-bees (<i>Apides</i>) in South America,<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> but
+instead there are about one hundred and fifty species of bees (mostly
+social <i>Moliponas</i>), smaller than the European, stingless, and
+constructing oblong cells. Their colonies are much larger than those of
+the honey-bee. The <i>Trigona</i> occurs on the Napo. Unlike the <i>Melipona</i>,
+it is not confined to the New World. A large sooty-black Bombus
+represents our humble-bee. Shrill cicadas, blood-thirsty mantucas,
+piums, punkies, and musquitoes are always associated in the traveler's
+memory with the glorious river. Of the last there are several kinds.
+"The forest musquito belongs to a different species from that of the
+town, being much larger and having transparent wings. It is a little
+cloud that one carries about his person every step on a woodland ramble,
+and their hum is so loud that it prevents one hearing well the notes of
+birds. The town musquito has opaque, speckled wings, a less severe
+sting, and a silent way of going to work. The inhabitants ought to be
+thankful the big noisy fellows never come out of the forest" (Bates,
+ii., 386). There are few musquitoes below Ega; above that point a
+musquito net is indispensable. Beetles abound, particularly in shady
+places, and are of all sizes, from that of a pin's head to several
+inches in length. The most noticeable are the gigantic <i>Megalosoma</i> and
+<i>Enema</i>, armed with horns. Very few are carnivorous. "This is the more
+remarkable," observes Darwin, "when compared to the case of carnivorous
+quadrupeds, which are so abundant in hot countries." Very few are
+terrestrial, even the carnivorous species being found clinging to
+branches and leaves. In going from the pole to the equator we find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> that
+insect life increases in the same proportion as vegetable life. There is
+not a single beetle on Melville Island; eleven species are found in
+Greenland; in England, 2500; in Brazil, 8000. Here lives the king of
+spiders, the <i>Mygale Blondii</i>, a monstrous hairy fellow, five inches
+long, of a brown color, with yellowish lines along its stout legs. Its
+abode is a slanting subterranean gallery about two feet in length, the
+sides of which are beautifully lined with silk. Other spiders barricade
+the walks in the forest with invisible threads; some build nests in the
+trees and attack birds; others again spin a closely-woven web,
+resembling fine muslin, under the thatched roofs of the houses.</p>
+
+<p>Of land vertebrates, lizards are the first to attract the attention of
+the traveler on the equator. Great in number and variety, they are met
+every where&mdash;crawling up the walls of buildings, scampering over the
+hot, dusty roads, gliding through the forest. They stand up on their
+legs, carry their tails cocked up in the air, and run with the activity
+of a warm-blooded animal. It is almost impossible to catch them. Some of
+them are far from being the unpleasant-looking animals many people
+imagine; but in their coats of many colors, green, gray, brown, and
+yellow, they may be pronounced beautiful. Others, however, have a
+repulsive aspect, and are a yard in length. The iguana, peculiar to the
+New World tropics, is covered with minute green scales handed with brown
+(though it changes its color like the chameleon), and has a serrated
+back and gular pouch. It grows to the length of five feet, and is
+arboreal. Its white flesh, and its oblong, oily eggs, arc considered
+great delicacies. We heard of a lady who kept one as a pet. Frogs and
+toads, the chief musicians in the Amazonian forest, are of all sizes,
+from an inch to a foot in diameter. The <i>Bufo gigas</i> is of a dull gray
+color, and is covered with warts. Tree-frogs (<i>Hyla</i>) are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> very
+abundant; they do not occur on the Andes or on the Pacific coast. Their
+quack-quack, drum-drum, hoo-hoo, is one of our pleasant memories of
+South America. Of snakes there is no lack; and yet they are not so
+numerous as imagination would make them. There are one hundred and fifty
+species in South America, or one half as many, on the same area, as in
+the East Indies. The diabolical family is led by the boa, while the rear
+is brought up by the Amphisb&aelig;nas, or "double-headed snakes," which
+progress equally well with either end forward, so that it is difficult
+to make head or tail of them. The majority are harmless. The deadly
+cor&aacute;l is found on both sides of the Andes, and wherever there is a cacao
+plantation. One of the most beautiful specimens of the venomous kind is
+a new species (<i>Elaps imperator</i>, Cope), which we discovered on the
+Mara&ntilde;on. It has a slender body more than two feet in length, with black
+and red bands margined with yellow, and a black and yellow head, with
+permanently erect fangs.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Iguana" id="Iguana"></a>
+<img src="images/303tb.png" alt="Iguana." title="Iguana." /><br /><a href="images/303.png">Iguana.</a></p>
+
+<p>We have already mentioned the most common birds. Probably, says Wallace,
+no country in the world contains a greater variety of birds than the
+Amazonian Valley.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> But the number does not equal the expectations of the
+traveler; he may ramble a whole day without meeting one. The rarity,
+however, is more apparent than real; we forget, for the moment, the
+vastness of their dwelling-place. The birds of the country, moreover,
+are gregarious, so that a locality may be deserted and silent at one
+time and swarming with them at another. Parrots and toucans are the most
+characteristic groups. To the former belong true parrots, parroquets,
+and macaws. The first are rarely seen walking, but are rapid flyers and
+expert climbers. On the trees they are social as monkeys, but in flight
+they always go in pairs. The parroquets go in flocks. The Hyacinthine
+macaw (the Araruna of the natives) is one of the finest and rarest
+species of the parrot family. It is found only on the south side of the
+Amazon. The macaw was considered sacred by the Maya Indians of Yucatan,
+and dedicated to the sun. The Quichuans call it guacamayo, guaca meaning
+sacred. Of toucans there are many species; the largest is the toco, with
+a beak shaped like a banana; the most beautiful are the curb-crested, or
+Beauharnais toucans, and the <i>P. flavirostris</i>, whose breast is adorned
+with broad belts of red, crimson, and black. "Wherefore such a beak?"
+every naturalist has asked; but the toucan still wags his head, as much
+as to say, "you can not tell." There must be some other reason than
+adaptation. Birds of the same habits are found beside it&mdash;the ibis,
+pigeon, spoonbill, and toucan are seen feeding together. "How
+astonishing are the freaks and fancies of Nature! (wrote the funny
+Sidney Smith). To what purpose, we say, is a bird placed in the woods of
+Cayenne with a bill a yard long, making a noise like a puppy-dog, and
+laying eggs in hollow trees? The toucan, to be sure, might retort, to
+what purpose are certain foolish, prating members of Parliament created,
+pestering the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> House of Commons with their ignorance and folly, and
+impeding the business of the country? There is no end to such questions;
+so we will not enter into the metaphysics of the toucan."</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Toucans" id="Toucans"></a>
+<img src="images/305tb.png" alt="Toucans." title="Toucans." /><br /><a href="images/305.png">Toucans.</a></p>
+
+<p>On the flooded islands of the Negro and Upper Amazon is found the rare
+and curious umbrella bird, black as a crow, and decorated with a crest
+of hairy plumes and a long lobe suspended from the neck, covered with
+glossy blue feathers. This latter appendage is connected with the vocal
+organs, and assists the bird in producing its deep, loud, and lengthy
+fluty note. There are three species. Another rare bird is the Uruponga,
+or Campan&eacute;ro, in English the tolling-bell bird, found only on the
+borders of Guiana. It is of the size of our jay, of a pure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> white color,
+with a black tubercle on the upper side of the bill. "Orpheus himself
+(says Waterton) would drop his lute to listen to him, so sweet, so
+novel, and romantic is the toll of the pretty, snow-white Campan&eacute;ro."
+"The Campan&eacute;ro may be heard three miles! (echoes Sidney Smith). This
+single little bird being more powerful than the belfry of a cathedral
+ringing for a new dean! It is impossible to contradict a gentleman who
+has been in the forests of Cayenne, but we are determined, as soon as a
+Campan&eacute;ro is brought to England, to make him toll in a public place, and
+have the distance measured."<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> But the most remarkable songster of
+the Amazonian forest is the Realejo, or organ-bird. Its notes are as
+musical as the flageolet. It is the only songster, says Bates, which
+makes any impression on the natives. Besides those are the Jacamars,
+peculiar to equatorial America, stupid, but of the most beautiful
+golden, bronze, and steel colors; sulky Trogons, with glossy green backs
+and rose-colored breasts; long-toed Ja&ccedil;anas, half wader, half fowl; the
+rich, velvety purple and black <i>Rhamphocoelus Jacapa</i>, having an immense
+range from Archidona to Par&aacute;; the gallinaceous yet arboreal Ciganas;
+scarlet ibises, smaller, but more beautiful than their sacred cousins of
+the Nile; stilted flamingoes, whose awkwardness is atoned for by their
+brilliant red plumage; glossy black Mutums, or curassow turkeys; ghostly
+storks, white egrets, ash-colored herons, black ducks, barbets,
+kingfishers, sandpipers, gulls, plovers, woodpeckers, oreoles; tanagers,
+essentially a South American family, and, excepting three or four
+species, found only east of the Andes; wagtails, finches, thrushes,
+doves, and hummers. The last, "by western Indians <i>living sunbeams</i>
+named," are few, and not to be compared with the swarms in the Andean
+valleys. The birds of the Amazon have no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> uniform time for breeding. The
+majority, however, build their nests between September and New Year's,
+and rarely lay more than two eggs.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Brazilian" id="Brazilian"></a>
+<img src="images/307tb.png" alt="Brazilian Hummers." title="Brazilian Hummers." /><br /><a href="images/307.png">Brazilian Hummers.</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Amazonia, like Australia, is poor in terrestrial mammals, and the
+species are of small size. Nearly the only game a hunter can depend upon
+for food, besides toucans and macaws, is peccari. One species of tapir,
+to represent the elephants and rhinoceroses of the Old World; three
+small species of deer, taking the places of deer, antelopes, buffaloes,
+sheep, and goats of the other continent; three species of large Felid&aelig;;
+one peccari, and a wild dog, with opossums, ant-eaters, armadilloes,
+sloths, squirrels (the only rodents which approach ours),<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a>
+capybaras, pacas, agoutis, and monkeys, comprise all the quadrupeds of
+equatorial America. The last two are the most numerous. Marsupial rats
+take the place of the insectivorous mammals. Of ant-eaters, there are at
+least four distinct species; but they are scattered sparingly, and are
+seldom found on the low<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> flooded lands. Four or five species of
+armadillo inhabit the valley. These little nocturnal burrowing edentates
+are the puny representatives of the gigantic Glyptodon of Pleistocene
+times, and the sloths are the dwindling shadows of the lordly<a name="Capybara" id="Capybara"></a>
+Megatherium. There are two species of three-toed sloths&mdash;one inhabiting
+the swampy lowlands, the other confined to the terra-firma land. They
+lead a lonely life, never in groups, harmless and frugal as a hermit.
+They have four stomachs, but not the long intestines of ruminating
+animals. They feed chiefly on the leaves of the trumpet-tree
+(<i>Cecropia</i>), resembling our horse-chestnut. The natives, both Indian
+and Brazilian, hold the common opinion that the sloth is the type of
+laziness.
+<span class="figleft">
+<img src="images/308tb.png" alt="Capybara" title="Capybara" /><br /><a href="images/308.png">Capybara</a>
+</span>
+The capybara or ronsoco, the largest of living rodents, is
+quite common on the river side. It is gregarious and amphibious, and
+resembles a mammoth guinea-pig. Pacas and agoutis are most abundant in
+the lowlands, and are nocturnal. These semi-hoofed rodents, like the
+Toxodon of old, approach the Pachyderms. The tapir, or gran-bestia, as
+it is called, is a characteristic quadruped of South America. It is a
+clumsy-looking animal, with a tough hide of an iron-gray color, covered
+with a coat of short coarse hair. Its flesh is dry, but very palatable.
+It has a less powerful proboscis than the Malay species. M. Roulin
+distinguishes another species from the mountains, which more nearly
+resembles the Asiatic. The tapir, like the condor, for an unknown
+reason, is not found north of 8&deg; N., though it wanders as far south as
+40&deg;. We met but one species of peccari, the white-lipped (<i>D.
+labiatus</i>). It is much larger than the "Mexican hog," and, too
+thick-headed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> to understand danger, is a formidable antagonist. The
+raposa is seen only on the Middle Amazon, and very rarely there. It has
+a long tapering muzzle, small ears, bushy tail, and grayish hair. It
+takes to the water, for the one we saw at Tabatinga was caught while
+crossing the Amazon. Fawn-colored pumas, spotted jaguars, black tigers,
+tiger-cats&mdash;all members of the graceful feline family&mdash;inhabit all parts
+of the valley, but are seldom seen. The puma, or panther, is more common
+on the Pacific side of the Andes. The jaguar<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> is the fiercest and
+most powerful animal in South America. It is marked like the
+leopard&mdash;roses of black spots on a yellowish ground; but they are
+angular instead of rounded, and have a central dot. There are also
+several black streaks across the breast, which easily distinguish it
+from its transatlantic representative. It is also longer than the
+leopard; indeed, Humboldt says he saw a jaguar "whose length surpassed
+that of any of the tigers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> of India which he had seen in the collections
+of Europe." The jaguar frequents the borders of the rivers and lagunes,
+and its common prey is the capybara. It fears the peccari. The night air
+is alive with bats of many species, the most prominent one being the
+<i>Dysopes perotis</i>, which measures two feet from tip to tip of the wings.
+If these Cheiropters are as impish as they look, and as blood-thirsty as
+some travelers report, it is singular that Bates and Waterton, though
+residing for years in the country, and ourselves, though sleeping for
+months unprotected, were unmolested.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="Jaguar" id="Jaguar"></a>
+<img src="images/309tb.png" alt="Jaguar." title="Jaguar." /><br /><a href="images/309.png">Jaguar.</a></p>
+
+<p>About forty species of monkeys, or one half of the New World forms,
+inhabit the Valley of the Amazon. Wallace, in a residence of four years,
+saw twenty-one species&mdash;seven with prehensile and fourteen with
+non-prehensile tails. They all differ from the apes of the other
+hemisphere. While those of Africa and Asia (Europe has only one) have
+opposable thumbs on the fore feet as well as hind, uniformly ten molar
+teeth in each jaw, as in man, and generally cheek-pouches and naked
+collosities, the American monkeys arc destitute of the two latter
+characteristics. None of them are terrestrial, like the baboon; all
+(save the marmosets) have twenty-four molars; the thumbs of the
+fore-hands are not habitually opposed to the fingers (one genus, Ateles,
+"the imperfect," is thumbless altogether); the nostrils open on the
+sides of the nose instead of beneath it, as in the gorilla, and the
+majority have long prehensile tails. They are inferior in rank to the
+anthropoids of the Old World, though superior to the lemurs of
+Madagascar. They are usually grouped in two families&mdash;Marmosets and
+Cebidre. The former are restless, timid, squirrel-like lilliputs (one
+species is only seven inches long), with tails not prehensile&mdash;in the
+case of the scarlet-faced, nearly wanting. The Barigudos, or gluttons
+(<i>Lagothrix</i>),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> are the largest of American monkeys, but are not so tall
+as the Coaitas. They are found west of Man&aacute;os. They have more human
+features than the other monkeys, and, with their woolly gray fur,
+resemble an old negro. There are three kinds of howlers (<i>Mycetes</i>)&mdash;the
+red or mono-colorado of Humboldt, the black, and the <i>M. beelzebub</i>,
+found only near Par&aacute;. The forest is full of these surly, untamable
+guaribas, as the natives call them. They are gifted with a voice of
+tremendous power and volume, with which they make night and day hideous.
+They represent the baboons of the Old World in disposition and facial
+angle (30&deg;), and the gibbons in their yells and gregarious habits.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a>
+The Sapajous (<i>Cebus</i>) are distributed throughout Brazil, and have the
+reputation of being the most mischievous monkeys in the country. On the
+west coast of South America there are at least three or four species of
+monkeys, among them a black howler and a <i>Cebus capucinus</i>. The Coitas,
+or spider-monkeys, are the highest of American quadrumana. They are
+slender-legged, sluggish, and thumbless, with a most perfectly
+prehensile tail, terminating in a naked palm, which answers for a fifth
+hand. The Indians say they walk under the limbs like the sloth. They are
+the most common pets in Brazil, but they refuse to breed in captivity.
+Both Coitas and Barigudos are much persecuted for their flesh, which is
+highly esteemed by the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bates has called our attention to the arboreal character of a large
+share of the animals in the Amazonian forest. All the monkeys and bats
+are climbers, and live in the trees. Nearly all the carnivores are
+feline, and are therefore tree-mounters, though they lead a terrestrial
+life. The plantigrade Cercoleptes has a long tail, and is entirely
+arboreal. Of the edentates, the sloth can do nothing on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> the ground. The
+gallinaceous birds, as the cigana and curassow&mdash;the pheasant and turkey
+of the Amazon&mdash;perch on the trees, while the great number of arboreal
+frogs and beetles is an additional proof of the adaptation of the fauna
+to a forest region. Even the epiphytous plants sitting on the branches
+suggest this arboreal feature in animal life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXII.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">Life around the Great River.&mdash;
+Origin of the Red Man.&mdash;
+General
+Characteristics of the Amazonian Indians.&mdash;
+Their Languages,
+Costumes, and Habitations.&mdash;
+Principal Tribes.&mdash;
+Mixed
+Breeds.&mdash;
+Brazilians and Brazil.</p>
+
+
+<p>We come now to the genus Homo. Man makes a very insignificant figure in
+the vast solitudes of the Amazon. Between Man&aacute;os and Par&aacute;, the most
+densely-peopled part of the valley, there is only one man to every four
+square miles; and the native race takes a low place in the scale of
+humanity. As the western continent is geologically more primitive than
+the eastern, and as the brute creation is also inferior in rank, so the
+American man, in point of progress, seems to stand in the rear of the
+Old World races. Both the geology and zoology of the continent were
+arrested in their development. Vegetable life alone has been favored.
+"The aboriginal American (wrote Von Martius) is at once in the
+incapacity of infancy and unpliancy of old age; he unites the opposite
+poles of intellectual life."<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></p>
+
+<p>We will not touch the debatable ground of the red man's origin, nor
+inquire whether he is the last remains of a people once high in
+civilization. But we are tempted to express the full belief that
+tropical America is not his "centre of creation." He is not the true
+child of the tropics; and he lives as a stranger, far less fitted for
+its climate than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> the Negro or Caucasian. Yet a little while, and the
+race will be as extinct as the Dodo. He has not the supple organization
+of the European, enabling him to accommodate himself to diverse
+conditions. Among the Andean tribes there are seldom over five children,
+generally but one, in a family; and Bates, speaking of Brazilian
+Indians, says "their fecundity is of a low degree, and it is very rare
+to find a family having so many as four children."<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p>
+
+<p>While it is probable that Mexico was peopled from the north, it is very
+certain that the Tupi and Guarani, the long-headed hordes that occupied
+eastern South America, came up from the south, moving from the Paraguay
+to the banks of the Orinoco. From the Tupi nation (perhaps a branch of
+the Guarani) sprung the multitudinous tribes now dwelling in the vast
+valley of the Amazon. In such a country&mdash;unbroken by a mountain, uniform
+in climate&mdash;we need not look for great diversity. The general characters
+are these: skin of a brown color, with yellowish tinge, often nearly the
+tint of mahogany; thick, straight, black hair; black, horizontal eyes;
+low forehead, somewhat compensated by its breadth; beardless; of the
+middle height, but thick-set; broad, muscular chest; small hands and
+feet; incurious; unambitious; impassive; undemonstrative; with a dull
+imagination and little superstition; with no definite idea of a Supreme
+Being, few tribes having a name for God, though one for the "Demon;"
+with no belief in a future state; and, excepting civility, with virtues
+all negative. The semi-civilized along the Lower Amazon, called
+<i>Tupuyos</i>, seem to have lost (in the language of Wallace) the good
+qualities of savage life, and gained only the vices of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>There are several hundred different tribes in Amazonia,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> each having a
+different language; even the scattered members of the same tribe can not
+understand each other.<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> This segregation of dialects is due in great
+part to the inflexibility of Indian character, and his isolated and
+narrow round of thought and life. When and where the Babel existed,
+whence the many branches of the great Tupi family separated, we know
+not. We only know that though different in words, these languages have
+the same grammatical construction. In more than one respect the polyglot
+American is antipodal to the Chinese. The language of the former is
+richest in words, that of the latter the poorest. The preposition
+follows the noun, and the verb ends the sentence. Ancient Tupi is the
+basis of the Lingoa Geral, the inter-tribal tongue on the Middle Amazon.
+The semi-civilized Ticunas, Mundurucus, etc., have one costume&mdash;the men
+in trowsers and white cotton shirts, the women in calico petticoats,
+with short, loose chemises, and their hair held in a knot on the top of
+the head by a comb, <span class="figright"><a name="Comb" id="Comb"></a>
+<img src="images/315.png" alt="Native Comb." title="Native Comb." /><br />
+Native Comb.</span>usually of foreign make, but sometimes made of
+bamboo splinters. The wild tribes north and south go nearly or quite
+nude, while those on the western tributaries wear cotton or bark togas
+or ponchos. The habitations are generally a frame-work of poles,
+thatched with palm-leaves; the walls sometimes latticed and plastered
+with mud, and the furniture chiefly hammocks and earthen vessels.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p>
+<p>The Mundurucus are the most numerous and warlike tribe in Amazonia. They
+inhabit both banks of the Tapajos, and can muster, it is said, 2000
+fighting men. They are friendly to the whites, and industrious, selling
+to traders large quantities of farina, sarsaparilla, rubber, and tonka
+beans. Their houses are conical or quadrangular huts, sometimes open
+sheds, and generally contain many families. According to Wallace, the
+Mundurucus are the only perfectly tattooed nation in South America. It
+takes at least ten years to complete the tattooing of the whole person.
+The skin is pricked with spines, and then the soot from burning pitch
+rubbed in. Their neighbors, the Par&aacute;rau&aacute;tes, are intractable, wandering
+savages, roaming through the forest and sleeping in hammocks slung to
+the trees. They have delicately-formed hands and feet, an oval face, and
+glistening black eyes. On the west side of the Tapajos, near Villa Nova,
+are the Mauh&eacute;s, an agricultural tribe, well formed, and of a mild
+disposition. On the Lower Madeira are the houseless, formidable Ar&aacute;ras,
+who paint their chins red with achote (anatto), and usually have a black
+tattooed streak on each side of the face. They have long made the
+navigation of the great tributary hazardous. Above them dwell the
+Parentint&iacute;ns, light colored and finely featured, but nude and savage. In
+the labyrinth of lakes and channels at the mouth of the Madeira live the
+lazy, brutal M&uacute;ras, the most degraded tribe on the Amazon. They have a
+darker skin than their neighbors, an extraordinary breadth of chest,
+muscular arms, short legs, protuberant abdomens, a thin beard, and a
+bold, restless expression. They pierce the lips, and wear peccari tusks
+in them in time of war. The Indians on the Purus live generally on the
+communal principle, and are unwarlike and indolent. The Puru-pur&uacute;s bury
+in sandy beaches, go naked, and have one wife.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the great northwest tributary of the Rio Negro, the Uacaiari, there
+are numerous tribes, collectively known as the Uaup&eacute;s. They have
+permanent abodes, in shape a parallelogram, with a semicircle at one
+end, and of a size to contain several families, sometimes a whole tribe.
+One of them, Wallace informs us, was 115 feet long by 75 broad, and
+about 30 high. The walls are bullet-proof. Partitions of palm-leaves
+divide it into apartments for families, the chief occupying the
+semicircular end. The men alone wear clothes and ornaments, but both
+sexes paint their bodies with red, black, and yellow colors in regular
+patterns. The men have a little beard, which they pull out, as also the
+eyebrows, and allow the hair to grow unshorn, tying it behind with a
+cord and wearing a comb; while the women cut theirs and wear no comb.
+They are an agricultural people&mdash;peaceable, ingenious, apathetic,
+diffident, and bashful.</p>
+
+<p>The Catauish&eacute;s inhabit the banks of the Teff&eacute;. They perforate the lips,
+and wear rows of sticks in the holes. At the mouth of the Juru&aacute; are the
+uncivilized, but tall, noble-looking Marau&aacute;s. They pierce the ears and
+lips, and insert sticks. They live in separate families, and have no
+common chief. Above them live the treacherous Arau&aacute;s.<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> On the
+opposite side of the Amazon are the nearly extinct Pass&eacute;s and Jur&iacute;s, the
+finest tribes in central South America. They are peaceable and
+industrious, and have always been friendly to the whites. The Pass&eacute;s are
+a slenderly-built, light-colored, dignified, superior race,
+distinguished by a large square tattooed patch in the middle of the
+face. The Jur&iacute;s tattoo in a circle round the mouth. Near by are the
+U&aelig;nambeus, or "Humming-birds," distinguished by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> a small blue mark on
+the upper lip. Higher up the Japur&aacute; is the large cannibal tribe of
+Mir&aacute;nhas, living in isolated families; and on the Tocant&iacute;ns dwell the
+low Caish&aacute;nas, who kill their first-born children. Along the left bank
+of the Amazon, from Loreto to Japur&aacute;, are the scattered houses and
+villages of the Tuc&uacute;nas. This is an extensive tribe, leading a settled
+agricultural life, each horde having a chief and a "medicine-man," or
+priest of their superstitions. They are good-natured and ingenious,
+excelling most of the other tribes in the manufacture of pottery; but
+they are idle and debauched, naked except in the villages, and tattooed
+in numbers of short, straight lines on the face. The Mar&uacute;bos, on the
+Javar&iacute;, have a dark complexion and a slight beard; and on the west side
+of the same river roam the Majer&oacute;nas&mdash;fierce, hostile, light colored,
+bearded cannibals. In the vicinity of Pebas dwell the inoffensive
+Yaguas. The shape of the head (but not their vacant expression) is well
+represented by Catlin's portrait of "Black Hawk," a Sauk chief. They are
+quite free from the encumbrance of dress, the men wearing a girdle of
+fibrous bark around the loins, with bunches looking like a mop hanging
+down in front and rear, and similar bunches hung around the neck and
+arms. The women tie a strip of brown cotton cloth about the hips. They
+paint the whole body with achote.<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> They sometimes live in
+communities. One large structure, with Gothic roof, is used in common;
+on the inside of which, around the walls, are built family
+sleeping-rooms. The Yaguas are given to drinking and dancing. They are
+said to bury their dead inside the house of the deceased, and then set
+fire to it; but this conflicts with their communal life. Perhaps, with
+the other tribes on the Japur&aacute;, I&ccedil;a, and Napo, they are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> fragments of
+the great Om&aacute;gua nation; but the languages have no resemblance. Of the
+Oriente Indians we have already spoken. The tall, finely-built Cuc&aacute;mas
+near Nauta are shrewd, hard-working canoe-men, notorious for the
+singular desire of acquiring property; and the Y&aacute;meos, a white tribe,
+wander across the Mara&ntilde;on as far as Sarayac&uacute;. On the Ucayali are
+numerous vagabond tribes, living for the most part in their canoes and
+temporary huts. They are all lazy and faithless, using their wives
+(polygamy is common) as slaves. Infanticide is practiced, <i>i.e.</i>,
+deformed children they put out of the way, saying they belong to the
+devil. They worship nothing. They bury their dead in a canoe or earthen
+jar under the house (which is vacated forever), and throw away his
+property.<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> The common costume is a long gown, called <i>cushma</i>, of
+closely-twilled cotton, woven by the women. Their weapons are two-edged
+battle-axes of hard wood, as palo de sangre, and bows and arrows. The
+arrows, five or six feet long, are made from the flower-stalk of the
+arrow-grass (<i>Gynerium</i>), the head pointed with the flinty chonta and
+tipped with bone, often anointed with poison. At the base two rows of
+feathers are spirally arranged, showing the Indian's knowledge of the
+rifle principle. When they have fixed abodes several families live
+together under one roof, with no division separating the women, as among
+the Red Indians on the Pastassa. The roof is not over ten feet from the
+ground. The Piros are the highest tribe; they have but one wife. The
+Conibos are an agricultural people, yet cannibals, stretching from the
+Upper Ucayali to the sources of the Purus. They are a fair-looking,
+athletic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> people, and, like the Shipibos, of ten wear a piece of money
+under the lip. The C&aacute;mpas are the most numerous and warlike.<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> They
+are little known, as travelers give them a wide berth. Herndon fancied
+they were the descendants of the Inca race. They are said to be
+cannibals, and from the specimen we saw we should judge them uncommonly
+sharp. He was averse to telling us any thing about his tribe, but turned
+our questions with an equivocal repartee and a laugh. The Cash&iacute;bos, on
+the Pachit&eacute;a, is another cannibal tribe. They are light colored and
+bearded. The dwarfish, filthy Rimos alone of the Ucayali Indians tattoo,
+though not so perfectly as the Mundurucus, using black and blue colors.
+The other tribes simply paint. It was among these wild Indians on the
+Ucayali that the Franciscan friars labored so long and zealously, and
+with a success far greater and more lasting than that which attended any
+other missionary enterprise in the valley.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining inhabitants of the Amazon are mixed-breeds, Negroes, and
+whites. The amalgamations form the greater part of the population of the
+large towns. Von Tschudi gives a catalogue of twenty-three hybrids in
+Peru, and there are undoubtedly as many, or more, in Brazil. The most
+common are Mamelucos (offspring of white with Indian), Mulattoes (from
+white and Negro), Cafuzos or Zambos (from Indian and Negro), Curibocos
+(from Cafuzo and Indian); and Xibaros (from Cafuzo and Negro). "To
+define their characteristics correctly," says Von Tschudi, "would be
+impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood. As a
+general rule, it may be said that they unite in themselves all the
+faults without any of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> virtues of their progenitors. As men they are
+generally inferior to the pure races, and as members of society they are
+the worst class of citizens." Yet they display considerable talent and
+enterprise, as in Quito; a proof that mental degeneracy does not
+necessarily result from the mixture of white with Indian blood. "There
+is, however," confesses Bates, after ten years' experience, "a
+considerable number of superlatively lazy, tricky, and sensual
+characters among the half-castes, both in rural places and in the
+towns." Our observations do not support the opinion that the result of
+amalgamation is "a vague compound, lacking character and expression."
+The moral part is perhaps deteriorated; but in tact and enterprise they
+often excel their progenitors.</p>
+
+<p>Negroes are to be seen only on the Lower Amazon. By the new act of
+emancipation, such as are slaves continue so, but their children are
+free. Negroes born in the country are called creoles.</p>
+
+<p>Of the white population, save a handful of English, French, and German,
+the Portuguese immigrants are the most enterprising men on the river.
+They are willing to work, trade, or do any thing to turn a penny. Those
+who acquire a fortune generally retire to Lisbon. The Brazilians proper
+are the descendants of the men who declared themselves "free and
+independent" of the mother country. Few of them are of pure Caucasian
+descent, for the immigration from Portugal for many years has been
+almost exclusively of the male sex. "It is generally considered bad
+taste in Brazil to boast purity of descent" (Bates, i, 241). Brazilians
+are stiff and formal, yet courteous and lively, communicative and
+hospitable, well-bred and intelligent. They are not ambitious, but
+content to live and enjoy what nature spontaneously offers. The most a
+Brazilian wants is farina and coffee, a hammock and cigar. Brazilian
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>ladies have led a dreary life of constraint and silence, without
+education or society, the husband making a nun of his wife after the old
+bigoted Portuguese notion; but during the last twenty years the doors
+have been opened. Brazil attained her independence in 1823; Brazilian
+women in 1848.</p>
+
+<p>Here, in this virgin valley, where every plant is an evergreen,
+possessing the most agreeable and enjoyable climate in the world, with a
+brilliant atmosphere, rivaled only by that of Quito, and with no changes
+of seasons&mdash;here we may locate the paradise of the lazy. Life may be
+maintained with as little labor as in the Garden of Eden. Perhaps no
+country in the world is capable of yielding so large a return for
+agriculture. Nature, evidently designing this land as the home of a
+great nation, has heaped up her bounties of every description&mdash;fruits of
+richest flavors, woods of finest grain, dyes of gayest colors, and drugs
+of rarest virtues; and left no sirocco or earthquake to disturb its
+people. Providence, moreover, has given the present emperor a wise and
+understanding heart; and the government is a happy blending of imperial
+dignity and republican freedom. White, Negro, half-caste, and Indian may
+be seen sitting side by side on the jury-bench. Certainly "the nation
+can not be a despicable one whose best men are able to work themselves
+up to positions of trust and influence."</p>
+
+<p>God bless the Empire of the South!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXIII.</a></h2>
+
+<p class="chap">How to Travel in South
+America.&mdash;
+Routes.&mdash;
+Expenses.&mdash;
+Outfit.&mdash;
+Precautions.&mdash;
+Dangers.</p>
+
+
+<p>The most vague and incorrect notions prevail in respect to traveling in
+South America. The sources of trustworthy and desirable information are
+very meagre. Murray has not yet published a "Hand-book for the Andes;"
+routes, methods, and expenses of travel are almost unknown; and the
+imagination depicts vampires and scorpions, tigers and anacondas, wild
+Indians and fevers without end, impassable rivers and inaccessible
+mountains as the portion of the tourist. The following statements, which
+can be depended upon, may therefore be acceptable to those who
+contemplate a trip on the Andes and the Amazon.</p>
+
+<p>The shortest, cheapest, most feasible, and least interesting route
+across the continent is from Valparaiso to Buenos Ayres. The breadth of
+South America is here only eight hundred miles. By railroad from
+Valparaiso to the foot of the Andes; thence a short mule-ride by the
+Uspallata Pass (altitude 12,000 feet), under the shadow of Aconcagua to
+Mendoza; thence by coach across the pampas to the Rio Plata. The
+Portillo Pass (traversed by Darwin) is nearer, but more lofty and
+dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivia offers the difficult path of Gibbon: From the coast to
+Cochabamba; thence down the Marmor&eacute; and Madeira. There are three routes
+through Peru: First, from Lima to Mayro, by way of Cerro Pasco and
+Hu&aacute;naco, by mule, ten days; thence down the Pachit&eacute;a, by canoe, six<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>
+days; thence down the Ucayali to Iquitos, by steamer, six days
+(forty-five hours' running time). When the road from Lima to Mayro is
+finished the passage will be shortened four days. No snow is met in
+crossing the Andes in summer, but in winter it is very deep. Second
+(Herndon's route), from Lima to Tinga Maria, by way of Hu&aacute;naco, by mule,
+fifteen days, distance three hundred miles (the passage is difficult in
+the rainy season); thence by canoe fifteen days down the Huallaga to
+Yurimaguas. Third and best, by mule from Truxillo to Caxim&aacute;rca, five
+days (note the magnificent ruins); thence to Chachapoyas, seven days
+(here are pre-Incarial relics); thence to Moyabamba, eight days; thence
+on foot to Balsa Puerto, four days; thence by canoe to Yurimaguas, two
+days. Price of a mule from Truxillo to Moyabamba is $30; canoe-hire,
+$10. The Peruvian steamers arrive at Yurimaguas the fifth of every month
+and leave the seventh; reach Nauta the ninth and Iquitos the tenth;
+leave Iquitos the sixteenth and arrive at Tabatinga the nineteenth, to
+connect with the Brazilian line. Going up, they leave Tabatinga the
+twenty-first and arrive at Iquitos the twenty-fourth, stopping six days.
+Running time from Yurimaguas to Tabatinga, forty-eight hours; fare, $70,
+gold; third-class, $17. La Condamine's route, <i>via</i> Loxa and the
+Mara&ntilde;on, is difficult; and Md. Godin's, <i>via</i> the Pastassa, is perilous
+on account of rapids and savages. The transit by the Napo we will now
+give in detail.</p>
+
+<p>Six hundred dollars in gold will be amply sufficient for a first-class
+passage from New York to New York across the continent of South America,
+making no allowance for stoppages. For necessary expenses in Ecuador,
+take a draft on London, which will sell to advantage in Guayaquil; so
+will Mexican dollars. American gold should be taken for expenses on the
+Amazon in Brazil; at Par&aacute; it commands<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> a premium. On the Mara&ntilde;on it is
+below par; Peruvian gold should therefore be bought at Guayaquil for
+that part of the route. Also French <i>medios</i>, or quarter francs; they
+will be very useful every where on the route, especially on the Upper
+Amazon, where change is scarce. Fifty dollars' worth will not be too
+many; for, as the Scotchman said of sixpences, "they are canny little
+dogs, and often do the work of shillings." Take a passport for Brazil.
+Leave behind your delicacies and superfluities of clothing; woolen
+clothes will be serviceable throughout. A trunk for mountain travel
+should not exceed 24 by 15 by 15 inches&mdash;smaller the better. Take a
+rubber air-pillow and mattress: there is no bed between Guayaquil and
+Par&aacute;. A hammock for the Amazon can be bought on the Napo.</p>
+
+<p>The Pacific Mail steamships, which leave New York on the first and
+sixteenth of each month, connect at Panama without delay with the
+British Steam Navigation line on the South Pacific. Fare, first-class,
+from New York to Guayaquil, by way of Panama and Paita, $215, gold;
+second-class, $128. Time to Panama, eight days; to Paita, four days; to
+Guayaquil, one day. A coasting steamer leaves Panama for Guayaquil the
+thirteenth of each month. There are two so-called hotels in Guayaquil.
+"Los tres Mosqueteros," kept by Sr. Gonzales, is the best. Take a front
+room ($1 per day), and board at the Fonda Italiana or La Santa Rosa ($1
+per day). Here complete your outfit for the mountains: saddle, with
+strong girth and crupper; saddle-bags, saddle-cover, sweat-cloth, and
+bridle ($40, paper), woolen poncho ($9), rubber poncho ($4), blanket
+($6), leggins, native spurs and stirrups, knife, fork, spoon, tea-pot,
+chocolate (tea, pure and cheap, should be purchased at Panama), candles,
+matches, soap, towels, and tarpaulin for wrapping up baggage. Convert
+your draft into paper, <i>quantum sufficit</i> for Guayaquil; the rest into
+silver.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Besides this outer outfit, an inner one is needed&mdash;of patience without
+stint. You will soon learn that it is one thing to plan and quite
+another to execute. "To get out of the inn is one half of the journey"
+is very appropriately a Spanish proverb. Spaniards do nothing
+<i>d'appressado</i> (in a hurry), but every thing <i>ma&ntilde;ana</i> (to-morrow). You
+will find fondas, horses, and roads divided into the bad, the worse, and
+the worst, and bad is the best. But fret not thyself. "Serenity of
+mind," wrote Humboldt, "almost the first requisite for an undertaking in
+inhospitable regions, passionate love for some class of scientific
+labor, and a pure feeling for the enjoyment which nature in her freedom
+is ready to impart, are elements which, when they meet together in an
+individual, insure the attainment of valuable results from a great and
+important journey."</p>
+
+<p>The journey to Quito must be made between May and November; in the rainy
+season the roads are impassable. From Guayaquil to Bodegas by Yankee
+steamer; fare, $2; time, eight hours. At Bodegas hire beasts at the
+<i>Consignacion</i> for Guaranda; price for riding and cargo beasts, $4 each.
+No extras for the <i>arriero</i>. A mule will carry two hundred and fifty
+pounds. Buy bread at Bodegas and Guaranda. The Indians on the road are
+very loth to sell any thing; buy a fowl, therefore, at the first
+opportunity, or you will have to live on dirty potato soup, and be glad
+of that. At the tambos, or wayside inns, you pay only for <i>yerba</i>
+(fodder). Never unsaddle your beast till it is cool; an Indian will even
+leave the bridle on for a time. To Guaranda, three full days. There take
+mules (safer than horses in climbing the mountains) for Quito; $6 25,
+silver, per beast; time, five days. Be sure to leave Guaranda by 4 a.m.,
+for in the afternoon Chimborazo is swept by furious winds. Also start
+with a full stomach; you will get nothing for two days. Drink sparingly
+of the snow-water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> which dashes down the mountain. You will be tempted
+to curse Chuquipoyo; but thank heaven it is no worse.</p>
+
+<p>There are two hotels in Quito, French and American; the former has the
+better location, the latter the better rooms. Best front room,
+furnished, half a dollar a day; cheaper by the month. Meals (two),
+twenty-five cents each. The beef is excellent, but the <i>cuisine</i>&mdash;oh,
+onions! "God sends the meat, and the evil one cooks." You can hire a
+professional male cook (Indian) for $5 a month, but you can't teach him
+any thing. Fish is not to be had in Quito. Gibbon speaks of having some
+in Cuzco, but does not tell us where it came from.<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> Price of best
+flour, $3 60 per quintal; butter, thirty cents a pound; beef, $1 an
+arroba (twenty-five pounds); refined sugar, $3 50 an arroba; brown sugar
+(<i>rapidura</i>),<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> five cents a pound; cigars, from six to sixteen for a
+dime; cigarettes, five cents a hundred. Horse hire, from fifty cents to
+$1 per day. If you are to remain some time, buy a beast: a good mule
+costs $40; an ordinary horse, $50. The Post-office Department is a
+swindle. If you "pay through" you will find on your arrival home that
+your letters have been paid at both ends. Ask our consul at Guayaquil to
+forward them.</p>
+
+<p>The necessary preparations for the Napo journey have been given in a
+previous chapter (Chap. XI). We might add to the list a few cans of
+preserved milk from New York, for you will not see a drop between the
+Andes and the Atlantic. Fail not to take plenty of lienzo; you must have
+it to pay the Indians, and any surplus can be sold to advantage. A bale
+of thirty varas costs about five dollars.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> Rely not at all on game; a
+champion sharpshooter could not live by his rifle. Santa Rosa and Coca
+will be represented to you as small New Yorks; but you will do well if
+you can buy a chicken between them.</p>
+
+<p>From Quito to Papallacta, two days and a half; riding beast, $2 silver,
+and $1 20 for each cargo of three arrobas. At Papallacta hire Indians
+for Archidona; each carries three arrobas, and wants $5 silver in
+advance. You take to your feet; time, nine days, including one day of
+rest at Baeza. At Archidona you take a new set of peons for Napo at
+twenty-five cents apiece; time, one day. From Napo down the river to
+Santa Rosa, one day. You give two and a half varas of lienzo to each
+Indian, and the same for the canoe. From Santa Rosa to Pebas, on the
+Mara&ntilde;on, fifteen days; cost of an Indian, twenty-five varas; ditto for a
+canoe. We advise you to stop at Coca and rig up a raft or craft of some
+kind; we ascribe our uninterrupted good health to the length and breadth
+of our accommodations. The Peruvian steamer from the west arrives at
+Pebas on the sixteenth of each month; fare to Tabatinga, $15 gold; time,
+four days; running time, eleven hours. Brazilian steamer leaves
+Tabatinga the twentieth of each month; fare to Man&aacute;os, $44 44 gold;
+time, five days; distance, one thousand miles. From Man&aacute;os to Par&aacute;, $55
+55 gold; time, six days; distance, one thousand miles. The Brazilian
+steamers make semi-monthly trips. We found two hotels in Par&aacute;&mdash;the
+"Italiana," dear and poor; the "Diana," unpretending but comfortable.
+Charges at the latter for room and board, $2 a day. The best time for
+traveling on the Amazon is between July and December. The United States
+and Brazilian steamships on their homeward voyage call at Par&aacute; the
+seventh of each month; fare to New York, $150 gold (the same as down the
+whole length of the Amazon); second class, $75; time, fourteen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> days;
+distance by way of St. Thomas, 1610 + 1400 miles. Steamer for Rio the
+ninth of each month; fare, $125; time, twelve days; distance, 2190
+miles. Fare from Rio to New York, $200. Fare by sailing vessel from Par&aacute;
+to New York, from $50 to $75; time, three weeks. A British steamer from
+Rio stops at Par&aacute; and Lisbon.</p>
+
+<p>A word about health. First, take one grain of common-sense daily; do as
+the natives do, keep out of the noon-day sun, and make haste slowly.
+Secondly, take with you quinine in two-grain pills, and begin to take
+them before leaving New York, as the great African traveler, Du Chaillu,
+recommended us. As preventive against the intermittent fevers on the
+lowlands and rivers, nothing is better than Dr. Copeland's celebrated
+pills&mdash;quinine, twelve grains; camphor, twelve grains; cayenne pepper,
+twelve grains. Mix with mucilage, and divide into twelve pills: take one
+every night or morning as required. On the Amazon carry guarana. Woolen
+socks are recommended by those who have had much experience of tropical
+fevers. Never bathe when the air is moist; avoid a chill; a native will
+not bathe till the sun is well up. Rub yourself with <i>aguardiente</i>
+(native rum) after a bath, and always when caught in a shower. Freely
+exercise in Quito to ward off liver complaints. Drink little water;
+coffee or chocolate is better, and tea is best. Avoid spirits with
+fruit, and fruit after dinner. The sickliest time in Guayaquil is at the
+breaking up of the rainy season.</p>
+
+<p>As to dangers: First, from the people. Traveling is as safe in Ecuador
+as in New York, and safer than in Missouri. There are no Spanish
+banditti, though some places, as Chambo, near Riobamba, bear a bad name.
+It is not wise to tempt a penniless footpad by a show of gold; but no
+more so in Ecuador than any where. We have traveled from Guayaquil to
+Damascus, but have never had occasion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> to use a weapon in self-defense;
+and only once for offense, when we threatened to demolish an Arab sheik
+with an umbrella. Secondly, from brutes. Some travelers would have us
+infer that it is impossible to stir in South America without being
+"affectionately entwined by a serpent, or sprung upon by a jaguar, or
+bitten by a rattlesnake; jiggers in every sand-heap and scorpions under
+every stone" (<i>Edinburgh Review</i>, xliii, 310). Padre Vernazza speaks of
+meeting a serpent two yards in diameter! But you will be disappointed at
+the paucity of animal life. We were two months on the Andes (August and
+September) before we saw a live snake. They are plentiful in the wet
+season in cacao plantations; but the majority are harmless. Dr. Russel,
+who particularly studied the reptiles of India, found that out of
+forty-three species which he examined not more than seven had poisonous
+fangs; and Sir E. Tennent, after a long residence in Ceylon, declared he
+had never heard of the death of an European by the bite of a snake. It
+is true, however, that the number and proportion of the venomous species
+are greater in South America than in any other part of the world; but it
+is some consolation to know that, zoologically, they are inferior in
+rank to the harmless ones; "and certainly," adds Sidney Smith, "a snake
+that feels fourteen or fifteen stone stamping on his tail has little
+time for reflection, and may be allowed to be poisonous." If bitten,
+apply ammonia externally immediately, and take five drops in water
+internally; it is an almost certain antidote. The discomforts and
+dangers arising from the animal creation are no greater than one would
+meet in traveling overland from New York to New Orleans.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, of one thing the tourist in South America may be assured&mdash;that
+dear to him, as it is to us, will be the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>remembrance of those romantic
+rides over the Cordilleras amid the wild magnificence of nature, the
+adventurous walk through the primeval forest, the exciting canoe-life on
+the Napo, and the long, monotonous sail on the waters of the Great
+River.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXIV.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>IN MEMORIAM.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">
+"A life that all the Muses decked<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;With gifts of grace that might express<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;All comprehensive tenderness,<br />
+All-subtilizing intellect."&mdash;Tennyson.<br /></p>
+
+
+<p>On the east of the city of Quito is a beautiful and extensive plain, so
+level that it is literally a <i>table-land</i>. It is the classic ground of
+the astronomy of the eighteenth century: here the French and Spanish
+academicians made their celebrated measurement of a meridian of the
+earth. As you stand on the edge of this plain just without the city, you
+see the dazzling summit of Cayambi looking down from the north; on your
+left are the picturesque defiles of Pichincha; on your right the slopes
+of Antisana. Close by you, standing between the city and the plain, is a
+high white wall inclosing a little plot, like the city above, "four
+square." You are reminded by its shape, and also by its position
+relative to Quito and Pichincha, of that other sacred inclosure just
+outside the walls of Jerusalem and at the foot of Olivet, the Garden of
+Gethsemane. This is the Protestant Cemetery.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="P_Staunton" id="P_Staunton"></a>
+<img src="images/333atb.png" alt="P. Staunton" title="P. Staunton" /><br /><a href="images/333a.png">P. Staunton</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/333b.png" alt="Signature" title="Signature" /><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p>Through the efforts of our late representative&mdash;now also numbered with
+the dead&mdash;this place was assigned by the government for the interment of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+
+foreigners who do not die in the Romish faith. And there we buried our
+fellow-traveler, <span class="smcap">Colonel Phineas Staunton</span>, the artist of the expedition,
+and Vice-Chancellor of Ingham University, New York. On the 8th of
+September, 1867, we bore him through
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>
+the streets of Quito to this
+quiet resting-place, without parade and in solemn silence&mdash;just as we
+believe his unobtrusive spirit would have desired, and just as his
+Savior was carried from the cross to the sepulchre. No splendid hearse
+or nodding plumes; no long procession, save the unheard tread of the
+angels; no requiem, save the unheard harps of the seraphs. We gave him a
+Protestant Christian burial, such as Quito never saw. In this corner of
+nature's vast cathedral, the secluded shrine of grandeur and beauty not
+found in Westminster Abbey, we left him. We parted with him on the mount
+which is to be the scene of his transfiguration.</p>
+
+<p>It would be difficult for an artist to find a grave whose surroundings
+are so akin to his feelings. He lies in the lofty lap of the Andes, and
+snow-white pinnacles stand around him on every side, just as we imagine
+the mountains are around the city of God. We think we hear him saying,
+as Fanny Kemble Butler said of another burial-ground: "I will not rise
+to trouble any one if they will let me sleep here. I will only ask to be
+permitted, once in a while, to raise my head and look out upon this
+glorious scene." No dark and dismal fogs gather at evening about that
+spot. It lies nearer to heaven than any other Protestant cemetery in the
+world. "It is good (says Beecher) to have our mortal remains go upward
+for their burial, and catch the earliest sounds of that trumpet which
+shall raise the dead." And the day is coming when that precious vein of
+gold that now lies in the bosom of the mighty Andes shall leave its
+rocky bed and shine in seven-fold purity. Indeed, the artist is already
+in that higher studio among the mountains of Beulah.</p>
+
+<p>A simple sculptured obelisk of sorrow stands over the dust of Colonel
+Staunton: his most fitting monument is his own life-work. He was the
+very painter Humboldt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> longed for in his writings&mdash;"the artist, who,
+studying in nature's great hot-house bounded by the tropics, should add
+a new and more magnificent kingdom of nature to art." Colonel Staunton,
+true and lovely in his own character, was ever seeking in nature for
+whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are pure, and now was
+about to add whatsoever things are grand. He was a <i>Christian</i> artist,
+in sympathy with such men as Raphael and Leonardo de Vinci. "The
+habitual choice of sacred subjects (says Ruskin) implies that the
+painter has a natural disposition to dwell on the highest thoughts of
+which humanity is capable." No shallow or false person could have
+conceived his <i>Ascension</i>. Only the highest qualities of the intellect
+and heart&mdash;a soul already half ascended&mdash;could have given such ethereal
+lightness to those "two men in white apparel." Only the pure in heart
+see God. As we revisit in imagination the spot where he sleeps so well,
+we behold, in the calm sublimity of the mountains that surround his
+grave, an image of the undisturbed repose of his spirit on the Rock of
+Ages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES"></a>APPENDICES.</h2>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX A.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Barometrical Measurements across South America.</span><a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p>
+
+
+<table summary="" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border:solid 1px black">
+<tr>
+<td style="border-bottom:solid 1px black">Locality. </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px; border-bottom:solid 1px black">Altitude.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px; border-bottom:solid 1px black">Barometer.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px; border-bottom:solid 1px black">Boiling Point.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px; border-bottom:solid 1px black">Regnault's Equiv.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px; border-bottom:solid 1px black">Difference.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px; border-bottom:solid 1px black">Other Estimates.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pacific Ocean</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">0</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.930</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">212.&deg;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Bar.</i> of Visse, 29.904; Boussingault, 29.867.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Guayaquil</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">10</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.899</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">211.95</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.831</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-.008</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>B.P.</i> of Visse, 211.8&deg;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Guaranda</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">8,840</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">21.976</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Visse, 8872; Hall, 8928.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Arenal</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">14,250</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">18.123</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Visse, 13,917; Hall, 14,268.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Mocha</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">10,900</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">20.393</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Ambato</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">8,490</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">22.241</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Visse, 8541; Boussingault, 8787.<br /><i>Bar.</i> of Jameson, 22.218.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Tacunga</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">9,181</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">21.693</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Visse, 9180; Boussingault, 9384.<br /><i>Bar.</i> of Jameson, 21.700.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tiupullo</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">11,662</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">19.858</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Visse, 11,702.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Machachi</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">9,900</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">21.212</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Visse, 9823.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Quito</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">9,520</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">21.530</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">195.8</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">21.485</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-.045</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of La Condamine, 9596; Humboldt, 9570; Caldas, 8947; Boussingault, 9567; Aguilar,
+9496; Visse, 9307; Bureau des Longs., 9540; Tramblay's<br /><i>Ann.</i>, 9538; Jameson, 9513.
+<br /><i>Bar.</i> of La Condamine, 21.404; Humboldt, 21.403; Aguilar, 21.465; Jameson, 21.566.
+<br /><i>B.P.</i> of Visse, 195.6&deg;; Tramblay, 184.18&deg;.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Panecillo</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">10,101</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">21.043</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Humboldt, 10,244; Aguilar, 10,135. <br /><i>Bar.</i> of Jameson,
+21.207.<br /> <i>B.P.</i> of Visse, 194.7&deg;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Pichincha, top</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">15,827</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">17.038</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">184.5</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">17.030</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-.008</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of La Condamine, 15,606; Humboldt, 15,922; Boussingault, 15,676;
+Visse, 16,200; Hall, 15,380; Jameson, 15,704. <br /><i>Bar.</i> of Visse, 16.942.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Pichincha, crater</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">13,300</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">189.2</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">18.672</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Visse and Moreno, 18,600.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Antisana H.</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">13,300</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">18.583</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Humboldt, 13,465; Boussingault, 13,356. <br /><i>Bar.</i> of Aguirre,
+18.573; Jameson, 18.630.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>On Antisana</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">16,000</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">16.782</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Pinatura</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">10,410</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">20.791</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Boussingault, 10,348.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Padregal</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">11,860</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">19.817</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>On&nbsp;Cotopaxi</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">12,690</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">19.004</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Riobamba</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">9,200</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">21.705</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Visse, 9157; Boussingault, 9413.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cajabamba</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">10,918</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">20.512</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of La Condamine, 11,000.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Itulcachi</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">8,885</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">22.006</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Tablon</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">10,516</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">20.800</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Papallacta</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">10,511</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">20.803</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">193.8</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">20.598</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-.205</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td>Guila</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">8,622</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">22.206</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pachamama</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">7,920</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">22.751</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Pachamama</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 7,920</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">22.751</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Baeza</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">6,625</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">23.793</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Cochachimbamba</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">4,252</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">25.832</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Curi-urcu</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">3,247</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">26.746</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td>Archidona</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">2,115</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">27.816</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">209.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">28.180</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">+.364</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Napo</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">1,450</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">28.419</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">209.4</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">28.407</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-.012</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Santa Rosa</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">1,100</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">28.814</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">210.4</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">28.982</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">+.168</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Coca</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">858</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.022</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">210.65</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.127</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">+.105</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Mouth of the River Aguarico</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">586</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.321></td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">211.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.331</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">+.010</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Do. River Curaray</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">500</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.408</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">210.8</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.215</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-.193</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Do. River Napo</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">385</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.526</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">211.4</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.566</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">+.040</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> at Nauta, by Castelnau, 365.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Pebas</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">345</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.510</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">211.1</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.390</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-.120</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Herndon, 537.<br /><i>B.P.</i> of Herndon, 211.1&deg;. </td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Loreto</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">211.4</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.566</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>San Antonio</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">256</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.655</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Tabatinga</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">255</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.656</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">211.5</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.625</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-.041</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Spix and Martius,
+670; Azevedo and Pinto, 150; Agassiz, 200.
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Tunantins</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">138?</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.770</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Azevedo and Pinto, 124.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Ega</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">100?</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.813</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">211.9</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.862</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">+.049</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Herndon, 2052; Azevedo and Pinto, 120.<br /><i>B.P.</i> of Herndon, 208.2&deg;.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Man&aacute;os</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">199?</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.705</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Herndon, 1475; Castelnau, 293; Spix and Martius, 556; Azevedo
+and Pinto, 92.<br /><i>B.P.</i> of Herndon, 209.3&deg;; Gibbon, 210.87&deg;; Wallace, 212&deg;.5.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Serpa</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">158?</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.752</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Azevedo and Pinto, 84.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" >Obidos</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">114</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.802</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Azevedo and Pinto, 58; Agassiz, 45.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" >Santarem</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">107</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.808</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">211.5</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.625</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-.183</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i>
+of Herndon, 846; Azevedo and Pinto, 50.<br /><i>B.P.</i> of Herndon, 210.5&deg;. </td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Mount Al&eacute;gre</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">83</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.834</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Gurup&aacute;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">38</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.890</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Alt.</i> of Azevedo and Pinto, 42.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Par&aacute;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">15</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.889</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">211.95</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.891</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">+.002</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">
+<i>Alt.</i> of Herndon, 320; Azevedo and Pinto, 35; Dewey, 35.<br /><i>Bar.</i> of
+Herndon, 29.708; Dewey, 29.941; Orton (reduced to level of river),
+29.914.<br /><i>B.P.</i> of Herndon, 211.5&deg;.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Atlantic Ocean</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">-2</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">29.932</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">212.16</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black"><i>Bar.</i> of Dewey, 29.977.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="APB" id="APB"></a>APPENDIX B.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Vocabularies from the Quichua, Z&aacute;paro, Y&aacute;gua, and C&aacute;mpas Languages.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">[Spanish Pronunciation]</span></p>
+
+<table summary="vocabularies" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="2">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="center"><i>English.</i></td>
+<td valign="top" align="center"><i>Quichua.</i></td>
+<td valign="top" align="center"><i>Z&aacute;paro.</i></td>
+<td valign="top" align="center"><i>Y&aacute;gua.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Father, </td>
+<td valign="top">Y&aacute;ya, </td>
+<td valign="top">Apoch&oacute;jo, </td>
+<td valign="top">Yen.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Mother, </td>
+<td valign="top">M&aacute;ma, </td>
+<td valign="top">A&ntilde;no, </td>
+<td valign="top">Nihu&aacute;.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Son <br />(said by father), </td>
+<td valign="top">Ch&uacute;ri, </td>
+<td valign="top">Ni&aacute;to, </td>
+<td valign="top">Po&eacute;n.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Son (said by mother), </td>
+<td valign="top">C&aacute;ri hu&aacute;hua, </td>
+<td valign="top">Tauq&uacute;, </td>
+<td valign="top">Po&eacute;n.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Daughter (said by father), </td>
+<td valign="top">Ush&uacute;shi, </td>
+<td valign="top">Coni&aacute;t <i>or</i> cuniat&oacute;.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Daughter&nbsp;(said by mother), </td>
+<td valign="top">Hu&aacute;rmi hu&aacute;hua, </td>
+<td valign="top">It&uacute;m.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Own father, </td>
+<td valign="top">Qu&iacute;quin y&aacute;ya, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuqu m&aacute;no.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Own mother, </td>
+<td valign="top">Qu&iacute;quin m&aacute;ma, </td>
+<td valign="top">La cu&aacute;no.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Step-father, </td>
+<td valign="top">La y&aacute;ya, </td>
+<td valign="top">T&aacute;ma qu&iacute;ra.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Step-mother, </td>
+<td valign="top">La m&aacute;ma, </td>
+<td valign="top">T&aacute;ma qu&iacute;ra (m&aacute;ma?).</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Own son, </td>
+<td valign="top">Qu&iacute;quin ch&uacute;ri, </td>
+<td valign="top">Ia cuni&aacute;na.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Step-son, </td>
+<td valign="top">Qu&iacute;pai ch&uacute;ri, </td>
+<td valign="top">Saqu&iacute;na cuni&aacute;na.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Elder son (said by father), </td>
+<td valign="top">C&uacute;ra (<i>or</i> &ntilde;&aacute;upa) ch&uacute;ri, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuniap&iacute;ra.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Elder son (said by mother), </td>
+<td valign="top">C&uacute;ra (<i>or</i> &ntilde;&aacute;upa) hu&aacute;hua, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuniap&iacute;ra.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Younger son (said by mother), </td>
+<td valign="top">S&uacute;llca (<i>or</i> qu&iacute;pa) ch&uacute;ri, </td>
+<td valign="top">Nuno&eacute;.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Younger daughter (said by father),</td>
+<td valign="top">S&uacute;llca (or qu&iacute;pa) ush&uacute;shi, </td>
+<td valign="top">Nuno&eacute; cuniat&oacute;.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Only son (said by father), </td>
+<td valign="top">Zap&aacute;lla (<i>or</i> zapa&iacute;) ch&uacute;ri, </td>
+<td valign="top">Noqu&iacute; cuni&aacute;n, </td>
+<td valign="top">T&iacute;qui rai (huahua).</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Only son (said by mother), </td>
+<td valign="top">Zap&aacute;lla (<i>or</i> zapa&iacute;) c&aacute;ri hu&aacute;hua, </td>
+<td valign="top">Noqu&iacute; t&aacute;uco cuni&aacute;n, </td>
+<td valign="top">T&iacute;qui rai (huahua).</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Grandson, </td>
+<td valign="top">C&aacute;ri hu&aacute;huay, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuajen&aacute;&ntilde;o.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Granddaughter, </td>
+<td valign="top">Hu&aacute;rmi hu&aacute;huay.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Great-grandson, </td>
+<td valign="top">C&aacute;ri v&iacute;llca, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuajen&aacute;&ntilde;o.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Great-great-grandson, </td>
+<td valign="top">C&aacute;ri chup&uacute;llu.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Grandfather, </td>
+<td valign="top">H&aacute;tun y&aacute;ya, </td>
+<td valign="top">Quirra&iacute;to pi&aacute;tzo, </td>
+<td valign="top">Yen.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Grandmother, </td>
+<td valign="top">H&aacute;tun m&aacute;ma, </td>
+<td valign="top">Quitra&iacute;to ocu&aacute;je.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Great-grandfather, </td>
+<td valign="top">Mach&uacute;i y&aacute;ya, </td>
+<td valign="top">Quirishep&uacute;i.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Great-grandmother, </td>
+<td valign="top">P&aacute;ya (or &aacute;pa) m&aacute;ma, </td>
+<td valign="top">P&aacute;ra.</td><td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Great-great-grandfather, </td>
+<td valign="top">Ap&uacute;squi (or ap&uacute;nche) y&aacute;ya, </td>
+<td valign="top">Pi&aacute;tzo.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Ancestors, </td>
+<td valign="top">Ap&uacute;squi c&uacute;na, </td>
+<td valign="top">Idasip&oacute;a.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Brother (said by male), </td>
+<td valign="top">Haua&uacute;qui, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuquih&uacute;&ntilde;o, </td>
+<td valign="top">Rai ta&iacute;re.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Brother (said by female), </td>
+<td valign="top">T&uacute;ri, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cu&aacute;uno, </td>
+<td valign="top">Rai puipu&iacute;n.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Sister (said by male), </td>
+<td valign="top">P&aacute;ni, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuirim&aacute;to, </td>
+<td valign="top">Rai p&oacute;po.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Sister (said by female), </td>
+<td valign="top">N&aacute;na, </td>
+<td valign="top">Taqu&iacute;, </td>
+<td valign="top">Rai ta&iacute;re tu.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Elder brother, </td>
+<td valign="top">C&uacute;rac hua&uacute;qui, </td>
+<td valign="top">Irish&iacute;a cuqu&iacute;&ntilde;o.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Younger brother, </td>
+<td valign="top">S&uacute;llca hua&uacute;qui, </td>
+<td valign="top">Noqu&iacute;.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Cousin (said by male), </td>
+<td valign="top">Ch&iacute;spa hua&uacute;qui, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuaner&aacute;no, </td>
+<td valign="top">Primo&iacute;ne.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Cousin (said by female), </td>
+<td valign="top">Ch&iacute;spa p&aacute;ni, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuaner&aacute;no, </td>
+<td valign="top">Prima&iacute;ne.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Second cousin, </td>
+<td valign="top">Ca&iacute;lla ch&iacute;spa hua&uacute;qui, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuaner&aacute;no (or cuaram&aacute;, relation).</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Third cousin, </td>
+<td valign="top">C&aacute;ru ch&iacute;spa hua&uacute;qui, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuaner&aacute;no (or cuaram&aacute;, relation).</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Uncle (father's brother), </td>
+<td valign="top">Yayap&aacute;c hua&uacute;qui (or h&aacute;chi),<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> </td>
+<td valign="top">T&aacute;uco.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Uncle (mother's brother), </td>
+<td valign="top">Mamap&aacute;c (or caca) t&uacute;ri, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cu&aacute;noro.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Aunt (father's sister), </td>
+<td valign="top">Ypa (on Mara&ntilde;on, tia&iacute;ne), </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuiqu&iacute;&ntilde;a.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Aunt (mother's sister), </td>
+<td valign="top">Mamap&aacute;c &ntilde;&aacute;&ntilde;a, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cu&aacute;no cu&iacute;&ntilde;o.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Father-in-Law, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cac&aacute;y (of male); quihuach&iacute; (of female).</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Mother-in-law, </td>
+<td valign="top">Quihu&aacute;c (of male); quihuach&iacute; (of female).</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Son-in-Law, </td>
+<td valign="top">M&aacute;sha, </td>
+<td valign="top">Acam&iacute;a, </td>
+<td valign="top">Quiria.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Daughter-in-law, </td>
+<td valign="top">Kach&uacute;n, </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuar&iacute; r&aacute;no.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Brother-in-law, </td>
+<td valign="top">Masan&iacute; (or cat&aacute;y), </td>
+<td valign="top">Cuajinoj&oacute;no.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Sister-in-law, </td>
+<td valign="top">Ypa (or kach&uacute;n p&uacute;ra).</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">God-son,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ch&uacute;ri c&aacute;shcai (<i>or</i> ch&aacute;scai),</td>
+<td valign="top">(<i>Not used</i>).</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">God-father,</td>
+<td valign="top">Shutich&iacute;c (<i>or</i> shut&iacute;shca) y&aacute;ya,</td>
+<td valign="top">Na achiat&aacute;no.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">God-mother,</td>
+<td valign="top">Shutich&iacute;c (<i>or</i> shut&iacute;shca) m&aacute;ma,</td>
+<td valign="top">Noaichoz&aacute;no.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Relation,</td>
+<td valign="top">A&iacute;llu,</td>
+<td valign="top">Cuaram&aacute;,</td>
+<td valign="top">(<i>Same as brother</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Husband,</td>
+<td valign="top">C&uacute;sa,</td>
+<td valign="top">Cuir&aacute;n,</td>
+<td valign="top">Rai-hu&aacute;no.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Wife,</td>
+<td valign="top">Hu&aacute;rmi,</td>
+<td valign="top">Cuirich&aacute;n,</td>
+<td valign="top">Rai-huatur&aacute;.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Widower,</td>
+<td valign="top">Hu&aacute;ccha c&aacute;ri,</td>
+<td valign="top">Mach&iacute;cho.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Widow,</td>
+<td valign="top">Hu&aacute;ccha hu&aacute;rmi,</td>
+<td valign="top">Mach&iacute;cho.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Twins,</td>
+<td valign="top">Yshcai huach&aacute;shca</td>
+<td valign="top">S&aacute;rro. (<i>or</i> huach&aacute;c).</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Hand,</td>
+<td valign="top">Maqu&iacute;,</td>
+<td valign="top">Cuicho&aacute;c.</td>
+<td valign="top">Samut&uacute;.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Foot,</td>
+<td valign="top">Chaqu&iacute;,</td>
+<td valign="top">Cui&ntilde;oc&aacute;,</td>
+<td valign="top">Nimut&uacute;.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Fingers,</td>
+<td valign="top">Maqu&iacute; p&aacute;lca,</td>
+<td valign="top">Canas&uacute;,</td>
+<td valign="top">(<i>No terms for fingers and toes</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Toes,</td>
+<td valign="top">Chaqu&iacute; p&aacute;lca,</td>
+<td valign="top">Cui&ntilde;oc&aacute; canas&uacute;.)</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Thumb,</td>
+<td valign="top">(<i>No separate terms for thumb and big toe</i>).</td>
+<td valign="top">Cumacan&aacute;.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Nails,</td>
+<td valign="top">Silh&uacute;,</td>
+<td valign="top">Anahuach&aacute;.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">God,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ap&uacute;nchi-y&aacute;ya</td>
+<td valign="top">Pi&aacute;tzo,</td>
+<td valign="top">Tupana. (<i>God our Father</i>),</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">One,</td>
+<td valign="top">Shuc (<i>or</i> Shug),</td>
+<td valign="top">Noqu&iacute;,</td>
+<td valign="top">Tiqu&iacute;.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Two,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ishcay,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ammasaniqu&iacute;,</td>
+<td valign="top">Nano&iacute;joi.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Three,</td>
+<td valign="top">Qu&iacute;nsa,</td>
+<td colspan="2" valign="top">Imuc&uacute; maraqu&iacute; Momuh&iacute;. (<i>above three they have no names, but show their fingers; do not count above ten</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Four,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ch&uacute;scu,</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">Na&ntilde;unj&uacute;ia.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Five,</td>
+<td valign="top">P&iacute;shca(<i>or</i> p&iacute;tchca),</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">Tana&iacute;jo.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Six,</td>
+<td valign="top">S&oacute;cta,</td>
+<td valign="top">Tiqu&iacute; &ntilde;ih&aacute;te.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Seven,</td>
+<td valign="top">C&aacute;nchis,</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">Na&ntilde;oujai&aacute;te.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Eight.(<i>or</i> pusag),</td>
+<td valign="top">P&uacute;sac</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">Momunhuai&aacute;te.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Nine,</td>
+<td valign="top">Isc&uacute;n,</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">Na&ntilde;auyu&iacute;a-&aacute;te.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Ten,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ch&uacute;nga,</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">Nanjui. (<i>Go no higher.</i>)</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Eleven,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ch&uacute;nga shug.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Twelve,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ch&uacute;nga &iacute;shcay, <i>etc.</i></td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Twenty,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ishcay-ch&uacute;nga.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Twenty-one,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ishcay-ch&uacute;nga shug, <i>etc.</i></td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Thirty,</td>
+<td valign="top">Qu&iacute;nsa ch&uacute;nga.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">One hundred,</td>
+<td valign="top">P&aacute;chac (<i>or</i> p&aacute;tzag).</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">One thousand,</td>
+<td valign="top">Guar&aacute;nga.</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Ten thousand,</td>
+<td colspan="3" valign="top">(<i>Would be</i> ch&uacute;nga-guar&aacute;nga; <i>but they never go over 1000</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">Ordinal numbers,</td>
+<td colspan="3" valign="top">(Niqu&iacute; <i>is joined to the number:</i> e.g.,
+<i>first is</i> shug niqu&iacute;: <i>second</i>,
+ishc&aacute;y niqu&iacute;)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>(<i>The Conibos count by twos. Thus, one is</i> av&iacute;cho; <i>two</i>, rab&oacute;i. <i>Above
+two, so many twos, as four is</i> rab&oacute;i-rab&oacute;i; <i>and six</i>,
+rab&oacute;i-rab&oacute;i-rab&oacute;i. <i>Ten is expressed by spreading both hands, and twenty
+by bringing fingers and toes together. Thus the Caribs. Decimal
+numeration is found among all the American aborigines, ancient and
+modern, juxtaposition usually designating multiplication.</i>)</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>CAMPAS WORDS.</h3>
+
+<table summary="campas words" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+
+<tr>
+
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Mother,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Ina. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Nose,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Aqu&iacute;ry. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Leg,</td>
+<td valign="top"> A&iacute;tse. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Curasson,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Choich&iacute;tes.</td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Rope,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Piamin&iacute;ta.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Brother (said by male),</td>
+<td valign="top"> Incho.</td>
+
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Mouth,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Apa-anti. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Belly,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Am&uacute;tse. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Turtle,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Tut&aacute;. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Twine,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Quiritar&iacute;.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Hand, </td>
+<td valign="top"> N&aacute;co. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Wrist, </td>
+<td valign="top"> Ac&uacute;. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Monkey,</td>
+<td valign="top">Tsep&eacute;. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Maize, </td>
+<td valign="top"> Ch&iacute;nque.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Brother (said by female), </td>
+<td valign="top"> Iga. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Foot,</td>
+<td valign="top"> A&iacute;tse-cun&iacute;da.</td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Knee,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Airit&uacute;. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Cocoa,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Quinb&iacute;to. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> One,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Pan&iacute;ro.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Lips, </td>
+<td valign="top"> Ach&iacute;ra. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Ankle, </td>
+<td valign="top"> At&uacute;nque. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Clay, </td>
+<td valign="top"> Quipate&iacute;. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Two, </td>
+<td valign="top"> Pitin&iacute;.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Sister (said by male),</td>
+<td valign="top"> Incho.</td>
+
+
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Teeth,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Aiqu&iacute;. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Nails,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Ach&iacute;te. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Shirt,</td>
+<td valign="top"> P&aacute;pani. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Three,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Pariotohu&aacute;y.</td></tr>
+<tr><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Hair, </td>
+<td valign="top"> Qu&iacute;sti. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Fly, </td>
+<td valign="top"> Chimb&oacute;que.</td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Fire, </td>
+<td valign="top"> Pamar&iacute;. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Four, </td>
+<td valign="top"> Pariopat&oacute;ta.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Head,</td>
+<td valign="top"> A&iacute;tu. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Neck,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Aqu&iacute;nce. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Musquito,</td>
+<td valign="top">Ch&iacute;tu. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Hammock,</td>
+<td valign="top">Quio-ots. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Five,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Pariotohuaygae.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">Eyes,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Oqu&iacute;. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Arm,</td>
+<td valign="top"> Ac&uacute;. </td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> Armadillo</td><td valign="top">P&iacute;cha.</td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>My informant on numerals, a boy, though quite intelligent, could go no
+farther; but the tribe undoubtedly count ten.</i>)
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="APC" id="APC"></a>APPENDIX C.</h2>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="return" id="return"></a><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p>
+<h3>COMMERCE OF THE AMAZON.</h3>
+<p class="center"><a href="#EXP">View the continuation of the table by scrolling or click here for an expanded version.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">I.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Value of Products Exported from different Towns on the Amazon by the
+Imperial Steamers in 1867.</span><a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a></p>
+
+
+<table summary="commerce" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Products. </td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Camet&aacute;.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Braves.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Macap&aacute;.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Gurup&aacute;.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="center">Porto&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;do Moz. </td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Prainha.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Brazil Nuts. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $600</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $400</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $290</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $10</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> $16 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cacao. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">$44,054</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,615</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 6,429</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,345</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 257</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">$1,677 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cattle. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 1,575 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Coffee. </td>
+
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Copaiba. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cotton, raw. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 100</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 90</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Dried Meat. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 145 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Farina. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Guarana. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Hides. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 138 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 800</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 3,302</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 858</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 271</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 152 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Horses. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 75</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 600</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 375 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">India-rubber. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">123,460</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">128,440</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">306,880</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 85,110</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 85,780</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 1,430 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Piassaba. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Pirarucu. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 10</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 20</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 200</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 1,805 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Sasparilla. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 60 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tallow. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 12</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 212</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 60 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tobacco. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 50</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 25</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 25 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tonka Beans. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 43</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Turtles. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">Turtle-oil. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>
+<table summary="commerce" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Products. </td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Mt. Al&eacute;gre. </td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Santarum.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Obidos.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Villa Nova.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Serpa.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Man&aacute;os.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black;border-right:solid 1px black" align="right">Cudajaz.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Brazil Nuts. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $1,334 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $6,938</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $2,564</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $6,886</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">$15,010</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">$1,442 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cacao. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $86 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">$69,111 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">172,421</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 28,907</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 34,462</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 38,802</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 1,945 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cattle. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 600 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 550 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 25</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Coffee. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 56 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 33</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 7</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 172</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Copaiba. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 18 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,422</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 4,383</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 8,651</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 5,175</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 132 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cotton, raw. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 103</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 293</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Dried Meat. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2,744 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 15,699</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 167</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Farina. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Guarana. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,620 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 750</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 24,240</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 14,550</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 60</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Hides. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2,426 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 4,087</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 5,787</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 6,290</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2,103</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Horses. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">3,225 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 3,975 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2,100</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 300</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">India-rubber. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 22,670 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 8,640</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 20,100</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">209,400</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">219,340</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">30,468 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Piassaba. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 7,612</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Pirarucu. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 525 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 18,902 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 31,525</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 40,827</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 21,025</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 79,055</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 8,273 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Sasparilla. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2,376 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,392</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 108</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 372</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 33,708</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 207 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tallow. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 200 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,484</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,368</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 4,164</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 16</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tobacco. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 225</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,187</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 237</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tonka Beans. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 120</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,070</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 5</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 9</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Turtles. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 70</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 76</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 136 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">Turtle-oil. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black"> 100</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black"> 5</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black"> 8,220</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 216 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>
+<table summary="commerce" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Products. </td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Coary.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Ega. </td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Fonte Boa.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Touantina.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">S. Paulo. </td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Tabatluga.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Brazil Nuts. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $498 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $325</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cacao. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">5,192 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">4,907</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $957</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $365 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $310</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> $227 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cattle. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Coffee. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 25 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Copaiba. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">1,559</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 123</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cotton, raw. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 6 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 232 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Dried Meat. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Farina. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 80 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 37</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 15</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 105 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 10</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Guarana. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Hides. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Horses. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">India-rubber. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">7,644 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">6,808</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">5,460</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2,252 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">9,155 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 15,054 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Piassaba. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Pirarucu. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">5,944 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">6,205</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">7,572</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 6,768 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">2,018 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 920 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Sasparilla. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 943 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">5,163</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">4,876</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 5,209 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">2,334 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 3,703 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tallow. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tobacco. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 48 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 300</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 12 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 360 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tonka Beans. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">.....</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">.....</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Turtles. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 39 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 33</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 10</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 50 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 3 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 3 </td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">Turtle-oil. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">2,382 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">3,123</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">1,693</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black"> 1,646 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black"> 298 </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 335 </td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>
+<table summary="commerce" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Products. </td>
+<td colspan="2" style="border:solid 1px black" align="center">Quantity. </td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Mean Price. </td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black" align="right">Total Value. </td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Brazil Nuts. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 18,397</td><td> alq. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> $2.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> $36,794</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cacao. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">314,327</td><td> arr. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 3.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 942,981</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cattle. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 110 </td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 25.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 2,750</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Coffee. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 79 </td><td>arr. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 3.70</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 292</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Copaiba. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 72,030</td><td> lbs. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> .30</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 2,160</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cotton, raw. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 653</td><td> arr. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1.25</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 816</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Dried Meat. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 6,821</td><td> " </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2.75</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 18,757</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Farina. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 90</td><td> alq. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2.50</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 247</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Guarana. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,374 </td><td>arr. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 30.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 41,220</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Hides. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 11,871</td><td>&nbsp; </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 23,742</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Horses. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 142</td><td>&nbsp; </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 75.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 10,650</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">India-rubber. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black">128,955</td><td> arr. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 10.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black">1,289,550</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Piassaba. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 7,612</td><td> " </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 7,612</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Pirarucu. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 94,316 </td><td>" </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 2.50</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 235,790</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Sasparilla. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 5,119</td><td> " </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 11.80</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 60,442</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tallow. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1,893</td><td> " </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 4.00</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 7,572</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tobacco. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 205</td><td> " </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 12.23</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 2,525</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tonka Beans. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 260 </td><td>" </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 4.80</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 1,248</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Turtles. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 331</td><td>&nbsp; </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black"> 1.80</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black"> 596</td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black">Turtle-oil. </td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black"> 3,762</td><td style="border-bottom:solid 1px black"> j'rs.</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black"> 4.75</td>
+<td align="right" style="border-left:solid 1px black; border-right:solid 1px black;border-bottom:solid 1px black"> 17,760</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">II. <span class="smcap">Articles Exported from Par&aacute; to the United States in 1860.</span></p>
+
+<table summary="Exported" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td>Annatto</td><td> lbs. </td><td> 64,832</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Piassaba</td><td> lbs. </td><td> 3,488</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Balsam Copaiba</td><td> " </td><td> 89,670</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Rubber, fine</td><td> "</td><td> 2,394,656</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cacao</td><td> " </td><td> 145,888</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;mixed</td><td> " </td><td> 69,120</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Copper, old</td><td> " </td><td> 1,171</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;coarse</td><td> "</td><td> 420,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hides, wet</td><td> " </td><td> 616,172</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Skins, Deer</td><td> " </td><td> 64,406</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;dry</td><td> "</td><td> 4,503</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tapioca</td><td> " </td><td> 118,080</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Nuts, Brazil</td><td> " </td><td> 23,582</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tonka Beans</td><td> " </td><td> 18,298</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; unshelled</td><td> " </td><td> 19,481</td><td  style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">III. <span class="smcap">Articles Imported from the United States to Par&aacute; in 1860</span>.</p>
+
+<table summary="Imported" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td>Axes</td><td align="left"> dozens,</td><td align="right"> 1,826</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Matches</td><td align="left"> cases,</td><td align="right"> 174</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Candles</td><td align="left"> boxes,</td><td align="right"> 594</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Oars</td><td align="left"> number,</td><td align="right"> 592</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Chairs</td><td align="left"> dozens,</td><td align="right"> 333</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Pepper</td><td align="left"> bags,</td><td align="right"> 190</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Codfish</td><td align="left"> drums,</td><td align="right"> 1,943</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Rosin</td><td align="left"> barrels,</td><td align="right"> 1,556</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Clocks</td><td align="left"> number,</td><td align="right"> 660</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Rubber and other Shoes</td><td align="left"> pairs,</td><td align="right"> 3,398</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Combs</td><td align="left"> dozens,</td><td align="right"> 7,353</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Shooks (box)</td><td align="left"> number,</td><td align="right"> 16,428</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Domestics</td><td align="left"> package,</td><td align="right"> 2,370</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Soap</td><td align="left"> boxes,</td><td align="right"> 6,891</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Drugs</td><td align="center"> " </td><td align="right"> 435</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Specie, in Gold</td><td align="left"> dollars,</td><td align="right"> 113,827</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Flour</td><td align="left"> barrels,</td><td align="right"> 16,755</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Straw Paper</td><td align="left"> reams,</td><td align="right"> 12,903</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Fire-crackers</td><td align="left"> boxes,</td><td align="right"> 1,800</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Soda-biscuit</td><td align="right"> 12-lb. tins,</td><td align="right"> 5,954</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Gunny-bags</td><td align="left"> number,</td><td align="right"> 13,000</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Saltpetre</td><td align="left"> kegs,</td><td align="right"> 95</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Gunpowder</td><td align="left"> kegs,</td><td align="right"> 2,150</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tea</td><td align="left"> chests,</td><td align="right"> 235</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Hams</td><td align="left"> tierces,</td><td align="right"> 38</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tea</td><td align="left"> boxes,</td><td align="right"> 533</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Hardware</td><td align="left"> packages,</td><td align="right"> 201</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tar and Pitch</td><td align="left"> barrels,</td><td align="right"> 329</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Hats, Palm-leaf</td><td align="left"> cases,</td><td align="right"> 506</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tobacco</td><td align="left"> boxes,</td><td align="right"> 257</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Knives</td><td align="left"> dozens,</td><td align="right"> 2,195</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Twine, Cotton</td><td align="left"> pounds,</td><td align="right"> 13,322</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Lard</td><td align="left"> packages,</td><td align="right"> 2,709</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tortoise-shell</td><td align="center"> " </td><td align="right"> 299&frac12;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Lumber</td><td align="left"> feet,</td><td align="right"> 75,955</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Nails</td><td align="left"> kegs,</td><td align="right"> 588</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="center">IV. <span class="smcap">Duties on Principal Imports from United States at Par&aacute;</span>.</p>
+
+
+<table summary="Duties" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td>Axes and Hatchets</td>
+<td align="right"> 30</td>
+<td align="center"> reys per </td>
+<td align="left"> pound.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Biscuit, Soda</td>
+<td align="right"> 400</td>
+<td align="center"> "</td>
+<td align="left"> arroba.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Brooms</td>
+<td align="right"> 600</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> dozen.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Chairs, cane-seat</td>
+<td align="right"> 1,000</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> article.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; rocking</td>
+<td align="right"> 3,000</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;extra</td>
+<td align="right">6,000</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Cinnamon, Ceylon</td>
+<td align="right"> 500</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> pound.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Combs, rubber</td>
+<td align="right"> 600</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ivory</td>
+<td align="right"> 2,000</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Cotton Goods</td>
+<td align="right"> 90</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> sq. vara.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;colored twills</td>
+<td align="right">150</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Candles</td>
+<td align="right"> 240</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Cigars</td>
+<td align="right"> 1,200</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Cordage</td>
+<td align="right"> 50</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Dirks, ordinary</td>
+<td align="right"> 6,000</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> article.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;extra</td>
+<td align="right"> 12,000</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Flour</td>
+<td align="right"> 150</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> arroba.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Hats, Palm-leaf. </td>
+<td align="right"> 180</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> article.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Hams</td>
+<td align="right"> 70</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> pound.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Hom&oelig;opathic Medicine</td>
+<td align="right"> 300</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> ounce.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Knives</td>
+<td align="right"> 250</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> article.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Lard</td>
+<td align="right"> 1,500</td>
+
+
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+
+
+<td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Matting, India</td>
+<td align="right"> 240</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> pound.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Nails, to two inches</td>
+<td align="right"> 40</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Padlocks, brass</td>
+<td align="right"> 250</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;iron</td>
+<td align="right"> 180</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Pearl Barley</td>
+<td align="right"> 400</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> arroba.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Pepper, India</td>
+<td align="right"> 70</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> pound.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Plows</td>
+<td align="right"> free.</td>
+
+
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+
+
+<td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Pork</td>
+<td align="right"> 600</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> arroba.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Powder</td>
+<td align="right"> 200</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> pound.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Paper, Straw</td>
+<td align="right"> 30</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Pilot Bread</td>
+<td align="right"> 150</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> arroba.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Roman Cement</td>
+<td align="right"> 50</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Rosin</td>
+<td align="right"> 1,200</td>
+
+
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+
+
+<td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Sieves, iron wire</td>
+<td align="right"> 30</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> pound.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; brass</td>
+<td align="right"> 50</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Shoes, Rubber</td>
+<td align="right"> 400</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Store Trucks</td>
+<td align="right"> 900</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> article.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Shooks, boxes</td>
+<td align="right"> 400</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> arroba.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Soap, Yellow</td>
+<td align="right"> 30</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> pound.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Scales, simple</td>
+<td align="right"> 120</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Tar and Pitch</td>
+<td align="right"> 200</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> arroba.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Tortoise-shell</td>
+<td align="right"> 2,500</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> pound.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Tea</td>
+<td align="right"> 450</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Twine, Cotton</td>
+<td align="right"> 300</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Trunks, 2 to 4 palms</td>
+<td align="right"> 2,700</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> article.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; over 4 &nbsp; " </td>
+<td align="right"> 3,600</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Tobacco, chewing</td>
+<td align="right"> 4,800</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> arroba.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cut</td>
+<td align="right"> 9,600</td>
+<td align="center"> " </td>
+<td align="left"> arroba.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center">This Tariff went into operation February 23, 1861.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ADDENDA" id="ADDENDA"></a>ADDENDA.</h2>
+
+
+<p><i>Orchilla</i>, page 29.&mdash;This valuable lichen comes chiefly from Tumbez. It
+is not found on the rocks, like the orchilla of the Old World, but grows
+on various trees. The foliage of a tree disappears when the orchilla
+commences. The sea air is indispensable to its production, as it is
+found only near the coast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religious Intolerance</i>, p. 91.&mdash;The expression "Protestant dogs" has
+since been publicly repeated by a priest in a sermon, who told the
+people to confess, or they would be treated in a similar way. It called
+forth a remonstrance from Mr. Hamilton, the British Minister, directed
+to the archbishop, declaring such conduct inhuman and unchristian. The
+Pope's Nuncio left Quito for good in July, 1869.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fish in the Quito Valley</i>, p. 107.&mdash;Dr. Gill informs me that the true
+name of this little fish is <i>Cyclopium Humboldtii</i>, Swainson. It belongs
+to the sub-family Trachelypterin&aelig;, under Silurid&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hummers' Nests</i>, p. 108.&mdash;They are not always of a lengthened form, as
+the text would imply, but are sometimes quite shallow. They are
+invariably lined with the softest vegetable materials and covered with
+moss. The nests are not as compact as those of our Northern hummer, and,
+so far as we observed, are never shingled with flat lichens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Humboldt in 1802</i>, p. 156.&mdash;He spent five months in the valley of
+Quito.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Pebas Fossils</i>, p. 282.&mdash;In a letter to the author, Mr. Darwin says:
+"Your discovery of marine shells high up the Amazon possesses <i>extreme</i>
+interest, not only in itself, but as one more most striking instance how
+rash it is to assert that any deposit is not a marine formation because
+it does not contain fossils. As for myself, I never believed for a
+moment in Agassiz's idea of the origin of the Amazonian formation."
+Agassiz "candidly confesses (Lyell's <i>Principles</i>, i., 468) that he
+failed to discover any of those proofs which we are accustomed to
+regard, even in temperate latitudes, as essential for the establishment
+of the former existence of glaciers where they are now no more. No
+glaciated pebbles, or far-transported angular blocks with polished and
+striated sides; no extensive surface of rock, smooth, and traversed by
+rectilinear furrows, were observed." The fossiliferous bed at Pebas is
+as plainly <i>in situ</i> as the Medina sandstone at Genesee Falls.
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Tropical Flowers</i>, p. 292.&mdash;"During twelve years spent amid the
+grandest tropical vegetation, I have seen nothing comparable to the
+effect produced on our landscapes by gorse, broom, heather, wild
+hyacinths, hawthorns, purple orchises, and buttercups."&mdash;Wallace's
+<i>Malay Archipelago</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coca-plant</i>, p. 293.&mdash;The engraving conveys the impression that the
+leaves are parallel-veined; but the coca is a dicotyledon, with the
+under surface of the leaf strongly marked with veins, of which two, in
+addition to the midrib, run parallel with the margin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pedrero</i>, Map.&mdash;This town on the Rio Negro is also written <i>Pedreira</i>.
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+<p class="ni">
+Adobe dwellings, page <a href="#Page_46">46.</a><br />
+<br />
+Agassiz, Mount, <a href="#Page_250">250.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prof., on the geology of the Amazonian valley, <a href="#Page_280">280,</a> <a href="#Page_282">282,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Agriculture on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_243">243.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Andes, <a href="#Page_75">75.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Aground on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_239">239.</a><br />
+<br />
+Aguano, <a href="#Page_201">201.</a><br />
+<br />
+Aguardiente, <a href="#Page_175">175.</a><br />
+<br />
+Alcalde's house, <a href="#Page_202">202.</a><br />
+<br />
+Alligators, <a href="#Page_35">35,</a> <a href="#Page_296">296.</a><br />
+<br />
+Almeyrim Hills, <a href="#Page_252">252.</a><br />
+<br />
+Aloe, American, <a href="#Page_100">100.</a><br />
+<br />
+Alpargates, <a href="#Page_70">70.</a><br />
+<br />
+Altar, volcano of, <a href="#Page_150">150.</a><br />
+<br />
+Amazon River, annual rise, <a href="#Page_274">274.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">birds on, <a href="#Page_306">306.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cetaceans, <a href="#Page_299">299.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">climate, <a href="#Page_273">273,</a> <a href="#Page_284">284.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">commerce, <a href="#Page_277">277.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">current, <a href="#Page_273">273.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">delta, <a href="#Page_272">272.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">depth, <a href="#Page_274">274.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">etymology, <a href="#Page_278">278.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">expeditions, <a href="#Page_277">277.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">first view of, <a href="#Page_226">226.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fishes, <a href="#Page_295">295.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">foreign vessels on, <a href="#Page_276">276.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">insects, <a href="#Page_300">300.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">life within, <a href="#Page_295">295.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">magnitude, <a href="#Page_264">264,</a> <a href="#Page_272">272,</a> <a href="#Page_278">278.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">natural canals, <a href="#Page_265">265.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">navigation, <a href="#Page_276">276.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">reptiles, <a href="#Page_296">296.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">scenery, <a href="#Page_236">236.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">source, <a href="#Page_264">264.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">tints, <a href="#Page_272">272.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">tributaries, <a href="#Page_266">266,</a> <a href="#Page_271">271.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">volume, <a href="#Page_273">273.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valley, <a href="#Page_280">280.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">creation of, <a href="#Page_117">117.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">forest, <a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fruits, <a href="#Page_289">289.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">geology, <a href="#Page_281">281,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">minerals, <a href="#Page_286">286.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">slope, <a href="#Page_280">280.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">soil, <a href="#Page_286">286.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">trees, <a href="#Page_289">289.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">zoology, <a href="#Page_284">284.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Amazonian Indians, <a href="#Page_316">316.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ambato, <a href="#Page_52">52,</a> <a href="#Page_153">153.</a><br />
+<br />
+America, the continent of vegetation, <a href="#Page_103">103.</a><br />
+<br />
+America, South, geology of, <a href="#Page_114">114.</a><br />
+<br />
+Amphisb&oelig;na, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br />
+<br />
+Amusements in Quito, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a><br />
+<br />
+Anacondas, <a href="#Page_222">222.</a><br />
+<br />
+Andean chain, <a href="#Page_119">119.</a><br />
+<br />
+Andes, as a geological boundary, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">birds on the, <a href="#Page_105">105,</a> <a href="#Page_146">146.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">equipped for the, <a href="#Page_37">37.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first sight of the, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heart of the, <a href="#Page_48">48.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">last view of the, <a href="#Page_214">214.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_121">121.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reptiles on the, <a href="#Page_107">107.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise of the, <a href="#Page_115">115.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sinking of the, <a href="#Page_138">138.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summit of the, <a href="#Page_49">49,</a> <a href="#Page_134">134.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">valleys of the, <a href="#Page_130">130.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">views from the, <a href="#Page_45">45,</a> <a href="#Page_134">134,</a> <a href="#Page_141">141.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Anguteros Indians, <a href="#Page_222">222.</a><br />
+<br />
+Animal life, dearth of, <a href="#Page_188">188.</a><br />
+<br />
+Animals on the Napo, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br />
+<br />
+Antisana, volcano of, <a href="#Page_144">144,</a> <a href="#Page_180">180.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hacienda, <a href="#Page_144">144.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ants, battle with, <a href="#Page_225">225.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_300">300.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Napo, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Apothecaries in Quito, <a href="#Page_93">93.</a><br />
+<br />
+Archidona, <a href="#Page_191">191.</a><br />
+<br />
+Architecture in Quito, <a href="#Page_78">78.</a><br />
+<br />
+Arenal, <a href="#Page_49">49.</a><br />
+<br />
+Armadillo, <a href="#Page_310">310.</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>Army of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_87">87.</a><br />
+<br />
+Arrieros, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br />
+<br />
+Arrows, Indian, <a href="#Page_321">321.</a><br />
+<br />
+Arts in Quito, <a href="#Page_78">78.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ascending the Andes, <a href="#Page_43">43,</a> <a href="#Page_96">96,</a> <a href="#Page_144">144.</a><br />
+<br />
+Astronomy on the Andes, <a href="#Page_97">97.</a><br />
+<br />
+Atahuallpa, <a href="#Page_56">56.</a><br />
+<br />
+Atmosphere of Quito, <a href="#Page_97">97.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Baeza, <a href="#Page_187">187.</a><br />
+<br />
+Balsas, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a><br />
+<br />
+Bamboos on the Napo, <a href="#Page_220">220.</a><br />
+<br />
+Banana, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ba&ntilde;os, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a><br />
+<br />
+Barometric measurements, <a href="#Page_337">337.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">anomaly, <a href="#Page_241">241,</a> <a href="#Page_226">226.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">variations at Quito, <a href="#Page_92">92.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Barra, <a href="#Page_243">243.</a><br />
+<br />
+Bartholomew, St., <a href="#Page_54">54.</a><br />
+<br />
+Bats, <a href="#Page_205">205,</a> <a href="#Page_312">312.</a><br />
+<br />
+Bears, <a href="#Page_105">105.</a><br />
+<br />
+Bed, Andean, <a href="#Page_181">181.</a><br />
+<br />
+Bees on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_303">303.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Quito, <a href="#Page_108">108.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Napo, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Beetles on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_303">303.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Napo, <a href="#Page_206">206.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bells of Quito, <a href="#Page_89">89.</a><br />
+<br />
+"Big-ear" Indians, <a href="#Page_222">222.</a><br />
+<br />
+Birds on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_306">306.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coloration of, in the tropics, <a href="#Page_105">105.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">moulting of, <a href="#Page_285">285.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of South America, <a href="#Page_105">105.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Blow-guns, <a href="#Page_170">170.</a><br />
+<br />
+Boa-constrictor, <a href="#Page_223">223.</a><br />
+<br />
+Bodegas, <a href="#Page_35">35.</a><br />
+<br />
+Botany of South America, <a href="#Page_286">286.</a><br />
+<br />
+Brazilian etiquette, <a href="#Page_235">235,</a> <a href="#Page_246">246.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">frontier, <a href="#Page_233">233.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamers, <a href="#Page_234">234.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Brazilians, <a href="#Page_323">323.</a><br />
+<br />
+Brazil-nut trees, <a href="#Page_290">290.</a><br />
+<br />
+Bread-tree, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a><br />
+<br />
+Breves, <a href="#Page_254">254.</a><br />
+<br />
+Buildings, Andean, <a href="#Page_46">46.</a><br />
+<br />
+Bull-baits, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a><br />
+<br />
+Burial Customs, <a href="#Page_91">91,</a> <a href="#Page_321">321.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Quito, <a href="#Page_91">91.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Butter, <a href="#Page_251">251.</a><br />
+<br />
+Butterflies on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_302">302.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Napo, <a href="#Page_206">206.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Buzzards, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Caballococha, <a href="#Page_232">232.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cacao, <a href="#Page_30">30,</a> <a href="#Page_290">290.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cajabamba, <a href="#Page_153">153.</a><br />
+<br />
+Calabash-tree, <a href="#Page_289">289.</a><br />
+<br />
+Camino Real, <a href="#Page_45">45.</a><br />
+<br />
+Camellones, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br />
+<br />
+Camindo on the Napo, <a href="#Page_226">226.</a><br />
+<br />
+C&aacute;mpas Indians, <a href="#Page_322">322.</a><br />
+<br />
+Can&eacute;los, <a href="#Page_172">172.</a><br />
+<br />
+Canoe-life on the Napo, <a href="#Page_213">213.</a><br />
+<br />
+Canoe-paths, <a href="#Page_265">265.</a><br />
+<br />
+Canoes on the Napo, <a href="#Page_200">200.</a><br />
+<br />
+Capybara, <a href="#Page_310">310.</a><br />
+<br />
+Caraguairazo, <a href="#Page_132">132.</a><br />
+<br />
+Carnival, <a href="#Page_81">81.</a><br />
+<br />
+Carranqui, <a href="#Page_157">157.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cassiquiari Canal, <a href="#Page_267">267.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cathedral of Guayaquil, <a href="#Page_26">26.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Quito, <a href="#Page_66">66.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cattle on the Andes, <a href="#Page_145">145.</a><br />
+<br />
+Caucho-tree, <a href="#Page_288">288.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cayambi, <a href="#Page_143">143.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cedar on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_289">289.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cemetery, Protestant, <a href="#Page_91">91.</a><br />
+<br />
+Century-plant, <a href="#Page_100">100.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cerro, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cetaceans in the Amazon, <a href="#Page_299">299.</a><br />
+<br />
+Chicha, <a href="#Page_167">167,</a> <a href="#Page_210">210.</a><br />
+<br />
+Chillo hacienda, <a href="#Page_155">155.</a><br />
+<br />
+Chimbo, Valley of, <a href="#Page_46">46.</a><br />
+<br />
+Chimborazo, <a href="#Page_33">33,</a> <a href="#Page_44">44,</a> <a href="#Page_49">49,</a> <a href="#Page_127">127.</a><br />
+<br />
+Chimneys, absence of, <a href="#Page_44">44.</a><br />
+<br />
+Chirimoya, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br />
+<br />
+Chuquipoyo, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a><br />
+<br />
+Chuquiragua, <a href="#Page_100">100.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cig&aacute;na, <a href="#Page_206">206,</a> <a href="#Page_308">308.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cinchona, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cinnamon, American, <a href="#Page_172">172.</a><br />
+<br />
+Circumcision, <a href="#Page_322">322.</a><br />
+<br />
+Civility, Ecuadorian, <a href="#Page_35">35,</a> <a href="#Page_71">71.</a><br />
+<br />
+Civilization on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_236">236.</a><br />
+<br />
+Clay-eating, <a href="#Page_229">229.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">formation of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_225">225.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Climate of Guayaquil, <a href="#Page_28">28.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Quito, <a href="#Page_91">91.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_238">238,</a> <a href="#Page_251">251.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Coary, River, <a href="#Page_242">242,</a> <a href="#Page_269">269.</a><br />
+<br />
+Coca-chewing, <a href="#Page_291">291,</a> <a href="#Page_348">348.</a><br />
+<br />
+Coca village, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cochineal, <a href="#Page_108">108.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cock-fighting, <a href="#Page_35">35,</a> <a href="#Page_80">80.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cocoa-palm, <a href="#Page_35">35.</a><br />
+<br />
+Coffee, <a href="#Page_31">31,</a> <a href="#Page_259">259,</a> <a href="#Page_290">290.</a><br />
+<br />
+Colleges of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_79">79.</a><br />
+<br />
+Combativeness on the Andes, <a href="#Page_95">95.</a><br />
+<br />
+Commerce on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_342">342.</a><br />
+<br />
+Compressed heads, <a href="#Page_171">171.</a><br />
+<br />
+Compulsory commerce, <a href="#Page_195">195.</a><br />
+<br />
+Condor, <a href="#Page_106">106,</a> <a href="#Page_131">131.</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>Cones of volcanoes, <a href="#Page_122">122.</a><br />
+<br />
+Conibos Indians, <a href="#Page_321">321.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cookery in Quito, <a href="#Page_44">44,</a> <a href="#Page_84">84.</a><br />
+<br />
+Copal-gum, <a href="#Page_193">193.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cordillera, <a href="#Page_33">33,</a> <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cosanga River, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a><br />
+<br />
+Costumes of Amazonian Indians, <a href="#Page_239">239,</a> <a href="#Page_241">241.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cotocach&iacute;, village, <a href="#Page_154">154.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">volcano, <a href="#Page_142">142.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cotopaxi, <a href="#Page_55">55,</a> <a href="#Page_146">146.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eruptions of, <a href="#Page_125">125.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cotton-mills, <a href="#Page_77">77,</a> <a href="#Page_155">155.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cow-tree, <a href="#Page_288">288.</a><br />
+<br />
+Craft on the Napo, <a href="#Page_209">209.</a><br />
+<br />
+Craters, deep, <a href="#Page_133">133.</a><br />
+<br />
+Crocodiles, <a href="#Page_296">296.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cudaj&aacute;, <a href="#Page_242">242.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuenca, <a href="#Page_152">152.</a><br />
+<br />
+Cunchebamba, <a href="#Page_53">53.</a><br />
+<br />
+Curaray River, <a href="#Page_224">224.</a><br />
+<br />
+Curassow, <a href="#Page_308">308.</a><br />
+<br />
+Curi-urcu, <a href="#Page_191">191.</a><br />
+<br />
+Currency of Par&aacute;, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quito, <a href="#Page_75">75.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cuzco ladies, <a href="#Page_82">82.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Dangers in South America, <a href="#Page_331">331.</a><br />
+<br />
+Darwin on the geology of the Pampas, <a href="#Page_282">282.</a><br />
+<br />
+Darwin on the geology of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_347">347.</a><br />
+<br />
+Debt of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_87">87.</a><br />
+<br />
+Deer on the Napo, <a href="#Page_226">226.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fossil, <a href="#Page_154">154.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Descent into Pichincha, <a href="#Page_139">139.</a><br />
+<br />
+Discipline on the Napo, <a href="#Page_204">204.</a><br />
+<br />
+Diseases on the Andes, <a href="#Page_93">93,</a> <a href="#Page_331">331.</a><br />
+<br />
+Dogs on the Andes, <a href="#Page_95">95.</a><br />
+<br />
+Dolphins, <a href="#Page_299">299.</a><br />
+<br />
+Dragon-flies, <a href="#Page_302">302.</a><br />
+<br />
+Dress in Quito, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a><br />
+<br />
+Drunkenness at Quito, <a href="#Page_146">146.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Earthquake at Ibarra, <a href="#Page_157">157.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Riobamba, <a href="#Page_153">153.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of, on climate, <a href="#Page_91">91.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">experience of, <a href="#Page_163">163.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theories of, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Eastern Cordillera, <a href="#Page_179">179.</a><br />
+<br />
+Eciton ants, <a href="#Page_301">301.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ecuador, army, <a href="#Page_87">87.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress, <a href="#Page_86">86.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">debt, <a href="#Page_87">87.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extent, <a href="#Page_85">85.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flora and fauna, <a href="#Page_103">103.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government, <a href="#Page_86">86.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population, <a href="#Page_85">85.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religion, <a href="#Page_89">89.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">repudiation, <a href="#Page_86">86.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revenue, <a href="#Page_87">87.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutions, <a href="#Page_86">86.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">supreme court, <a href="#Page_87">87.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">volcanoes, <a href="#Page_122">122,</a> <a href="#Page_148">148.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ecuadorian cooking, <a href="#Page_44">44,</a> <a href="#Page_84">84.</a><br />
+<br />
+Education on the Andes, <a href="#Page_79">79.</a><br />
+<br />
+Edwards, George, <a href="#Page_195">195.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ega, <a href="#Page_239">239.</a><br />
+<br />
+Eggs of the alligator, <a href="#Page_297">297.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the turtle, <a href="#Page_297">297.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+El Dorado, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a><br />
+<br />
+Elephant at high altitudes, <a href="#Page_155">155.</a><br />
+<br />
+Equator, mean temperature, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a><br />
+<br />
+Expenses of travel, <a href="#Page_327">327.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Farina, <a href="#Page_235">235,</a> <a href="#Page_291">291.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ferns, tree, <a href="#Page_38">38.</a><br />
+<br />
+Fever remedies, <a href="#Page_331">331.</a><br />
+<br />
+Fire-flies, <a href="#Page_25">25.</a><br />
+<br />
+Fish in the Napo, <a href="#Page_226">226.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Quito Valley, <a href="#Page_107">107,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the tropics, <a href="#Page_329">329.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fishes ejected from volcanoes <a href="#Page_107">107,</a> <a href="#Page_132">132,</a> <a href="#Page_143">143.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_295">295.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fishing with barbasco, <a href="#Page_169">169.</a><br />
+<br />
+Flamingoes, <a href="#Page_308">308.</a><br />
+<br />
+Flowers on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_292">292,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Andes, <a href="#Page_50">50,</a> <a href="#Page_102">102,</a> <a href="#Page_136">136.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fonte Boa, <a href="#Page_239">239.</a><br />
+<br />
+Forest on the Napo, <a href="#Page_216">216,</a> <a href="#Page_219">219.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trail, <a href="#Page_182">182,</a> <a href="#Page_186">186.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tropical, <a href="#Page_36">36,</a> <a href="#Page_38">38,</a> <a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fossil bones on the Andes, <a href="#Page_154">154.</a><br />
+<br />
+Fossils in the Amazon Valley, <a href="#Page_282">282,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a><br />
+<br />
+Frogs in Quito Valley, <a href="#Page_107">107.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_304">304.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fruits of Quito, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_289">289.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <a href="#Page_105">105,</a> <a href="#Page_124">124.</a><br />
+<br />
+Gentians, <a href="#Page_103">103.</a><br />
+<br />
+Geology of South America, <a href="#Page_114">114.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Amazon Valley, <a href="#Page_225">225,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Glacial theory of Agassiz, <a href="#Page_282">282,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a><br />
+<br />
+Glaciers, absence of, <a href="#Page_131">131.</a><br />
+<br />
+Glimpse of the Andes, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br />
+<br />
+Go&icirc;tre, <a href="#Page_94">94.</a><br />
+<br />
+Gold on the Napo, <a href="#Page_196">196.</a><br />
+<br />
+Grapes on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_234">234.</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>Grebe on the Andes, <a href="#Page_146">146.</a><br />
+<br />
+Guacamayo Mountain, <a href="#Page_190">190.</a><br />
+<br />
+Guamani, <a href="#Page_144">144,</a> <a href="#Page_179">179.</a><br />
+<br />
+Gu&aacute;pulo, <a href="#Page_178">178.</a><br />
+<br />
+Guarani race, <a href="#Page_316">316.</a><br />
+<br />
+Guarana, <a href="#Page_290">290.</a><br />
+<br />
+Guaranda, <a href="#Page_46">46.</a><br />
+<br />
+Guayaquil, city and people, <a href="#Page_25">25.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate, <a href="#Page_28">28.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history, <a href="#Page_28">28.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">market, <a href="#Page_30">30.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Guayas River, scenes on, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a><br />
+<br />
+Guayusa tea, <a href="#Page_193">193.</a><br />
+<br />
+Gurup&aacute;, <a href="#Page_253">253.</a><br />
+<br />
+Gypsy-birds, <a href="#Page_223">223.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Hammocks, <a href="#Page_202">202.</a><br />
+<br />
+Hats of Guayaquil, <a href="#Page_31">31.</a><br />
+<br />
+Hatuntaqui, battle of, <a href="#Page_56">56,</a> <a href="#Page_154">154.</a><br />
+<br />
+Hauxwell, Mr., <a href="#Page_227">227,</a> <a href="#Page_229">229.</a><br />
+<br />
+Health in the tropics, <a href="#Page_331">331.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Andes, <a href="#Page_93">93.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Heart of the Andes, <a href="#Page_48">48.</a><br />
+<br />
+High altitudes, experience at, <a href="#Page_96">96,</a> <a href="#Page_142">142.</a><br />
+<br />
+Himalayas, vegetation on, <a href="#Page_50">50,</a> <a href="#Page_100">100.</a><br />
+<br />
+Horns, blowing of, <a href="#Page_209">209.</a><br />
+<br />
+Horses, extinct species of, <a href="#Page_154">154.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for the Andes, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hospitality, Ecuadorian, <a href="#Page_35">35,</a> <a href="#Page_71">71.</a><br />
+<br />
+Hotels, Andean, <a href="#Page_40">40,</a> <a href="#Page_53">53.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Guayaquil, <a href="#Page_328">328.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Quito, <a href="#Page_329">329.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Howling monkeys, <a href="#Page_223">223,</a> <a href="#Page_313">313.</a><br />
+<br />
+Huallaga River, <a href="#Page_266">266.</a><br />
+<br />
+Humboldt, <a href="#Page_136">136,</a> <a href="#Page_156">156,</a> <a href="#Page_348">348.</a><br />
+<br />
+Hummers in Quito, <a href="#Page_107">107,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_307">307.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hybrids, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br />
+<br />
+Hypsometric zones, <a href="#Page_50">50.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ibarra, <a href="#Page_157">157.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ibis, <a href="#Page_308">308.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ida Pfeiffer, <a href="#Page_53">53.</a><br />
+<br />
+Iguana, <a href="#Page_304">304.</a><br />
+<br />
+Imbabura, <a href="#Page_143">143,</a> <a href="#Page_154">154.</a><br />
+<br />
+Immorality of priests, <a href="#Page_89">89.</a><br />
+<br />
+Incarial relics, <a href="#Page_109">109,</a> <a href="#Page_112">112,</a> <a href="#Page_124">124.</a><br />
+<br />
+Incas in Quito, <a href="#Page_56">56.</a><br />
+<br />
+Indian character, <a href="#Page_153">153,</a> <a href="#Page_203">203,</a> <a href="#Page_243">243.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dwellings, <a href="#Page_78">78.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peons, <a href="#Page_36">36,</a> <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">savages, <a href="#Page_221">221.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Indians, Amazonian, <a href="#Page_315">315.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Andean, <a href="#Page_69">69,</a> <a href="#Page_109">109,</a> <a href="#Page_111">111.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as travelers, <a href="#Page_186">186.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+India-rubber-tree, <a href="#Page_288">288.</a><br />
+<br />
+In memoriam, <a href="#Page_334">334.</a><br />
+<br />
+Insect pests, <a href="#Page_224">224.</a><br />
+<br />
+Insects, Amazon, <a href="#Page_206">206,</a> <a href="#Page_300">300.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Quito, <a href="#Page_108">108.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Iquitos, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br />
+<br />
+Itulcachi, <a href="#Page_178">178.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Jacamars, <a href="#Page_308">308.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ja&ccedil;anas, <a href="#Page_308">308.</a><br />
+<br />
+Jacapas, <a href="#Page_308">308.</a><br />
+<br />
+Jaguars, <a href="#Page_311">311.</a><br />
+<br />
+Japur&aacute; River, <a href="#Page_267">267,</a> <a href="#Page_320">320.</a><br />
+<br />
+Javar&iacute; River, <a href="#Page_269">269,</a> <a href="#Page_320">320.</a><br />
+<br />
+Jesuits, <a href="#Page_89">89,</a> <a href="#Page_321">321.</a><br />
+<br />
+Jiggers, <a href="#Page_108">108.</a><br />
+<br />
+J&iacute;varos Indians, <a href="#Page_165">165,</a> <a href="#Page_171">171.</a><br />
+<br />
+Jur&iacute;s Indians, <a href="#Page_319">319.</a><br />
+<br />
+Juru&aacute; River, <a href="#Page_269">269,</a> <a href="#Page_319">319.</a><br />
+<br />
+Jutah&iacute; River, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Lady travelers on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_236">236.</a><br />
+<br />
+La Mona, <a href="#Page_38">38.</a><br />
+<br />
+Lauguage of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_71">71.</a><br />
+<br />
+Latacunga, <a href="#Page_53">53.</a><br />
+<br />
+Lava, absence of, <a href="#Page_122">122.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">streams, <a href="#Page_144">144.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Lepers, <a href="#Page_55">55,</a> <a href="#Page_94">94.</a><br />
+<br />
+Lianas, <a href="#Page_188">188.</a><br />
+<br />
+Lice-eating, <a href="#Page_181">181.</a><br />
+<br />
+Life within the Amazon, <a href="#Page_295">295.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">around the Amazon, <a href="#Page_300">300.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Lignite on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_225">225,</a> <a href="#Page_283">283.</a><br />
+<br />
+Lion, American, <a href="#Page_105">105.</a><br />
+<br />
+Living on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_235">235.</a><br />
+<br />
+Lizards of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_304">304.</a><br />
+<br />
+Llama, <a href="#Page_104">104.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fossil, <a href="#Page_154">154.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Llanganati Mountains, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a><br />
+<br />
+Locro, <a href="#Page_44">44.</a><br />
+<br />
+Loja, <a href="#Page_152">152.</a><br />
+<br />
+Longevity on the Andes, <a href="#Page_92">92.</a><br />
+<br />
+Loreto, <a href="#Page_232">232.</a><br />
+<br />
+Lotteries in Quito, <a href="#Page_90">90.</a><br />
+<br />
+Lungs of mountaineers, <a href="#Page_95">95.</a><br />
+<br />
+Lyell on the Valley of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_347">347.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Macaws, <a href="#Page_306">306.</a><br />
+<br />
+Machachi, <a href="#Page_55">55.</a><br />
+<br />
+Madeira River, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mama&iuml;, <a href="#Page_234">234.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mamelucos, <a href="#Page_239">239.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mammals on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_309">309.</a><br />
+<br />
+Man&aacute;os, <a href="#Page_243">243.</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>Manati, <a href="#Page_215">215,</a> <a href="#Page_299">299.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mandioca, <a href="#Page_291">291.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mango, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a><br />
+<br />
+Manufactures of Quito, <a href="#Page_77">77.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mara&ntilde;on River, <a href="#Page_227">227.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamers, <a href="#Page_230">230.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Maravilla, <a href="#Page_48">48.</a><br />
+<br />
+Market of Quito, <a href="#Page_77">77.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mashka, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br />
+<br />
+Maspa, <a href="#Page_186">186.</a><br />
+<br />
+Masquerade, Indian, <a href="#Page_110">110.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mastodon, Andean, <a href="#Page_154">154.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mat&aacute;-mat&aacute; turtle, <a href="#Page_299">299.</a><br />
+<br />
+Maucallacta, <a href="#Page_232">232.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mauh&eacute;s Indians, <a href="#Page_318">318.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mazan River, <a href="#Page_226">226.</a><br />
+<br />
+Meat, preservation of, <a href="#Page_222">222.</a><br />
+<br />
+Merchants of Quito, <a href="#Page_74">74.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mica Lake, <a href="#Page_146">146.</a><br />
+<br />
+Milk on the Andes, <a href="#Page_179">179.</a><br />
+<br />
+Milky Way at Quito, <a href="#Page_98">98.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mixed races, <a href="#Page_68">68,</a> <a href="#Page_322">322.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mocha, <a href="#Page_52">52.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mongruba-tree, <a href="#Page_288">288.</a><br />
+<br />
+Monkey meat, <a href="#Page_203">203.</a><br />
+<br />
+Monkeys, <a href="#Page_223">223,</a> <a href="#Page_313">313.</a><br />
+<br />
+Monta&ntilde;a of Peru, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br />
+<br />
+Monte Al&eacute;gre, <a href="#Page_252">252.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mont&uacute;ca flies, <a href="#Page_224">224.</a><br />
+<br />
+Moreno, President, <a href="#Page_54">54,</a> <a href="#Page_86">86,</a> <a href="#Page_138">138.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mountaineers, <a href="#Page_43">43,</a> <a href="#Page_69">69,</a> <a href="#Page_95">95.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mountains on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_252">252.</a><br />
+<br />
+Moyabamba, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mules, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br />
+<br />
+Muleteers, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br />
+<br />
+Mundurucus Indians, <a href="#Page_318">318.</a><br />
+<br />
+M&uacute;ras Indians, <a href="#Page_318">318.</a><br />
+<br />
+Music in the forest, <a href="#Page_205">205.</a><br />
+<br />
+Musquitoes, <a href="#Page_224">224,</a> <a href="#Page_228">228,</a> <a href="#Page_303">303.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Napo country, <a href="#Page_164">164.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diseases, <a href="#Page_198">198.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fish, <a href="#Page_226">226.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indians, <a href="#Page_165">165,</a> <a href="#Page_197">197,</a> <a href="#Page_180">180,</a> <a href="#Page_210">210.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journey, <a href="#Page_174">174.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navigation, <a href="#Page_197">197,</a> <a href="#Page_209">209.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">productions, <a href="#Page_196">196.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rapids, <a href="#Page_200">200.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">river, <a href="#Page_197">197,</a> <a href="#Page_199">199,</a> <a href="#Page_227">227,</a> <a href="#Page_268">268.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scenery, <a href="#Page_216">216,</a> <a href="#Page_220">220.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tea, <a href="#Page_193">193.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">turtles, <a href="#Page_226">226.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wilderness, <a href="#Page_188">188,</a> <a href="#Page_191">191.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Nauta, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br />
+<br />
+Negroes on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_247">247,</a> <a href="#Page_323">323.</a><br />
+<br />
+Negro River, <a href="#Page_242">242,</a> <a href="#Page_266">266,</a> <a href="#Page_319">319.</a><br />
+<br />
+Newspapers in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_27">27,</a> <a href="#Page_80">80.</a><br />
+<br />
+Nocturnal music, <a href="#Page_205">205.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Obidos, <a href="#Page_248">248.</a><br />
+<br />
+Obsidian, <a href="#Page_124">124,</a> <a href="#Page_148">148.</a><br />
+<br />
+Orchids, <a href="#Page_216">216.</a><br />
+<br />
+Orchilla, <a href="#Page_347">347.</a><br />
+<br />
+Orejones, <a href="#Page_222">222.</a><br />
+<br />
+Orellana's expedition, <a href="#Page_183">183,</a> <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br />
+<br />
+Organ-bird, <a href="#Page_308">308.</a><br />
+<br />
+Oriente, <a href="#Page_164">164.</a><br />
+<br />
+Otovalo, <a href="#Page_157">157.</a><br />
+<br />
+Outfit for travel, <a href="#Page_327">327.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Paita, raised beach at, <a href="#Page_115">115.</a><br />
+<br />
+Paja, or Paramo grass, <a href="#Page_49">49.</a><br />
+<br />
+Palms, cocoa, <a href="#Page_35">35.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Napo, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palo de cruz, <a href="#Page_228">228.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pampas, geology of, <a href="#Page_282">282.</a><br />
+<br />
+Panama hats, <a href="#Page_31">31.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pa&ntilde;uelon, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a><br />
+<br />
+Papallacta, <a href="#Page_177">177,</a> <a href="#Page_181">181.</a><br />
+<br />
+Papaya-tree, <a href="#Page_202">202,</a> <a href="#Page_234">234.</a><br />
+<br />
+Par&aacute; City, buildings, <a href="#Page_257">257.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce, <a href="#Page_259">259.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">currency, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government, <a href="#Page_261">261.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">people, <a href="#Page_258">258.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of, <a href="#Page_254">254.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Para River, <a href="#Page_254">254,</a> <a href="#Page_271">271.</a><br />
+<br />
+Paramo, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br />
+<br />
+Parrots, <a href="#Page_206">206,</a> <a href="#Page_306">306.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pass&eacute;s Indians, <a href="#Page_319">319.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pastassa River, <a href="#Page_150">150,</a> <a href="#Page_268">268.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pebas, <a href="#Page_227">227.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fossils, <a href="#Page_282">282,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Peccaries, <a href="#Page_221">221,</a> <a href="#Page_310">310.</a><br />
+<br />
+Peons, <a href="#Page_36">36,</a> <a href="#Page_183">183.</a><br />
+<br />
+Peruvian bark, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamers, <a href="#Page_230">230.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pfeiffer, Ida, <a href="#Page_53">53.</a><br />
+<br />
+Piassaba palm, <a href="#Page_289">289.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pichincha volcano, <a href="#Page_124">124,</a> <a href="#Page_133">133,</a> <a href="#Page_140">140.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pigs, mode of dressing, <a href="#Page_49">49.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pirarucu fish, <a href="#Page_295">295.</a><br />
+<br />
+Piums, <a href="#Page_224">224.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pizarro at Coca, <a href="#Page_183">183,</a> <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br />
+<br />
+Plantain, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a><br />
+<br />
+Poison antidote, <a href="#Page_332">332.</a><br />
+<br />
+Politeness, Ecuadorian, <a href="#Page_35">35,</a> <a href="#Page_71">71.</a><br />
+<br />
+Politics in Quito, <a href="#Page_86">86.</a><br />
+<br />
+Polylepis-trees, <a href="#Page_50">50,</a> <a href="#Page_179">179.</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>Poncho, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a><br />
+<br />
+Porphyroid trachytes, <a href="#Page_124">124.</a><br />
+<br />
+Porpoises, <a href="#Page_299">299.</a><br />
+<br />
+Porto do Moz, <a href="#Page_253">253.</a><br />
+<br />
+Potatoes on the Andes, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br />
+<br />
+Potato soup, <a href="#Page_44">44,</a> <a href="#Page_50">50.</a><br />
+<br />
+Prayinha, <a href="#Page_253">253.</a><br />
+<br />
+President's order, <a href="#Page_176">176.</a><br />
+<br />
+Priests of Quito, <a href="#Page_89">89.</a><br />
+<br />
+Protestant cemetery, <a href="#Page_90">90,</a> <a href="#Page_334">334.</a><br />
+<br />
+Puma, <a href="#Page_105">105.</a><br />
+<br />
+Pumice, <a href="#Page_148">148.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_268">268.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Puna, <a href="#Page_96">96.</a><br />
+<br />
+Purus Indians, <a href="#Page_318">318.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">River, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Quadrupeds on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_309">309.</a><br />
+<br />
+Quartz, paucity of, <a href="#Page_122">122.</a><br />
+<br />
+Quito agriculture, <a href="#Page_75">75.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">amusements, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">architecture, <a href="#Page_78">78.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arts, <a href="#Page_78">78.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">atmosphere, <a href="#Page_96">96.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bells, <a href="#Page_89">89.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">birds, <a href="#Page_106">106.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bull-baits, <a href="#Page_80">80,</a> <a href="#Page_94">94.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">butterflies, <a href="#Page_108">108.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital, <a href="#Page_66">66.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">carnival, <a href="#Page_81">81.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate, <a href="#Page_91">91.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cock-fights, <a href="#Page_81">81.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cookery, <a href="#Page_84">84.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">currency, <a href="#Page_75">75.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diseases, <a href="#Page_93">93.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drunkenness, <a href="#Page_142">142.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education, <a href="#Page_79">79.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fashions, <a href="#Page_70">70.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fish, <a href="#Page_108">108.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flour, <a href="#Page_98">98,</a> <a href="#Page_101">101.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history, <a href="#Page_56">56,</a> <a href="#Page_152">152.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insects, <a href="#Page_108">108.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ladies, <a href="#Page_70">70,</a> <a href="#Page_81">81.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manufactures, <a href="#Page_77">77.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">market, <a href="#Page_77">77.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">masquerades, <a href="#Page_81">81.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">merchants, <a href="#Page_74">74.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">newspapers, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">politics, <a href="#Page_86">86.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population, <a href="#Page_68">68.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">potatoes, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prices, <a href="#Page_329">329.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestant cemetery, <a href="#Page_90">90.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religion, <a href="#Page_87">87.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reptiles, <a href="#Page_107">107.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scenery, <a href="#Page_178">178.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">servants, <a href="#Page_83">83.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">situation, <a href="#Page_55">55,</a> <a href="#Page_59">59,</a> <a href="#Page_62">62.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">streets and buildings, <a href="#Page_64">64,</a> <a href="#Page_65">65.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">street scene, <a href="#Page_60">60.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suburbs, <a href="#Page_55">55,</a> <a href="#Page_59">59.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under the Incas, <a href="#Page_56">56.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under the Spaniards, <a href="#Page_57">57.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valley, <a href="#Page_51">51,</a> <a href="#Page_55">55,</a> <a href="#Page_73">73,</a> <a href="#Page_149">149,</a> <a href="#Page_152">152.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">arch&aelig;ology of, <a href="#Page_109">109,</a> <a href="#Page_112">112.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Quitonians, character of the, <a href="#Page_71">71,</a> <a href="#Page_86">86.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">primeval, <a href="#Page_109">109.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Rain-fall at Quito, <a href="#Page_93">93.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">line on the Andes, <a href="#Page_45">45.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Raposa, <a href="#Page_233">233,</a> <a href="#Page_311">311.</a><br />
+<br />
+Regularity of nature, <a href="#Page_92">92.</a><br />
+<br />
+Religion of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_87">87.</a><br />
+<br />
+Religious intolerance, <a href="#Page_91">91,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a><br />
+<br />
+Reptiles at Quito, <a href="#Page_107">107.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_296">296.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Revenue of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_87">87.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ride down the Andes, <a href="#Page_180">180.</a><br />
+<br />
+Rimos Indians, <a href="#Page_322">322.</a><br />
+<br />
+Riobamba, <a href="#Page_150">150,</a> <a href="#Page_153">153.</a><br />
+<br />
+River systems of South America, <a href="#Page_118">118,</a> <a href="#Page_275">275.</a><br />
+<br />
+Roads on the Andes, <a href="#Page_43">43,</a> <a href="#Page_53">53,</a> <a href="#Page_74">74.</a><br />
+<br />
+Rodents on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_309">309.</a><br />
+<br />
+Romanism on the Andes, <a href="#Page_88">88.</a><br />
+<br />
+Rose of the Andes, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br />
+<br />
+Routes across South America, <a href="#Page_325">325.</a><br />
+<br />
+Rumi&ntilde;agui, <a href="#Page_146">146.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Salt on the Andes, <a href="#Page_193">193.</a><br />
+<br />
+San Antonio, <a href="#Page_233">233.</a><br />
+<br />
+Sand-flies, <a href="#Page_224">224.</a><br />
+<br />
+Sangai volcano, <a href="#Page_150">150.</a><br />
+<br />
+San Paulo, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a><br />
+<br />
+Santarem, <a href="#Page_251">251.</a><br />
+<br />
+Santa Rosa, <a href="#Page_201">201.</a><br />
+<br />
+Sapucaya nut, <a href="#Page_290">290.</a><br />
+<br />
+Sarsaparilla, <a href="#Page_224">224.</a><br />
+<br />
+Sa&uuml;ba ants, <a href="#Page_194">194,</a> <a href="#Page_300">300.</a><br />
+<br />
+Savages on the Napo, <a href="#Page_221">221.</a><br />
+<br />
+Savaneta, <a href="#Page_40">40.</a><br />
+<br />
+Scenery on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_253">253.</a><br />
+<br />
+Sea-cows, <a href="#Page_215">215.</a><br />
+<br />
+Serpa, <a href="#Page_247">247.</a><br />
+<br />
+Shells in Quito Valley, <a href="#Page_109">109.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Amazon Valley, <a href="#Page_293">293.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sierra, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br />
+<br />
+Silk-cotton-tree, <a href="#Page_220">220,</a> <a href="#Page_289">289.</a><br />
+<br />
+Sincholagua, <a href="#Page_146">146.</a><br />
+<br />
+Sloths, <a href="#Page_310">310.</a><br />
+<br />
+Slow-worm on the Napo, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>Snakes, scarcity of, <a href="#Page_195">195,</a> <a href="#Page_332">332.</a><br />
+<br />
+Snakes on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_305">305.</a><br />
+<br />
+Snow at high altitudes, <a href="#Page_138">138.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">limit in the Andes, <a href="#Page_125">125.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Soil in the Amazon Valley, <a href="#Page_286">286.</a><br />
+<br />
+Solimoens, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a><br />
+<br />
+South America, geology of, <a href="#Page_114">114.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_103">103.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American Indians, <a href="#Page_315">315.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Southerners on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_246">246,</a> <a href="#Page_251">251.</a><br />
+<br />
+Spanish character, <a href="#Page_328">328.</a><br />
+<br />
+Spanish language, <a href="#Page_71">71.</a><br />
+<br />
+Spanish Republicanism, <a href="#Page_58">58.</a><br />
+<br />
+Spiders on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_304">304.</a><br />
+<br />
+Stars at Quito, <a href="#Page_97">97.</a><br />
+<br />
+Staunton, Col., burial of, <a href="#Page_91">91,</a> <a href="#Page_334">334.</a><br />
+<br />
+Steam on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_230">230,</a> <a href="#Page_234">234,</a> <a href="#Page_330">330.</a><br />
+<br />
+Storm on the Napo, <a href="#Page_213">213.</a><br />
+<br />
+Sugar on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_252">252.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Andes, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sugar-cane on the Amanzon, <a href="#Page_291">291.</a><br />
+<br />
+Suno, <a href="#Page_205">205.</a><br />
+<br />
+Superstition, <a href="#Page_54">54.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Tabatinga, <a href="#Page_233">233.</a><br />
+<br />
+Table-lands of the Old World, <a href="#Page_152">152.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tablon, <a href="#Page_178">178.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tacunga, 53<br />
+<br />
+Tambillo ridge, <a href="#Page_55">55.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tambo on the mountains, <a href="#Page_40">40.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tapajos River, <a href="#Page_270">270.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tapir, <a href="#Page_104">104,</a> <a href="#Page_310">310.</a><br />
+<br />
+Teff&eacute; River, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a><br />
+<br />
+Temperature, correspondence of altitude and latitude as to, <a href="#Page_145">145.</a><br />
+<br />
+Termite ants, <a href="#Page_301">301.</a><br />
+<br />
+Thermometer, variations of, <a href="#Page_92">92.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tide on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_275">275.</a><br />
+<br />
+Timber on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_289">289.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tiupullo, <a href="#Page_54">54.</a><br />
+<br />
+Toads of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_304">304.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tobacco on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_291">291.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of, by the Napos, <a href="#Page_197">197.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tocant&iacute;ns River, <a href="#Page_271">271.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tolling-bell bird, <a href="#Page_307">307.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tortoise-shell wood, <a href="#Page_289">289.</a><br />
+<br />
+Toucan, <a href="#Page_206">206,</a> <a href="#Page_306">306.</a><br />
+<br />
+Trade wind, <a href="#Page_118">118.</a><br />
+<br />
+Trail in the forest, <a href="#Page_182">182.</a><br />
+<br />
+Trapiche, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br />
+<br />
+Traveling in South America, <a href="#Page_325">325.</a><br />
+<br />
+Trees in Quito Valley, <a href="#Page_100">100.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_288">288.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Trogon, <a href="#Page_308">308.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tropical flowers, <a href="#Page_292">292,</a> <a href="#Page_347">347.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forest, <a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tropical vegetation, <a href="#Page_34">34,</a> <a href="#Page_38">38,</a> <a href="#Page_188">188,</a> <a href="#Page_190">190,</a> <a href="#Page_219">219.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tuc&uacute;na Indians, <a href="#Page_320">320.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tucker, Admiral, <a href="#Page_232">232.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tunant&iacute;ns, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tunguragua volcano, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tupi race, <a href="#Page_316">316.</a><br />
+<br />
+Turtles in the Amazon, <a href="#Page_297">297.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Napo, <a href="#Page_215">215,</a> <a href="#Page_220">220.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Uaup&eacute;s Indians, <a href="#Page_319">319.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ucayali Indians, <a href="#Page_321">321.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">River, <a href="#Page_268">268.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Umbrella bird, <a href="#Page_307">307.</a><br />
+<br />
+Upper Amazon towns, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br />
+<br />
+Urar&iacute; poison, <a href="#Page_228">228.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Valediction on the Napo, <a href="#Page_204">204.</a><br />
+<br />
+Valley of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_280">280.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Andes, <a href="#Page_130">130.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Chimbo, <a href="#Page_46">46.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Quito, <a href="#Page_51">51,</a> <a href="#Page_55">55,</a> <a href="#Page_73">73,</a> <a href="#Page_149">149,</a> <a href="#Page_151">151,</a> <a href="#Page_155">155.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Vanilla on the Napo, <a href="#Page_196">196.</a><br />
+<br />
+Vegetation in the tropics <a href="#Page_34">34,</a> <a href="#Page_38">38.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">zones of, on the Andes, <a href="#Page_50">50.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Verdure on the Amazon, <a href="#Page_285">285.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Veta, <a href="#Page_96">96.</a><br />
+<br />
+Victoria Regia, <a href="#Page_292">292.</a><br />
+<br />
+Views from the Andes, <a href="#Page_45">45.</a><br />
+<br />
+Villa Nora, <a href="#Page_248">248.</a><br />
+<br />
+Vocabularies Indian, <a href="#Page_339">339.</a><br />
+<br />
+Volcanoes of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_122">122,</a> <a href="#Page_125">125,</a> <a href="#Page_151">151.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Washerwomen of Quito, <a href="#Page_83">83.</a><br />
+<br />
+Water-beetles, <a href="#Page_295">295.</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">carriers, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Water-shed of the Atlantic and Pacific, <a href="#Page_54">54.</a><br />
+<br />
+Water-snakes, <a href="#Page_296">296.</a><br />
+<br />
+Wayside inn. <a href="#Page_40">40.</a><br />
+<br />
+White ants, <a href="#Page_301">301.</a><br />
+<br />
+Wisse, M., descent into Pichincha, <a href="#Page_138">138.</a><br />
+<br />
+Wool, Andean, <a href="#Page_104">104.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Xing&uacute; River, <a href="#Page_271">271.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Yagua Indians, <a href="#Page_320">320.</a><br />
+<br />
+Yana-urcu, <a href="#Page_142">142.</a><br />
+<br />
+Ypad&uacute;, <a href="#Page_291">291.</a><br />
+<br />
+Yuca, <a href="#Page_167">167.</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>
+Yurimaguas, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Z&aacute;paro Indians, <a href="#Page_165">165,</a> <a href="#Page_170">170.</a><br />
+<br />
+Zodiacal light, <a href="#Page_98">98.</a><br />
+<br />
+Zones of vegetation, <a href="#Page_50">50.</a><br />
+<br />
+Zoology of the Napo, <a href="#Page_206">206.</a><br />
+<br />
+Zoology of South America, <a href="#Page_286">286.</a><br />
+<br />
+Zoological provinces of Amazonia, <a href="#Page_300">300.</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE END.</h3>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Another division, consisting of Messrs. H.M. Myers, R.H.
+Forbes, and W. Gilbert, of Williams College, proceeded to Venezuela, and
+after exploring the vicinity of Lake Valencia, the two former traversed
+the Ilanos to Pao, descended the Apur&eacute; and ascended the Orinoco to
+Yavita, crossed the portage of Pimichin (a low, level tract, nine miles
+wide, separating the waters of the Orinoco from those of the Amazon),
+and descended the Negro to Man&aacute;os, making a voyage by canoe of over 2000
+miles through a little-known but deeply-interesting region. A narrative
+of this expedition will soon be given to the public.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> This eminent ornithologist died in the midst of his
+examination. Mr. George N. Lawrence, of New York, has identified the
+remainder, including all the hummers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> We have retained the common orthography of this word,
+though <i>Amazons</i>, used by Bates, is doubtless more correct, as more akin
+to the Brazilian name <i>Amazonas</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The <i>Pyrophorus noctilucus</i>, or "cucujo," found also in
+Mexico and the West Indies. It resembles our large spring-beetle. The
+light proceeds from two eye-like spots on the thorax and from the
+segments underneath. It feeds on the sugar-cane. On the Upper Amazon we
+found the <i>P. clarus</i>, <i>P. pellucens</i>, and <i>P. tuberculatus</i>.
+At Bahia, on the opposite coast, Darwin found <i>P. luminosus</i>, the most common
+luminous insect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The ancient name was <i>Culenta</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The continuity of the dry season is broken by a rainy fit
+commencing a few days after the autumnal equinox, and called <i>el
+Cordonazo de San Francisco</i>. "Throughout South America (observes Mr.
+Spruce) the periodical alternations of dry and rainy weather are laid to
+the account of those saints whose 'days' coincide nearly with the epochs
+of change. But if the weather be rainy when it ought to be fair, or if
+the rains of winter be heavier than ordinary, the blame is invariably
+laid on the moon."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The turkey-buzzard, the "John Crow" of the West Indies, is
+not a social bird, though a score are often seen together: each comes
+and goes by himself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> In 1867 there were exported to Europe of cacao, 197,260
+quintals; cotton, 10,247 do.; caucho, 8911 do.; sarsaparilla, 149 do.;
+orchilla, 10,247 packages; quinine, 5000 do.; tobacco, 2000 do.; coffee,
+1611 do.; tamarinds, 65 bbls.; sides of leather, 22,514; hats, 8397.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Cordillera</i> (pronounced Cor-de-y&eacute;r-ra), literally a long
+ridge, is usually applied to a longitudinal subdivision of the Andes, as
+the east and west cordilleras inclosing the valley of Quito; <i>Sierra</i>
+(from the Spanish for saw or Arabic <i>sehrah</i>, an uncultivated tract) is
+a jagged spur of the Andes; <i>Cerro</i>, "a hog-backed hill." <i>Paramo</i> (a
+desert) is the treeless, uninhabited, uncultivated rolling steppes just
+below the snow-limit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The mango of Asia is superior in size and flavor to that
+of America. It is eaten largely in Brazil by negroes and cattle. The
+cocoa-palm is also of Asiatic origin, and is most abundant in Ceylon. It
+has a swollen stem when young, but becomes straight and tall when
+mature. The flowers burst into a long plume of soft, cream-colored
+blossoms. It is worthy of remembrance that the most beautiful forms of
+vegetation in the tropics are at the same time most useful to man.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Ferns constitute one sixth of the flora of South America;
+Spruce counted 140 species within the space of three square miles. Their
+limits of growth are 500 and 7000 feet above the sea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The altitude of 7000 feet is the usual limit of the
+rain-line on the west slope of the Andes. The condensation which
+produces rain takes place at the equator two or three times higher than
+in our latitude.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> From <i>adoub</i>, an Egyptian word still used by the Copts;
+carried by the Moors to Spain, thence to America; and from America the
+word has gone to the Sandwich Islands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> This celebrated febrifuge was first taken to Europe about
+the middle of the seventeenth century, and was named after the Countess
+of Chinchon, who had been cured of intermittent fever at Lima.
+Afterward, when Cardinal de Lugo spread the knowledge of the remedy
+through France, and recommended it to Cardinal Mazarin, it received the
+name of <i>Jesuits' Bark</i>. The French chemists, Pelletier and Caverton,
+discovered quinine in 1820.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> According to Sir J. Hooker, among the flowers which adorn
+the slopes of the Himalayas, rhododendrons occupy the most prominent
+place, and primroses next. There are no orchids, neither red gentians,
+but blue. Organic life ceases 3000 feet lower than on the Andes; yet it
+is affirmed that flowering plants occur at the height of 18,460 feet,
+which is equivalent to the summit of Chimborazo in point of temperature!
+The polylepis (<i>P. racemosa</i>) is one of the <i>Sanguisorbace&aelig;</i>; in Quichua
+it is <i>Sachaquinoa</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> This is shortened in parlance to Tacunga. The full name,
+according to La Condamine, is <i>Llacta-cunga</i>, <i>llacta</i> meaning country,
+and <i>cunga</i>, neck.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Sometimes called <i>Chisinche</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The son of his Quito love. The name was first written
+<i>Atauhuallpa</i>, meaning fortunate in war; after the fratricide, he was
+called <i>Atahuallpa</i>, or game-cock. He was the Boabdil of this occidental
+Granada. He is called traitor by Peruvian writers, and is not admitted
+by them into the list of their Incas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Geografia de la Rep&uacute;blica del Ecuador, por Dr.
+Villavicencio.</i> This work abounds with erroneous and exaggerated
+statements, but it is nevertheless a valuable contribution to Ecuadorian
+literature.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Four Years among Spanish Americans, by Hon. F.
+Hassaurek</i>: a truthful work, to which we refer the reader for details,
+especially concerning Ecuadorian life and manners.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> The following quotation, however, is true to the letter,
+and will apply equally well to Guayaquil and to Madrid&mdash;the mother of
+them both: "There is another want still more embarrassing in Quito than
+the want of hotels&mdash;it is the want of water-closets and privies, which
+are not considered as necessary fixtures of private residences. Men,
+women, and children, of all ages and colors, may be seen in the middle
+of the street, in broad daylight, making privies of the most public
+thoroughfares; and while thus engaged, they will stare into the faces of
+passers-by with a shamelessness that beggars
+description."&mdash;<i>Hassaurek</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Spanish rhetoric is given to exaggeration. "All their
+geese are swans." A Peruvian assured us that Cuzco contained 200,000
+souls. It is, in fact, about as large as Quito; Gibbon says 20,000.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> "I must express my admiration at the natural politeness of
+almost every Chileno. We met, near Mendoza, a little and very fat
+negress, riding astride on a mule. She had a <i>go&icirc;tre</i> so enormous that
+it was scarcely possible to avoid gazing at her for a moment; but my two
+companions almost instantly, by way of apology, made the common salute
+of the country by taking off their hats. Where would one of the lower or
+higher classes in Europe have shown such feeling politeness to a poor
+and miserable object of a degraded race?"&mdash;<i>Darwin's Naturalist's
+Voyage.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The Spanish tongue is the manly son of the Latin, as the
+Italian is the fair daughter; a language in which, as Charles V. said,
+"God ought alone to be addressed in prayer." It is spoken in America
+with an Andalusian rather than Toledan pronunciation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> We are indebted to Mr. Hassaurek for this capital
+illustration. Every lady, married or unmarried, is addressed <i>Se&ntilde;orita</i>,
+or Miss.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> "When speaking of these countries, the manner in which
+they have been brought up by their unnatural parent, Spain, should
+always be borne in mind. On the whole, perhaps, more credit is due for
+what has been done, than blame for that which may be
+deficient."&mdash;<i>Darwin's Journal of Researches</i>, p. 158.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The vase is still shown in which Father Rixi brought the
+first wheat from Europe. It was sown in what is now the San Francisco
+Plaza, the chief market-place of the city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> "The young ladies of Cuzco are, in general, very
+beautiful, with regular features, fresh olive complexions, bright eyes
+full of intelligence, furnished with long lashes, and masses of black
+hair plaited in two tails."&mdash;<i>Markham</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> We noticed at Riobamba a custom which formerly prevailed
+also at Quito. As soon as the guests have finished, and before they have
+risen, the Indian waiter kneels devoutly down beside the table, and
+offers thanks in a very solemn, touching tone.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Since this was written, Garcia Moreno has been re-elected
+to the presidency and the Constitution revised.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Government has more than once paid its debts by
+repudiation. Congress lately voted to pay only seven per cent. of the
+claims against the state which are dated prior to a certain year. Among
+the sufferers is the venerable Dr. Jameson, a distinguished foreigner,
+who has served this country faithfully for forty years, first as
+assayer, then as director of the mint, and always by his scientific
+position.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Asking the late Chilian minister for his view of the rank
+of the different South American states, he gave us this order: Chile,
+Brazil, Argentine Republic, Venezuela, New Granada, Central America,
+Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> This was a new thing under the sun. Quitonians "bury at
+dead of night, with lanterns dimly burning." The dirges sung as the
+procession winds through the streets are extremely plaintive, and are
+the most touching specimens of Ecuadorian music. The corpse, especially
+of a child, is often carried in a chair in a sitting posture. The
+wealthy class wall up their dead in niches on the side of Pichincha,
+hypothetically till the resurrection, but really for two years, when,
+unless an additional payment is made, the bones are thrown into a common
+pit and the coffin burnt. To prevent this, a few who can afford it
+embalm the deceased. One of the most distinguished citizens of Quito
+keeps his mummified father at his hacienda, and annually dresses him up
+in a new suit of clothes!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> In the mountain-town of Caxamarca, farther south, there
+were living in 1792 seven persons aged 114, 117, 121, 131, 132, 141, and
+147. One of them, when he died, left behind him eight hundred living
+descendants to mourn his loss. We confess, however, that we saw very few
+old persons in Quito. Foreigners outlive the natives, because they live
+a more regular and temperate life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a>
+<table summary="" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="7" style="margin-left: 2%;">
+<tr><td colspan="7" align="left">The mean annual fall of rain at Quito is 70 inches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">"</td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> Charleston is 45.9 </td><td align="left">inches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">"</td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> New York is 42.23 </td><td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> Albany is 40.93 </td><td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> Montreal is 36 </td><td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> " </td><td align="right"> Madrid is 10. </td><td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Gibbon states that the temperature of the blood of a young
+bull in Cuzco was 100&deg;; air, 57&deg;. At the base of the Andes a similar
+experiment resulted in 101&deg; for the blood, air 78&deg;. The lieutenant
+jocosely adds: "The Spaniards have forced the hog so high up on the
+Andes that he suffers every time he raises his bristles, and dies out of
+place."&mdash;Puna has been attributed to the presence of arsenical vapor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> On the Himalayas are oaks, birches, pines, chestnuts,
+maples, junipers, and willows; no tree-ferns, bamboos, or palms.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The <i>Agava Americana</i> of botanists, <i>cabulla</i> of
+Ecuadorians, <i>maguey</i> of Venezuelans, and <i>metl</i> of Mexicans. It is an
+interesting fact, brought to light by the researches of Carl Neuman,
+that the Chinese in the fifth century passed over to America by way of
+the Aleutian Islands, and penetrated as far south as Mexico, which they
+called the land of <i>fusung</i>, that being the celestial name of the aloe.
+Terzozomoc, the high-priest of the ancient Mexicans, gave aloe leaves,
+inscribed with sacred characters, to persons who had to journey among
+the volcanoes, to protect them from injury.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Bollaert derives the name from <i>chiri</i> (cold) and <i>muhu</i>
+(seed).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Dr. Jameson has found the following species of <i>Rubus</i> in
+the valley of Quito: <i>macrocarpus</i>, <i>stipularis</i>, <i>glabratus</i>,
+<i>compactus</i>, <i>glaucus</i>, <i>ros&aelig;florus</i>, <i>loxensis</i>, <i>urtic&aelig;folius</i>,
+<i>floribundus</i>, and <i>nubigenus</i>. The common strawberry, <i>Fragaria
+vesca</i>, grows in the valley, as also the <i>Chilensis</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Lieutenant Gilliss praises the potatoes of Peru, but we
+saw no specimens in Ecuador worthy of note. The "Irish potato" is a
+native of the Andes. It was unknown to the early Mexicans. It grows as
+far south on this continent as lat. 50&deg;. The Spaniards carried the
+potato to Europe from Quito early in the sixteenth century. From Spain
+it traveled to Italy, Belgium, and Germany. Sir Walter Raleigh imported
+some from Virginia in 1586, and planted them on his estate near Cork,
+Ireland. It is raised in Asiatic countries only where Europeans have
+settled, and for their consumption. It is successfully grown in
+Australia and New Zealand, where there is no native esculent farinaceous
+root. Von Tschudi says there is no word in Quichua for potato. It is
+called <i>papa</i> by the Napos.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Journal of Researches</i>, p. 132.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The llama, or "mountain-camel" is a beautiful animal, with
+long, slender neck and fine legs, a graceful carriage, pointed ears,
+soft, restless eyes, and quivering lips. It has a gentle disposition;
+but when angry it will spit, and when hurt will shed tears. We have seen
+specimens entirely white; but it is generally dark brown, with patches
+of white. It requires very little food and drink. Since the introduction
+of horses, asses, and mules, the rearing of llamas has decreased. They
+are more common in Peru. The llama, gu&aacute;naco, alpaca, and vicu&ntilde;a were
+"the four sheep of the Incas:" the first clothing the common people, the
+second the nobles, the third the royal governors, the fourth the Incas.
+The price of sheep's wool in Quito was formerly four cents a pound; it
+is now twelve.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Mr. Gould, however, holds that the difference of
+coloration is due to the different degrees of exposure to the sun's
+rays, the brilliantly-colored species being inhabitants of the edges of
+the forest. Birds from Ucayali, in the centre of the continent, are far
+more splendid than those which represent them in countries nearer the
+sea, owing to the clearer atmosphere inland. But it is a fact, at least
+exceptional to this theory, that the "Cock of the Rock" (Rupicola) on
+the western side of the Andes (Esmeraldas) is of a richer, deeper color
+than the same species on the eastern slope (Napo). In keeping with Mr.
+Gould's theory is the statement by Mr. Bates, that the most gaudy
+butterflies (the males) flutter in the sunshine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> <i>Herpetodryas carinatus</i>, which we observed also at
+Guayaquil and on the Mara&ntilde;on. We procured two or three species from the
+natives, and several new forms from Pallatanga, on the west slope.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> <i>Antelopus l&aelig;vis</i> at Ambato, and <i>A. longirostris</i>, a new
+species from Antisana Hacienda, were the only frogs noticed. The little
+fish is <i>Pimelodes cyclopum</i> (pre&ntilde;adilla of the Spaniards, <i>imba</i> of the
+Indians), the same that was thrown out in the eruptions of Imbabura and
+Caraguairazo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The jigger, chigoe, or nigua (<i>Pulex penetrans</i> of
+science) is a microscopic flea, that buries itself under the skin and
+lays a myriad eggs; the result is a painful tumor. Jiggers are almost
+confined to sandy places.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> "History (says Prescott) furnishes few examples of more
+absolute authority than such a revolution in the language of an empire
+at the bidding of a master." The pronunciation of Quichua requires a
+harsh, explosive utterance. Gibbon says the sound of it to him resembled
+Welsh or Irish; that of Aymar&aacute;, English. The letters <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>,
+and <i>o</i> are wanting in the ancient tongue of Quito; <i>p</i> was afterward
+changed to <i>b</i>, <i>t</i> to <i>d</i>, <i>v</i> to <i>f</i>, <i>c</i> to <i>g</i>, and <i>u</i> to <i>o</i>: thus
+Chim-pu-razu is now Chimborazo. A few words bear a striking analogy to
+corresponding Sanscrit words; as <i>Ynti</i>, the Inca for sun, and <i>Indra</i>,
+the Hindoo god of the heavens.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Their favorite musical instrument is the <i>rondador</i>, a
+number of reeds of different lengths tied in a row. The "plaintive
+national songs" which Markham heard at Cuzco are not sung in Ecuador.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> At Paita, the most western point of South America, there
+is a raised beach three hundred feet high. The basal slate and sandstone
+rocks, dipping S. of E., are covered by conglomerate, sand, and a
+gypseous formation, containing shells of living species. Additional to
+those described by D'Orbigny we found here <i>Cerithium l&aelig;viuscula</i>,
+<i>Ostrea gallus</i>, and <i>Ampullina Ortoni</i>, as determined by W.M. Gabb,
+Esq., of Philadelphia. Darwin found shells in Chile 1300 feet above the
+sea, covered with marine mud. President Loomis, of Lewisburg University,
+Pa., informs the writer, that in 1853, after nearly a day's ride from
+Iquique, he came to a former sea-beach. "It furnished abundant specimens
+of <i>Patell&aelig;</i> and other shells, still perfect, and identical with others
+that I had that morning obtained at Iquique with the living animal
+inhabiting them." This beach is elevated 2500 feet above the Pacific.
+The same observer says that near Potosi there is one uninterrupted mass
+of lava, having a columnar structure, not less than one hundred miles in
+length, fifty miles wide, and eight hundred feet thick. It overlies a
+bed of saliferous sandstone which has been worked for salt. Fifty feet
+within a mine, and in the undisturbed rock which forms its roof, the
+doctor found fragments of dicotyledonous trees with the bark on,
+undecomposed, uncharred, and fibrous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The name Andes is often derived from <i>anta</i>, an old
+Peruvian word signifying metal. But Humboldt says: "There are no means
+of interpreting it by connecting it with any signification or idea; if
+such connection exist, it is buried in the obscurity of the past."
+According to Col. Tod, the northern Hindoos apply the name Andes to the
+Himalayan Mountains.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> On this point see Chapter XVII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> "The interior plateau of Brazil (says Dr. Lund) is
+composed of horizontal strata of the transition period, which are
+nowhere covered with the secondary or tertiary formations." The highest
+point in Brazil is 5755 feet. Darwin speaks of "some ancient submarine
+volcanic rocks (in the province of La Plata) worth mentioning, from
+their rarity on this eastern side of the continent." With the exception
+of the coast of Venezuela, the eastern system is little exposed to
+earthquakes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> These three plains constitute four fifths of all South
+America east of the Andes. The west slope of the Ecuadorian Andes is
+about 275 feet per mile; on the east it is 125 feet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> There is, however, a striking coincidence between the
+mountain and river systems of the northern and southern continents of
+this hemisphere. Thus,</p>
+
+<table summary="" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="7">
+<tr><td colspan="6" align="left">The Andes represent the Rocky Mountains,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"> "</td><td colspan="5">Highland of Guiana represent the Canadian Mountains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"> "</td><td align="center">"</td><td>Brazil</td><td>"</td><td>Appalachian</td><td align="left">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"> "</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Amazon</td><td>"</td><td>Saskatchewan.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"> "</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>La Plata </td><td>"</td><td>   Mississippi.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"> "</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Orinoco </td><td>"</td><td>   Mackenzie.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> The width of the chain south of the equator varies with
+that of the continent.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> "No mountains which I have seen in Hungary, Saxony, or the
+Pyrenees are as irregular as the Andes, or broken into such alternate
+substances, manifesting such prodigious revolutions of
+nature."&mdash;<i>Helms</i>. "More sublime than the Alps by their <i>ensemble</i>, the
+Andes lack those curious and charming details of which Nature has been
+so lavish in the old continent."&mdash;<i>Holinski</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> This lake is the largest fresh-water accumulation in South
+America. It has diminished within the historic period. Its surface is
+12,795 feet above the Pacific, or higher than the highest peaks of the
+Pyrenees.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> This is the loftiest summit of the Andes in the northern
+hemisphere, being 18,200 feet. It is also remarkable for being situated
+farther from the sea (120 miles) than any other active volcano.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> "As a general rule, whenever the mass of mountains rises
+much above the limit of perpetual snow, the primitive rocks disappear,
+and the summits are trachyte or trappean porphyry."&mdash;<i>Humboldt</i>. In
+general, "the great Cordilleras are formed of innumerable varieties of
+granites, gneiss, schists, hornblende, chloritic slates, porphyries,
+etc., and these rocks alternate with each other in meridional bands,
+which in the ridges frequently present the appearance of a radiated or
+fan-shaped structure, and under the plains are more or less
+vertical."&mdash;<i>Evan Hopkins, F.G.S</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Von Tschudi makes the incorrect statement that "throughout
+the whole extent of South America there is not a single instance of the
+Western Cordillera being intersected by a river." Witness the
+Esmeraldas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> It is a singular fact that true trachyte, pumice, and
+obsidian are wanting in the volcanic Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, only 700 miles
+west of Pichincha.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> As many of the crystals are partly fused, or have round
+angles, the porphyries were probably formed by the melting of a
+crystalline rock, the base becoming fused into a homogeneous material,
+while the less fusible crystals remain imbedded.&mdash;<i>Dr. Hunt</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> In the Gal&aacute;pagos volcanoes the south wall is lowest, while
+the craters in Mexico and Sandwich Islands are lowest on the northeast.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> The altitudes of the most important Ecuadorian volcanoes
+are:</p>
+
+<table summary="" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="7">
+<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span class="smcap">Western Chain</span>.</td><td style="text-align: center;"><span class="smcap">Eastern Chain</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Chimborazo</i>, 21,420 feet (Humboldt).</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px"><i>Cayambi</i>, 19,648 feet (Humboldt); 19,358 (Wisse).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Caraguairazo</i>, 19,183 feet (Humboldt).
+It is variously estimated from 15,673 feet<br />to 19,720 feet; 18,000 feet is not far from the truth.
+</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px"><i>Antisana</i>, 19,148 feet (Humboldt); 19,279 (Wisse).</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;
+</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px"><i>Cotopaxi</i>, 18,880 feet (Humboldt); 18,862 (Wisse).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Iliniza</i>, 17,370 feet (Wisse); 16,300 (Hall).</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px"><i>Altar</i>, 17,400 feet.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Cotocach�</i>, 16,440 feet (Humboldt); 16,409 (Wisse).
+</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px"><i>Sangai</i>, 17,120 feet (Wisse).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Pichincha</i>, 15,922 feet (Humboldt); 15,827 (Orton).</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px">
+<i>Tunguragua</i>, 16,579 feet (Humboldt).</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px"><i>Sincholagua</i>, 16,434 feet (Humboldt).</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> The snow limit at the equator is 15,800 feet. No living
+creature, save the condor, passes this limit; naked rocks, fogs, and
+eternal snows mark the reign of uninterrupted solitude. The following is
+the approximate limit of perpetual snow in different latitudes:
+</p>
+
+<table summary="" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center;">
+<tr><td>0&deg;</td><td>5,800</td><td> feet.</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px; padding-left: 2em;">40&deg;</td><td> 8,300 </td><td>feet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>27&deg;</td><td>18,800</td><td> "</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px; padding-left: 2em;">54&deg;</td><td> 3,700</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>33&deg;</td><td>12,780 </td><td> "</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px; padding-left: 2em;">70&deg; </td><td>3,300</td><td>"</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The limit appears to descend more rapidly going south of the equator
+than in going north.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> We traveled over a portion of this ancient road in going
+from Riobamba to Cajabamba. It is well paved with cut blocks of dark
+porphyry. It is not graded, but partakes of the irregularity of the
+country. Designed, not for carriages, but for troops and llamas, there
+are steps when the ascent is steep.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Grand as the Andes are, how insignificant in a general
+view! How slightly they cause our globe to differ from a perfect sphere!
+Cotopaxi constitutes only <sup>1</sup>/<sub>1100</sub> of the earth's radius; and on a globe
+six feet in diameter, Chimborazo would be represented by a grain of sand
+less than <sup>1</sup>/<sub>20</sub> of an inch in thickness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> But Chimborazo is steeper than the Alp-king; and steepness
+is a quality more quickly appreciated than mere massiveness. "Mont Blanc
+(says a writer in <i>Frazer's Magazine</i>) is scarcely admired, because he
+is built with a certain regard to stability; but the apparently reckless
+architecture of the Matterhorn brings the traveler fairly on his knees,
+with a respect akin to that felt for the leaning tower of Pisa, or the
+soaring pinnacles of Antwerp."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> "White Mountain" is the natural and almost uniform name of
+the highest mountains in all countries: thus Himalaya, Mont Blanc,
+Hocmus, Sierra Nevada, Ben Nevis, Snowdon, Lebanon, White Mountains of
+United States, Chimborazo, and Illimani.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Humboldt's statement that the condor flies higher than
+Chimborazo has been questioned; but we have seen numbers hovering at
+least a thousand feet above the summit of Pichincha. Baron M&uuml;ller, in
+his ascent of Orizaba, saw two falcons flying at the height of full
+18,000 feet; Dr. Hooker found crows and ravens on the Himalayas at
+16,500 feet; and flocks of wild geese are said to fly over the peak of
+Kintschinghow, 22,756 feet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Mount Everest is 29,000 feet, and Aconcagua 23,200.
+Schlagintweit enumerates thirteen Himalayan summits over 25,000 feet,
+and forty-six above 20,000. We have little confidence in the estimates
+of the Bolivian mountains. Chimborazo has nearly the same latitude and
+altitude as the loftiest peak in Africa, Kilima Njaro.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Humboldt ascribes the absence of glaciers in the Andes to
+the extreme steepness of the sides, and the excessive dryness of the
+air. Dr. Loomis, above quoted, mentions indications of glacial
+action&mdash;moraines, and polished and striated rocks&mdash;on the crest of the
+Cordillera, between Peru and Bolivia, lat. 21&deg; S.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Pichincha, in the Inca language, signifies "the boiling
+mountain;" Rucu means old; Guagua, young; and Cundur-guachana, the
+condor's nest.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> More accurately, 2527 feet; Wisse and Moreno made it
+2460.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> The snow on the top of Mont Blanc is like dry dust; in
+Lapland, in open places, it consists of hexagonal crystals, and is
+called by the inhabitants "sand-snow." The French and Spanish
+mathematicians, Bouguer, La Condamine, and Ulloa, in their story of
+ascending Pichincha, give a long and dreadful account of their
+sufferings from cold and rarefied air: "whilst eating, every one was
+obliged to keep his plate over a chafing-dish of coals, to prevent his
+food from freezing." The traveler nowadays finds only a chilling wind.
+This rise of temperature, coupled with the fact that La Condamine
+(1745), Humboldt (1802), Boussingault (1831), and Wisse (1863) give to
+Quito a decreasing altitude, inclines us to believe, with Boussingault,
+that the Andes are sinking. Since the activity of the volcano in 1868,
+the summit has been so warm that the snow has totally disappeared.
+Ice-cream has in consequence risen in price in Quito, as snow must be
+brought from Sincholagua, four days' journey.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> From <i>imba</i> (fish), and <i>bura</i>, to produce. Its name can
+not be older than 1691, unless the mountain made similar eruptions
+before. It has frequently ejected water.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> The culminating point of Guamani is <i>Sara-urcu</i>, a volcano
+which threw out a vast quantity of ashes in 1843 and 1856.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> M. d'Abbadie professes to have visited a village in
+Abyssinia (Arquiage) which is 12,450 feet above the sea. Potosi stands
+13,500 feet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> This agrees with Humboldt's calculation that a difference
+of elevation of 278 feet produces the same effect on the annual
+temperature as a change of one degree of latitude. According to the
+experiments of Captain Pullen, the minimum temperature of the great
+depths of the ocean 35&deg;, and it commences soon after passing 12,000
+feet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> The great d&eacute;p&ocirc;ts of cattle in Ecuador are at the two
+extremes of elevation, the lowlands of St. Elena and the highlands of
+Antisana. On the slope of Cayambi is another extensive cattle estate.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> The grebe is considered by Messrs. Cassin and Lawrence to
+be the <i>Podiceps occipitalis</i>, Lisson (<i>P. calipareus et Chilensis</i> of
+Garnot), which occurs in large flocks on the coast of Chile and in the
+Straits of Magellan. It is quite different from the <i>P. micropterus</i> of
+Lake Titicaca. At Morococha, Peru, 15,600 feet above the sea, Herndon
+found snipes and ducks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> In Brigham's <i>Notes on the Volcanic Phenomena of the
+Hawaiian Islands</i>, this volcano is put down as active, but there has
+been no eruption in the memory of man. Its lithology is represented in
+our collection by porous, gray, granular trachyte, fine-grained, compact
+trachyte, and dark porphyroid trachyte. The derivation of Sincholagua is
+unknown, Rumi&ntilde;agui means the face of a rock, Cotopaxi, Sincholagua, and
+Rumi&ntilde;agui, and Cotopaxi, Pichincha, and Guamani, form equilateral
+triangles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> MM. Zurcher and Margalli make the slope 55&deg;! and Guzman,
+69&deg; 30'!! The slope of Mauna Loa is 6&deg; 30'; of Etna, 9&deg;; of Teneriffe,
+12&deg; 30'; of Vesuvius, 35&deg;. While cinder-cones may have an angle of 40&deg;,
+lava-cones seldom exceed 10&deg;.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Even this has now (August, 1869) ceased, save an
+occasional grumble, and the Tacungans are trembling with fear of another
+eruption.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Compare the following sections:
+
+<table summary="" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" style="text-align: center;"><span class="smcap">Cotopaxi</span> (near Tiupullo).</td>
+<td colspan="5" style="text-align: center;"><span class="smcap">Vesuvius</span> (at Pompeii).</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Soil</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>ft.</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>in.</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px">Soil</td>
+<td>3</td>
+<td>ft.</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>in.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fine yellow pumice</td>
+<td>5</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>"</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px">Brown incoherent tuff</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>6</td>
+<td>"</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Compact black ashes, with seams of pumice </td>
+<td>10</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>"</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px">Small scori&aelig; and white lapilli</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>3</td>
+<td>"</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fine yellow pumice</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>6</td>
+<td>"</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px">Brown earthy tuff</td>
+<td>4</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>9</td>
+<td>"</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Compact black ashes</td>
+<td>12</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>"</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px">Whitish lapilli</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>"</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fine yellow pumice</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>"</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px">Gray solid tuff</td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>3</td>
+<td>"</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Compact black ashes, with seams of pumice.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px">Pumice and white lapilli </td>
+<td>0</td>
+<td>"</td>
+<td>3</td>
+<td>"</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Immediately south of Cotopaxi, the Cordillera consists of
+paramos sown with lakes and morasses, and is rarely covered with snow.
+Llanganati is probably from <i>ll&aacute;nga</i>, to touch: they touch the sources
+of nearly all the Ecuadorian rivers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> The story is doubtless due to the fact that the eastern
+streams, which issue from the foot of this cordillera, are auriferous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> From Tung&uacute;ri, the ankle-joint, alluding to its apical
+angle. It is a little steeper than Cotopaxi, having a slope of 38&deg;.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Spruce asserts that he saw smoke issuing from the western
+edge in 1857; and Dr. Terry says that in 1832 smoke ascended almost
+always from the summit. Dr. Taylor, of Riobamba, informs the writer that
+smoke is now almost constantly visible. The characteristic rock is a
+black vitreous trachyte resembling pitchstone, but anhydrous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> La Condamine (1742) adds "sulphur and bitumen."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Compare the table-lands in the Old World:
+<table summary="" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3">
+<tr><td>Thibet </td><td align="right">11,500</td><td> feet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>South Africa</td><td align="right"> 6,000  </td><td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mysore (India) </td><td align="right">2,880 </td><td align="center">  "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spain</td><td align="right">2,240 </td><td align="center">  "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bavaria</td><td align="right">1,770 </td><td align="center">  "</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> The altitude of Loja is 6768 feet; of Cuenca, 8640 feet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> According to Villavicencio, <i>Rio</i> (or <i>Rie</i>) is Quichua
+for road; <i>bamba</i> is plain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Atuntaqui received its name from the big drum which was
+kept here in the days of Huayna-Capac, to give the war-signal.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Professor Quinby, of the University of Rochester, has, at
+our request, calculated the position of the moon at the late earthquake:
+"August 16th, 1868, 1 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>, the moon was on meridian 137&deg; 21' east of
+that of Quito, or 42&deg; 30' past the lower meridian of Quito, assuming the
+longitude of Quito west of Greenwich to be 79&deg;, which it is very nearly.
+This is but little after the vertex of the tidal wave should have passed
+the meridian of Quito, on the supposition that the interior of the earth
+is a liquid mass. The age of the moon at that time was 27.36 days,
+<i>i.e.</i>, it was only about two days before new moon." At the time of the
+earthquake, 8 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>, March 22, 1859, the moon was on meridian 25&deg; 48'
+east of that of Quito, and was 17.6 days old. Shocks have since
+occurred, March 20th at 3 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>, and April 10th at 8 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>, 1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> The boundary-line between Ecuador and Peru is about as
+indefinite as the eastern limit of Bolivia, Brazilians claiming "as far
+west as the cattle of the empire roam."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Quito might be made more accessible on the Atlantic than
+on the Pacific side. But Ecuadorians dote on Guayaquil, and refuse to
+connect themselves directly with the great nations of the East. We
+believe there is a glorious future for Quito, when it will once more
+become a city of palaces. But it will not come until a road through the
+wilderness and a steamer on the Napo open a short communication with the
+wealth of Amazonia and the enterprise of Europe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> All savages appear to possess to an uncommon degree the
+power of mimicry.&mdash;<i>Darwin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Gibbon observes of his Indian paddlers on the Marmor&eacute;:
+"They talk very little; they silently pull along as though they were
+sleeping, but their eyes are wandering all the time in every
+direction."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Some of these feminines, however, have a method of
+retaliation which happily does not exist further north. They render
+their husbands idiotic by giving them an infusion of <i>floripondio</i>, and
+then choose another consort. We saw a sad example of this near Riobamba,
+and heard of one husband who, after being thus treated, unconsciously
+served his wife and her new man like a slave. <i>Floripondio</i> is the seed
+of the <i>Datura sanguinea</i>, which is allied to the poisonous <i>stramonium</i>
+used by the priests of Apollo at Delphi to produce their frantic
+ravings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> <i>Jacquinia armillaris</i>, an evergreen bush. The Indians on
+the Tapajos use a poisonous liana called <i>timb&oacute;</i> (<i>Paullinia pinnata</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> It is there called <i>zarabatana</i> or <i>gravatana</i>; by the
+Peruvians <i>pucuna</i>. It corresponds to the <i>sumpitan</i> of Borneo. It is
+difficult to recognize the use of the blow-gun, but the natives will
+kill at the distance of 150 feet. One which we brought home sent the
+slender arrow through the panel of a door.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> This thorny palm is called <i>tucum</i> in Brazil. The fibres
+of the budding top are used. A woman will twist a hundred yards of twine
+a day, and make a living by selling hammocks for twenty-five cents a
+piece.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Bates (ii., 132) speaks of a similar custom among the
+ancient Mundurucus: "They used to sever the head with knives made of
+broad bamboo, and then, after taking out the brain and fleshy parts,
+soak it in bitter vegetable oils, and expose it several days over the
+smoke of a fire, or in the sun."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> A like custom existed among some Brazilian and Guiana
+tribes. It also prevailed to some extent among the ancient Cantabrians
+and Corsicans, the Congos and Tartars, and in the Southern French
+provinces.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> The scarcity of game is well illustrated by the fate of
+Pizarro and his comrades. In returning from their expedition to the Napo
+country, they nearly perished with hunger, living on lizards, dogs,
+horses, saddles, sword-belts, etc., and reached Quito looking more like
+spectres than men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> "Jerked beef," as it is called in South America, consists
+of thin strips cut off the carcass after skinning and dried in the sun.
+The butchers do not distinguish between sirloin and round.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> This is the rum of the Andes, corresponding to the
+<i>casha&ccedil;a</i> of Brazil. It is distilled from sugar-cane. When
+double-distilled and flavored with anise, it is called <i>anisado</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110">
+</a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a>The following is a copy of the President's order:
+</p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="center">REPUBLICA DEL ECUADOR</p>
+<p class="n">
+<br />
+Ministeria de Estado en el Despacho del Interior.<br />
+Quito &aacute; 18 de Octubre, de 1807.<br /><br />
+
+APERTORIA.<br /></p>
+<p>A las autoridades del transito hasta el Napo, i &aacute; los demas
+empleados civiles i militares de la provincia del Oriente:
+</p><p>
+El Sor. James Orton, ciudadano de los EE. UU. de Am&eacute;rica, profesor
+de la Universidad de Rochester en Nueva-York, i jefe de una
+comision cientifica del Instituto de Smithsonian de Washington, v&aacute;
+&aacute; la provincia de Oriente con el objeto de esplorarla en
+cumplimiento de su encargo. S.E. el Presidenta de la Rep&uacute;blica
+ordena &aacute; U.U. presten al espresado Sor. Orton i su comitiva cuantas
+consideraciones merecen sus personas, i los ausilios i co-operacion
+que necesiten para verificar su viaje i hacer sus estudios i
+observaciones.
+</p><p>Dios gue. &aacute; U.U.</p>
+<p class="r"><span class="smcap">R. Carvajal.</span></p><p>&nbsp;</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> The king of this fabulous land was said to wear a
+magnificent attire fragrant with a costly gum, and sprinkled with gold
+dust. His palace was of porphyry and alabaster, and his throne of
+ivory.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> We give below the autograph of this wisest man in all the
+Oriente: "Recibio del Se&ntilde;or James Orton la suma de centos (100) pesos
+por vente (20) peones hasta Archidona.
+</p><p class="center"><a name="Auto" id="Auto"></a>
+<img src="images/183.png" alt="Autograph of an Indian" title="Autograph of an Indian" />
+</p><p>
+"Papallacta, 4 Nov., 1867."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> "Distance is frequently estimated by the time that a man
+will occupy in taking a chew of coca," or 37&frac12; minutes.&mdash;<i>Herndon</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Humboldt speaks of this as an active volcano, "from which
+detonations are heard almost daily." We heard nothing. It is possible
+that he meant Guamani.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> The Chasuta Indians, Herndon says, eat musquitoes that
+they catch on their bodies with the idea of restoring the blood which
+the insect has abstracted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Sometimes called <i>yuca dulce</i>, or sweet yuca, to
+distinguish it from the <i>yuca brava</i>, or wild yuca, the mandioca of the
+Amazon, from which farina is made. The yuca is the beet-like root of a
+little tree about ten feet high. It is a good substitute for potatoes
+and bread.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Vanilla belongs to the orchid family, and is the only
+member which possesses any economical value. It is a graceful climber
+and has a pretty star-like flower.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> In Peru, the liquor made from yuca is called <i>masato</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Rock-salt is found on both sides of the Andes. "The
+general character of the geology of these countries would rather lead to
+the opinion that its origin is in some way connected with volcanic heat
+at the bottom of the sea."&mdash;Darwin's <i>Observations</i>, pt. iii., p. 235.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> "The Napo (Herndon was told) is very full of sand-banks,
+and twenty days from its mouth (or near the confluence of the Curaray)
+the men have to get overboard and drag the canoes!"&mdash;<i>Report</i>, p. 229.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> The chief difficulty throughout the Upper Amazon is in
+getting the Indians to concentrate along the bank. But honorable dealing
+would accomplish this in time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Its actual source is the Rio del Valle, which runs
+northward through the Valle Vicioso. Its longest tributary, the Curaray,
+rises only a few miles to the south in the Cordillera de los Mulatos.
+The two rivers run side by side 4&deg; of longitude before meeting. Coca,
+the northern branch, originates in the flanks of Cayambi. The Napo and
+its branches are represented incorrectly in every map we have examined.
+The Aguarico is confounded with the Santa Maria and made too long, and
+the Curaray is represented too far above the mouth of the Napo. There
+are no settlements between Coca and Camindo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> From specimens of sand which we obtained at different
+points in descending the river, we find that at Coca it contains 17.5
+per cent. of pure quartz grains, the rest being colored dark with
+augite: at the mouth of the Napo there is 50 per cent. of pure quartz,
+the other half being light-colored and feldspathic.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> Monkeys form an article of food throughout tropical
+America. The meat is tough, but keeps longer than any other in that
+climate. The Indians told Gibbon that "the tail is the most delicate
+part when the hair is properly singed."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> The <i>trapiche</i> or sugar-mill of the Andes is a rude
+affair. The cane is pressed between cogged wooden cylinders worked by
+bullocks, and the juice is received in troughs made of hollowed logs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> Bates says the Mundurucus express surprise by making a
+clicking sound with their teeth, and Darwin observes that the Fuegians
+have the habit of making a chuckling noise when pleased.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> The like perfect equality exists among the Fuegian
+tribes. "A piece of cloth given to one is torn into shreds and
+distributed, and no one individual becomes richer than
+another."&mdash;<i>Darwin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Some orchid is in flower all the year round. The finest
+species is the <i>odontoglossum</i>, having long, chocolate-colored petals,
+margined with yellow. "Such is their number and variety (wrote Humboldt)
+that the entire life of a painter would be too short to delineate all
+the magnificent Orchide&aelig; which adorn the recesses of the deep valleys of
+the Peruvian Andes." For many curious facts respecting the structure of
+these flowers, see Darwin's <i>Fertilization of Orchids</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> In the Quichua of Quito the peccari is called <i>saino</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> The Uaupes on the Napo, according to Wallace, will not
+eat peccari meat. "Meat putrifies in this climate (of the Tapajos) in
+less than twenty-four hours, and salting is of no use unless the pieces
+are cut in thin slices and dried immediately in the sun."&mdash;<i>Bates</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> The specific name was strangely given for its habit, when
+young, of darting upon mice. Anaconda is a Ceylonese word.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Sand-flies are called by the natives <i>musquitoes</i>, and
+what we call musquitoes they call <i>sancudos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Herndon makes the mouth of the Napo 150 yards broad, and
+the soundings six or seven fathoms. This is not a fair representation;
+for the Napo, like all the other tributaries, empties its waters by
+several mouths. At Camindo, five miles above the confluence, the Napo is
+certainly a mile wide.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Urar&iacute; is mentioned by Raleigh. Humboldt was the first to
+take any considerable quantity to Europe. The experiments of Virchau and
+M&uuml;nster make it probable that it does not belong to the class of tetanic
+poisons, but that its particular effect is to take away the power of
+voluntary muscular movement, while the involuntary functions of the
+heart and intestines still continue. See <i>Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.</i>, t.
+xxxix., 1828, p. 24; and Sch&ouml;mberg's <i>Reisen in Britisch Guiana</i>, th.
+i., s. 441. The frightful poison, <i>tieut&eacute;</i> of India, is prepared from a
+Java species of <i>strychnos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> According to Lieutenant Azevedo, the latitude of
+Tabatinga is 4&deg; 14' 30"; longitude, 70&deg; 2' 24"; magnetic variation, 6&deg;
+35' 10" N.E.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> Herndon says (p. 241), "the Tunant&iacute;ns is about fifty
+yards broad, and seems deep with a considerable current."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> Smyth says the town gets its name from the clearness of
+the water; but Herndon found it muddy, and, to our eyes, it was dark as
+the Negro.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> For a discussion of the barometric perturbations on the
+Amazon, see <i>American Journal of Science</i> for Sept., 1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Official returns for 1848 give 3614; Bates (1850) reckons
+3000.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Darwin met a similar specimen in Banda Oriental: "I asked
+two men why they did not work. One gravely said the days were too long;
+the other that he was too poor."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> It is, however, one of the warmest spots on the river.
+The average temperature, according to Azevedo and Pinto, is only 79.7&deg;;
+but the highest point readied on the Amazon in 1862 (87.3&deg;) was at
+Man&aacute;os, and the extraordinary height of 95&deg; has been noted there.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> Otherwise called, on Brazilian maps, Villa Bella da
+Imperatriz.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Herndon makes Santarem 460 miles from the Negro, and 650
+from the sea. Bates calls it 400 miles from the Atlantic, and nearly 50
+from Obidos.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> We are inclined to doubt the assertion of Mansfield that
+Paraguay is the only country in eastern South America with an
+industrious peasantry.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Brazil yields more than one half the quantity of coffee
+consumed by the world. That of Cear&aacute; is the best.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> In January, 1868, the current prices were as follows:
+<table summary="" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td>
+Refined Sugar,</td><td> per arroba</td><td align="right"> $3 00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Rice</td><td>"</td><td align="right">1 40</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cacao</td><td>"</td><td align="right"> 3 20</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Coffee</td><td>"</td><td align="right"> 3 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Farina</td><td>"</td><td align="right"> 75</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tapioca</td><td> "</td><td align="right">3 00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pure rubber</td><td>"</td><td align="right">11 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Plassaba cord</td><td>"</td><td align="right">6 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tobacco</td><td>"</td><td align="right">1 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sarsparilla</td><td>"</td><td align="right"> 11 50</td></tr>
+<tr> <td colspan="3">The Brazilian arroba is seven pounds heavier than the Spanish.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> "The traveler, in going from the equator toward the
+tropics, is less struck by the decrease of the mean annual temperature
+than by the unequal distribution of heat in different parts of the
+year."&mdash;<i>Humboldt</i>. The great German fixes the mean temperature of the
+equator at 81.5&deg;; Brewster, at 82.8&deg;; Kirwan, 83.9&deg;; Atkinson, 84.5&deg;.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Herndon gives, for the altitude of Cerro Pasco, 13,802
+feet; Rivero, 14,279. The lieutenant thus describes his first view from
+the rough hills surrounding this birthplace of the greatest of rivers:
+"I can compare it to nothing so fitly as looking from the broken and
+ragged edges of a volcano into the crater beneath."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> From Lauricocha to its mouth, the Amazon, following the
+main curves, is 2740 miles long, as estimated by Bates; in a straight
+line, 2050; from Par&aacute; to the head of the Ucayali, 3000. From north to
+south the tributaries stretch 1720 miles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> <i>Igarap&eacute;</i> is sometimes limited to a creek filled with
+back-water; <i>paranamirim</i> is the proper term for a narrow arm of the
+main river; and <i>furos</i> are the diminutive mouths of the tributaries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> The Cassiquiari belongs indifferently to both river
+systems, the level being so complete at one point between them as to
+obliterate the line of water-shed.&mdash;<i>Herschel</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> In the map of Friar Fritz, published in 1707, the Madeira
+is one of the most insignificant of the tributaries, and the Ucayali and
+Putumayo are the largest.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> We are inclined to hold, with Bates and others, that the
+Par&aacute; River is not, strictly speaking, one of the mouths of the Amazon.
+"It is made to appear so on many of the maps in common use, because the
+channels which connect it with the main river are there given much
+broader than they are in reality, conveying the impression that a large
+body of water finds an outlet from the main river into the Par&aacute;. It is
+doubtful, however, if there be any considerable stream of water flowing
+constantly downward through these channels. There is a great contrast in
+general appearance between the Par&aacute; and the main Amazon. In the former
+the flow of the tide always creates a strong current upward, while in
+the Amazon the turbid flow of the mighty stream overpowers all tides,
+and produces a constant downward current. The color of the water is
+different; that of the Par&aacute; being of a dingy orange-brown, while the
+Amazon has an ochreous or yellowish-clay tint. The forests on their
+banks have a different aspect. On the Par&aacute;, the infinitely diversified
+trees seem to rise directly out of the water, the forest-frontage is
+covered with greenery, and wears a placid aspect; while the shores of
+the main Amazon are encumbered with fallen trunks, and are fringed with
+a belt of broad-leaved grasses."&mdash;<i>Naturalist on the Amazon</i>, i., p.
+3-5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> The Madeira has often a milky color which it receives
+from the white clay along its banks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> The average temperature of the water in the Lower Amazon
+is 81&deg;, that of the air being a little less. The temperature of the
+Huallaga at Yurimaguas was 75&deg; when the air was 88&deg; in the shade; in
+another experiment both the river and air were 80&deg;. The Mara&ntilde;on at
+Iquitos was 79&deg; when the air was 90&deg;. At the mouth of the Juru&aacute;, Herndon
+found both water and air 82&deg;. In the tropics the difference between the
+temperature of the water and air is proportionally less than in high
+latitudes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> The assertion of the <i>Ency. Metropolitana</i>, that "its
+current has great violence and rapidity, and its depth is unfathomable,"
+must be received with some allowance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> The flooded lands are called <i>gapos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> The upper part of the Mara&ntilde;on, from its source to Jaen,
+is sometimes called the Tunguragua. Solimoens is now seldom heard; but,
+instead, Middle Amazon, or simply Amazon. The term Alto Amazonas or High
+Amazon is also applied to all above the Negro. Mara&ntilde;on, says Velasco,
+derives its name from the circumstance that a soldier, sent by Pizarro
+to discover the sources of the Rio Piura, having beheld the mighty
+stream from the neighborhood of Jaen, and, astonished to behold a sea of
+fresh water, exclaimed, <i>"Hac mare an non?"</i> Orellana's pretended fight
+with a nation of female warriors gave rise to the Portuguese name of the
+river, Amazonas (anglicized Amazon), after the mythical women in
+Cappadocia, who are said to have burnt off their right breasts that they
+might use the bow and javelin with more skill and force, and hence their
+name, &#913;&#956;&#945;&#958;&#8001;&#957;&#949;&#962; from &#945; and &#956;&#945;&#958;&#959;&#962;. Orellana's
+story probably grew out of the fact that the men wear long tunics, part
+the hair in the middle, and, in certain tribes, alone wear ornaments.
+Some derive the name from the Indian word <i>amassona</i>, boat-destroyer.
+The old name, Orellana, after the discoverer, is obsolete, as also the
+Indian term Parana-tinga, or King of Waters. In ordinary conversation it
+is designated as <i>the</i> river, in distinction from its tributaries. "In
+all parts of the world (says Hamboldt), the largest rivers are called by
+those who dwell on their banks, <i>The River</i>, without any distinct and
+peculiar appellation."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Professor Agassiz gives the average slope as hardly more
+than a foot in ten miles, which is based on the farther assertion that
+the distance from Tabatinga to the sea-shore is more than 2000 miles in
+a straight line. The distance is not 1600, or exactly 1500, from
+Par&aacute;.&mdash;See <i>A Journey in Brazil</i>, p. 349.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Messrs. Myers and Forbes found this red clay on the
+Negro, most abundantly near Barcellos; also in small quantities on the
+Orinoco above Maipures. The officers of the "Morona" assured us that the
+same formation was traceable far up the Ucayali and Huallaga. This clay
+from the Amazon, as examined microscopically by Prof. H. James Clark,
+contains fragments of gasteropod shells and bivalve casts. The red earth
+of the Pampas, according to Ehrenberg, contains eight fresh-water to one
+salt-water animalcule.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> "On the South American coast, where tertiary and
+supra-tertiary beds have been extensively elevated, I repeatedly noticed
+that the uppermost beds were formed of coarser materials than the lower;
+this appears to indicate that, as the sea becomes shallower, the force
+of the waves or currents increased."&mdash;Darwin's <i>Observations</i>, pt. ii.,
+131. "Nowhere in the Pampas is there any appearance of much superficial
+denudation."&mdash;Pt. iii., 100.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> <i>A Journey in Brazil</i>, p. 250, 411, 424. Again, in his
+Lecture before the Lowell Institute, 1866: "These deposits could not
+have been made by the sea, nor in a large lake, as they contain no
+marine nor fresh-water fossils."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> These interesting fossils are figured and described in
+the <i>Am. Journal of Conchology</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> "The whole basin between the Orinoco and the Amazon is
+composed of granite and gneiss, slightly covered with d&eacute;bris. There is a
+total absence of sedimentary rocks. The surface is often bare and
+destitute of soil, the undulations being only a few feet above or below
+a straight line."&mdash;Evan Hopkins, in <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc</i>., vol. vi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> See Darwin on the absence of extensive modern
+conchiferous deposits in South America, <i>Geological Observations</i>, pt.
+iii., ch. v.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> Agassiz calls the average temperature 84&deg;, which, it
+seems to us, is too high. The mean between the temperatures of Par&aacute;,
+Man&aacute;os, and Tabatinga is 80.7&deg;.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Buttress roots are not peculiar to any one species, but
+common to most of the large trees in the crowded forest, where the
+lateral growth of the roots is made difficult by the multitude of
+rivals. The Paxiuba, or big-bellied palm, is a fine example.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Von Martius, in his great work on the Brazilian Palms,
+enumerates in all 582 species.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> The Portuguese and Brazilians call it <i>seringa</i>, or
+syringe, in which form it is still used extensively, injections forming
+a great feature in the popular system of cures. The tree mentioned above
+yields most of the rubber of commerce, and is considered distinct from
+the species in Guiana, <i>S. elastica;</i> while the rubber from the Upper
+Amazon and Rio Negro comes from the <i>S. lutea</i> and <i>S. brevifolia</i>.
+Agassiz puts milk-weed in the same family!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> We await the Professor's examination of his "more than
+80,000 specimens" before we give the number of new species.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> The natives have this notion about the land-tortoise,
+that by throwing it three times over the head, the liver (the best part)
+will be enlarged.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> <i>Dephinus pallidus</i>. Bates observed this species at Villa
+Nova; we saw it at Coary, 500 miles west; and Herndon found it in the
+Huallaga.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Amazonia is divided into four distinct zoological
+districts: those of Ecuador, Peru, Guiana, and Brazil; the limits being
+the Amazon, Madeira, and Negro. The species found on one side of these
+rivers are seldom found on the other.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> The honey-bee of Europe was introduced into South America
+in 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> Review of Waterton's <i>Wanderings in South America</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> Large rats abound on the Marna&ntilde;on, but they are not
+American.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> The Tupi word for dog is <i>yaguara</i>, and for wolf,
+<i>yagua-men</i>, or old dog.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> R&uuml;timeyer has found a fossil howler in the Swiss
+Jura&mdash;middle cocene.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> "I think I discover in the Americans (said Humboldt) the
+descendants of a rare which, early separated from the rest of mankind,
+has followed up for a series of years a peculiar road in the unfolding
+of its intellectual faculties and its tendency toward civilization." The
+South American Indian seems to have a natural aptitude for the arts of
+civilized life not found in the red men of our continent.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> We do not infer, however, from this fact alone, that the
+race is exotic, for the Negroes of Central Africa multiply very slowly.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Authors compute in South America from 280 to 700
+languages (Abb&eacute; Royo said 2000), of which four fifths are composed of
+idioms radically distinct.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> Near the sources of this river Castlenau locates the
+Canamas and Uginas; the former dwarfs, the latter having tails a palm
+and a half long&mdash;a hybrid from an Indian and Barigudo monkey.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> Query: Is the name Yagua (blood) derived from the
+practice of coloring the body red?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Compare the ancient burial custom on the Andes: "On the
+decease of the Inca his palaces are abandoned: all his treasures, except
+those that were employed in his obsequies, his furniture and apparel,
+were suffered to remain as he left them, and his mansions, save one,
+were closed up forever."&mdash;<i>Prescott</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> The women circumcise themselves, and a man will not marry
+a woman who is not circumcised. They perform the singular rite upon
+arriving at the age of puberty, and have a great feast at the time.
+Other tribes flog and imprison their daughters when they reach
+womanhood.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> The Guayaquil market is well supplied with fish of a fair
+quality. Usually the fish of warm tropical waters are poor, but the cold
+"Humboldt current," which passes along the west coast of Ecuador,
+renders them as edible as those of temperate zones.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> Called <i>chancaca</i> in Peru. In flavor it is very nearly
+equal to maple-sugar.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> First published in the <i>American Journal of Science</i> for
+September, 1868, to which the reader is referred for other physical
+observations. The barometric anomaly, noticed particularly on the Lower
+Amazon, was also observed by Herndon, Castelnau, Chandlers, Spruce, and
+Wallace.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p>
+<a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a>
+ Qu'ichua on Mara&ntilde;on, tiui&uacute;t.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> This Table is taken from the <i>Relatoria da Companhia de
+Navega&ccedil;ao e Commercio do Amazonas</i>, and includes only the commerce by
+the Brazilian steamers and the staple products. The vast amount carried
+by sailing craft and by Peruvian steamers on the Mara&ntilde;on is unknown to
+us. The number of passengers transported by the steamers in 1867 was
+13,886; receipts from passage, $75,744; from freight, $210,654. In the
+reduction, the milrey has been taken at 50 cts. U.S. currency, which was
+the rate very nearly in 1867. The alquiere (alq.)&mdash;.988 of a bushel;
+arr. = arroba of 32 lbs.</p></div></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="EXP" id="EXP"></a>COMMERCE OF THE AMAZON.<br />(Expanded Version)</h3>
+<p class="center"><a href="#return">Return to Appendix C.</a></p>
+<p class="center">I.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Value of Products Exported from different Towns on the Amazon by the
+Imperial Steamers in 1867.</span>
+<a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a></p>
+
+<table summary="commerce" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="border-bottom:solid 1px black">
+<tr>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Products.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Camet�.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Braves.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Macap�.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Gurup�.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Porto&nbsp;do&nbsp;Moz.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Prainha.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Mt.&nbsp;Al�gre.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Santarum.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Obidos.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Villa&nbsp;Nova.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Serpa.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Man�os.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Cudajaz.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Coary.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Ega.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Fonte&nbsp;Boa.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Touantina.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">S.&nbsp;Paulo.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Tabatluga.</td>
+<td align="center" colspan="2" style="border:solid 1px black">Quantity.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Mean&nbsp;Price.</td>
+<td style="border:solid 1px black">Total&nbsp;Value.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Brazil Nuts.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$600</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$400</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$290</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$10</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$16</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$1,334</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$6,938</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$2,564</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$6,886</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$15,010</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$1,442</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$498</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$325</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">18,397</td><td>alq.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$2.00</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$36,794</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cacao.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$44,054</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,615</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">6,429</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,345</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">257</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$1,677</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$86</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$69,111</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">172,421</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">28,907</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">34,462</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">38,802</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,945</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5,192</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">4,907</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$957</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$365</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$310</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">$227</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">314,327</td><td>arr.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3.00</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">942,981</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cattle.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,575</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">600</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">550</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">25</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">110</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">25.00</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,750</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Coffee.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">56</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">33</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">7</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">172</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">25</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">79</td><td>arr.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3.70</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">292</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Copaiba.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">18</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,422</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">4,383</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">8,651</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5,175</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">132</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,559</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">123</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">72,030</td><td>lbs.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right"> .30</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,160</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Cotton, raw.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">100</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">90</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">103</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">293</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">6</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">232</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">653</td><td>arr.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1.25</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">816</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Dried Meat.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">145</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,744</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">15,699</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">167</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">6,821</td><td> "</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2.75</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">18,757</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Farina.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">80</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">37</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">15</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">105</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">10</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">90</td><td>alq.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2.50</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">247</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Guarana.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,620</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">750</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">24,240</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">14,550</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">60</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,374</td><td>arr.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">30.00</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">41,220</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Hides.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">138</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">800</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3,302</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">858</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">271</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">152</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,426</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">4,087</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5,787</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">6,290</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,103</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">11,871</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2.00</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">23,742</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Horses.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">75</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">600</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">375</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3,225</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3,975</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,100</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">300</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">142</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">75.00</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">10,650</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">India-rubber.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">123,460</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">128,440</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">306,880</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">85,110</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">85,780</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,430</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">22,670</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">8,640</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">20,100</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">209,400</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">219,340</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">30,468</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">7,644</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">6,808</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5,460</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,252</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">9,155</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">15,054</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">128,955</td><td>arr.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">10.00</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,289,550</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Piassaba.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">7,612</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">7,612</td><td>"</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1.00</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">7,612</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Pirarucu.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">10</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">20</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">200</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,805</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">525</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">18,902</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">31,525</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">40,827</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">21,025</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">79,055</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">8,273</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5,944</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">6,205</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">7,572</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">6,768</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,018</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">920</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">94,316</td><td>"</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2.50</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">235,790</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Sasparilla.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">60</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,376</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,392</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">108</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">372</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">33,708</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">207</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">943</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5,163</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">4,876</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5,209</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,334</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3,703</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5,119 </td><td>"</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">11.80</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">60,442</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tallow.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">12</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">212</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">60</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">200</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,484</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,368</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">4,164</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">16</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,893</td><td> "</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">4.00</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">7,572</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tobacco.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">50</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">25</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">25</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">225</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,187</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">237</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">48</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">300</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">12</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">360</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">205</td><td> "</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">12.23</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,525</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Tonka&nbsp;Beans.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">43</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">120</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,070</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">9</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">260</td><td> "</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">4.80</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,248</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Turtles.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">70</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">76</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">136</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">39</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">33</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">10</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">50</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">331</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1.80</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">596</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black">Turtle-oil.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">100</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="center"> .... </td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">5</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">8,220</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">216</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">2,382</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3,123</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,693</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">1,646</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">298</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">335</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">3,762</td><td>j'rs.</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">4.75</td>
+<td style="border-left:solid 1px black" align="right">17,760</td><td style="border-left:solid 1px black">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;<br /><br /></p>
+<p>&nbsp;<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Andes and the Amazon, by James Orton
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Andes and the Amazon, by James Orton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Andes and the Amazon
+       Across the Continent of South America
+
+Author: James Orton
+
+Release Date: September 8, 2006 [EBook #19209]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was made using scans of public domain works
+from the University of Michigan Digital Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: The accentuation and spelling of the original
+has been retained. This may at times seem variable: e.g., manati and
+manati. Greek transliterations appear between + signs. This symbol:
+[=o], which appears once to represent the letter o with a line above it.
+Italics are indicated by under-scores, as in this example: _NEW YORK:_.
+The illustrations are viewable in the XHTML version.]
+
+[Illustration: PALMS ON THE MIDDLE AMAZON.]
+
+
+
+
+                          THE
+
+                  ANDES AND THE AMAZON:
+
+                           OR,
+
+          ACROSS THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+                  By JAMES ORTON, M.A.
+
+ PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN VASSAR COLLEGE, POUGHKEEPSIE, N.Y.,
+                   AND CORRESPONDING
+    MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, PHILADELPHIA.
+
+  _WITH A NEW MAP OF EQUATORIAL AMERICA AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+                      _NEW YORK:_
+             HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+                   FRANKLIN SQUARE
+                         1870.
+
+    Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by
+                   HARPER & BROTHERS,
+In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
+             Southern District of New York.
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+                         TO
+
+           CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
+
+                WHOSE PROFOUND RESEARCHES
+    HAVE THROWN SO MUCH LIGHT UPON EVERY DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE,
+                         AND
+     WHOSE CHARMING "VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE" HAS SO PLEASANTLY
+        ASSOCIATED HIS NAME WITH OUR SOUTHERN CONTINENT,
+   THESE SKETCHES OF THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON ARE, BY PERMISSION,
+                  MOST RESPECTFULLY
+                      Dedicated.
+
+           *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none
+     exceed in sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of
+     man; whether those of Brazil, where the powers of Life are
+     predominant, or those of Terra del Fuego, where Death and Decay
+     prevail. Both are temples filled with the varied productions of the
+     God of Nature: no one can stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not
+     feel that there is more in man than the mere breath of his
+     body."--DARWIN'S _Journal_, p. 503.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This volume is one result of a scientific expedition to the equatorial
+Andes and the river Amazon. The expedition was made under the auspices
+of the Smithsonian Institution, and consisted of the following gentlemen
+besides the writer: Colonel Staunton, of Ingham University, Leroy, N.Y.;
+F.S. Williams, Esq., of Albany, N.Y.; and Messrs. P.V. Myers and A.
+Bushnell, of Williams College. We sailed from New York July 1, 1867;
+and, after crossing the Isthmus of Panama and touching at Paita, Peru,
+our general route was from Guayaquil to Quito, over the Eastern
+Cordillera; thence over the Western Cordillera, and through the forest
+on foot to Napo; down the Rio Napo by canoe to Pebas, on the Maranon;
+and thence by steamer to Para.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Another division, consisting of Messrs. H.M. Myers, R.H.
+Forbes, and W. Gilbert, of Williams College, proceeded to Venezuela, and
+after exploring the vicinity of Lake Valencia, the two former traversed
+the Ilanos to Pao, descended the Apure and ascended the Orinoco to
+Yavita, crossed the portage of Pimichin (a low, level tract, nine miles
+wide, separating the waters of the Orinoco from those of the Amazon),
+and descended the Negro to Manaos, making a voyage by canoe of over 2000
+miles through a little-known but deeply-interesting region. A narrative
+of this expedition will soon be given to the public.]
+
+Nearly the entire region traversed by the expedition is strangely
+misrepresented by the most recent geographical works. On the Andes of
+Ecuador we have little besides the travels of Humboldt; on the Napo,
+nothing; while the Maranon is less known to North Americans than the
+Nile.
+
+Many of the following pages first appeared in the New York _Evening
+Post_. The author has also published "Physical Observations on the Andes
+and the Amazon" and "Geological Notes on the Ecuadorian Andes" in the
+_American Journal of Science_, an article on the great earthquake of
+1868 in the Rochester _Democrat_, and a paper _On the Valley of the
+Amazon_ read before the American Association at Salem. These papers have
+been revised and extended, though the popular form has been retained. It
+has been the effort of the writer to present a condensed but faithful
+picture of the physical aspect, the resources, and the inhabitants of
+this vast country, which is destined to become an important field for
+commercial enterprise. For detailed descriptions of the collections in
+natural history, the scientific reader is referred to the various
+reports of the following gentlemen, to whom the specimens were committed
+by the Smithsonian Institution:
+
+Volcanic Rocks                  Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., Montreal.
+
+Plants                          Dr. Asa Gray, Cambridge.
+
+Land and Fresh-water Shells.    M. Crosse, Paris,
+                                and Thomas Bland, Esq., New York.
+
+Marine Shells                   Rev. Dr. E.R. Beadle, Philadelphia.
+
+Fossil Shells                   W.M. Gabb, Esq., Philadelphia.
+
+Hemiptera                       Prof. P.R. Uhler, Baltimore.
+
+Orthoptera                      S.H. Scudder, Esq., Boston.
+
+Hymenoptera and Nocturnal Lepidoptera    Dr. A.S. Packard, Jr., Salem.
+
+Diurnal Lepidoptera             Tryon Reakirt, Esq., Philadelphia.
+
+Coleoptera                      George D. Smith, Esq., Boston.
+
+Phalangia and Pedipalpi         Dr. H.C. Wood, Jr., Philadelphia.
+
+Fishes                          Dr. Theodore Gill, Washington.
+
+Reptiles                        Prof. E.D. Cope, Philadelphia.
+
+Birds                           John Cassin, Esq.,[2] Philadelphia.
+
+Bats                            Dr. H. Allen, Philadelphia.
+
+Mammalian Fossils               Dr. Joseph Leidy, Philadelphia.
+
+[Footnote 2: This eminent ornithologist died in the midst of his
+examination. Mr. George N. Lawrence, of New York, has identified the
+remainder, including all the hummers.]
+
+Many of the type specimens are deposited in the museums of the
+Smithsonian Institution, the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science,
+the Boston Society of Natural History, the Peabody Academy of Science,
+and Vassar College; but the bulk of the collection was purchased by
+Ingham University, Leroy, New York.
+
+The Map of Equatorial America was drawn with great care after original
+observations and the surveys of Humboldt and Wisse on the Andes, and of
+Azevedo, Castlenau, and Bates on the Amazon.[3] The names of Indian
+tribes are in small capitals. Most of the illustrations are after
+photographs or drawings made on the ground, and can be relied upon. The
+portrait of Humboldt, which is for the first time presented to the
+public, was photographed from the original painting in the possession of
+Sr. Aguirre, Quito. Unlike the usual portrait--an old man, in
+Berlin--this presents him as a young man in Prussian uniform, traveling
+on the Andes.
+
+[Footnote 3: We have retained the common orthography of this word,
+though _Amazons_, used by Bates, is doubtless more correct, as more akin
+to the Brazilian name _Amazonas_.]
+
+We desire to express our grateful acknowledgments to the Smithsonian
+Institution, Hon. William H. Seward, and Hon. James A. Garfield, of
+Washington; to Cyrus W. Field, Esq., and William Pitt Palmer, Esq., of
+New York; to C.P. Williams, Esq., of Albany; to Rev. J.C. Fletcher, now
+United States Consul at Oporto; to Chaplain Jones, of Philadelphia; to
+Dr. William Jameson, of the University of Quito; to J.F. Reeve, Esq.,
+and Captain Lee, of Guayaquil; to the Pacific Mail Steamship, Panama
+Railroad, and South Pacific Steam Navigation companies; to the officers
+of the Peruvian and Brazilian steamers on the Amazon; and to the eminent
+naturalists who have examined the results of the expedition.
+
+NOTE.--Osculati has alone preceded us, so far as we can learn, in
+obtaining a vocabulary of Zaparo words; but, as his work is not to be
+found in this country, we have not had the pleasure of making a
+comparison.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+BY
+
+REV. J.C. FLETCHER,
+
+AUTHOR OF "BRAZIL AND BRAZILIANS."
+
+
+In this day of many voyages, in the Old World and the New, it is
+refreshing to find an untrodden path. Central Africa has been more fully
+explored than that region of Equatorial America which lies in the midst
+of the Western Andes and upon the slopes of these mountain monarchs
+which look toward the Atlantic. In this century one can almost count
+upon his hand the travelers who have written of their journeys in this
+unknown region. Our own Herndon and Gibbon descended--the one the
+Peruvian and the other the Bolivian waters--the affluents of the Amazon,
+beginning their voyage where the streams were mere channels for canoes,
+and finishing it where the great river appears a fresh-water ocean. Mr.
+Church, the artist, made the sketches for his famous "Heart of the
+Andes" where the headwaters of the Amazon are rivulets. But no one whose
+language is the English has journeyed down and described the voyage from
+the _plateaux_ of Ecuador to the Atlantic Ocean until Professor Orton
+and his party accomplished this feat in 1868. Yet it was over this very
+route that the King of Waters (as the Amazon is called by the
+aborigines) was originally discovered. The _auri sacra fames_, which in
+1541 urged the adventurous Gonzalo Pizarro to hunt for the fabled city
+of _El Dorado_ in the depths of the South American forests, led to the
+descent of the great river by Orellana, a knight of Truxillo. The fabled
+women-warriors were said to have been seen in this notable voyage, and
+hence the name of the river _Amazon_, a name which in Spanish and
+Portuguese is in the plural. It was not until nearly one hundred years
+after Orellana was in his grave that a voyage of discovery ascended the
+river. In 1637 Pedro Teixeira started from Para with an expedition of
+nearly two thousand (all but seventy of whom were natives), and with
+varied experiences, by water and by land, the explorer in eight months
+reached the city of Quito, where he was received with distinguished
+honor. Two hundred years ago the result of this expedition was
+published.
+
+The Amazon was from that time, at rare intervals, the highway of Spanish
+and Portuguese priests and friars, who thus went to their distant
+charges among the Indians. In 1745 the French academician De la
+Condamine descended from Quito to Para, and gave the most accurate idea
+of the great valley which we had until the first quarter of this
+century.
+
+The narrow policy of Spain and Portugal was most unfruitful in its
+results to South America. A jealous eye guarded that great region, of
+which it can be so well said there are
+
+                "Realms unknown and blooming wilds,
+    And fruitful deserts, worlds of solitude,
+    Where the sun smiles and seasons teem in vain."
+
+Now, the making known to the world of any portion of these "fruitful
+deserts" is performing a service for the world. This Professor Orton
+has done. His interesting and valuable volume hardly needs any
+introduction or commendation, for its intrinsic merit will exact the
+approbation of every reader. Scientific men, and tourists who seek for
+new routes of travel, will appreciate it at once; and I trust that the
+time is near at hand when our mercantile men, by the perusal of such a
+work, will see how wide a field lies before them for future commercial
+enterprise. This portion of the tropics abounds in natural resources
+which only need the stimulus of capital to draw them forth to the light;
+to create among the natives a desire for articles of civilization in
+exchange for the crude productions of the forest; and to stimulate
+emigration to a healthy region of perpetual summer.
+
+It seems as if Providence were opening the way for a great change in the
+Valley of the Amazon. That immense region drained by the great river is
+as large as all the United States east of the States of California and
+Oregon and the Territory of Washington, and yet it has been so secluded,
+mainly by the old monopolistic policy of Portugal, that that vast space
+has not a population equal to the single city of Rio de Janeiro or of
+Brooklyn. Two million five hundred thousand square miles are drained by
+the Amazon. Three fourths of Brazil, one half of Bolivia, two thirds of
+Peru, three fourths of Ecuador, and a portion of Venezuela are watered
+by this river. Riches, mineral and vegetable, of inexhaustible supply
+have been here locked up for centuries. Brazil held the key, but it was
+not until under the rule of their present constitutional monarch, Don
+Pedro II., that the Brazilians awoke to the necessity of opening this
+glorious region. Steamers were introduced in 1853, subsidized by the
+government. But it is to a young Brazilian statesman, Sr. A.C. Tavares
+Bastos, that belongs the credit of having agitated, in the press and in
+the national parliament, the opening of the Amazon, until public
+opinion, thus acted upon, produced the desired result. On another
+occasion, in May, 1868, I gave several indices of a more enlightened
+policy in Brazil, and stated that the opening of the Amazon, which
+occurred on the 7th of September, 1867, and by which the great river is
+free to the flags of all nations, from the Atlantic to Peru, and the
+abrogation of the monopoly of the coast-trade from the Amazon to the Rio
+Grande do Sul, whereby 4000 miles of Brazilian sea-coast are open to the
+vessels of every country, can not fail not only to develop the resources
+of Brazil, but will prove of great benefit to the bordering
+Hispano-American republics and to the maritime nations of the earth. The
+opening of the Amazon is the most significant indication that the leaven
+of the narrow monopolistic Portuguese conservatism has at last worked
+out. Portugal would not allow Humboldt to enter the Amazon Valley in
+Brazil. The result of the new policy is beyond the most sanguine
+expectation. The exports and imports for Para for October and November,
+1867, were double those of 1866. This is but the beginning. Soon it will
+be found that it is cheaper for Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and New Granada,
+east of the Andes, to receive their goods from, and to export their
+India-rubber, cinchona, etc., to the United States and Europe, _via_ the
+great water highway which discharges into the Atlantic, than by the
+long, circuitous route of Cape Horn or the trans-Isthmian route of
+Panama.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+Guayaquil.--First and Last Impressions.--Climate.--Commerce.--The
+Malecon.--Glimpse of the Andes.--Scenes on the Guayas.--Bodegas.--Mounted
+for Quito.--La Mena.--A Tropical Forest......Page 25
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Our Tambo.--Ascending the Andes.--Camino Real.--Magnificent Views.
+--Guaranda.--Cinchona.--The
+Summit.--Chimborazo.--Over the Andes.--Chuquipoyo
+the Wretched.--Ambato.--A Stupid City.--Cotopaxi.--The
+Vale of Machachi.--Arrival at Quito......40
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Early History of Quito.--Its Splendor under the Incas.--Crushed by Spain.
+--Dying now.--Situation.--Altitude.--Streets.--Buildings......56
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Population of Quito.--Dress.--Manners.--Character.--Commerce.--Agriculture.
+--Manufactures.--Arts.--Education.--Amusements.--Quito
+Ladies......68
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Ecuador.--Extent.--Government.--Religion.--A Protestant Cemetery in
+Quito.--Climate.--Regularity of Tropical Nature.
+--Diseases on the Highlands......85
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Astronomic Virtues of Quito.--Flora and Fauna of the Valley of Quito.
+--Primeval Inhabitants of the Andes.--Quichua Indians......97
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Geological History of South America.--Rise of the Andes.--Creation of the
+Amazon.--Characteristic Features of the Continent.--Andean Chain.--The
+Equatorial Volcanoes......114
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+The Volcanoes of Ecuador.--Western Cordillera.--Chimborazo.--Iliniza.
+--Corazon.--Pichincha.--Descent into its Crater.      Page 127
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+The Volcanoes of Ecuador.--Eastern Cordillera.--Imbabura.--Cayambi.--Antisana.
+--Cotopaxi.--Llanganati.--Tunguragua.--Altar.--Saugai......143
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+The Valley of Quito.--Riobamba.--A Bed of "Fossil Giants."--Chillo Hacienda.
+--Otovalo and Ibarra.--The Great Earthquake of 1868......152
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+"The Province of the Orient," or the Wild Napo Country.--The Napos, Zaparos,
+and Jivaros Indians.--Preparations to cross the Continent......164
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+Departure from Quito.--Itulcachi.--A Night in a Bread-tray.--Crossing the
+Cordillera.--Guamani.--Papallacta.--Domiciled at the Governor's.--An
+Indian Aristides.--Our Peon Train.--In the Wilderness......177
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+Baeza.--The Forest.--Crossing the Cosanga.--Curi-urcu.--Archidona.--Appearance,
+Customs, and Belief of the Natives.--Napo and Napo River......187
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+Afloat on the Napo.--Down the Rapids.--Santa Rosa and its mulish Alcalde.
+--Pratt on Discipline.--Forest Music.--Coca.--Our Craft and Crew.--Storm
+on the Napo......200
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+Sea-Cows and Turtles' Eggs.--The Forest.--Peccaries.--Indian Tribes on
+the Lower Napo.--Anacondas and Howling Monkeys.--Insect Pests.--Battle
+with Ants.--Barometric Anomaly.--First View of the Amazon.--Pebas......215
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+Down the Amazon.--Steam on the Great River.--Loreto.--San Antonio.--Tabatinga.
+--Brazilian Steamers.--Scenery on the Amazon.--Tocantins.--Fonte
+Boa.--Ega.--Rio Negro.--Manaos......230
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+Down the Amazon.--Serpa.--Villa Nova.--Obidos.--Santarem.--A Colony
+of Southerners.--Monte Alegre.--Porto do Moz.--Leaving the Amazon.
+--Breves.--Para River.--The City of Para.--Legislation and Currency.
+--Religion and Education.--Nonpareil Climate.      Page 247
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+The River Amazon.--Its Source and Magnitude.--Tributaries and Tints.--Volume
+and Current.--Rise and Fall.--Navigation.--Expeditions on the
+Great River......264
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+The Valley of the Amazon.--Its Physical Geography.--Geology.--Climate.
+--Vegetation......280
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+Life within the Great River.--Fishes.--Alligators.--Turtles.--Porpoises
+and Manatis......295
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+Life around the Great River.--Insects.--Reptiles.--Birds.--Mammals......300
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+Life around the Great River.--Origin of the Red Man.--General Characteristics
+of the Amazonian Indians.--Their Languages, Costumes, and Habitations.
+--Principal Tribes.--Mixed Breeds.--Brazilians and Brazil......315
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+How to Travel in South America.--Routes.--Expenses.--Outfit.--Precautions.
+--Dangers......325
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+In Memoriam......334
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+Barometrical Measurements across South America      Page 338
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+Vocabularies from the Quichua, Zaparo, Yagua, and Campas Languages      340
+
+APPENDIX C
+
+Commerce of the Amazon      344
+
+ADDENDA      349
+
+INDEX      349
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Palms on the Middle Amazon      _Frontispiece_
+Cathedral of Guayaquil      Page 27
+Equipped for the Andes      37
+Ascending the Andes      42
+Quito from the North      61
+Water-carriers      62
+Street in Quito      63
+Capitol at Quito      66
+Indian Dwellings      78
+Washerwomen      83
+Ecclesiastics      88
+Profiles of Ecuadorian Volcanoes      123
+Crater of Pichincha      135
+Humboldt in 1802      156
+Ibarra      158
+Napo Peon      184
+Autograph of an Indian      185
+Papaya-tree      202
+Trapiche, or Sugar-mill      208
+Our Craft on the Napo      211
+Hunting Turtle-eggs      217
+A Howler      223
+Kitchen on the Amazon      238
+Natives on the Middle Amazon      241
+A Siesta      244
+Santarem      250
+Para      255
+Fruit-peddlers      259
+Igarape, or Canoe-path      265
+Coca-plant      293
+Iguana      305
+Toucans      307
+Brazilian Hummers      Page 309
+Capybara      310
+Jaguar      311
+Native Comb      317
+Colonel Staunton      _To face page_ 334
+Map of Equatorial America      _End._
+
+
+
+
+THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+     Guayaquil.--First and Last Impressions.--Climate.--Commerce.--The
+     Malecon.--Glimpse of the Andes.--Scenes on the
+     Guayas.--Bodegas.--Mounted for Quito.--La Mona.--A Tropical Forest.
+
+
+Late in the evening of the 19th of July, 1867, the steamer "Favorita"
+dropped anchor in front of the city of Guayaquil. The first view
+awakened visions of Oriental splendor. Before us was the Malecon,
+stretching along the river, two miles in length--at once the most
+beautiful and the most busy street in the emporium of Ecuador. In the
+centre rose the Government House, with its quaint old tower, bearing
+aloft the city clock. On either hand were long rows of massive,
+apparently marble, three-storied buildings, each occupying an entire
+square, and as elegant as they were massive. Each story was blessed with
+a balcony, the upper one hung with canvas curtains now rolled up, the
+other protruding over the sidewalk to form a lengthened arcade like that
+of the Rue de Rivoli in imperial Paris. In this lower story were the gay
+shops of Guayaquil, filled with the prints, and silks, and fancy
+articles of England and France. As this is the promenade street as well
+as the Broadway of commerce, crowds of Ecuadorians, who never do
+business in the evening, leisurely paced the magnificent arcade; hatless
+ladies sparkling with fire-flies[4] instead of diamonds, and far more
+brilliant than koh-i-noors, swept the pavement with their long trains;
+martial music floated on the gentle breeze from the barracks or some
+festive hall, and a thousand gas-lights along the levee and in the city,
+doubling their number by reflection from the river, betokened wealth and
+civilization.
+
+[Footnote 4: The _Pyrophorus noctilucus_, or "cucujo," found also in
+Mexico and the West Indies. It resembles our large spring-beetle. The
+light proceeds from two eye-like spots on the thorax and from the
+segments underneath. It feeds on the sugar-cane. On the Upper Amazon we
+found the _P. clarus_, _P. pellucens_, and _P. tuberculatus_.
+At Bahia, on the opposite coast, Darwin found _P. luminosus_, the most common
+luminous insect.]
+
+We landed in the morning to find our vision a dissolving view in the
+light of the rising sun. The princely mansions turned out to be hollow
+squares of wood-work, plastered within and without, and roofed with red
+tiles. Even the "squares" were only distant approximations; not a right
+angle could we find in our hotel. All the edifices are built (very
+properly in this climate) to admit air instead of excluding it, and the
+architects have wonderfully succeeded; but with the air is wafted many
+an odor not so pleasing as the spicy breezes from Ceylon's isle. The
+cathedral is of elegant design. Its photograph is more imposing than
+Notre Dame, and a Latin inscription tells us that it is the Gate of
+Heaven. But a near approach reveals a shabby structure, and the pewless
+interior is made hideous by paintings and images which certainly must be
+caricatures. A few genuine works of art imported from Italy alone
+relieve the mind of the visitor. Excepting a few houses on the Malecon,
+and not excepting the cathedral, the majority of the buildings have a
+tumble-down appearance, which is not altogether due to the frequent
+earthquakes which have troubled this city; while the habitations in the
+outskirts are exceedingly primitive, floored and walled with split cane
+and thatched with leaves, the first story occupied by domestic animals
+and the second by their owners. The city is quite regularly laid out,
+the main streets running parallel to the river. A few streets are
+rudely paved, many are shockingly filthy, and all of them yield grass to
+the delight of stray donkeys and goats. A number of mule-carts, half a
+dozen carriages, one omnibus, and a hand-car on the Malecon, sum up the
+wheeled vehicles of Guayaquil. The population is twenty-two thousand,
+the same for thirty years past. Of these, about twenty are from the
+United States, and perhaps twenty-five can command $100,000. No
+foreigner has had reason to complain that Guayaquilians lacked the
+virtues of politeness and hospitality. The ladies dress in excellent
+taste, and are proverbial for their beauty. Spanish, Indian, and Negro
+blood mingle in the lower classes. The city supports two small papers,
+_Los Andes_ and _La Patria_, but they are usually issued about ten days
+behind date. The hourly cry of the night-watchman is quite as musical as
+that of the muezzin in Constantinople. At eleven o'clock, for example,
+they sing "_Ave Maria purissima! los once han dedo, noche clara y
+serena. Viva la Patria!_"
+
+[Illustration: Cathedral of Guayaquil.]
+
+The full name of the city is Santiago de Guayaquil.[5] It is so called,
+first, because the conquest of the province was finished on the 25th of
+July (the day of St. James), 1533; and, secondly, after Guayas, a
+feudatory cacique of Atahuallpa. It was created a city by Charles V.,
+October 6, 1535. It has suffered much in its subsequent history by fires
+and earthquakes, pirates and pestilence. It is situated on the right
+bank of the River Guayas, sixty miles from the ocean, and but a few feet
+above its level. Though the most western city in South America, it is
+only two degrees west of the longitude of Washington, and it is the same
+distance below the equator--Orion sailing directly overhead, and the
+Southern Cross taking the place of the Great Dipper. The mean annual
+temperature, according to our observations, is 83 deg.. There are two
+seasons, the wet, or _invierno_, and the dry, or _verano_. The _verano_
+is called the summer, although astronomically it is winter; it begins in
+June and terminates in November.[6] The heavy rains come on about
+Christmas. March is the rainiest month in the year, and July the
+coldest. It is at the close of the _invierno_ (May) that fevers most
+abound. The climate of Guayaquil during the dry season is nearly
+perfect. At daybreak there is a cool easterly breeze; at sunrise a brief
+lull, and then a gentle variable wind; at 3 P.M. a southwest wind, at
+first in gusts, then in a sustained current; at sunset the same softened
+down to a gentle breeze, increasing about _7_ P.M., and dying away about
+3 A.M. Notwithstanding heaps of filth and green-mantled pools,
+sufficient to start a pestilence if transported to New York, the city
+is usually healthy, due in great part, no doubt, to countless flocks of
+buzzards which greedily wait upon decay. These carrion-hawks enjoy the
+protection of law, a heavy fine being imposed for wantonly killing
+one.[7] It is during the rainy season that this port earns the
+reputation of being one of the most pestiferous spots on the globe. The
+air is then hot and oppressive, reminding the geologist of the steaming
+atmosphere in the carboniferous period; the surrounding plains are
+flooded with water, and the roads, even some of the streets of the city,
+become impassable; intolerable musquitoes, huge cockroaches, disgusting
+centipedes, venomous scorpions, and still more deadly serpents, keep the
+human species circumspect, and fevers and dysenteries do the work of
+death.
+
+[Footnote 5: The ancient name was _Culenta_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The continuity of the dry season is broken by a rainy fit
+commencing a few days after the autumnal equinox, and called _el
+Cordonazo de San Francisco_. "Throughout South America (observes Mr.
+Spruce) the periodical alternations of dry and rainy weather are laid to
+the account of those saints whose 'days' coincide nearly with the epochs
+of change. But if the weather be rainy when it ought to be fair, or if
+the rains of winter be heavier than ordinary, the blame is invariably
+laid on the moon."]
+
+[Footnote 7: The turkey-buzzard, the "John Crow" of the West Indies, is
+not a social bird, though a score are often seen together: each comes
+and goes by himself.]
+
+The Guayas is the largest river on the Pacific coast; and Guayaquil
+monopolizes the commerce of Ecuador, for it is the only port. Esmeraldas
+and Peylon are not to be mentioned. Through its custom-house passes
+nearly every import and export. The green banks of the Guayas, covered
+with an exuberant growth, are in strong contrast with the sterile coast
+of Peru, and the possession of Guayaquil has been a coveted prize since
+the days of Pizarro. Few spots between the tropics can vie with this
+lowland in richness and vigor of vegetation. Immense quantities of
+cacao--second only to that of Caracas--are produced, though but a
+fraction is gathered, owing to the scarcity of laborers, so many
+Ecuadorians have been exiled or killed in senseless revolutions. Twenty
+million pounds are annually exported, chiefly to Spain; and two million
+pounds of excellent coffee, which often finds its way into New York
+under the name of "pure Java." There are three or four kinds of
+indigenous cacao on this coast, all richly deserving the generic title
+_Theobroma_, or "food for the gods." The best grows in Esmeraldas, as it
+contains the largest amount of oil and has the most pleasant flavor. But
+very little of it is exported, because it rots in about six months. The
+_cacao de arriba_, from up the River Guayas, is the best to export, as
+it keeps two years without damage. Next in order is the _cacao de
+abajo_, from down the river, as Machala, Santa Rosa, Balao, and Manabi,
+below Guayaquil. A still richer nut is the mountain cacao, but it is
+never cultivated. It is small and white, and almost pure oil. This oil,
+called cacao-butter, is used by the natives for burns, sores, and many
+cutaneous diseases. Cacao contributes more to the commerce of the
+republic than any other production of its soil. The flowers and fruit
+grow directly out of the trunk and branches. "A more striking example
+(says Humboldt) of the expansive powers of life could hardly be met with
+in organic nature." The fruit is yellowish-red, and of oblong shape, and
+the seeds (from which chocolate is prepared) are enveloped in a mass of
+white pulp. The tree resembles our lilac in size and shape, and yields
+three crops a year--in March, June, and September. Spain is the largest
+consumer of cacao. The Mexican _chocolalt_ is the origin of our word
+chocolate. Tucker gives the following comparative analysis of unshelled
+beans from Guayaquil and Caracas:
+
+                     Guayaquil.    Caracas.
+
+Theobromine            0.63         0.55
+Cacao-red              4.56         6.18
+Cacao-butter          36.38        35.08
+Gluten                 2.96         3.21
+Starch                 0.53         0.62
+Gum                    1.58         1.19
+Extractive matter      3.44         6.22
+Humic acid             8.57         9.28
+Cellulose             30.50        28.66
+Ash                    3.03         2.91
+Water                  6.20         5.58
+                      -----        -----
+                      98.38        99.48
+
+The coffee-tree is about eight feet high, and has dark green leaves,
+white blossoms, and green, red, and purple berries at the same time.
+Each tree yields on an average two pounds annually.
+
+The other chief articles of exportation are hides, cotton, "Panama
+hats," manufactured at Indian villages on the coast, cinchona bark,
+caucho, tobacco, orchilla weed, sarsaparilla, and tamarinds.[8] The hats
+are usually made of the "Toquilla" (_Carludovica palmata_), an
+arborescent plant about five feet high, resembling the palm. The leaf,
+which is a yard long, is plaited like a fan, and is borne on a
+three-cornered stalk. It is cut while young, the stiff parallel veins
+removed, then slit into shreds by whipping it, and immersed in boiling
+water, and finally bleached in the sun. The same "straw" is used in the
+interior. The "Mocora," which grows like a cocoa-nut tree, with a very
+smooth, hard, thorny bark, is rarely used, as it is difficult to work.
+The leaves are from eight to twelve feet in length, so that the "straws"
+will finish a hat without splicing. Such hats require two or three
+months, and bring sometimes $150; but they will last a lifetime. They
+can be packed away in a vest pocket, and they can be turned inside out
+and worn, the inside surface being as smooth and well finished as the
+outside. "Toquilla" hats are whiter than the "mocora."
+
+[Footnote 8: In 1867 there were exported to Europe of cacao, 197,260
+quintals; cotton, 10,247 do.; caucho, 8911 do.; sarsaparilla, 149 do.;
+orchilla, 10,247 packages; quinine, 5000 do.; tobacco, 2000 do.; coffee,
+1611 do.; tamarinds, 65 bbls.; sides of leather, 22,514; hats, 8397.]
+
+The exports from Guayaquil bear no proportion to the capabilities of the
+country; Ecuador has no excuse for being bankrupt. Most of the imports
+are of English origin; lard comes from the United States, and flour from
+Chile.
+
+The Malecon and river present a lively scene all the year round; the
+rest of the city appears deserted in comparison. The British steamers
+from Panama and Payta arrive weekly; Yankee steam-boats make regular
+trips up and down the Guayas and its tributaries; half a dozen sailing
+vessels, principally French, are usually lying in the stream, which is
+here six fathoms deep; and hundreds of canoes are gliding to and fro.
+But the _balsas_ are the most original, and, therefore, the most
+attractive sight. These are rafts made of light balsa wood, so buoyant
+as to be used in coasting voyages. They were invented by the old
+Peruvians, and are the homes of a literally floating population. By
+these and the smaller craft are brought to the mole of the Malecon,
+besides articles for exportation, a boundless variety of
+fruits--pine-apples (whose quality has made Guayaquil famous), oranges,
+lemons, limes, plantains, bananas, cocoa-nuts, alligator pears, papayas,
+mangos, guavas, melons, etc.; many an undescribed species of fish known
+only to the epicure, and barrels or jars of water from a distant point
+up the river, out of the reach of the tide and the city sewers. Ice is
+frequently brought from Chimborazo, and sold for $1 per pound. A flag
+hoisted at a favorite cafe announces that snow has arrived from the
+mountains, and that ice-cream can be had. The market, held every morning
+by the river side, is an animated scene. The strife of the half-naked
+fishmongers, the cry of the swarthy fruit-dealers--"Pinas!" "Naranjas!"
+etc., and the song of the itinerant dulce-peddler--"Tamales!" mingled
+with the bray of the water-bearing donkeys as they trot through the
+town, never fail to arrest the attention of every traveler.
+
+But there is another sight more attractive still--one worth a long
+voyage, for Nature nowhere else repeats the picture. From the balconies
+of Guayaquil can be seen on a clear day the long, towering range of the
+Andes. We may forget all the incidents in our subsequent journey, but
+the impression produced by that glorious view is unfading. The sun had
+nearly touched the Pacific when the clouds, which for days had wrapped
+the Cordilleras[9] in misty robes, suddenly rose like a curtain. There
+stood, in inconceivable grandeur, one of the stupendous products of the
+last great revolution of the earth's crust, as a geologist would say,
+but, in the language of history, the lofty home of the Incas, made
+illustrious by the sword of Pizarro and the pen of Prescott. On the
+right a sea of hills rose higher and higher, till they culminated in the
+purple mountains of Assuay. Far to the left, one hundred miles
+northeasterly, the peerless Chimborazo lifted its untrodden and
+unapproachable summit above its fellows--an imposing background to
+lesser mountains and stately forests. The great dome reflected
+dazzlingly the last blushes of the west, its crown of snow fringed with
+black lines, which were the steep and sharp edges of precipitous rocks.
+It was interesting to watch the mellowing tints on the summit as the
+shadows crept upward: gold, vermilion, violet, purple, were followed by
+a momentary "glory;" then darkness covered the earth, and a host of
+stars, "trembling with excess of light," burst suddenly into view over
+the peaks of the Andes.
+
+[Footnote 9: _Cordillera_ (pronounced Cor-de-yer-ra), literally a long
+ridge, is usually applied to a longitudinal subdivision of the Andes, as
+the east and west cordilleras inclosing the valley of Quito; _Sierra_
+(from the Spanish for saw or Arabic _sehrah_, an uncultivated tract) is
+a jagged spur of the Andes; _Cerro_, "a hog-backed hill." _Paramo_ (a
+desert) is the treeless, uninhabited, uncultivated rolling steppes just
+below the snow-limit.]
+
+Bidding "adios" to our Guayaquilian friends, we took passage in one of
+Captain Lee's little steamers to Bodegas, seventy miles up the river.
+The Ecuadorian government, strange to say, does not patronize these
+steamers, but carries the Quito mail in a canoe. The Guayas is a
+sluggish stream, its turbid waters starting from the slope of the
+Andes, and flowing through a low, level tract, covered with varied forms
+of vegetable life. Forests of the broad-leaved plantain and banana line
+the banks. The fruit is the most common article of food in equatorial
+America, and is eaten raw, roasted, baked, boiled, and fried. It grows
+on a succulent stem formed of sheath-like leaf-stalks rolled over one
+another, and terminating in enormous light green, glossy blades nearly
+ten feet long by two feet wide, so delicate that the slightest wind will
+tear them transversely. Each tree (vulgarly called "the tree of
+paradise") produces fruit but once, and then dies. A single bunch often
+weighs 60 or 70 pounds; and Humboldt calculated that 33 pounds of wheat
+and 99 pounds of potatoes require the same space of ground as will
+produce 4000 pounds of bananas. They really save more labor than steam,
+giving the greatest amount of food from a given piece of ground with the
+least labor. They are always found where the palm is; but their original
+home is the foot of the Himalayas. The banana (by some botanists
+considered a different species from the plantain) is about four inches
+long, and cylindrical, and is eaten raw. The plantain is twice as large
+and prismatic, and uncooked is unhealthy. There is another variety,
+_platanos de Otaheite_, which resembles the banana in size and quality,
+but is prismatic.
+
+A belt of jungle and impenetrable brushwood intervenes, and then cacao
+and coffee plantations, vast in extent, arrest the eye. Passing these,
+the steamer brings you alongside of broad fields covered with the low,
+prickly pine-apple plant; the air is fragrant with a rich perfume wafted
+from a neighboring grove of oranges and lemons; the mango spreads its
+dense, splendid foliage, and bears a golden fruit, which, though praised
+by many, tastes to us like a mixture of tow and turpentine; the exotic
+bread-tree waves its fig-like leaves and pendent fruit; while high over
+all the beautiful cocoa-palm lifts its crown of glory.[10] Animal life
+does not compare with this luxuriant growth. The steamer-bound traveler
+may see a few monkeys, a group of _gallinazos_, and many brilliant,
+though songless birds; but the chief representative is the lazy, ugly
+alligator. Large numbers of these monsters may be seen on the mud-bank
+basking in the hot sun, or asleep with their mouths wide open.
+
+[Footnote 10: The mango of Asia is superior in size and flavor to that
+of America. It is eaten largely in Brazil by negroes and cattle. The
+cocoa-palm is also of Asiatic origin, and is most abundant in Ceylon. It
+has a swollen stem when young, but becomes straight and tall when
+mature. The flowers burst into a long plume of soft, cream-colored
+blossoms. It is worthy of remembrance that the most beautiful forms of
+vegetation in the tropics are at the same time most useful to man.]
+
+Eight hours after leaving the Malecon we arrived at Bodegas, a little
+village of two thousand souls, rejoicing in the synonym of Babahoyo.
+This has been a place of deposit for the interior from the earliest
+times. In the rainy season the whole site is flooded, and only the upper
+stories are habitable. Cock-fighting seems to be the chief amusement. We
+breakfasted with the governor, a portly gentleman who kept a little
+dry-goods store. His excellency, without waiting for a formal
+introduction, and with a cordiality and courtesy almost confined to the
+Latin nations, received us into his own house, and honored us with a
+seat at his private table, spread with the choicest viands of his
+kingdom, serving them himself with a grace to which we can not do
+justice. Much as we find to condemn in tropical society, we can not
+forget the kindness of these simple-hearted people. Though we may
+portray, in the coming pages, many faults and failings according to a
+New York standard, we wish it to be understood that there is another
+side to the picture; that there are virtues on the Andes to which the
+North is well-nigh a stranger. "How many times (says an American
+resident of ten years) I have arrived at a miserable hut in the heart
+of the mountains, tired and hungry, after traveling all day without any
+other companion than the arriero, to receive a warm-hearted welcome, the
+best, perhaps the only chair or hammock offered to me, the fattest
+chicken in the yard killed on my account, and more than once they have
+compelled me by force to take the only good bed, because I must be
+tired, and should have a good night's rest. A man may travel from one
+end of the Andes to the other, depending altogether on the good people
+he meets."
+
+At Bodegas travelers take to mules or horses for the mountains, hiring
+one set for Guaranda and another at that village for Quito; muleteers
+seldom allow their animals to pass from one altitude to the other. These
+_arrieros_, or muleteers, form a very important class in Ecuador. Their
+little caravans are the only baggage and express trains in the republic;
+there is not a single regularly established public conveyance in the
+land. The _arrieros_ and their servants (_peons_) are Indians or
+half-breeds. They wear a straw or felt hat, a poncho striped like an
+Arab's blanket, and cotton breeches ending at the knees. For food they
+carry a bag of parched corn, another bag of roasted barley-meal
+(_mashka_), and a few red peppers. The beasts are thin, decrepit jades,
+which threaten to give out the first day; yet they must carry you
+halfway up the Andes. The distance to the capital is nearly two hundred
+miles. The time required is usually eight or nine days; but officials
+often travel it in four.
+
+[Illustration: Equipped for the Andes.]
+
+We left Bodegas at noon. It was impossible to start the muleteer a
+moment earlier, though he had promised to be ready at seven. Patience is
+a necessary qualification in a South American traveler. In our company
+were a Jesuit priest, with three attendants, going to Riobamba, and a
+young Quito merchant, with his mother--the mother of only twenty-five
+children. This merchant had traveled in the United States, and could not
+help contrasting the thrift and enterprise of our country with the
+beggary and laziness of his own, adding, with a show of sincerity, "I am
+sorry I have Spanish blood in my veins." The suburbs of Bodegas reminded
+us of the outskirts of Cairo; but the road soon entered a broad savannah
+instead of a sandy desert. At 3 P.M. we passed through La Mona, a
+village of twenty-five bamboo huts, all on stilts, for in the rainy
+season the whole town is under water. Signs of indolence and neglect
+were every where visible. Idle men, with an uncertain mixture of
+European, Negro, and Indian blood; sad-looking Quichua women, carrying a
+naked infant or a red water-jar on the back; black hogs and lean poultry
+wandering at will into the houses--such is the picture of the motley
+life in the inland villages. Strange was the contrast between human
+poverty and natural wealth. We were on the borders of a virgin forest,
+and the overpowering beauty of the vegetation soon erased all memory of
+the squalor and lifelessness of La Mona. Our road--a mere path, suddenly
+entered this seemingly impenetrable forest, where the branches crossed
+overhead, producing a delightful shade. The curious forms of tropical
+life were all attractive to one who had recently rambled over the
+comparatively bleak hills of New England. Delight is a weak term to
+express the feelings of a naturalist who for the first time wanders in a
+South American forest. The superb banana, the great charm of equatorial
+vegetation, tossed out luxuriantly its glossy green leaves, eight feet
+in length; the slender but graceful bamboo shot heavenward, straight as
+an arrow; and many species of palm bore aloft their feathery heads,
+inexpressibly light and elegant. On the branches of the independent
+trees sat tufts of parasites, many of them orchids, which are here
+epiphytal; and countless creeping plants, whose long flexible stems
+entwined snake-like around the trunks, or formed gigantic loops and
+coils among the limbs. Beneath this world of foliage above, thick beds
+of mimosae covered the ground, and a boundless variety of ferns attracted
+the eye by their beautiful patterns.[11] It is easy to specify the
+individual objects of admiration in these grand scenes, but it is not
+possible to give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of wonder,
+astonishment, and devotion which fill and elevate the mind. This road to
+the Andes is a paradise to the contemplative man. "There is something in
+a tropical forest (says Bates) akin to the ocean in its effects on the
+mind. Man feels so completely his insignificance, and the vastness of
+nature." The German traveler Burmeister observes that "the contemplation
+of a Brazilian forest produced on him a painful impression, on account
+of the vegetation displaying a spirit of restless selfishness, eager
+emulation, and craftiness." He thought the softness, earnestness, and
+repose of European woodland scenery were far more pleasing, and that
+these formed one of the causes of the superior moral character of
+European nations. Live and let live is certainly not the maxim taught in
+these tropical forests, and it is equally clear that selfishness is not
+wanting among the people. Here, in view of so much competition among
+organized beings, is the spot to study Darwin's "Origin of Species." We
+have thought that the vegetation under the equator was a fitter emblem
+of the human world than the forests of our temperate zone. There is here
+no set time for decay and death, but we stand amid the living and the
+dead; flowers and leaves are falling, while fresh ones are budding into
+life. Then, too, the numerous parasitic plants, making use of their
+neighbors as instruments for their own advancement, not inaptly
+represent a certain human class.
+
+[Footnote 11: Ferns constitute one sixth of the flora of South America;
+Spruce counted 140 species within the space of three square miles. Their
+limits of growth are 500 and 7000 feet above the sea.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+     Our Tambo.--Ascending the Andes.--Camino Real.--Magnificent
+     Views.--Guaranda.--Cinchona.--The Summit.--Chimborazo.--Over the
+     Andes.--Chuquipoyo the Wretched.--Ambato.--A Stupid
+     City.--Cotopaxi.--The Vale of Machachi.--Arrival at Quito.
+
+
+We reached Savaneta at 5 P.M. This little village of hardly twenty
+houses becomes the Bodegas, or place of deposit for the mountains six
+months in the year, for in the _invierno_ the roads are flooded, and
+canoes take the place of mules from Savaneta to Babahoyo. Even in the
+dry season the dampness of this wilderness is so great that the
+traveler's sugar and chocolate are melted into one, and envelopes seal
+themselves. We put up at a _tambo_, or wayside inn, a simple two-storied
+bamboo hovel, thatched with plantain leaves without and plastered with
+cobwebs within, yet a palace compared with what sheltered us afterward.
+The only habitable part was the second story, which was reached by a
+couple of notched bamboo sticks. A hammock, two earthen kettles, two
+plates, and a few calabashes constituted the household furniture. The
+dormitory was well ventilated, for two sides were open. Our lodging,
+however, cost us nothing; travelers only pay for _yerba_ for their
+beasts. Though this has been the royal road to Quito for three
+centuries, there is but one _posada_ between Guayaquil and Ambato, a
+distance of one hundred and fifty miles; travelers must carry their own
+bedding and provisions.
+
+[Illustration: Ascending the Andes.]
+
+Leaving Savaneta at dawn, and breakfasting at a wayside hut owned by an
+old negro, we struck about noon the Rio Charriguajaco, dashing down the
+mountains in hot haste for the Guayas. It was refreshing to look upon
+living waters for the first time since leaving the hills of our
+native country. Fording this stream we know not how many times, and
+winding through the dense forest in narrow paths often blockaded by
+laden donkeys that doggedly disputed the passage, we soon found
+ourselves slowly creeping up the Andes. We frequently met mountaineers
+on their way to Bodegas with loads of potatoes, peas, barley, fowls,
+eggs, etc. They are generally accompanied by their wives or daughters,
+who ride like the men, but with the knees tucked up higher. On the
+slippery tracks which traverse this western slope, bulls are often used
+as beasts of burden, the cloven hoofs enabling them to descend with
+great security. But mules are better than horses or asses. "That a
+hybrid (muses Darwin) should possess more reason, memory, obstinacy,
+social affection, powers of muscular endurance, and length of life than
+either of its parents, seems to indicate that art has here outdone
+nature."
+
+Toward evening the ascent became rapid and the road horrible beyond
+conception, growing narrower and rougher as we advanced. Indeed, our way
+had long since ceased to be a road. In the dense forest, where sunshine
+never comes, rocks, mud, and fallen trees in rapid alternation
+macadamize the path, save where it turns up the bed of a babbling brook.
+In the comparatively level tracts, the equable step of the beasts has
+worn the soil into deep transverse ridges, called _camellones_, from
+their resemblance to the humps on a camel's back. In the precipitous
+parts the road is only a gully worn by the transit of men and beasts for
+ages, aided by torrents of water in the rainy season. As we ascend, this
+changes to a rocky staircase, so strait that one must throw up his legs
+to save them from being crushed, and so steep that horse and rider run
+the risk of turning a somersault. It is fearful to meet in a narrow
+defile, or where the road winds around the edge of a precipice, a drove
+of reckless donkeys and mules descending the mountain, urged on by the
+cries and lashes of the muleteers behind. Yet this has been the highway
+of Ecuadorian commerce for three hundred years. In vain we tried to
+reach the little village of Camino Real on the crest of the ridge; but
+the night was advancing rapidly, and crawling up such a road by
+starlight was not a little dangerous. So we put up at a miserable tambo,
+Pogyos by name. It was a mud hut of the rudest kind, windowless and
+unfloored; very clean, if it had been left to nature, but man and beast
+had rendered it intolerably filthy. Our hostess, a Quichua woman, with
+tattered garments, and hair disheveled and standing up as if
+electrified, set a kettle on three stones, and, making a fire under it,
+prepared for us a calabash of chicken and _locro_. _Locro_, the national
+dish in the mountains, is in plain English simply potato soup. Sitting
+on the ground, we partook of this refreshment by the aid of fingers and
+wooden spoons, enticing our appetites by the reflection that potato soup
+would support life. The unkempt Indian by our side, grinning in
+conscious pride over her successful cookery, did not aid us in this
+matter. Fire is used in Ecuador solely for culinary purposes, not for
+warmth. It is made at no particular spot on the mud floor, and there is
+no particular orifice for the exit of the smoke save the chinks in the
+wall. There is not a chimney in the whole republic. As the spare room in
+the establishment belonged to the women, we gentlemen slept on the
+ground outside, or on beds made of round poles. The night was piercingly
+cold. The wished-for morning came at last, and long before the sun
+looked over the mountains we were on our march. It was the same terrible
+road, running zigzag, or "quingo" fashion, up to Camino Real, where it
+was suddenly converted into a royal highway.
+
+We were now fairly out of the swamps of the lowlands, and, though under
+the equator, out of the tropics too. The fresh mountain breeze and the
+chilly mists announced a change of climate.[12] Fevers and dysenteries,
+snakes and musquitoes, the plantain and the palm, we had left behind.
+Camino Real is a huddle of eight or ten dwellings perched on the summit
+of a sierra a thousand feet higher than the top of Mount Washington. The
+views from this stand-point compensate for all past troubles. The wild
+chaos of mountains on every side, broken by profound ravines, the heaps
+of ruins piled up during the lapse of geologic ages, the intense azure
+of the sky, and the kingly condor majestically wheeling around the still
+higher pinnacles, make up a picture rarely to be seen. Westward, the
+mountains tumble down into hills and spread out into plains, which, in
+the far distant horizon, dip into the great Pacific. The setting sun
+turns the ocean into a sheet of liquid fire. Long columns of purple
+light shoot up to the zenith, and as the last point of the sun sinks
+beneath the horizon, the stars rush out in full splendor; for at the
+equator day gives place to night with only an hour and twenty minutes of
+twilight. The mountains are Alpine, yet grander than the Alps; not so
+ragged as the granite peaks of Switzerland, but with rounder heads. The
+prospect down this occidental slope is diversified by deep valleys,
+lands-lides, and flowering trees. Magnificent are the views eastward,
+
+    "Where Andes, giant of the western star,
+    Looks from his throne of clouds o'er half the world."
+
+[Footnote 12: The altitude of 7000 feet is the usual limit of the
+rain-line on the west slope of the Andes. The condensation which
+produces rain takes place at the equator two or three times higher than
+in our latitude.]
+
+The majestic dome of Chimborazo was entirely uncovered of clouds, and
+presented a most splendid spectacle. There it stood, its snow-white
+summit, unsullied by the foot of man, towering up twice as high as Etna.
+For many years it received the homage of the world as the highest point
+in America; but now the Aconcagua of Chile claims the palm. Still, what
+a panorama from the top of Chimborazo, could one reach it, for the eye
+would command ten thousand square miles!
+
+Our road gently winds down the sierra, giving us at every turn sublime
+ideas of what nature can do in tossing up the thin crust of our globe.
+But sublimity is at a discount here--there is too much of it. Suddenly
+we are looking down into the enchanting valley of Chimbo. This romantic
+and secluded spot is one of those forgotten corners of the earth which,
+barricaded against the march of civilization by almost impassable
+mountains, and inhabited by a thriftless race, has been left far behind
+in the progress of mankind. Distance lends enchantment to the view. We
+are reminded of the pastoral vales of New England. Wheat takes the place
+of the sugar-cane, barley of cacao, potatoes of plantains, and turnips
+of oranges. Bamboo sheds have given way to neatly whitewashed villages,
+and the fields are fenced with rows of aloe. But, drawing nearer, we
+find the habitations are in reality miserable mud hovels, without
+windows, and tenanted by vermin and ragged poverty. There are herds of
+cattle and fields of grain; yet we shall not find a quart of milk or a
+loaf of bread for sale. The descent into the valley is very precipitous,
+and, after a rain, alarmingly slippery. Mules, drawing their legs
+together, slide down with startling velocity, and follow the windings
+with marvelous dexterity.
+
+We arrived at Guaranda at 5 P.M. on the third day after leaving Bodegas.
+This is a desolate town of two thousand souls, dwelling in low
+dilapidated huts made of the most common building material in the
+Andes--_adobe_, or sun-dried blocks of mud mingled with straw.[13]
+
+[Footnote 13: From _adoub_, an Egyptian word still used by the Copts;
+carried by the Moors to Spain, thence to America; and from America the
+word has gone to the Sandwich Islands.]
+
+The streets are rudely paved, and pitch to the centre, to form an
+aqueduct, like the streets of old Sychar. The inhabitants are in happy
+ignorance of the outside world. They pass the day without a thought of
+work, standing on the Plaza, or in front of some public office, staring
+vacantly into space, or gossiping. A cockfight will soonest rouse them
+from their lethargy. They seem to have no purpose in life but to keep
+warm under their ponchos and to eat when they are hungry. Guaranda is a
+healthy locality, lying in a deep valley on the west bank of the Chimbo,
+at an elevation, according to our barometer, of 8840 feet, and having a
+mean temperature slightly less than that of Quito. It is a place of
+importance, inasmuch as it is the resting-place before ascending or
+after descending the still loftier ranges, and much more because it is
+the capital of the region which yields the invaluable _cinchona_, or
+Peruvian bark.[14] This tree is indigenous to the Andes, where it is
+found on the western slope between the altitudes of two thousand and
+nine thousand feet, the species richest in alkaloids occupying the
+higher elevations, where the air is moist. Dr. Weddell enumerates
+twenty-one species, seven of which are now found in Ecuador, but the
+only one of value is the the _C. succirubra_ (the _calisaya_ has run
+out), and this is now nearly extinct, as the trees have been destroyed
+to obtain the bark. This species is a beautiful tree, having large,
+broadly oval, deep green, shining leaves, white, fragrant flowers, and
+red bark, and sometimes, though rarely, attains the height of sixty
+feet. A tree five feet in circumference will yield fifteen hundred
+pounds of green bark, or eight hundred of the dry. The roots contain the
+most alkaloid, though the branches are usually barked for commerce. The
+true cinchona barks, containing quinine, quinidine, and cinchonine, are
+distinguished from the false by their splintery-fibrous texture, the
+latter being pre-eminently corky. The cascarilleros begin to hunt for
+bark in August. Dr. Taylor, of Riobamba, found one tree which gave $3600
+worth of quinine. The general yield is from three to five pounds to a
+quintal of bark. The tree has been successfully transplanted to the
+United States, and particularly to India, where there are now over a
+million of plants. It was introduced into India by Markham in 1861. The
+bark is said to be stronger than that from Ecuador, yielding twice as
+much alkaloid, or eleven per cent. The quinine of commerce will
+doubtless come hereafter from the slopes of the Himalayas instead of the
+Andes. In 1867 only five thousand pounds of bark were exported from
+Guayaquil. The Indians use the bark of another tree, the _Maravilla_,
+which is said to yield a much stronger alkaloid than cinchona. It grows
+near Pallatanga.
+
+[Footnote 14: This celebrated febrifuge was first taken to Europe about
+the middle of the seventeenth century, and was named after the Countess
+of Chinchon, who had been cured of intermittent fever at Lima.
+Afterward, when Cardinal de Lugo spread the knowledge of the remedy
+through France, and recommended it to Cardinal Mazarin, it received the
+name of _Jesuits' Bark_. The French chemists, Pelletier and Caverton,
+discovered quinine in 1820.]
+
+We left Guaranda at 5 A.M. by the light of Venus and Orion, having
+exchanged our horses for the sure-footed mule. It was a romantic ride.
+From a neighboring stand-point Church took one of his celebrated views
+of "The Heart of the Andes." But the road, as aforetime, was a mere
+furrow, made and kept by the tread of beasts. For a long distance the
+track runs over the projecting and jagged edges of steeply-inclined
+strata of slate, which nobody has had the energy to smooth down. At many
+places on the road side were human skulls, set in niches in the bank,
+telling tales of suffering in their ghastly silence; while here and
+there a narrow passage was blocked up by the skeleton or carcass of a
+beast that had borne its last burden. At nine o'clock we came out on a
+narrow, grassy ridge called the Ensillada, or Saddleback, where there
+were three straw huts, with roofs resting on the ground, and there we
+breakfasted on _locro_. During our stay the Indians killed a pig, and
+before the creature was fairly dead dry grass was heaped upon it and set
+on fire. This is the ordinary method of removing the bristles.
+
+Still ascending, we lose sight of the valley of the Chimbo, and find
+ourselves in a wilderness of crags and treeless mountains clothed with
+the long, dreary-looking paramo grass called _paja_. But we are face to
+face with "the monarch of the Andes," and we shall have its company the
+rest of the day. The snowy dome is flooded with the golden light of
+heaven; delicate clouds of softest hues float around its breast; while,
+far below, its feet are wrapped in the baser mists of earth. We attained
+the summit of the pass at 11 A.M. All travelers strive to reach it early
+in the morning, for in the afternoon it is swept by violent winds which
+render it uncomfortable, if not dangerous. This part of the road is
+called the "Arenal," from the sand and gravel which cover it. It is
+about a league in length, and crosses the side of Chimborazo at an
+elevation of more than fourteen thousand feet. Chimborazo stands on the
+left of the traveler. How tantalizing its summit! It appears so easy of
+access; and yet many a valiant philosopher, from Humboldt down, has
+panted for the glory and failed. The depth of the snow and numerous
+precipices are the chief obstacles; but the excessively rarefied air is
+another hinderance. Even in crossing the Arenal, a native of the
+lowlands complains of violent headache, a propensity to vomit, and a
+difficulty of breathing. The Arenal is often swept by snow-storms; and
+history has it that some of the Spanish conquerors were here frozen to
+death. The pale yellow gravel is considered by some geologists as the
+moraine of a glacier. It is spread out like a broad gravel walk, so
+that, without exaggeration, one of the best roads in Ecuador has been
+made by Nature's hand on the crest of the Andes.
+
+It was interesting to trace the different hypsometrical zones by the
+change of vegetation from Bodegas to this lofty spot. The laws of the
+decrease of heat are plainly written on the rapid slopes of the
+Cordilleras. On the hot, steaming lowlands of the coast reign bananas
+and palms. As these thin out, tree-ferns take their place. Losing these,
+we found the cinchona bedewed by the cool clouds of Guaranda; and last
+of all, among the trees, the polylepis. The twisted, gnarled trunk of
+this tree, as well as its size and silvery foliage, reminded us of the
+olive, but the bark resembles that of the birch. It reaches the greatest
+elevation of any tree on the globe. Then followed shrubby fuchsia,
+calceolaria, eupatoria, and red and purple gentians; around and on the
+Arenal, a uniform mantle of monocotyledonous plants, with scattered
+tufts of valeriana, viola, and geranium, all with rigid leaves in the
+characteristic rosettes of super-alpine vegetation; and on the
+porphyritic and trachytic sides of Chimborazo, lichens alone. Snow then
+covers the last effort of vegetable life.[15] The change in the
+architecture of the houses indicated, likewise, a change of altitude.
+The open bamboo huts, shingled with banana leaves, were followed by
+warmer _adobe_ houses, and these, in turn, by the straw hovels of the
+mountain-top, made entirely of the long, wiry grass of the paramos.
+
+[Footnote 15: According to Sir J. Hooker, among the flowers which adorn
+the slopes of the Himalayas, rhododendrons occupy the most prominent
+place, and primroses next. There are no orchids, neither red gentians,
+but blue. Organic life ceases 3000 feet lower than on the Andes; yet it
+is affirmed that flowering plants occur at the height of 18,460 feet,
+which is equivalent to the summit of Chimborazo in point of temperature!
+The polylepis (_P. racemosa_) is one of the _Sanguisorbaceae_; in Quichua
+it is _Sachaquinoa_.]
+
+Leaving the Arenal, we rapidly descended by the usual style of
+road--stone stairs. But down we went, as all the goods for Quito, "the
+grand capital," have done since the Spanish Conquest. The old road from
+Beirut to Damascus is royal in comparison. The general aspect of the
+eastern slope is that of a gray, barren waste, overgrown with _paja_;
+but now and then we crossed deep gulleys, whose sides were lined with
+mosses and sprinkled with calceolarias, lupines, etc. In our descent we
+had before us the magnificent Valley of Quito, and beyond it the eastern
+Cordillera. Below us was Riobamba, and far away to the right the deep
+gorge of the Pastassa. Nevertheless, this is one of the loneliest rides
+earth can furnish. Not a tree nor human habitation is in sight. Icy
+rivulets and mule-trains are the only moving objects on this melancholy
+heath. Even "Drake's Plantation Bitters," painted on the volcanic cliffs
+of Chimborazo, would be a relief.
+
+At last we reached our rude accommodations for the night. It was a
+solitary mud tambo, glorying in the euphonious name of Chuquipoyo. The
+court-yard was a sea of mud and manure, for this is the halting-place
+for all the caravans between Quito and the coast. Our room was a horrid
+hole, dark, dirty, damp, and cold, without a window or a fire. There was
+one old rickety bedstead, but as that belonged to the lady in our party,
+the rest betook themselves to benches, table, and floor. We filled our
+stomachs with an unpalatable potato soup containing cheese and eggs, and
+laid down--to wait for the morning. Grass is the only fuel here; but
+this is not the chief reason why it is so difficult to make good tea or
+cook potatoes at this wretched tambo. Water boils at 190 deg., or before it
+is fairly hot: it is well the potatoes are small. The muleteers slept
+with their beasts outside, though the night was fearfully cold, for
+Chuquipoyo lies on the frigid side of Chimborazo, at an elevation of
+over twelve thousand feet above the sea. As Johnson said to Boswell,
+"This is a dolorous place."
+
+Gladly we left this cheerless tambo, though a cold, heavy mist was
+falling as we rode northward, over the seemingly endless paramo of
+Sanancajas. Here, as throughout the highlands of Ecuador, ditches are
+used for fences; so that, should the traveler wander from the path, he
+finds himself stopped by an impassable gulf. In two hours and a half we
+reached Mocha, a lifeless pueblo under the shadow of Carguairazo. Slowly
+descending from our high altitude, we gradually entered a more congenial
+climate--the zone of wheat and barley, till, finally, signs of an
+eternal spring were all around us--ripening corn on one side, and
+blossoming peas on the other.
+
+Late in the afternoon the road led us through a sandy, sterile tract,
+till suddenly we came in sight of Ambato, beautifully situated in a deep
+ravine, eight thousand five hundred and fifty feet above the Pacific.
+The city ranks next to Quito in beauty. It is certainly an oasis, the
+green foliage of its numerous shade-trees and orchards contrasting with
+the barren hills around. It is two degrees warmer than Quito, and is
+famous for its fruit and fine climate. It is the Lynn of Ecuador, the
+chief articles of manufacture being boots and shoes--cheap, but of poor
+quality. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1698. The houses are built
+of sun-dried brick, and whitewashed. The streets, with gutters in the
+centre, are at right angles, and paved, and adorned with numerous
+cypress-looking trees, called _sauce_, a species of willow. The Plaza,
+which contains a useful if not ornamental fountain, presents a lively
+scene on Sunday, the great market-day. The inn is a fair specimen of a
+public house in Spanish America. Around the court-yard, where the beasts
+are fed, are three or four rooms to let. They are ventilated only when
+opened for travelers. The floor is of brick, but alive with fleas; the
+walls are plastered, but veiled with cobwebs. The furniture, of
+primitive make and covered with dust, consists of a chair or two, a
+table, and a bed of boards covered with a thin straw mat. There is not a
+hotel in Ecuador where sheets and towels are furnished. The landlords
+are seldom seen; the entire management of the concern is left to a
+slovenly Indian boy, who is both cook and hostler. No amount of bribery
+will secure a meal in less than two hours. Ten years ago there was not a
+posada in the country; now there is entertainment for man and beast at
+Guayaquil, Guaranda, Mocha, Ambato, Tacunga, Machachi, and Quito.
+Riobamba has a billiard saloon, but no inn.
+
+Leaving Ambato, we breakfasted at Cunchebamba, an Indian village of half
+a dozen straw huts. Thence the road for a long distance winds through
+vast deposits of volcanic _debris_, the only sign of vegetation being
+hedges of aloe and cactus. Arid hills and dreary plains, covered with
+plutonic rocks and pumice dust, tell us we are approaching the most
+terrible volcano on the earth. Crossing the sources of the Pastassa, we
+entered Latacunga,[16] situated on a beautiful plain at the foot of
+Cotopaxi, seven hundred feet higher than Ambato. Its average temperature
+is 59 deg.. The population, chiefly Indians, numbers about fifteen thousand.
+It is the dullest city in Ecuador, without the show of enterprise or
+business. Not even grass grows in the streets--the usual sign of life in
+the Spanish towns. It is also one of the filthiest; and though it has
+been many times thoroughly shaken by earthquakes, and buried under
+showers of volcanic dust, it is still the paradise of fleas, which have
+survived every revolution. Ida Pfeiffer says that, after a night's rest
+in Latacunga, she awoke with her skin marked all over with red spots, as
+if from an eruptive disease. We can certify that we have been tattoed
+without the night's rest. The town has a most stupid and forlorn aspect.
+Half of it is in ruins. It was four times destroyed between 1698 and
+1797. In 1756 the Jesuit church was thrown down, though its walls were
+five feet thick. The houses are of one story, and built of pumice,
+widely different from the palaces and temples which are said to have
+stood here in the palmy days of the Incas. Cotopaxi stands threateningly
+near, and its rumbling thunder is the source of constant alarm.
+
+[Footnote 16: This is shortened in parlance to Tacunga. The full name,
+according to La Condamine, is _Llacta-cunga_, _llacta_ meaning country,
+and _cunga_, neck.]
+
+From Latacunga to Quito there is a very fine carriage road, the result
+of one man's administration--Senor G. Garcia Moreno. For many miles it
+passes over an uncultivated plateau, strewn with volcanic fragments. The
+farms are confined to the slopes of the Cordilleras, and, as every where
+else, the tumbling haciendas indicate the increasing poverty of the
+owner. Superstition and indolence go hand in hand. On a great rock
+rising out of the sandy plain they show a print of the foot of St.
+Bartholomew, who alighted here on a visit--surely to the volcanoes, as
+it was long before the red man had found this valley. Abreast of
+Cotopaxi the road cuts through high hills of fine pumice
+inter-stratified with black earth, and rapidly ascends till it reaches
+Tiupullo, eleven thousand five hundred feet above the sea. This high
+ridge,[17] stretching across the valley from Cotopaxi to Iliniza, is a
+part of the great water-shed of the continent--the waters on the
+southern slope flowing through the Pastassa and Amazon to the Atlantic,
+those on the north finding their way to the Pacific by the Rio
+Esmeraldas. At this bleak place we breakfasted on punch and guinea-pig.
+
+[Footnote 17: Sometimes called _Chisinche_.]
+
+As soon as we began to descend, the glittering cone of Cotopaxi, and the
+gloomy plain it has so often devastated, passed out of view, and before
+us was a green valley exceedingly rich and well cultivated, girt by a
+wall of mountains, the towers of which were the peaks of Corazon and
+Ruminagui. Loathsome lepers by the wayside alone disturbed the pleasing
+impression. Three hours more of travel brought us to the straggling
+village of Machachi, standing in the centre of the beautiful plain, at
+an altitude of nine thousand nine hundred feet. Nature designed this
+spot for a home of plenty and comfort, but the habitations of the
+wretched proprietors are windowless adobe hovels, thatched with dried
+grass, and notorious for their filth.
+
+We must needs make one more ascent, for the ridge of Tambillo hides the
+goal of our journey. The moment we reached the summit, views
+unparalleled in the Andes or any where else met our astonished vision
+whithersoever we looked. Far away to the south stretched the two
+Cordilleras, till they were lost in the mist which enshrouded Chimborazo
+and Tunguragua. Turning to the north, we beheld the city of Quito at our
+feet, and Pichincha and Antisana standing like gallant sentinels on
+either side of the proud capital. Beautiful were the towering mountains,
+and almost as delightful now are the memories of that hour. A broad,
+well-traveled road, gentlemen on horseback clad in rich ponchos, droves
+of Indians bowed under their heavy burdens, and long lines of laden
+donkeys hurrying to and fro, indicate our approach to a great city.
+Winding with the road through green pastures and fields of ripening
+grain, and crossing the Machangara by an elegant bridge, we enter the
+city of the Incas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+     Early History of Quito.--Its Splendor under the Incas.--Crushed by
+     Spain.--Dying now.--Situation.--Altitude.--Streets.--Buildings.
+
+
+Quito is better known than Ecuador. Its primeval history, however, is
+lost in obscurity. In the language of Prescott, "the mists of fable have
+settled as darkly round its history as round that of any nation, ancient
+or modern, in the Old World." Founded, nobody knows when, by the kings
+of the Quitus, it was conquered about the year 1000 by a more civilized
+race, the Cara nation, who added to it by conquest and alliance. The
+fame of the region excited the cupidity of the Incas of Peru, and during
+the reign of Cacha (1475), Huayna-Capac the Great moved his army from
+Cuzco, and by the celebrated battle of Hatuntaqui, in which Cacha was
+killed, Quito was added to the realm of the Incas. Huayna-Capac made
+Quito his residence, and reigned there thirty-eight years--the most
+brilliant epoch in the annals of the city. At his death his kingdom was
+divided, one son, Atahuallpa,[18] reigning in Quito, and Huascar at
+Cuzco. Civil war ensued, in which the latter was defeated, and
+Atahuallpa was chosen Inca of the whole empire, 1532. During this war
+Pizarro arrived at Tumbez. Every body knows what followed. Strangled at
+Caxamarca, the body of Atahuallpa was carried to Quito, the city of his
+birth, in compliance with his dying wish, and buried there with imposing
+obsequies. Refounded by Benalcazar in 1534, Quito was created an
+imperial city by Charles V. seven years later. It formed part of Peru
+till 1710; then of Santa Fe till 1722; and again of Peru till its
+independence. The power of Spain in South America was destroyed at the
+battle of Ayacucho, Dec. 9, 1824. In 1830 Venezuela separated from
+Colombia, and Ecuador followed the same year. The first Congress was
+held in Riobamba; but Quito has ever since been the political focus. The
+first president was General Flores.
+
+[Footnote 18: The son of his Quito love. The name was first written
+_Atauhuallpa_, meaning fortunate in war; after the fratricide, he was
+called _Atahuallpa_, or game-cock. He was the Boabdil of this occidental
+Granada. He is called traitor by Peruvian writers, and is not admitted
+by them into the list of their Incas.]
+
+Under the diadem of the Incas, Quito assumed a magnificence which it
+never saw before and has not displayed since. It was the worthy
+metropolis of a vast empire stretching from the equator to the desert of
+Atacama, and walled in by the grandest group of mountains in the world.
+On this lofty site, which amid the Alps would be buried in an avalanche
+of snow, but within the tropics enjoys an eternal spring, palaces more
+beautiful than the Alhambra were erected, glittering with the gold and
+emerald of the Andes. But all this splendor passed away with the sceptre
+of Atahuallpa. Where the pavilion of the Inca stood is now a gloomy
+convent, and a wheat-field takes the place of the Temple of the Sun.
+
+The colonial history of this favored spot is as lifeless as the history
+of Sahara. Not a single event occurred of which even Spain can be proud;
+not a monument was raised which reflects any credit upon the mother
+country. Every thing was prescribed by law, and all law emanated from a
+tribunal five thousand miles distant. There was no relation of private
+life with which the government did not interfere: what the colonist
+should plant and what trade he should follow; where he should buy and
+where he should sell; how much he should import and export; and where
+and when he should marry, were regulated by the "Council of the Indies"
+and the Inquisition. In the words of a native writer, "The great
+majority of the people knew nothing of sciences, events, or men. Their
+religion consisted of outward observances, and an imperfect knowledge of
+the papal bulls; their morality, in asceticism and devotion to their
+king; their philosophy, in the subtleties of Aristotle; their history,
+in the history of the mother country; their geography, in the maps of
+Spanish America and of Spain; their press, in what sufficed to print
+bill-heads and blank forms; their commerce, in an insignificant coasting
+trade; their ambition and highest aspirations, in titles of nobility;
+their amusements, in bull-fights. The arrival of a mail was an event of
+great moment, and with ringing of bells was received the _cajon de
+Espana_ which announced the health of the sovereigns. Thus, while Europe
+was passing through the stormy times of Louis XIV.; while the
+philosophical writings of the illustrious men of those times found their
+way into the remotest corners of the globe; while the English colonies
+of North America conquered their independence; while the Old World was
+drenched in blood to propagate the ideas which the French Revolution had
+proclaimed, the Presidency of Quito, walled in by its immense
+cordilleras and the ocean, and ruled by monkish ignorance and bigotry,
+knew as little of men and events as we now know of men and events in the
+moon."[19]
+
+[Footnote 19: _Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador, por Dr.
+Villavicencio._ This work abounds with erroneous and exaggerated
+statements, but it is nevertheless a valuable contribution to Ecuadorian
+literature.]
+
+From an iron despotism which existed for three centuries, Quito passed
+to a state of unbridled licentiousness. Without any political experience
+whatever, the people attempted to lay the foundation of a new system of
+government and society. With head and hearts perverted by monkish
+superstition and Spanish tyranny, yet set on fire by the French
+Revolution, what did they know of liberty! Endless civil wars have
+followed independence. "Political ambition," says a late United States
+minister, "personal jealousies, impracticable theories, official
+venality, reckless disregard of individual rights and legal obligations,
+foolish meddling and empirical legislation, and an absolute want of
+political morality, form the principal features of their republican
+history."[20] To-day they tread on the dust of an ancient race whose
+government was in every respect a most complete contrast to their own.
+
+[Footnote 20: _Four Years among Spanish Americans, by Hon. F.
+Hassaurek_: a truthful work, to which we refer the reader for details,
+especially concerning Ecuadorian life and manners.]
+
+At the foot of volcanic Pichincha, only five hours' travel from its
+smoking crater, lies "the city above the clouds," "the navel of the
+world," "magnificent Quito." On the north is the plain of Rumibamba, the
+battle-field where Gonzalo Pizarro routed the first viceroy of Peru, and
+the scene, two centuries later, of the nobler achievements of La
+Condamine, which made it the classic ground of astronomy. On the
+southern edge of the city rises Panecillo, reminding one of Mount Tabor
+by its symmetrical form, and over-looking the beautiful and well-watered
+plain of Turubamba. On the east flows the Rio Machangara, and just
+beyond it stand the Puengasi hills hiding the Chillo valley, while the
+weary sun goes early to rest behind the towering peaks of Pichincha. So
+encircled is this sequestered spot, the traveler, approaching by the
+Guayaquil road, sees only a part of it, and is disappointed; and even
+when standing on Panecillo, with the entire city spread out before him,
+he is not wholly satisfied. Buried between treeless, sombre sierras, and
+isolated from the rest of the world by impassable roads and gigantic
+Cordilleras, Quito appears to us of the commercial nineteenth century as
+useless as the old feudal towns perched on the mountains of Middle
+Europe. Not a chimney rises above the red-tiled roofs, telling of
+homely hearths beneath. No busy hum greets the ear; there are bugles
+instead of spindles, and jingling church bells in place of rattling
+carriages. The wandering eye does not look for a railroad or a
+telegraph, for even the highways, such as they are, seem deserted, and,
+save the music made for soldiers and saints, all is silent. The very
+mountains, too, with their snow-mantled heads, and their sides scarred
+by volcanic eruptions and ruptured by earthquake shocks, have a
+melancholy look. In the words of a great artist, "They look like a world
+from which not only the human, but the spiritual presences had perished,
+and the last of the archangels, building the great Andes for their
+monuments, had laid themselves down to eternal rest, each in his
+snow-white shroud."
+
+But let us enter. Passing the ruined chapel "Del Senor del buen pasaje,"
+and crossing by a substantial stone bridge the little Machangara
+hastening to pay tribute to the Pacific, we leave behind us the dirty,
+dilapidated suburbs of the capital. Soon we cross another bridge--the
+Bridge of Buzzards--spanning a deep ravine, and gallop through the Plaza
+de Santo Domingo. Very different are the sights and sounds from the stir
+and style of Central Park. The scene has a semi-oriental cast--half
+Indian, half Egyptian, as if this were the confluence of the Maranon and
+Nile. Groups of men--not crowds, for there is plenty of elbow-room in
+Ecuador--in gay ponchos stand chatting in front of little shops, or lean
+against the wall to enjoy the sunshine; beggars in rags or sackcloth
+stretch forth their leprous hands for charity; monks in white, and
+canons in black, walk in the shade of immense hats; shoeless soldiers
+saunter to and fro; Indians from the mountains in every variety of
+costume cluster around heaps of vegetables for sale; women in red,
+brown, and blue frocks are peddling oranges and alligator pears, or
+bearing huge burdens on their heads; children, guiltless of clothing,
+and obtuse donkeys, wander whithersoever they will; and water-carriers,
+filling their jars at the fountain, start off on a dog-trot.
+
+[Illustration: Quito, from the North.]
+
+We cross the Plaza diagonally, pass down the Calle de San Fernando, up
+the Calle del Algodon, and through the busy Calle del Correo, till we
+reach the _Casa Frances_, opposite the mansion of the late General
+Flores. This is our hotel--owned by a Frenchman, but kept by an Indian.
+We ride under the low archway, bowing with ill grace, like all
+republicans unaccustomed to royalty, tie our beasts in the court-yard,
+ascend to our spacious quarters on the second floor, and, ordering
+coffee, seat ourselves in the beautiful balcony to talk of Quito and
+Quitonians.
+
+[Illustration: Water-carriers.]
+
+Quito, though not the highest city on the globe, is two thousand feet
+higher than the Hospice of Great St. Bernard on the Alps, which is the
+only permanent place of abode in Europe above six thousand five hundred
+feet. When Mr. Hassaurek was appointed United States Minister to
+Ecuador, he thanked Mr. Lincoln for conferring upon him the _highest_
+gift in his power. The mean result of our numerous observations with
+Green's standard barometer places the Grand Plaza nine thousand five
+hundred and twenty feet above the sea, or fifty feet lower than the
+calculation of Humboldt. Water boils at 194 deg..5. Cuzco and Potosi may
+surpass it in altitude, but there is not a city in the world which can
+show at once such a genial climate, such magnificent views, and such a
+checkered history. It is unique likewise in its latitude, lying only
+fifteen miles below the equator; no other capital comes within three
+hundred miles of the equinoctial line.
+
+[Illustration: Street in Quito.]
+
+Whatever may have been the plan of Quito in the days of Huayna-Capac, it
+is evident that the Spanish founders were guided more by the spurs of
+Pichincha than by astronomy. The streets make an angle of forty-five
+degrees with the meridian, so that not a single public building faces
+any one of the four cardinal points of the compass. Two deep ravines
+come down the mountain, and traverse the city from west to east. They
+are mostly covered by arches, on which the houses rest; but where they
+are open, they disclose as fit representatives of the place of torment
+as the Valley of Hinnom. The outline of the city is as irregular as its
+surface. It incloses one square mile. Twenty streets, all of them
+straiter than the apostolic one in Damascus, cross one another very
+nearly at right angles. None of them are too wide, and the walks are
+painfully narrow; but, thanks to Garcia Moreno, they are well paved. The
+inequality of the site, and its elevation above the Machangara, render
+the drainage perfect.[21] The streets are dimly lighted by tallow
+candles, every householder being obliged to hang out a lantern at 7
+P.M., unless there is moonshine. The candles, however, usually expire
+about ten o'clock. There are three "squares"--Plaza Mayor, Plaza de San
+Francisco, and Plaza de Santo Domingo. The first is three hundred feet
+square, and adorned with trees and flowers; the others are dusty and
+unpaved, being used as market-places, where Indians and donkeys most do
+congregate. All the plazas have fountains fed with pure water from
+Pichincha.
+
+[Footnote 21: The following quotation, however, is true to the letter,
+and will apply equally well to Guayaquil and to Madrid--the mother of
+them both: "There is another want still more embarrassing in Quito than
+the want of hotels--it is the want of water-closets and privies, which
+are not considered as necessary fixtures of private residences. Men,
+women, and children, of all ages and colors, may be seen in the middle
+of the street, in broad daylight, making privies of the most public
+thoroughfares; and while thus engaged, they will stare into the faces of
+passers-by with a shamelessness that beggars description."--_Hassaurek_.]
+
+Few buildings can boast of architectural beauty, yet Quito looks
+palatial to the traveler who has just emerged from the dense forest on
+the coast, "crossing bridgeless rivers, floundering over bottomless
+roads, and ascending and descending immense mountains." He is astonished
+to find such elegant edifices and such a proud aristocracy in this lofty
+lap of the Andes. The Indian habitations which girdle the city have no
+more architectural pretensions than an Arab dwelling. They are low mud
+hovels, the scene within and without of dirt and disorder.
+
+As we approach the Grand Plaza, the centre of the city, the buildings
+increase in size, style, and finish. The ordinary material is adobe, not
+only because it is cheap, but also because it best resists earthquake
+shocks. Fear of a _terremoto_ has likewise led to a massiveness in
+construction which is slightly ludicrous when we see the poverty which
+it protects; the walls are often two or three feet thick. The ground
+floor is occupied by servants, whose rooms--small enough to be called
+niches--surround the paved court-yard, which is entered from the street
+by a broad doorway. Within this court is sometimes a fountain or
+flower-plot. Around it are arches or pillars supporting a gallery, which
+is the passage-way to the apartments of the second story. All the rooms
+are floored with large square bricks. With few exceptions, the only
+windows are folding glass doors leading to balconies overhanging the
+pavement. The tiled roofs project far over into the street, and from
+these project still farther uncouth water-spouts, such as used to be
+seen in Rio Janeiro, but have now been banished to the antiquarian
+museum. Only three or four private residences rise above two stories.
+The shops are small affairs--akin to the cupboards of Damascene
+merchants; half a dozen modern ladies can keep out any more customers.
+The door serves as entrance, exit, window, and show-case. The finest
+structures cluster around the plazas. Here are the public buildings,
+some of them dating back to the times of Philip II. They are modeled
+after the old Spanish style; there is scarcely a fragment of Gothic
+architecture. They are built of large brick, or a dark volcanic stone
+from Pichincha.
+
+[Illustration: Palacio de Gobierno--Capitol.]
+
+The Government House, which serves at once as "White House" and Capitol,
+is an imposing edifice fronting the Grand Plaza, and adorned with a fine
+colonnade. On its right rises the cathedral; on the left stands the
+unpretending palace of the nuncio. The former would be called beautiful
+were it kept in repair; it has a splendid marble porch, and a terrace
+with carved stone balustrade. The view above was taken from this
+terrace. The finest facade is presented by the old Jesuit church, which
+has an elaborate front of porphyry. The Church of San Francisco, built
+by the treasures of Atahuallpa, discovered by an Indian named Catuna, is
+the richest. It is surmounted by two lofty towers, and the interior is a
+perfect blaze of gilding. The monastery attached to it is one of the
+largest in the world, but the greater part of it is in ruins, and one of
+the wings is used as a barrack. Those unsightly, unadorned convents,
+which cling to every church save the cathedral, have neutralized nearly
+all architectural effect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+     Population of
+     Quito.--Dress.--Manners.--Character.--Commerce.--Agriculture.
+     --Manufactures.--Arts.--Education.--Amusements.--Quito Ladies.
+
+
+Quitonians claim for their capital eighty thousand inhabitants; but when
+we consider that one fourth of the city is covered with ecclesiastical
+buildings, and that the dwelling-houses are but two stories high, we see
+that there is not room for more than half that number. From thirty
+thousand to forty thousand is the estimate of the venerable Dr. Jameson,
+who has resided here for a generation.[22] Census taking is as difficult
+as in Constantinople; the people hide themselves to escape taxation. The
+women far outnumber the men. The white population--a stiff aristocracy
+of eight thousand souls--is of Spanish descent, but not more than half a
+dozen can boast of pure blood. The coarse black hair, prominent
+cheek-bones, and low foreheads, reveal an Indian alliance. This is the
+governing class; from its ranks come those uneasy politicians who make
+laws for other people to obey, and hatch revolutions when a rival party
+is in power. They are blessed with fair mental capacity, quick
+perception, and uncommon civility; but they lack education and industry,
+energy and perseverance. Their wealth, which is not great, consists
+mainly in _haciendas_, yielding grain, cotton, and cattle. The Aguirre
+family is one of the noblest and wealthiest in the city; their mansion
+is on the Grand Plaza, facing the Capitol. The pure Indians of Quito
+number perhaps 10,000; not all those seen in the city are citizens, as
+many _serranos_, or mountaineers, come in to sell produce. They are the
+serfs that do the drudgery of the republic; they are the tillers of the
+soil, and beasts of burden. Many sell themselves for money in advance,
+and then are ever kept in debt. Excepting a few Zambos (the children of
+Indians and Negroes), and a very few foreigners and Negroes, the
+remainder, constituting the bulk of the population, are Cholos--the
+offspring of whites and Indians. They are not strictly half-breeds, for
+the Indian element stands out most prominent. Though a mixed race, they
+are far superior to their progenitors in enterprise and intelligence.
+They are the soldiers, artisans, and tradesmen who keep up the only
+signs of life in Quito. "I know not the reason," says Darwin, "but men
+of such origin seldom have a good expression of countenance." This may
+be true on the pampas, but Quito, where there is every imaginable
+mixture of Indian and Spaniard, is wonderfully free from ugly features.
+It may be owing to the more peaceful and civilized history of this
+mountain city.
+
+[Footnote 22: Spanish rhetoric is given to exaggeration. "All their
+geese are swans." A Peruvian assured us that Cuzco contained 200,000
+souls. It is, in fact, about as large as Quito; Gibbon says 20,000.]
+
+As to dress, black is the color of etiquette, but is not so national as
+in Madrid. The upper class follow _la mode de Paris_, gentlemen adding
+the classic cloak of Old Spain. This modern toga fits an Ecuadorian
+admirably; it favors habits of inactivity, preventing the arms from
+doing any thing, and covers a multitude of sins, especially pride and
+poverty. The _poncho_, so peculiar to the West Coast and to the Gauchos
+of Buenos Ayres, is a piece of cloth of divers colors, with a slit in
+the centre, through which the head is passed. It is the only variable
+article of the wardrobe. It is an excellent riding habit, and is made of
+heavy woolen for mountain travel, and of silk or cotton for warmer
+altitudes. No gentleman will be seen walking in the streets of Quito
+under a poncho. Hence citizens are divided into men with ponchos, and
+gentlemen with cloaks. The panuelon is the most essential article of
+female gear. It answers to the mantilla of the mother country, though it
+is not worn so gracefully as on the banks of the Tagus. Andean ladies
+are not troubled with the distressing fluctuations in the style of hats;
+a bonnet in Quito is as much out of place as a turban in New York. When
+the daughter of our late minister resident appeared in the cathedral
+with one, the innovation was the subject of severe remark. The Spanish
+hair is the glory of the sex. It is thick and black (red, being a
+rarity, is considered a beauty), and is braided in two long tresses. A
+silk dress, satin shoes, and fancy jewelry complete the visible attire
+of the belles of Quito.
+
+The ordinary costume of the Indians and Cholos consists of a coarse
+cotton shirt and drawers, and silk, cotton, or woolen poncho of native
+manufacture, the females adding a short petticoat, generally of a light
+blue or "butter-nut" color, belted around the waist with a figured
+woolen belt woven by themselves. The head, arms, legs, and feet are
+often bare, but, by those who can afford it, the head is covered with a
+straw or white felt broad-brim, and the feet protected by sandals,
+called _alpargates_, made of the fibres of the aloe. They are very fond
+of bracelets and necklaces. Infants are usually swathed from neck to
+feet with a broad strip of cloth, so that they look like live mummies.
+
+Quitonians put us to shame by their unequaled courtesy, cordiality, and
+good-nature, and are not far below the grave and decorous Castilian in
+dignified politeness.[23]
+
+[Footnote 23: "I must express my admiration at the natural politeness of
+almost every Chileno. We met, near Mendoza, a little and very fat
+negress, riding astride on a mule. She had a _goitre_ so enormous that
+it was scarcely possible to avoid gazing at her for a moment; but my two
+companions almost instantly, by way of apology, made the common salute
+of the country by taking off their hats. Where would one of the lower or
+higher classes in Europe have shown such feeling politeness to a poor
+and miserable object of a degraded race?"--_Darwin's Naturalist's
+Voyage._]
+
+Rudeness, which some Northerners fancy is a proof of equality and
+independence, we never met with, and duels and street quarrels are
+almost unknown. We detected none of the touchy sensitiveness of the
+punctilious Spanish _hidalgos_. Their compliments and promises are
+without end; and, made in the magnificent and ceremonious language of
+Spain,[24] are overwhelming to a stranger. Thus a fair Quitonian sends
+by her servant the following message to another lady: "Go to the
+Senorita Fulana de Tal, and tell her that she is my heart and the dear
+little friend of my soul; tell her that I am dying for not having seen
+her, and ask her why she does not come to see me; tell her that I have
+been waiting for her more than a week, and that I send her my best
+respects and considerations; and ask her how she is, and how her husband
+is, and how her children are, and whether they are all well in the
+family; and tell her she is my little love, and ask her whether she will
+be kind enough to send me that pattern which she promised me the other
+day."[25] This highly important message the servant delivers like a
+parrot, not omitting a single compliment, but rather adding thereto.
+
+[Footnote 24: The Spanish tongue is the manly son of the Latin, as the
+Italian is the fair daughter; a language in which, as Charles V. said,
+"God ought alone to be addressed in prayer." It is spoken in America
+with an Andalusian rather than Toledan pronunciation.]
+
+[Footnote 25: We are indebted to Mr. Hassaurek for this capital
+illustration. Every lady, married or unmarried, is addressed _Senorita_,
+or Miss.]
+
+A newly-arrived foreigner is covered with promises: houses, horses,
+servants, yea, every thing is at his disposal. But, alas! the traveler
+soon finds that this ceremony of words does not extend to deeds. He is
+never expected to call for the services so pompously proffered. So long
+as he stays in Quito he will not lose sight of the contrast between big
+promise and beggarly performance. This outward civility, however, is not
+hypocritical; it is mere mechanical prattle; the speaker does not expect
+to be taken at his word. The love of superlatives and the want of good
+faith may be considered as prominent characteristics. "The readiness
+with which they break a promise or an agreement (wrote Colonel Hall
+forty years ago) can only be equaled by the sophistical ingenuity with
+which they defend themselves for having done so." The Quitonians, who
+are sensible of their shortcomings, have this standing apology: "Our
+vices we owe to Spain; our virtues to ourselves."[26]
+
+[Footnote 26: "When speaking of these countries, the manner in which
+they have been brought up by their unnatural parent, Spain, should
+always be borne in mind. On the whole, perhaps, more credit is due for
+what has been done, than blame for that which may be
+deficient."--_Darwin's Journal of Researches_, p. 158.]
+
+Such is the mutual distrust, partnerships are almost unknown; we do not
+remember a single commercial firm, save a few made up of brothers, or
+father and son. With this moral debility is joined the procrastinating
+spirit of the oriental. _Manana_ (to-morrow), like the _Boukra_ of the
+Arabs, is the universal winding up of promises. And very often, if one
+promises a thing to-morrow, he means the day after that. It is
+impossible to start a man into prompt compliance; he will not commence a
+piece of work when you wish nor when he promises. No amount of cajolery,
+bribery, or threats will induce a Quitonian to do any thing or be any
+where in season. If there were a railroad in Ecuador, every body would
+be too late for the first train. There are only one or two watch-tinkers
+in the great city, and, as may be inferred, very few watches are in
+running order. As a consequence, the people have very little idea of
+time. But this is not the sole reason for their dilatoriness; they are
+indifferent. Nobody seems to want to make money (though all are in sad
+need of it); nobody is in a hurry; nobody is busy save the tailors, who
+manifest a commendable diligence. Contempt for labor, a Spanish
+inheritance, and lack of energy, are traits which stand out in _alto
+relievo_.
+
+One can form his own judgment of the spiritless people from the single
+statement which we have from Dr. Jameson, that during the last forty
+years not ten Quitonians have visited the grand crater of Pichincha,
+though it is possible to ride horseback to its very edge. Plenty of
+gentlemen by profession walk the streets and cathedral terrace, proud as
+a Roman senator under his toga, yet not ashamed to beg a cup of coffee
+at the door of a more fortunate fellow-citizen. Society is in a constant
+struggle between ostentation and want.
+
+Nature has done more for Ecuador than for Ecuadorians. She laid out this
+beautiful valley for an Elysian field; "de Quito al Cielo" (from Quito
+to Heaven) is not an empty adage; and it is painful to look upon
+tottering walls and impassable roads, upon neglected fields and an idle
+population--poor as poverty in the lap of boundless natural wealth. The
+only really live man in the republic is the president, Senor G. Garcia
+Moreno, a man of wide views and great energy, standing in these respects
+head and shoulders above his fellow-citizens. Quito and Quito Valley owe
+nearly all their improvements to this one man.
+
+It is easy to say what would be the industry of a people who spend much
+of their time repeating traditions of treasures buried by the Incas, and
+stories of gold deposits in the mountains. Of commerce there is scarcely
+enough to deserve the name. Quito is an ecclesiastical city, and is
+nearly supported by Guayaquil. Without capital, without energy, without
+business habits, Quitonians never embark in grand commercial schemes
+and industrial enterprises. There is not a highway for commerce in any
+direction, only a natural path (called by the innocent natives a road),
+which rises to the altitude of fourteen thousand feet, by which the
+beasts of burden pick their way over the Cordillera. And this is open
+only six months in the year. Should a box designed for Quito arrive at
+Guayaquil at the beginning of the rainy season, it must tarry half a
+year till _Nature_ makes the road passable.
+
+The unstable condition of the country does not encourage great
+undertakings; all business is periodically paralyzed by revolution.
+Merchants generally buy their goods in Lima, to which city and Guayaquil
+the fabrics of England and France are brought by foreigners in foreign
+ships. The shops of Quito, as we have remarked, are very small, without
+windows, and with only one wooden door. The door is double, and is
+fastened by a ponderous padlock. They are open from 7 A.M. till sunset,
+excepting between nine and ten and between three and four, when the
+stores are closed for breakfast and dinner; the merchants never trusting
+their clerks, even when they have any, which is not usually the case.
+They have no fixed price, but get what they can. The majority know
+nothing of wholesale, and refuse to sell by the quantity, fearing a
+cheat. An Indian woman will sell you a real's worth of oranges any
+number of times, but she would object to parting with a dollar's
+worth--her arithmetic can not comprehend it.
+
+In the _portals_ or arcades of the Aguirre mansion and the nuncio's
+palace are the stalls of the haberdashers. Articles are not wrapped in
+paper; customers must get them home the best way they can. Ladies of the
+higher class seldom go out shopping, but send for samples. It is
+considered disgraceful to either sex to be seen carrying any thing
+through the streets of Quito. The common people buy only for immediate
+wants--a dose of medicine, or a handful of potatoes at a time. Nearly
+all liquids, kerosene as well as wine, are sold by the bottle.
+
+There was no bank in Quito in 1867, but an attempt has just been made to
+establish one. The paper money of Guayaquil is often at nine per cent.
+discount in the capital. The currency is silver adulterated with one
+third of copper. The smallest coin, the cale, is worth about two and a
+half cents. Above that are medios (five cents), reals (ten cents), two,
+four, and eight reals. Eight reals make a soft dollar ($0 80); ten
+reals, a hard dollar ($1 00). There is no copper coin--oranges and
+loaves of bread are sometimes used to make change; and nearly all the
+gold in circulation are New Granada _condors_ and Peruvian _onzas_. Many
+of the silver pieces have large holes cut in the centre, so that they
+resemble rings. Government set the example (and the people followed) on
+the plea that it would prevent the exportation of coin. The plan has
+succeeded, for it does not pass out of the valley.
+
+Nearly the only sign of progress is the late introduction of the grape
+and silk-worm; and these give so much promise of success that the
+threadbare nobility have already begun to count their coming fortunes.
+Husbandry is more pastoral than agricultural. Thousands of cattle are
+raised on the paramos, but almost wholly for beef. "A dislike to milk
+(observes Humboldt), or at least the absence of its use before the
+arrival of Europeans, was, generally speaking, a feature common to all
+nations of the New Continent, as likewise to the inhabitants of China."
+Some cheese (mostly unpressed curd) and a little butter are made, but in
+the patriarchal style. Only one American churn is in operation; the
+people insist upon first boiling the milk and then stirring with a
+spoon. Custom is omnipotent here, and its effects hereditary. Milking is
+done at any hour of the day, or whenever milk is wanted. The operation
+is a formidable one to these bull-fighting people. Stopping at a
+hacienda near Pelileo for a drink of milk, we were eye-witness of a
+comical sight. A mild-looking cow was driven up to the door; the woman,
+evidently the bravest member of the household, seized the beast by the
+horns; a boy tied the hind legs with a long rope, and held on to one end
+of it at a respectful distance; while the father, with outstretched
+arms, milked into a calabash.
+
+Agricultural machinery is not in use. The first threshing-machine Quito
+ever saw was made in 1867 by some California miners, but it remained
+unsold when we last saw it. The spade is not known; the nearest approach
+to it is a crowbar flattened at one end. Hoes are clumsy and awkward.
+Yankee plows are bought more as curiosities than for use. Many a crooked
+stick is seen scratching the land, as in Egypt, which the cattle drag by
+their horns. Sometimes a number of sharp-nosed hogs are tied together
+and let into a field, and driven from place to place till the whole is
+rooted up. Corn is planted by making holes in the ground with a stick,
+and dropping in the seed. The soil and climate of Ecuador, so infinitely
+varied, offer a home to almost every useful plant. The productions of
+either India could be naturalized on the lowlands, while the highlands
+would welcome the grains and fruits of Europe. But intertropical people
+do not subdue nature like the civilized men of the North; they only pick
+up a livelihood.
+
+Spanish Americans, like Castilians on the banks of the Tagus, have a
+singular antipathy to trees. When Garcia Moreno made a park of the dusty
+Plaza Mayor, he was ridiculed, even threatened. To plant a fruit or
+shade tree (a thing of foresight and forethought for others) in a land
+where people live for self, and from hand to mouth, is considered
+downright folly in theory and practice. A large portion of the valley,
+left treeless, is becoming less favorable for cultivation.
+
+Yet, as it is, the traveler is charmed by the emerald verdure of the
+coast, and by "evergreen Quito"--more beautiful than the hanging gardens
+of Babylon--suspended far above the ordinary elevation of the clouds. In
+the San Francisco market we find wheat, barley, maize, beans, peas,
+potatoes, cabbages, beets, salads, pine-apples, chirimoyas, guavas,
+oranges, lemons, pears, quinces, peaches, apricots, melons, and
+strawberries--the last all the year round. Most of these are exotics;
+the early discoverers found not a cereal grain of the Old World, not an
+orange or apple, no sugar-cane or strawberries.[27]
+
+[Footnote 27: The vase is still shown in which Father Rixi brought the
+first wheat from Europe. It was sown in what is now the San Francisco
+Plaza, the chief market-place of the city.]
+
+There is but little manufacturing industry in the interior of Ecuador,
+but much more than on the coast. The chief articles manufactured are
+straw hats, shoes, baskets, carpets, embroidery, tape, thread, ponchos,
+coarse woolen and cotton cloth, saddles, sandals, soap, sugar, cigars,
+aguardiente, powder, sweetmeats, carved images, paints, and pottery.
+Wines, crockery, glassware, cutlery, silks, and fine cloth are imported.
+There are three cotton mills in the country; one in Chillo (established
+by Senors Aguirre in 1842), another in Otovalo (built by Senor Parija in
+1859), and a third in Cuenca (1861). The machinery of the Chillo factory
+came from England; that of Otovalo from Patterson, N.J. The latter was
+utterly destroyed in the late great earthquake, and the proprietor
+killed. The cotton is inferior to that of New Orleans; it is not "fat,"
+as mechanics say; the seeds yield only two per cent. of oil. But it is
+whiter than American cotton, though coarse, and can be used only for
+very ordinary fabrics. The average length is five eighths of an inch.
+One pod will produce on an average three pennyweights. The mills of
+Chillo and Otovalo consume 425,000 pounds annually. The first sugar-mill
+was erected by the Aguirres in 1840 at Nanegal.
+
+[Illustration: Indian Dwellings.]
+
+Quito is more than a century behind this age of steam and lightning. To
+form an adequate idea of the mechanic and fine arts in that "city of the
+kings," we must transport ourselves to the Saxon period of European
+civilization. Both the material and the construction of the houses would
+craze Sir Christopher Wren. With fine quarries close at hand, they must
+build with mud mixed with stones, or plastered on wattles, like the
+Druses of Mount Lebanon. Living on the equatorial line and on the
+meridian so accurately measured by the highest mathematics of France and
+Spain, Quitonians must needs leave out every right angle or straight
+line in the walls, and every square beam and rafter. Except on the grand
+road from Quito to Ambato, commenced by President Moreno, there is not a
+wheel-barrow to be seen; paving-stones, lime, brick, and dirt, are
+usually carried on human backs. Saint Crispin never had the fortitude to
+do penance in the shoes of Quito, and the huge nails which enter into
+the hoofs of the quadrupedants remind one of the Cyclops. There are not
+six carts in Quito. If you wish to move, you must coax a dozen Indians,
+who care little for your money or your threats. Horse-hire, peonage, and
+most mechanical work must be paid for in advance. Carriages--antique
+vehicles, of which there are two or three in the city--are drawn by
+mules. The first was introduced by Senor Aguirre so late as 1859, and he
+was fined by the police for the privilege of riding in it. Quitonians
+are not a traveling people, and they are painfully ignorant of their own
+country. The most enterprising merchant ignores every thing but Quito
+and the road to Guayaquil.
+
+We can not praise the musical talent of Spanish Americans; their
+intonation is too nasal, while in their jumpings and chirpings they take
+after the grasshopper. A resident Englishman, who has traveled in many
+countries, and sings the songs of nearly every nation, told us he could
+not remember one of Ecuador. Pianos they have brought over the mountains
+at great expense; but they are more at home with the guitar. The
+embroidery and lace, wood carving and portrait painting of Quito, are
+commendable; but the grandeur of the Andes, like the beauty of the Alps,
+was never sketched by a native.
+
+Ecuador boasts of one University and eleven colleges; yet the people are
+not educated. Literature, science, philosophy, law, medicine, are only
+names. Nearly all young gentlemen are doctors of something; but their
+education is strangely dwarfed, defective, and distorted; and their
+knowledge, such as they have, is without power, as it is without
+practice. The University of Quito has two hundred and eighty-five
+students, of whom thirty-five are pursuing law, and eighteen medicine.
+There are eleven professors. They receive no fees from the students, but
+an annual salary of $300. The library contains eleven thousand volumes,
+nearly all old Latin, Spanish, and French works. The cabinet is a bushel
+of stones cast into one corner of a lumber-room, covered with dust, and
+crying out in vain for a man in the University to name them. The College
+of Tacunga has forty-five students; a fine chemical and philosophical
+apparatus, but no one to handle it; and a set of rocks from Europe, but
+only a handful from Ecuador. The College of Riobamba has four
+professors, and one hundred and twenty students. In the common schools,
+the pupils study in concert aloud, Arab fashion. There are four papers
+in the republic; two in Guayaquil, one in Cuenca, and one in Quito. _El
+Nacional_, of the capital, is an official organ, not a newspaper; it
+contains fourteen duodecimo pages, and is published occasionally by the
+Minister of the Interior. Like the _Gazeta_ of Madrid, it is one of the
+greatest satires ever deliberately published by any people on itself.
+There is likewise but one paper in Cuzco, _El Triumfo del Pueblo_.
+
+The amusements of Quito are few, and not very amusing. Indo-Castilian
+blood runs too slowly for merry-making. There are no operas or concerts,
+no theatres or lectures, no museums or menageries. For dramas they have
+revolutions; for menageries, bull-baitings. A bull-bait is not a
+bull-fight. There is no coliseum or amphitheatre; no _matador_ gives the
+scientific death-wound. Unlike their fraternity in the ring of Seville,
+where they are doomed to die, the animals are only doomed to be
+pothered; they are "scotched, not killed." They are teased and tormented
+by yelling crowds, barking dogs, brass bands, red ponchos, tail-pulling,
+fire-crackers, wooden lances, and such like. The Plaza de Toros is the
+Plaza de San Francisco. This sport is reserved for the most notable
+days in the calendar: Christmas, New Year's, Inauguration-day, and
+Independence-day--the 10th of August.
+
+Cock-fights come next in popularity, and are _bona fide_ fights. Often
+the roosters are so heroic that both leave their blood in the arena, and
+never crow again. Little knives are fastened to the natural spurs, with
+which the fowls cut each other up frightfully. The interesting scene
+takes place on Sundays and Thursdays, near the Church of Santa Catalina,
+and is regulated by a municipal tribunal. The admission fee of five
+cents, and the tax of two per cent. on bets, yield the city a monthly
+revenue of $100.
+
+Other pastimes are carnivals and masquerades. Carnival is observed by
+pelting one another with eggs and sprinkling with water. Whoever
+invented this prelude to Lent should be canonized. Masquerades occur
+during the holidays, when all classes, in disguise or fancy dress, get
+up a little fun at each other's expense. The monotony of social life is
+more frequently disturbed by fashionable funerals than by these
+amusements; and, as the principal families are inter-related, the rules
+of condolence keep the best part of society in mourning, and the best
+pianos and guitars silent for at least six months in the year.
+
+A word about the ladies of Quito. We concur in the remark of our
+minister, Mr. Hassaurek, that "their natural dignity, gracefulness, and
+politeness, their entire self-possession, their elegant but unaffected
+bearing, and the choiceness of their language, would enable them to make
+a creditable appearance in any foreign drawing-room." Their natural
+talents are of a high order; but we must add that the senoras are
+uneducated, and are incapable of either great vices or great virtues.
+Their minds, like the soil of their native country, are fertile, but
+uncultivated; and their hearts, like the climate, are of a mean
+temperature. Prayer-books and French novels (imported, as wanted, for
+there is not a book-store in the city) are the alpha and the omega of
+their literature; Paris is considered the centre of civilization. They
+are comely, but not beautiful; Venus has given her girdle of fascination
+to few. Sensible of this, they paint.
+
+Holinski gives his impressions by contrasting the fair Quitonians with
+the fairer Guayaquilians: "Les yeux vifs et ardent, le pied fine et
+mignon, les teintes chaudes et dorees" distinguish the latter. In the
+ladies of the high capital there is nothing of this: "Les yeux ne
+lancent pas de flammes, le pied est sans gentillesse, l'epiderme ne
+reflete pas les rayons du soleil." The ladies on the coast take all
+possible pains to preserve the small size of the foot; a large foot is
+held in horror. Von Tschudi once overheard some ladies extolling in high
+terms the beauty of an English lady; all their praise, however, ending
+with this exclamation, "But what a foot! Good heavens! it is like a
+great boat!" Gibbon is continually talking of beautiful senoras and
+senoritas on the Andes; surely the lieutenant is in sport.[28]
+
+[Footnote 28: "The young ladies of Cuzco are, in general, very
+beautiful, with regular features, fresh olive complexions, bright eyes
+full of intelligence, furnished with long lashes, and masses of black
+hair plaited in two tails."--_Markham_.]
+
+The ladies of Quito give few entertainments for lack of ready money.
+They spend much of their time in needle-work and gossip, sitting like
+Turkish sultanas on divans or the floor. They do not rise at your
+entrance or departure. They converse in a very loud, unmusical voice. We
+never detected bashfulness in the street or parlor. They go to mass
+every morning, and make visits of etiquette on Sundays. They take more
+interest in political than in domestic affairs. Dust and cobwebs are
+unmistakable signs of indifference. Brooms are rarities; such as exist
+are besoms made of split stick. Since our return, we have sent to a
+Quitonian gentleman, by request, a package of broom-corn seed, which, we
+trust, will be the forerunner of a harvest of brooms and cleaner floors
+in the high city. Not only the lords, but also the ladies, are
+inveterate smokers. Little mats are used for spittoons.
+
+[Illustration: Washerwomen.]
+
+Perhaps Quitonian ladies have too many Indian servants about them to
+keep tidy; seven or eight is the average number for a family. These are
+married, and occupy the ground floor, which swarms with nude children.
+They are cheap, thievish, lazy, and filthy. No class, pure-blood or
+half-breed, is given to ablution, though there are two public baths in
+the city. Washerwomen repair to the Machangara, where they beat the
+dirty linen of Quito over the smooth rocks. We remember but two or
+three table-cloths which entirely covered the table, and only one which
+was clean. There are but two daily meals; one does not feel the need of
+more; they are partaken at nine and three, or an hour earlier than in
+Guayaquil. When two unwashed, uncombed cooks bend over a charcoal fire,
+which is fanned by a third unkempt individual, and all three blinded by
+smoke (for there is no chimney), so that it is not their fault if
+capillaries and something worse are mingled with the stew, with onions
+to right of them, onions to left of them, onions in front of them, and
+_achote_ already in the pot in spite of your repeated anathemas and
+expostulations--_achote_, the same red coloring matter which the wild
+Indians use for painting their bodies and dyeing their cloth--and with
+several aboriginal wee ones romping about the kitchen, keen must be the
+appetite that will take hold with alacrity as the dishes are brought on
+by the most slovenly waiter imagination can body forth.[29] The aim of
+Ecuadorian cookery is to eradicate all natural flavor; you wouldn't know
+you were eating chicken except by the bones. Even coffee and chocolate
+somehow lose their fine Guayaquilian aroma in this high altitude, and
+the very pies are stuffed with onions. But the beef, minus the garlic,
+is most excellent, and the _dulce_ unapproachable.
+
+[Footnote 29: We noticed at Riobamba a custom which formerly prevailed
+also at Quito. As soon as the guests have finished, and before they have
+risen, the Indian waiter kneels devoutly down beside the table, and
+offers thanks in a very solemn, touching tone.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+     Ecuador.--Extent.--Government.--Religion.--A Protestant Cemetery in
+     Quito.--Climate.--Regularity of Tropical Nature.--Diseases on the
+     Highlands.
+
+
+The republic of Ecuador looks like a wedge driven into the continent
+between the Maranon and the Putumayo. It has 1200 miles of Pacific
+coast, and an area of about two hundred thousand square miles, including
+the Galapagos Islands. Peru, however, claims the oriental half, drawing
+her northern boundary from Tumbez through Canelos and Archidona; and she
+is entitled to much of it, for she has established a regular line of
+steamers on the Maranon, while the Quito government has not developed an
+acre east of the Andes. Ecuador is hung between and upon two
+cordilleras, which naturally divide it into three parts: the western
+slope, the Quitonian valley, and the Napo region. The fluvial system is
+mainly made up of the Napo, Pastassa, and Santiago, tributaries of the
+Maranon, and the Mira, Esmeraldas, and Guayaquil, flowing westward into
+the Pacific. There are no lakes proper, but the natives enumerate
+fifty-five lagunes, the largest of which, Capucuy, is not over five
+miles long.
+
+Villavicencio tells the world that his country has a total population of
+1,308,042. But Dr. Jameson believes it does not exceed 700,000. The
+government is based on the Constitution of 1845, amended in 1853. The
+president is chosen by a plurality of votes, holds his office for four
+years, and has a salary of $12,000. He can not be re-elected,[30] nor
+can he exercise his functions more than twenty-five miles from the
+capital. But the law is often set aside by those in power. During the
+administration of Garcia Moreno, prominent citizens were shot or
+banished by his order, without trial by jury. To every plea for mercy
+the stern president replied, that as he could not save the country
+according to the Constitution, he should govern it according to his own
+views of public necessity.
+
+[Footnote 30: Since this was written, Garcia Moreno has been re-elected
+to the presidency and the Constitution revised.]
+
+Congress assembles on the 15th of September every other year, and
+consists of eighteen senators and thirty representatives. The chambers
+are small, and literally barren of ornament. The members sit in two rows
+facing each other, have no desks, and give an affirmative vote by a
+silent bow. Politics has less to do with principles and parties than
+with personalities. Often it has a financial aspect; and the natural
+expression on learning of a revolution is, "Somebody is out of money."
+The party in feathers its nest as fast as possible; there is scarcely a
+public officer who is not open to bribery. The party out plots a
+premature resurrection to power by the ladders of corruption, slander,
+and revolution.[31] Revolution has so rapidly followed revolution that
+history has ceased to count them; and it may be said of them what Milton
+wrote of the wars of the Saxon Heptarchy, "that they are not more worthy
+of being recorded than the skirmishes of crows and kites." The Grand
+Plaza, the heart where all the great arteries of circulation meet and
+diverge, is where the high tides of Quito affairs ebb and flow.
+
+[Footnote 31: Government has more than once paid its debts by
+repudiation. Congress lately voted to pay only seven per cent. of the
+claims against the state which are dated prior to a certain year. Among
+the sufferers is the venerable Dr. Jameson, a distinguished foreigner,
+who has served this country faithfully for forty years, first as
+assayer, then as director of the mint, and always by his scientific
+position.]
+
+The Supreme Court consists of five judges. Criminal cases only are tried
+by jury; and an attorney is not permitted to question a witness. There
+are no penitentiaries: second-class criminals are made to work for the
+public, while political offenders are banished to the banks of the Napo,
+or to Peru. Here, as in no other country, every man's house is his
+castle. No search-warrants are allowed; a policeman can be shot dead on
+the threshold. The person and property of a foreigner are safe; and no
+native in the employ of a foreigner can be taken by the government for
+military purposes. All, except pure Indians, can vote if over
+twenty-one, and can read and write. A man's signature is without value
+if it lacks his flourish--a custom of Spanish origin.
+
+The permanent army consists of two regiments. The soldiers are mostly
+half-breeds, and are generally followed by their wives. They are poorly
+paid; and as they are impressed into the service, they carry out the
+principle by helping themselves wherever they go. In marching, they have
+a quicker step than Northern soldiers. The chief expenditure of the
+republic is for the army, about $500,000; the next is for the payment of
+the national debt, $360,000. The foreign debt is L1,470,374. Ecuadorians
+claim a revenue of a million and a half, of which one half is from the
+custom-house, and one fiftieth from the post-office.
+
+One would suppose that the people who breathe this high atmosphere, and
+enjoy this delightful climate, and are surrounded by all that is truly
+grand and beautiful, would have some corresponding virtues. But we find
+that Nature, here as every where, has mingled base and noble elements.
+The lofty mountains, bearing in their steadfastness the seal of their
+appointed symbol--"God's righteousness is like the great
+mountains"--look down upon one of the lowest and most corrupt forms of
+republican government on earth;[32] their snowy summits preach sermons
+on purity to Quitonian society, but in vain; and the great thoughts of
+God written all over the Andes are unable to lift this proud capital out
+of the mud and mire of mediaeval ignorance and superstition. The
+established religion is the narrowest and most intolerant form of
+Romanism. Mountains usually have a more elevating, religious influence
+than monotonous plains. The Olympian mythology of the Greek was far
+superior to the beastly worship on the banks of the Nile. And yet at the
+very feet of glorious Chimborazo and Pichincha we see a nation bowing
+down to little images of the rudest sculpture with a devotion that
+reminds us of the Middle Ages.
+
+[Footnote 32: Asking the late Chilian minister for his view of the rank
+of the different South American states, he gave us this order: Chile,
+Brazil, Argentine Republic, Venezuela, New Granada, Central America,
+Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador.]
+
+[Illustration: Ecclesiastics.]
+
+The belief is called _La Fe_, or the only true one. The oath of a
+Protestant is not regarded in courts of law. One fourth of Quito is
+covered by convents and churches. The convents alone number fifty-seven,
+and are very extensive, sometimes spreading over eight or nine acres.
+The Church revenue amounts to $800,000. There are more than four hundred
+priests, monks, and nuns in the capital. The native ecclesiastics are
+notorious for their ignorance and immorality. "It is a very common thing
+(says Dr. Terry) for a curate to have a whole flock of orphan nephews
+and nieces, the children of an imaginary brother." There is one
+ex-president who has the reputation of tying a spur on the leg of a
+game-cock better even than a curate. The imported Jesuits are the most
+intelligent and influential clergy. They control the universities and
+colleges, and education generally. Active and intellectual, though not
+learned, they have infused new life into the fat indolence of the
+Spanish system. Men of this world rather than the next, they have
+adopted a purely mundane policy, abjured the gloomy cowl, raised
+gorgeous temples, and say, "He that cometh unto us shall in no wise lose
+heaven." Their chief merit, however, is the discovery of the turkey and
+quinine.
+
+The Protestant in Quito is annoyed by an everlasting jingling of bells
+and blowing of bugles night and day. The latter are blown every third
+hour. The bells are struck by boys, not rung. A bishop, returning from a
+visit to London, was asked if there were any good bells in England.
+"Very fine," he replied, "but there is not a man there who knows how to
+ring them." Foreign machinery is sprinkled with holy water to neutralize
+the inherent heresy; but a miller, for example, will charge more for his
+flour after the baptism.
+
+Lotteries are countenanced by both Church and State, and in turn help
+support them; we saw one "grand scheme" carried out on the cathedral
+terrace and defended by bayonets.
+
+At half past nine in the morning all Quito is on its knees, as the great
+bell of the cathedral announces the elevation of the Host. The effect is
+astonishing. Riders stop their horses; foot-passengers drop down on the
+pavement; the cook lets go her dishes and the writer his pen; the
+merchant lays aside his measure and the artisan his tool; the
+half-uttered oath (_carajo_!) dies on the lips of the Cholo; the arm of
+the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his donkey, is paralyzed; and the
+smart repartee of the lively donna is cut short. The solemn stillness
+lasts for a minute, when the bell tolls again, and all rise to work or
+play. Holidays are frequent. Processions led by a crucifix or wooden
+image are attractive sights in this dull city, simply because little
+else is going on. Occasionally a girl richly dressed to represent the
+humble mother of God is drawn about in a carriage, and once a year the
+figures of the Virgin belonging to different churches are borne with
+much pomp to the Plaza, where they bow to each other like automatons.
+
+"This is a bad country to live in, and a worse one to die in," said Dr.
+Jameson. But times have changed, even in fossil Quito. Through the
+efforts of our late minister, Hon. W.T. Coggeshall, the bigoted
+government has at last consented to inclose a quarter of an acre outside
+the city for the subterranean burial of heretics. The cemetery is on the
+edge of the beautiful plain of Inaquito, and on the right of the road
+leading to Guapolo. "What a shame," said a Quitonian lady of position,
+"that there should be a place to throw Protestant dogs!"
+
+On St. Nathaniel's day died Colonel Phineas Staunton, Vice-Chancellor of
+Ingham University, New York. An artist by profession, and one of very
+high order, Colonel Staunton joined our expedition to sketch the glories
+of the Andes, but he fell a victim to the scourge of the lowlands one
+week after his arrival in Quito. We buried him at noon-day[33] in the
+new cemetery, "wherein was never man laid," and by the act consecrated
+the ground. Peace to his ashes; honor to his memory. That 8th of
+September, 1867, was a new day in the annals of Quito. On that day the
+imperial city beheld, for the first time in three centuries, the decent
+burial of a Protestant in a Protestant cemetery. Somewhere, mingled with
+the ashes of Pichincha, is the dust of Atahuallpa, who was buried in his
+beloved Quito at his own request after his murder in Caxamarca. But
+dearer to us is that solitary grave; the earth is yet fresh that covers
+the remains of one of nature's noblemen.
+
+[Footnote 33: This was a new thing under the sun. Quitonians "bury at
+dead of night, with lanterns dimly burning." The dirges sung as the
+procession winds through the streets are extremely plaintive, and are
+the most touching specimens of Ecuadorian music. The corpse, especially
+of a child, is often carried in a chair in a sitting posture. The
+wealthy class wall up their dead in niches on the side of Pichincha,
+hypothetically till the resurrection, but really for two years, when,
+unless an additional payment is made, the bones are thrown into a common
+pit and the coffin burnt. To prevent this, a few who can afford it
+embalm the deceased. One of the most distinguished citizens of Quito
+keeps his mummified father at his hacienda, and annually dresses him up
+in a new suit of clothes!]
+
+Turn we now to a more delightful topic than the politics and religion of
+Quito. The climate is perfect. Fair Italy, with her classic prestige and
+ready access, will long be the land of promise to travelers expatriated
+in search of health. But if ever the ancients had reached this Andean
+valley, they would have located here the Elysian Fields, or the seat of
+"the blessed, the happy, and long-lived" of Anacreon.[34] No torrid heat
+enervates the inhabitant of this favored spot; no icy breezes send him
+shivering to the fire. Nobody is sun-struck; nobody's buds are nipped by
+the frost. Stoves and chimneys, starvation and epidemics, are unknown.
+It is never either spring, summer, or autumn, but each day is a
+combination of all three. The mean annual temperature of Quito is 58 deg..8,
+the same as Madrid, or as the month of May in Paris. The average range
+in twenty-four hours is about 10 deg.. The coldest hour is 6 A.M.; the
+warmest between 2 and 3 P.M. The extremes in a year are 45 deg. and 70 deg.;
+those of Moscow are-38 deg. and 89 deg.. It is a prevalent opinion that since
+the great earthquake of 1797 the temperature has been lower. "It was
+suddenly reduced (says the _Encycl. Metropolitana_) from 66 deg. or 68 deg. to
+40 deg. or 45 deg."--a manifest error. The natives say that since the
+_terremote_ of 1859 the seasons have not commenced so regularly, nor are
+they so well defined; there are more rainy days in summer than before.
+It remains to be seen whether the late convulsion has affected the
+climate.
+
+[Footnote 34: In the mountain-town of Caxamarca, farther south, there
+were living in 1792 seven persons aged 114, 117, 121, 131, 132, 141, and
+147. One of them, when he died, left behind him eight hundred living
+descendants to mourn his loss. We confess, however, that we saw very few
+old persons in Quito. Foreigners outlive the natives, because they live
+a more regular and temperate life.]
+
+The mean diurnal variation of the barometer is only .084. So regular is
+the oscillation, as likewise the variations of the magnetic needle, that
+the hour may be known within fifteen minutes by the barometer or
+compass. Such is the clock-like order of Nature under the equator, that
+even the rains, the most irregular of all meteorological phenomena in
+temperate zones, tell approximately the hour of the day. The winds, too,
+have an orderly march--the ebb and flow of an aerial ocean. No wonder
+watch-tinkers can not live where all the forces in nature keep time.
+Nobody talks about the weather; conversation begins with benedictions or
+compliments.
+
+The greatest variations of the thermometer occur in autumn, and the
+greatest quantity of rain falls in April.[35] While on the western side
+of the Andes, south of the equator, the dry season extends from June to
+January, on the eastern side of the Cordillera the seasons are reversed,
+the rain lasting from March to November. The climate of the central
+valley is modified by this opposition of seasons on either side of it,
+as also by the proximity of snowy peaks. Nine such peaks stand around
+Quito within a circle of thirty miles. The prevailing winds in summer
+are from the northeast; in the winter the southwest predominate.
+
+[Footnote 35:
+
+The mean annual fall of rain at Quito is 70 inches.
+     "     "     "       "      Charleston is 45.9 inches.
+     "     "     "       "      New York is 42.23     "
+     "     "     "       "      Albany is 40.93       "
+     "     "     "       "      Montreal is 36        "
+     "     "     "       "      Madrid is 10.         "
+
+]
+
+There are only three small drug-stores in the great city of Quito. The
+serpent is used as the badge of apothecary art. Physicians have no
+offices, nor do they, as a general rule, call upon their patients. When
+an invalid is not able to go to the doctor, he is expected to die.
+Yellow fever, cholera, and consumption are unknown; while intermittent
+fevers, dysentery, and liver complaints, so prevalent on the coast, are
+uncommon. The ordinary diseases are catarrhal affections and typhoid
+fever. Cases of inflammation of the lungs are rare; more coughing may be
+heard during a Sunday service in a New England meeting-house than in six
+months in Quito. The diseases to which the monks of St. Bernard are
+liable are pulmonary, and the greater number become asthmatic. Asthma is
+also common in Quito, while phthisis increases as we descend to the sea.
+Individuals are often seen with a handkerchief about the jaws, or bits
+of plaster on the temples; these are afflicted with headache or
+toothache, resulting from a gratified passion for sweetmeats, common to
+all ages and classes. Digestive disorders are somewhat frequent
+(contrary to the theory in Europe), but they spring from improper food
+and sedentary habits. The _cuisine_ of the country does not tempt the
+stomach to repletion, and the climate is decidedly peptic. So the
+typhoid fever of Quito is due to filth, poor diet, and want of
+ventilation. Corpulency, especially among the men, is astonishingly
+rare.
+
+According to Dr. Lombard, mountain districts favor the development of
+diseases of the heart; and contagious diseases are not arrested by the
+atmosphere of lofty regions. This is true in Quito. But while nervous
+diseases are rare in the inhabited highlands of Europe, in Quito they
+are common. Sleep is said to be more tranquil and refreshing, and the
+circulation more regular at high altitudes; but our experience does not
+sustain this. Goitre is quite common among the mountains. It is a sign
+of constitutional weakness, for the children of goitred parents are
+usually deaf and dumb, and the succeeding generation idiots.
+Boussingault thinks it is owing to the lack of atmospheric air in the
+water; but why is it nearly confined to the women? In the southern
+provinces about Cuenca, cutaneous affections are quite frequent. In the
+highlands generally, scrofulous diseases are more common than in the
+plains. There are three hospitals for lepers; one at Cuenca with two
+hundred patients, one at Quito with one hundred and twelve patients, and
+one at Ambato. Near Riobamba is a community of dwarfs.
+
+D'Orbigny made a _post-mortem_ examination of some Indians from the
+highest regions, and found the lungs of extraordinary dimensions, the
+cells larger and more in number. Hence the unnatural proportion of the
+trunk, which is plainly out of harmony with the extremities. The
+expanded chest of the mountaineers is evidently the result of larger
+inspirations to secure the requisite amount of oxygen, which is much
+less in a given space at Quito than on the coast. This is an instance,
+observes Prichard, of long-continued habit, and the result of external
+agencies modifying the structure of the body, and with it the state of
+the most important functions of life. We tried the experiment of burning
+a candle one hour at Guayaquil, and another part of the same candle for
+the same period at Quito. Temperature at Guayaquil, 80 deg.; at Quito, 62 deg..
+The loss at Guayaquil was 140 grains; at Quito, 114, or 26 grains less
+at the elevation of 9500 feet. Acoustics will also illustrate the
+thinness of the air. M. Godin found (1745) that a nine-pounder could not
+be heard at the distance of 121,537 feet; and that an eight-pounder at
+Paris, at the distance of 102,664 feet, was louder than a nine-pounder
+at Quito at the distance of 67,240 feet.
+
+According to Dr. Archibald Smith, the power of muscular exertion in a
+native of the coast is greatly increased by living at the height of
+10,000 feet. But it is also asserted by observing travelers that dogs
+and bulls lose their combativeness at 12,000 feet, and that hence there
+can never be a good bull-fight or dog-fight on the Sierras. This is
+literally true: the dogs seem to partake of the tameness of their
+masters. Cats do not flourish at all in high altitudes; and probably the
+lion, transplanted from the low jungle to the table-lands, would lose
+much of his ferocity. Still, cock-fights seem to prosper; and the battle
+of Pichincha was fought on an elevation of nearly 11,000 feet. Bolivar
+and the Spaniards, also, fought like tigers on the high plain of
+Junin.[36]
+
+[Footnote 36: Gibbon states that the temperature of the blood of a young
+bull in Cuzco was 100 deg.; air, 57 deg.. At the base of the Andes a similar
+experiment resulted in 101 deg. for the blood, air 78 deg.. The lieutenant
+jocosely adds: "The Spaniards have forced the hog so high up on the
+Andes that he suffers every time he raises his bristles, and dies out of
+place."--Puna has been attributed to the presence of arsenical vapor.]
+
+The sickness felt by some travelers at great elevations--violent
+headache and disposition to vomit--is called _veta_; and the difficulty
+of breathing from the rarity of the air is termed _puna_. Gerard
+complained of severe headache and depression of spirits at the height of
+15,000 feet on the Himalayas; Dr. Barry, in ascending Mont Blanc (15,700
+feet), speaks of great thirst, great dryness and constriction of skin,
+loss of appetite, difficult breathing, tendency to syncope, and utter
+indifference. Baron Mueller, in his ascent of Orizava (17,800 feet),
+found great difficulty in breathing, and experienced the sensation of a
+red-hot iron searing his lungs, and agonizing pains in the chest,
+followed by fainting-fits and torrents of blood from his mouth;
+Humboldt, in scaling Chimborazo, suffered from nausea akin to
+sea-sickness, and a flow of blood from the nose and lips; while Herndon,
+on the slope of Puy-puy (15,700 feet), said he thought his heart would
+break from his breast with its violent agitation. Though ascending the
+Andes to the height of 16,000 feet, and running up the last few rods, we
+experienced nothing of this except a temporary difficulty in
+respiration. We were exhilarated rather than depressed. The experience
+of Darwin on the Portillo ridge (14,000 feet) was only "a slight
+tightness across the head and chest." "There was some imagination even
+in this (he adds); for, upon finding fossil shells on the highest ridge,
+I entirely forgot the puna in my delight." De Saussure says truly: "The
+strength is repaired as speedily as it has been exhausted. Merely a
+cessation of movement for three or four minutes, without even seating
+one's self, seems to restore the strength so perfectly that, on resuming
+progress, one feels able to climb at a single stretch to the very peak
+of the mountain."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+     Astronomic Virtues of Quito.--Flora and Fauna of the Valley of
+     Quito.--Primeval Inhabitants of the Andes.--Quichua Indians.
+
+
+Quito, with a position unparalleled for astronomical purposes, has no
+observatory. The largest telescope in the city is about five feet long,
+but the astute professor of natural philosophy in the Jesuit College who
+has charge of it had not the most distant idea that an eclipse of the
+sun would occur on the 29th of August, and an eclipse of the moon
+fifteen days later. In ancient days this "holy city" had within it the
+Pillar of the Sun, which cast no shadow at noon, and a temple was built
+for the god of light. The title of the sovereign Inca was the Child of
+the Sun; but there was very little knowledge of astronomy, for, being
+the national religion, it was beyond the reach of scientific
+speculation.
+
+The atmosphere of Quito is of transparent clearness. Humboldt saw the
+poncho of a horseman with the naked eye at a horizontal distance of
+ninety thousand feet. The sky is of a dark indigo color; the azure is
+less blended with white because of the extreme dryness of the air. The
+stars stand out with uncommon brilliancy, and the dark openings between
+them the great German compared to "tubes through which we look into the
+remotest depths of space." It is true at Quito, as Humboldt noticed at
+Cumana, that the stars do not twinkle when they are more than fifteen
+degrees high; "the soft planetary light" of the stars overhead is not
+mere rhetoric.
+
+Living under the equatorial line, Quitonians enjoy the peculiar
+privilege of beholding the stars of both hemispheres, the guiding stars
+of Ursa Major as well as the Magellanic Clouds and Southern Cross, not
+omitting that black spot near the latter, "the unappropriated region in
+the skies reserved by Manager Bingham for deposed American presidents."
+
+The zodiacal light here appears in all its glory. This strange
+phenomenon has long puzzled philosophers, and they are still divided. It
+is generally considered to be produced by a continuous zone of
+infinitesimal asteroids. The majority place this zone beyond the orbit
+of the earth, and concentric with the sun. But Rev. George Jones, of
+Philadelphia, who has spent several years in observing this light,
+including eight months in Quito, considers it geocentric, and possibly
+situated between the earth and its satellite. At New York only a short
+pyramidal light, and this only at certain seasons, is to be seen; but
+here, an arch twenty degrees wide, and of considerable intensity, shoots
+up to the zenith, and Mr. Jones affirms that a complete arch is visible
+at midnight when the ecliptic is at right angles to the spectator's
+horizon. We have not been so fortunate as to see it pass the zenith; and
+Professor Barnard contends that it never does pass. We may remark that
+the main part of the zodiacal light shifts to the south side of the
+celestial equator as we cross the line. To us the most magnificent sight
+in the tropical heavens is the "Milky Way," especially near Sobieski's
+Shield, where it is very luminous. We observed that this starry tract
+divided at [Greek: a] Centauri, as Herschel says, and not at [Greek: b],
+as many maps and globes have it. The brightest stars in the southern
+hemisphere follow the direction of a great circle passing through
+[Greek: e] Orionis and [Greek: a] Crucis.
+
+Another thing which arrests the attention of the traveler is the
+comparatively well-defined boundary-line between day and night. The
+twilight at Quito lasts only an hour and a half; on the coast it is
+still shorter. Nor is there any "harvest moon," the satellite rising
+with nearly equal intervals of forty-eight minutes.
+
+From the stars we step down to the floral kingdom on the Andes, using as
+our ladder of descent the following sentence from Humboldt, at the age
+of seventy-five: "If I might be allowed to abandon myself to the
+recollections of my own distant travels, I would instance among the most
+striking scenes of nature the calm sublimity of a tropical night, when
+the stars--not sparkling, as in our Northern skies--shed their soft and
+planetary light over the gently heaving ocean; or I would recall the
+deep valleys of the Cordilleras, where the tall and slender palms pierce
+the leafy veil around them, and wave on high their feathery and
+arrow-like branches."
+
+Father Velasco praises Ecuador as "the noblest portion of the New
+World." Nature has doubtless gifted it with capabilities unsurpassed by
+those of any other country. Situated on the equinoctial line, and
+embracing within its limits some of the highest as well as lowest dry
+land on the globe, it presents every grade of climate, from the
+perpetual summer on the coast and in the Orient to the everlasting
+winter of the Andean summits, while the high plateau between the
+Cordilleras enjoys an eternal spring. The vegetable productions are
+consequently most varied and prolific. Tropical, temperate, and arctic
+fruits and flowers are here found in profusion, or could be successfully
+cultivated. As the Ecuadorian sees all the constellations of the
+firmament, so Nature surrounds him with representatives of every family
+of plants. There are places where the eye may embrace an entire zone,
+for it may look up to a barley-field and potato-patch, and down to the
+sugar-cane and pine-apple.
+
+Confining our attention to the Quito Valley, we remark that the whole
+region from Pichincha to Chimborazo is as treeless as Palestine. The
+densest forest is near Banos. The most common tree is the "Aliso"
+(_Betula acuminata_). Walnut is the best timber. There are no pines or
+oaks.[37] The slopes of the mountains, between twelve and fifteen
+thousand feet, are clothed with a shrub peculiar to the high altitudes
+of the Andes, called _Chuquiragua_. This is a very valuable shrub; the
+twigs are used for fuel, and the yellow buds as a febrifuge. The
+castor-oil-tree grows naturally by the road side, sometimes to the
+height of twelve feet.
+
+[Footnote 37: On the Himalayas are oaks, birches, pines, chestnuts,
+maples, junipers, and willows; no tree-ferns, bamboos, or palms.]
+
+A very useful as well as the most ordinary plant in the valley is the
+American aloe, or "Century Plant."[38] It is the largest of all herbs.
+Not naturally social, it imparts a melancholy character to the landscape
+as it rises solitary out of the arid plain. Most of the roads are fenced
+with aloe hedges. While the majority of tropical trees have naked stems
+with a crown of leaves on the top, the aloe reverses this, and looks
+like a great chandelier as its tall peduncle, bearing greenish-yellow
+flowers, rises out of a graceful cluster of long, thick, fleshy leaves.
+When cultivated, the aloe flowers in much less time than a century; but,
+exhausted by the efflorescence, it soon dies. Nearly every part serves
+some purpose; the broad leaves are used by the poorer class instead of
+paper in writing, or for thatching their huts; sirup flows out of the
+leaves when tapped, and, as they contain much alkali, a soap (which
+lathers with salt water as well as fresh) is also manufactured from
+them; the flowers make excellent pickles; the flower-stalk is used in
+building; the pith of the stem is used by barbers for sharpening razors;
+the fibres of the leaves and the roots are woven into sandals and sacks;
+and the sharp spines are used as needles. A species of yucca, resembling
+the aloe, but with more slender leaves and of a lighter green, yields
+the hemp of Ecuador.
+
+[Footnote 38: The _Agava Americana_ of botanists, _cabulla_ of
+Ecuadorians, _maguey_ of Venezuelans, and _metl_ of Mexicans. It is an
+interesting fact, brought to light by the researches of Carl Neuman,
+that the Chinese in the fifth century passed over to America by way of
+the Aleutian Islands, and penetrated as far south as Mexico, which they
+called the land of _fusung_, that being the celestial name of the aloe.
+Terzozomoc, the high-priest of the ancient Mexicans, gave aloe leaves,
+inscribed with sacred characters, to persons who had to journey among
+the volcanoes, to protect them from injury.]
+
+The "crack fruit" of Quito, and, in fact, of South America, is the
+chirimoya.[39] Its taste is a happy mixture of sweetness and acidity.
+Hanke calls it "a masterwork of Nature," and Markham pronounces it "a
+spiritualized strawberry." It grows on a tree about fifteen feet high,
+having a broad, flat top, and very fragrant flowers. The ripe fruit,
+often attaining in Peru the weight of sixteen pounds, has a thick green
+skin, and a snow-white pulp containing about seventy black seeds. Other
+pomological productions are alligator pears, guavas, guayavas,
+granadillas, cherries (a small black variety), peaches (very poor),
+pears (equally bad), plums, quinces, lemons, oranges (not native),
+blackberries, and strawberries (large, but flavorless).[40] The
+cultivation of the grape has just commenced. Of vegetables there are
+onions (in cookery, "the first, and last, and midst, and without end"),
+beets, carrots, asparagus, lettuce, cabbages, turnips, tomatoes
+(indigenous, but inferior to ours), potatoes (also indigenous, but much
+smaller than their descendants),[41] red peppers, peas (always picked
+ripe, while green ones are imported from France!), beans, melons,
+squashes, and mushrooms. The last are eaten to a limited extent; Terra
+del Fuego, says Darwin, is the only country in the world where a
+cryptogamic plant affords a staple article of food.
+
+[Footnote 39: Bollaert derives the name from _chiri_ (cold) and _muhu_
+(seed).]
+
+[Footnote 40: Dr. Jameson has found the following species of _Rubus_ in
+the valley of Quito: _macrocarpus_, _stipularis_, _glabratus_,
+_compactus_, _glaucus_, _rosaeflorus_, _loxensis_, _urticaefolius_,
+_floribundus_, and _nubigenus_. The common strawberry, _Fragaria
+vesca_, grows in the valley, as also the _Chilensis_.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Lieutenant Gilliss praises the potatoes of Peru, but we
+saw no specimens in Ecuador worthy of note. The "Irish potato" is a
+native of the Andes. It was unknown to the early Mexicans. It grows as
+far south on this continent as lat. 50 deg.. The Spaniards carried the
+potato to Europe from Quito early in the sixteenth century. From Spain
+it traveled to Italy, Belgium, and Germany. Sir Walter Raleigh imported
+some from Virginia in 1586, and planted them on his estate near Cork,
+Ireland. It is raised in Asiatic countries only where Europeans have
+settled, and for their consumption. It is successfully grown in
+Australia and New Zealand, where there is no native esculent farinaceous
+root. Von Tschudi says there is no word in Quichua for potato. It is
+called _papa_ by the Napos.]
+
+The most important grains are barley, red wheat, and corn, with short
+ears, and elongated kernels of divers colors. Near the coast three crops
+of corn a year are obtained; at Quito it is of slower growth, but
+fuller. The sugar-cane is grown sparingly in the valley, but chiefly on
+the Pacific coast. Its home is Polynesia. Quito consumes about one
+hundred and fifty barrels of flour daily. The best sells for four
+dollars a quintal. The common fodder for cattle is alfalfa, an imported
+lucerne. There is no clover except a wild, worthless, three-leaved
+species (_Trifolium amabile_). Nearly all in the above list are
+cultivated for home consumption only, and many valuable fruits and
+vegetables which would grow well are unknown to Quitonians. As Bates
+says of the Brazilians, the incorrigible nonchalance and laziness of the
+people alone prevent them from surrounding themselves with all the
+luxuries of a temperate as well as tropical country.
+
+It would be an endless task to speak of the flowers. It must suffice to
+state that a _Synopsis Plantarum AEquatoriensium_, the life-work of the
+venerable Professor Jameson, of the University of Quito, has just been
+published by the tardy government. Botanists will find in these two
+small volumes many new species unknown to American science, and others
+more correctly described by one who has dwelt forty years among the
+Andes. The last zone of vegetation nearest the snow-line consists
+chiefly of yellow-flowering _Compositae_. In fact, this family includes
+one fourth of the plants in the immediate vicinity of Quito. The next
+most numerous family is the _Labiatae_, and then follow _Leguminosae_ and
+_Gentians_. Although the _Rosaceae_ is represented, there is not one
+species of the genus _Rosa_ not even in the whole southern hemisphere.
+The magnificent _Befaria_, found in the lower part of the valley, is
+called "the Rose of the Andes." Fuchsias may be considered
+characteristic of South America, since they are so numerous; only one or
+two kinds occur in any other part of the world. Flowers are found in
+Quito all the year round, but the most favorable months are December and
+May. Yellow is the predominating color. The higher the altitude, the
+brighter the hues of any given species. Thus the _Gentiana sedifolia_ is
+a small, light blue flower in the lowlands, but on the Assuay it has
+bright blue petals three times as large and sensitive. This accords with
+Herschel's statement: "The chemical rays of the spectrum are powerfully
+absorbed in passing through the atmosphere, and the effect of their
+greater abundance aloft is shown in the superior brilliancy of color in
+the flowers of Alpine regions."
+
+America is plainly the continent of vegetation; and wherever the
+vegetable element predominates, the animal is subordinated. We must not
+look, therefore, for a large amount or variety of animal life in the
+Ecuadorian forests. Time was when colossal megatheroids, mastodons, and
+glyptodons browsed on the foliage of the Andes and the Amazon; but now
+the terrestrial mammals of this tropical region are few and diminutive.
+They are likewise old-fashioned, inferior in type as well as bulk to
+those of the eastern hemisphere, for America was a finished continent
+long before Europe. "It seems most probable (says Darwin) that the North
+American elephants, mastodons, horse, and hollow-horned ruminants
+migrated, on land since submerged near Behring's Straits, from Siberia
+into North America, and thence, on land since submerged in the West
+Indies, into South America, where for a time they mingled with the forms
+characteristic of that southern continent, and have since become
+extinct."[42] The rise of the Mexican table-land split up the New World
+into two well-defined zoological provinces. A few species, as the puma,
+peccari, and opossum, have crossed the barrier; but South America is
+characterized by possessing a family of monkeys, the llama, tapir, many
+peculiar rodents, and several genera of edentates.
+
+[Footnote 42: _Journal of Researches_, p. 132.]
+
+The tapir, the largest native quadruped, is sometimes found on the
+mountains, but never descends into the Quito Valley. A link between the
+elephant and hog, its true home is in the lowlands. The tapir and
+peccari (also found on the Andean slopes) are the only indigenous
+pachyderms in South America, while the llama[43] and deer (both
+abounding in the valley) are the only native ruminants; there is not one
+native hollow-horned ruminant on the continent. The llama is the only
+native domesticated animal; indeed, South America never furnished any
+other animal serviceable to man: the horse, ox, hog, and sheep (two,
+four, and six-horned), are importations. Of these animals, which
+rendered such important aid in the early civilization of Asia and
+Europe, the genera even were unknown in South America four centuries
+ago; and to-day pure Indians with difficulty acquire a taste for beef,
+mutton, and pork. The llama is still used as a beast of burden; but it
+seldom carries a quintal more than twelve miles a day. The black bear of
+the Andes ascends as high as Mont Blanc, and is rarely found below three
+thousand five hundred feet. The puma, or maneless American lion, has an
+immense range, both in latitude and altitude, being found from Oregon to
+the Straits of Magellan, and nearly up to the limit of eternal snow. It
+is as cowardly as the jaguar of the lowlands is ferocious. It is a very
+silent animal, uttering no cry even when wounded. Its flesh, which is
+very white, and remarkably like veal in taste, is eaten in Patagonia.
+Squirrels, hares, bats (a small species), opossums, and a large
+guinea-pig (_Cuye del Monte_), are found in the neighborhood of Quito.
+
+[Footnote 43: The llama, or "mountain-camel" is a beautiful animal, with
+long, slender neck and fine legs, a graceful carriage, pointed ears,
+soft, restless eyes, and quivering lips. It has a gentle disposition;
+but when angry it will spit, and when hurt will shed tears. We have seen
+specimens entirely white; but it is generally dark brown, with patches
+of white. It requires very little food and drink. Since the introduction
+of horses, asses, and mules, the rearing of llamas has decreased. They
+are more common in Peru. The llama, guanaco, alpaca, and vicuna were
+"the four sheep of the Incas:" the first clothing the common people, the
+second the nobles, the third the royal governors, the fourth the Incas.
+The price of sheep's wool in Quito was formerly four cents a pound; it
+is now twelve.]
+
+As only about sixty species of birds are common to North and South
+America, the traveler from the United States recognizes few ornithic
+forms in the Valley of Quito. Save the hummers, beautiful plumage is
+rare, as well as fine songsters. But the moment we descend the Eastern
+Cordillera into the interior of the continent, we find the feathered
+race in robes of richest colors. The exact cause of this brilliant
+coloring in the tropics is still a problem. It can not be owing to
+greater light and heat, for the birds of the Galapagos Islands, directly
+under the equator, are dull.[44]
+
+[Footnote 44: Mr. Gould, however, holds that the difference of
+coloration is due to the different degrees of exposure to the sun's
+rays, the brilliantly-colored species being inhabitants of the edges of
+the forest. Birds from Ucayali, in the centre of the continent, are far
+more splendid than those which represent them in countries nearer the
+sea, owing to the clearer atmosphere inland. But it is a fact, at least
+exceptional to this theory, that the "Cock of the Rock" (Rupicola) on
+the western side of the Andes (Esmeraldas) is of a richer, deeper color
+than the same species on the eastern slope (Napo). In keeping with Mr.
+Gould's theory is the statement by Mr. Bates, that the most gaudy
+butterflies (the males) flutter in the sunshine.]
+
+The males, both of birds and butterflies, are the most gaudily dressed.
+In the highlands the most prominent birds are the condor and the
+humming-bird. These two extremes in size are found side by side on the
+summit of Pichincha. The condor appears in its glory among the mountains
+of Quito. Its ordinary haunt is at the height of Etna. No other living
+creature can remove at pleasure to so great a distance from the earth;
+and it seems to fly and respire as easily under the low barometric
+pressure of thirteen inches as at the sea-shore. It can dart in an
+instant from the dome of Chimborazo to the sultry coast of the Pacific.
+It has not the kingly port of the eagle, and is a cowardly robber: a
+true vulture, it prefers the relish of putrescence and the flavor of
+death. It makes no nest, but lays two eggs on a jutting ledge of some
+precipice, and fiercely defends them. The usual spread of wings is nine
+feet. It does not live in pairs like the eagle, but feeds in flocks like
+its loathsome relative, the buzzard. It is said to live forty days
+without food in captivity, but at liberty it is very voracious. The
+usual method of capture is to kill an old mare (better than horse, the
+natives say), and allow the bird to gorge himself, when he becomes so
+sluggish as to be easily lassoed. It is such a heavy sleeper, it is
+possible to take it from its roost. The evidences in favor of and
+against its acute smelling powers are singularly balanced. For reasons
+unknown, the condor does not range north of Darien, though it extends
+its empire through clouds and storms to the Straits of Magellan. In the
+Inca language it was called _cuntur_, and was anciently an object of
+worship. The condor, gallinazo, turkey-buzzard, and caracara eagle (says
+Darwin) "in their habits well supply the place of our carrion crows,
+magpies, and ravens--a tribe of birds widely distributed over the rest
+of the world, but entirely absent in South America." The condor appears
+on the gold coins of New Granada and Chile. Of _Trochilidae_ there are
+hosts. The valley swarms with these "winged jewels" of varied hues, from
+the emerald green of Pichincha to the white of Chimborazo. They build
+long, purse-like nests by weaving together fine vegetable fibres and
+lichens, and thickly lining them with silk-cotton. In this delicate
+cradle, suspended from a branch, the female lays two eggs, which are
+hatched in about twelve days. The eggs are invariably white, with one
+exception, those of a species on the Upper Amazon, which are spotted.
+The young have much shorter bills than their parents. The humming-bird
+is exclusively American: the nearest form in the Old World is the
+nectarinia, or sunbird. Other birds most commonly seen in the valley
+are: _Cyanocitta turcosa_ (Jay), _Poecilothraupis atrierissa_,
+_Pheuticus chrysogaster_, _Chlorospingus superciliaris_, _Buthraupis
+chloronata_, _Tanagra Darwini_, _Dubusia selysia_, _Buarremon
+latinuchus_, and _B. assimilis_. The only geese in the valley are a few
+imported from Europe by Senor Aguirre, of Chillo, and these refuse to
+propagate.
+
+Reptiles are so rare in the highlands the class can hardly be said to be
+represented. During a residence of nearly three months in the Quito
+Valley we saw but one snake.[45] Nevertheless, we find the following
+sentence in such a respectable book as Bohn's Hand-book of Modern
+Geography: "The inhabitants of Quito are dreadfully tormented by
+reptiles, which it is scarcely possible to keep out of the beds!" Of
+frogs there are not enough to get up a choir, and of fishes there is
+but one solitary species, about a finger long.[46] The entomology of
+Quito is also brief, much to the satisfaction of travelers from the
+insectiferous coast. Musquitoes and bedbugs do not seem to enjoy life at
+such an altitude, and jiggers[47] and flies are rare. Fleas, however,
+have the hardihood to exist and bite in the summer months, and if you
+attend an Indian fair you will be likely to feel something "gently o'er
+you creeping." But fleas and lice are the only blood-thirsty animals, so
+that the great Valley of Quito is an almost painless paradise. Of
+beetles and butterflies there are a few species, the latter belonging
+for the most part to the familiar North American genera _Pyrameis_ and
+_Colias_. At Vinces, on the coast, we found the pretty brown butterfly,
+_Anartia Jatrophae_, which ranges from Texas to Brazil. A light-colored
+coleopter is eaten roasted by the inhabitants. The cochineal is raised
+in the southern part of the valley, particularly in Guananda, at the
+foot of Tunguragua, where the small, flat-leaved cactus (_Opuntia
+tuna_), on which, the insect feeds, is extensively cultivated. The male
+is winged, but the female is stationary, fixed to the cactus, and is of
+a dark brown color. It takes seventy thousand to make a pound, which is
+sold in the valley for from sixty cents to $3. The best cochineal comes
+from Teneriffe, where it was introduced from Honduras in 1835. The
+silk-worm is destined to work a revolution in the finances of Ecuador;
+Quito silk gained a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition. No bees are
+hived in the republic; the people seem to be content with treacle. The
+Italian species would undoubtedly thrive here. The bees of Ecuador, like
+all the bees of the New World, are inferior to those of the Old World.
+Their cells are not perfectly hexagonal, and their stings are
+undeveloped. They are seldom seen feeding on flowers. Mollusca in the
+Quito Valley are not great in number or variety. They belong principally
+to the genera _Bulimus_, _Cyclostoma_, and _Helix_. The first is as
+characteristic of the Southern Continent as _Helix_ of the North and
+_Achatina_ of Africa.
+
+[Footnote 45: _Herpetodryas carinatus_, which we observed also at
+Guayaquil and on the Maranon. We procured two or three species from the
+natives, and several new forms from Pallatanga, on the west slope.]
+
+[Footnote 46: _Antelopus laevis_ at Ambato, and _A. longirostris_, a new
+species from Antisana Hacienda, were the only frogs noticed. The little
+fish is _Pimelodes cyclopum_ (prenadilla of the Spaniards, _imba_ of the
+Indians), the same that was thrown out in the eruptions of Imbabura and
+Caraguairazo.]
+
+[Footnote 47: The jigger, chigoe, or nigua (_Pulex penetrans_ of
+science) is a microscopic flea, that buries itself under the skin and
+lays a myriad eggs; the result is a painful tumor. Jiggers are almost
+confined to sandy places.]
+
+From the animal creation we mount by a short step to the imbruted
+Indian. When and by whom the Andes were first peopled is a period of
+darkness that lies beyond the domain of history. But geology and
+archaeology are combining to prove that Sorata and Chimborazo have looked
+down upon a civilization far more ancient than that of the Incas, and
+perhaps coeval with the flint-flakes of Cornwall, and the shell-mounds
+of Denmark. On the shores of Lake Titicaca are extensive ruins which
+antedate the advent of Manco Capac, and may be as venerable as the
+lake-dwellings of Geneva. Wilson has traced six terraces in going up
+from the sea through the province of Esmeraldas toward Quito; and
+underneath the living forest, which is older than the Spanish invasion,
+many gold, copper, and stone vestiges of a lost population were found.
+In all cases these relics are situated below high-tide mark, in a bed of
+marine sediment, from which he infers that this part of the country
+formerly stood higher above the sea. If this be true, vast must be the
+antiquity of these remains, for the upheaval and subsidence of the coast
+is exceedingly slow.
+
+Philology can aid us little in determining the relations of the primeval
+Quitonians, for their language is nearly obscured by changes introduced
+by the Caras, and afterward by the Incas, who decreed that the Quichua,
+the language of elegance and fashion three hundred years ago, should be
+the universal tongue throughout the empire.[48] Quichua is to-day spoken
+from the equator to 28 deg. S. (except by the Aymara people), or by nearly a
+million and a half. We found it used, corrupted, however, by Spanish, at
+the month of the Napo. There are five dialects, of which the purest is
+spoken in Cuzco, and the most impure in Quito. The Indians of the
+northern valley are descendants of the ancient Quitus, modified by Cara
+and Peruvian blood. They have changed little since the invasion of
+Pizarro. They remember their glory under the Incas, and when they steal
+any thing from a white man, they say they are not guilty of theft, as
+they are only taking what originally belonged to them. Some see in their
+sacred care of Incarial relics a lingering hope to regain their
+political life. We noticed that the pure mountaineers, without a trace
+of Spanish adulteration, wore a black poncho underneath, and we were
+informed by one well acquainted with their customs that this was in
+mourning for the Inca. We attended an Indian masquerade dance at
+Machachi, which seemed to have an historical meaning. It was performed
+in full view of that romantic mountain which bears the name of the last
+captain of Atahuallpa. There is a tradition that after the death of his
+chief, Ruminagui burned the capital, and, retiring with his followers to
+this cordillera, threw himself from the precipice. The masquerade at
+Machachi was evidently intended to keep alive the memory of the Incas.
+Three Indians, fantastically adorned with embroidered garments, plumed
+head-dresses, and gold and silver tinsel, representing Atahuallpa and
+his generals, danced to music of the rudest kind, one individual
+pounding on a drum and blowing on a pipe at the same time. Before them
+went three clowns, or _diablos_, with masks, fit caricatures of the
+Spaniards. Like all other Indian feasts, this ended in getting gradually
+and completely drunk. During the ceremony a troop of horsemen, gayly
+dressed, and headed by one in regimentals with a cocked hat, galloped
+twice around the Plaza, throwing oranges at the people; after which
+there was a bull-bait.
+
+[Footnote 48: "History (says Prescott) furnishes few examples of more
+absolute authority than such a revolution in the language of an empire
+at the bidding of a master." The pronunciation of Quichua requires a
+harsh, explosive utterance. Gibbon says the sound of it to him resembled
+Welsh or Irish; that of Aymara, English. The letters _b_, _d_, _f_, _g_,
+and _o_ are wanting in the ancient tongue of Quito; _p_ was afterward
+changed to _b_, _t_ to _d_, _v_ to _f_, _c_ to _g_, and _u_ to _o_: thus
+Chim-pu-razu is now Chimborazo. A few words bear a striking analogy to
+corresponding Sanscrit words; as _Ynti_, the Inca for sun, and _Indra_,
+the Hindoo god of the heavens.]
+
+The features of the Quichuans have a peculiar cast, which resembles, in
+D'Orbigny's opinion, no other American but the Mexican, and some
+ethnologists trace a striking similarity to the natives of Van Diemen's
+Land. They have an oblong head (longitudinally), somewhat compressed at
+the sides and occiput; short and very slightly arched forehead;
+prominent, long, aquiline nose, with large nostrils; large mouth, but
+not thick lips; beautiful enduring teeth; short chin, but not receding;
+cheek-bones not prominent; eyes horizontal, and never large; eyebrows
+long; thick, straight, coarse, yet soft jet black hair; little or no
+beard; a long, broad, deep, highly-arched chest; small hands and feet;
+short stature, seldom reaching five feet, and the women still shorter; a
+mulatto color (olive-brown says D'Orbigny, bronze says Humboldt), and a
+sad, serious expression. Their broad chests and square shoulders remind
+one of the gorilla; but we find that, unlike the anthropoid ape, they
+have very weak arms; their strength lies in their backs and legs. They
+have shrewdness and penetration, but lack independence and force. We
+never heard one sing.[49] Always submissive to your face, taking off
+his hat as he passes, and muttering, "Blessed be the altar of God," he
+is nevertheless very slow to perform. Soured by long ill treatment, he
+will hardly do any thing unless he is compelled. And he will do nothing
+well unless he is treated as a slave. Treat him kindly, and you make him
+a thief; whip him, and he will rise up to thank you and he your humble
+servant. A certain curate could never trust his Indian to carry
+important letters until he had given him twenty-five lashes. Servile and
+timid, superstitious and indolent, the Quichuans have not half the
+spirit of our North American Indians. It has passed into a proverb that
+"the Indian lives without shame, eats without repugnance, and dies
+without fear." Abject as they are, however, they are not wholly without
+wit. By a secret telegraph system, they will communicate between Quito
+and Riobamba in one hour. When there was a battle in Pasto, the Indians
+of Riobamba knew of it two hours after, though eighty leagues distant.
+
+[Footnote 49: Their favorite musical instrument is the _rondador_, a
+number of reeds of different lengths tied in a row. The "plaintive
+national songs" which Markham heard at Cuzco are not sung in Ecuador.]
+
+The civilization of South America three centuries ago was nearly
+confined to this Andean family, though they had attained only to the
+bronze period. In the milder character of their ancient religion and
+gentleness of disposition they are strongly distinguished from the
+nations that encircled the vale of Anahuac, the centre of civilization
+on the northern continent. But little of this former glory is now
+apparent. The Incas reached an astronomical knowledge which astonished
+the Spaniards, but the Quichuans of to-day count vaguely by moons and
+rains. Great is the contrast between the architecture of this century
+and that in the days of Huayna-Capac. There are few Incarial relics,
+however, in the Valley of Quito, for the Incas ruled there only half a
+century. The chief monuments are the tolas or mounds (mostly at
+Cuenca), containing earthen vessels and bronze hatchets and earrings;
+the _Inga-pirrca_, or oval fortress, and the _Intihuaicu_, or temple of
+the sun, near Canar; the _Inga-chungana_, a massive stone resembling a
+sofa, where the Inca reposed to enjoy the delightful prospect over the
+Valley of Gulan; and remnants of causeways and roads.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+     Geological History of South America.--Rise of the Andes.--Creation
+     of the Amazon.--Characteristic Features of the Continent.--Andean
+     Chain.--The Equatorial Volcanoes.
+
+
+Three cycles ago an island rose from the sea where now expands the vast
+continent of South America. It was the culminating point of the
+highlands of Guiana. For ages this granite peak was the solo
+representative of dry land in our hemisphere south of the Canada hills.
+In process of time, a cluster of islands rose above the thermal waters.
+They were the small beginnings of the future mountains of Brazil,
+holding in their laps the diamonds which now sparkle in the crown of Dom
+Pedro II. Long protracted eons elapsed without adding a page to the
+geology of South America. The Creator seems to have been busy elsewhere.
+Decorating the north with the gorgeous flora of the carboniferous
+period, till, in the language of Hugh Miller, "to distant planets our
+earth must have shone with a green and delicate ray," he rubbed the
+picture out, and ushered in the hideous reptilian age, when monstrous
+saurians, footed, paddled, and winged, were the lords of this lower
+world. All the great mountain chains were at this time slumbering
+beneath the ocean. The city of New York was sure of its site; but huge
+dinotheria wallowed in the mire where now stand the palaces of Paris,
+London, and Vienna.
+
+At length the morning breaks upon the last day of creation, and the fiat
+goes forth that the proud waves of the Pacific, which have so long
+washed the table-lands of Guiana and Brazil, shall be stayed. Far away
+toward the setting sun the white surf beats in long lines of foam
+against a low, winding archipelago--the western outline of the coming
+continent. Fierce is the fight for the mastery between sea and land,
+between the denuding power of the waves and the volcanic forces
+underneath. But slowly--very slowly, yet surely--rises the long chain of
+islands by a double process; the submarine crust of the earth is
+cooling, and the rocks are folded up as it shrivels, while the molten
+material within, pressed out through the crevices, overflows and helps
+to build up the sea-defiant wall. A man's life would be too short to
+count even the centuries consumed in this operation. The coast of Peru
+has risen eighty feet since it felt the tread of Pizarro: supposing the
+Andes to have risen at this rate uniformly and without interruption,
+seventy thousand years must have elapsed before they reached their
+present altitude. But when we consider that, in fact, it was an
+intermittent movement--alternate upheaval and subsidence--we must add an
+unknown number of millennia.
+
+Three times the Andes sank hundreds of feet beneath the ocean level, and
+again were slowly brought up to their present height. The suns of
+uncounted ages have risen and set upon these sculptured forms, though
+geologically recent, casting the same line of shadows century after
+century. A long succession of brute races roamed over the mountains and
+plains of South America, and died out ages ere man was created. In those
+pre-Adamite times, long before the Incas ruled, the mastodon and
+megatherium, the horse and the tapir, dwelt in the high valley of Quito;
+yet all these passed away before the arrival of the aborigines: the wild
+horses now feeding on the pampas of Buenos Ayres were imported from
+Europe three hundred and thirty-three years ago.[50]
+
+[Footnote 50: At Paita, the most western point of South America, there
+is a raised beach three hundred feet high. The basal slate and sandstone
+rocks, dipping S. of E., are covered by conglomerate, sand, and a
+gypseous formation, containing shells of living species. Additional to
+those described by D'Orbigny we found here _Cerithium laeviuscula_,
+_Ostrea gallus_, and _Ampullina Ortoni_, as determined by W.M. Gabb,
+Esq., of Philadelphia. Darwin found shells in Chile 1300 feet above the
+sea, covered with marine mud. President Loomis, of Lewisburg University,
+Pa., informs the writer, that in 1853, after nearly a day's ride from
+Iquique, he came to a former sea-beach. "It furnished abundant specimens
+of _Patellae_ and other shells, still perfect, and identical with others
+that I had that morning obtained at Iquique with the living animal
+inhabiting them." This beach is elevated 2500 feet above the Pacific.
+The same observer says that near Potosi there is one uninterrupted mass
+of lava, having a columnar structure, not less than one hundred miles in
+length, fifty miles wide, and eight hundred feet thick. It overlies a
+bed of saliferous sandstone which has been worked for salt. Fifty feet
+within a mine, and in the undisturbed rock which forms its roof, the
+doctor found fragments of dicotyledonous trees with the bark on,
+undecomposed, uncharred, and fibrous.]
+
+And now the Andes[51] stand complete in their present gigantic
+proportions, one of the grandest and most symmetrical mountain chains in
+the world. Starting from the Land of Fire, it stretches northward and
+mounts upward until it enters the Isthmus of Panama, where it bows
+gracefully to either ocean, but soon resumes, under another name, its
+former majesty, and loses its magnificence only where the trappers chase
+the fur-bearing animals over the Arctic plains. Nowhere else does Nature
+present such a continuous and lofty chain of mountains, unbroken for
+eight thousand miles, save where it is rent asunder by the Magellanic
+Straits, and proudly tossing up a thousand pinnacles into the region of
+eternal snow. Nowhere in the Old World do we see a single well-defined
+mountain chain, only a broad belt of mountainous country traversing the
+heart of the continent.
+
+[Footnote 51: The name Andes is often derived from _anta_, an old
+Peruvian word signifying metal. But Humboldt says: "There are no means
+of interpreting it by connecting it with any signification or idea; if
+such connection exist, it is buried in the obscurity of the past."
+According to Col. Tod, the northern Hindoos apply the name Andes to the
+Himalayan Mountains.]
+
+The moment the Andes arose, the great continental valley of the Amazon
+was sketched out and moulded in its lap. The tidal waves of the Atlantic
+were dashing against the Cordilleras, and a legion of rivulets were
+busily plowing up the sides into deep ravines; the sediment produced by
+this incessant wear and tear was carried eastward, and spread out
+stratum by stratum, till the shallow sea between the Andes and the
+islands of Guiana and Brazil was filled up with sand and clay. Huge
+glaciers (thinks Agassiz), afterward descending, moved over the inclined
+plane, and ground the loose rock to powder.[52] Eddies and currents,
+throwing up sand-banks as they do now, gradually defined the limits of
+the tributary streams, and directed them into one main trunk, which
+worked for itself a wide, deep bed, capable of containing its
+accumulated flood. Then and thus was created the Amazon.
+
+[Footnote 52: On this point see Chapter XVII.]
+
+In South America Nature has framed her works on a gigantic scale. Where
+else combined do we see such a series of towering mountains, such a
+volume of river-water, and such wide-spreading plains? We have no proper
+conception of Andine grandeur till we learn that the top of the tallest
+mountain in North America is nearly a mile beneath the untrodden dome of
+Chimborazo; nor any just view of the vast dimensions of the Amazonian
+Valley till we find that all the United States could be packed in it
+without touching its boundaries; nor any adequate idea of the Amazon
+itself till we ascertain that it drains a million square miles more than
+the Mississippi.
+
+South America is a triangular continent, with its axis, the Andes, not
+central, as in Europe, but lying on its extreme western edge, and in
+harmony with the well-known law that the highest mountains and the
+grandest volcanoes face the broadest ocean. The highlands of Brazil and
+Guiana have neither volcanic nor snow-clad peaks.[53] Like all the dry
+land which first appeared, these primitive mountains on the Atlantic
+border trend east and west. The result of this position is a triple
+river system--the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata, draining three immense
+plains--the llanos of Venezuela, the sylvas of Brazil, and the pampas of
+the Argentine Republic. The continuity and extent of these vast
+depressions are more remarkable even than the height and length of the
+mountain chains.[54]
+
+[Footnote 53: "The interior plateau of Brazil (says Dr. Lund) is
+composed of horizontal strata of the transition period, which are
+nowhere covered with the secondary or tertiary formations." The highest
+point in Brazil is 5755 feet. Darwin speaks of "some ancient submarine
+volcanic rocks (in the province of La Plata) worth mentioning, from
+their rarity on this eastern side of the continent." With the exception
+of the coast of Venezuela, the eastern system is little exposed to
+earthquakes.]
+
+[Footnote 54: These three plains constitute four fifths of all South
+America east of the Andes. The west slope of the Ecuadorian Andes is
+about 275 feet per mile; on the east it is 125 feet.]
+
+Such are the characteristic features of South America; they are not
+repeated in any other continent.[55] Not one feature could be changed
+without destroying those peculiarities of soil and climate which so
+remarkably distinguish South America. Its position on the equator places
+it in the path of the vapory trade winds, which continually sweep over
+it westward till they strike the Andes, which, like a great condenser,
+roll a thousand streams eastward again to feed the mighty Amazon. So
+effectual is that barrier, not a drop of moisture passes it, and the
+trade wind is not felt again on the Pacific till you are one hundred
+and fifty miles from the coast. Were the Andes on the Atlantic side,
+South America would be turned into a vast Sahara. As it is, the interest
+which attaches to this continent, save a few relics of the Incas, is
+exclusively that of pure nature. Nowhere does Nature affect us more
+deeply with the feeling of her grandeur; nowhere does she exhibit wilder
+freaks or more startling contrasts; nowhere do we find such a theatre
+for the free development of vegetable and animal life.
+
+[Footnote 55: There is, however, a striking coincidence between the
+mountain and river systems of the northern and southern continents of
+this hemisphere. Thus,
+
+The Andes represent the Rocky Mountains,
+ "  Highland of Guiana represent the Canadian Mountains.
+ "     "        Brazil     "         Appalachian  "
+ "              Amazon     "         Saskatchewan.
+ "              La Plata   "         Mississippi.
+ "              Orinoco    "         Mackenzie.
+
+]
+
+The long and lofty chain of the Andes is certainly one of the grandest
+results of the plications and uplifts of the earth's crust. While the
+waves of the Pacific, from Panama to Patagonia, submissively kiss the
+feet of the Andes, and the showers that swell the Amazon fall within
+sight of the mariner on that peaceful ocean, the Rocky Mountains are
+situated five hundred miles from the sea. The space west of the Andes
+does not contain 20,000 square leagues, while the country east of it
+equals 424,600. While the compact Andes have an average width of only
+sixty miles,[56] the straggling mountain system beyond the Mississippi
+has the breadth of the Empire State; but the mean elevation of the
+latter would scarcely reach the bottom of the Quito Valley. The
+mountains of Asia may surpass the Cordilleras in height, but, situated
+beyond the tropics, and destitute of volcanoes, they do not present that
+inexhaustible variety of phenomena which characterizes the latter. The
+outbursts of porphyry and trachytic domes, so characteristic of the high
+crests of the Cordilleras, impart a physiognomy quite distinct from that
+presented by the mountains of Europe. The Andes offer, in the least
+space, the greatest possible variety of impressions.[57] There is near
+Huanca, Peru, a coal-bed lifted up to the enormous height of 14,700
+feet, and on the side of Chimborazo there is a salt spring 13,000 feet
+above the sea. Marine shells have not been found in Europe above the
+summit of the Pyrenees, or 11,700 feet; but the Andes can show some a
+thousand feet higher. A strange sight, to see shells once crawling on
+the bottom of the ocean now resting at an elevation twice the height of
+Mount Washington!
+
+[Footnote 56: The width of the chain south of the equator varies with
+that of the continent.]
+
+[Footnote 57: "No mountains which I have seen in Hungary, Saxony, or the
+Pyrenees are as irregular as the Andes, or broken into such alternate
+substances, manifesting such prodigious revolutions of nature."--_Helms_.
+"More sublime than the Alps by their _ensemble_, the Andes lack those
+curious and charming details of which Nature has been so lavish in the
+old continent."--_Holinski_.]
+
+Beneath the Southern Cross, out of a sea perpetually swept by fearful
+gales, rise the rocky hills of Terra del Fuego. It is the starting-point
+of that granite chain which winds around the earth in a majestic curve,
+first northwesterly to the Arctic Sea, thence by the Aleutian and
+Japanese Isles to Asia, crossing the Old World southwesterly from China
+to South Africa.
+
+Skirting the bleak shores of Patagonia in a single narrow sierra, the
+Andes enter Chile, rising higher and higher till they culminate in the
+gigantic porphyritic peak of Aconcagua. At the boundary-line of Bolivia,
+the chain, which has so far followed a precise meridional direction,
+turns to the northwest, and, at the same time, separates into two
+Cordilleras, inclosing the great table-land of Desaguadero. This
+wonderful valley, the Thibet of the New World, has four times the area
+of New York State, and five times the elevation of the Catskill Mountain
+House. At one end of the valley, perched above the clouds, is silvery
+Potosi, the highest city in the world; at the other stands the once
+golden capital of Cuzco. Between them is Lake Titicaca[58] (probably an
+ancient crater), within which is an island celebrated as the cradle of
+the strange empire of Peru, which, though crushed by Pizarro in its
+budding civilization, ranks as the most extraordinary and extensive
+empire in the annals of American history. The Cordillera, of which
+Sahama, Sorata, and Illimani are the pinnacles, so completely inclose
+this high valley that not a drop of water can escape except by
+evaporation. At the silver mines of Pasco the Andes throw off a third
+cordillera, and with this triple arrangement and a lower altitude, enter
+the republic of Ecuador. There they resume the double line, and surpass
+their former magnificence. Twenty volcanoes, presided over by the
+princely Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a sublime congregation of
+mountains surrounding the famous valley of Quito. In New Granada there
+is a final and unique display of Andine grandeur: the Cordilleras
+combine just above the equator into one dizzy ridge, and then spread out
+like a fan, or, rather, like the graceful branches of the palm. One
+sierra bends to the east, holding in its lap the city of Bogota, and,
+rolling off a thousand streams to swell the Orinoco, terminates in the
+beautiful mountains of Caracas; the central range culminates in the
+volcanic Tolima,[59] but is soon lost in the Caribbean Sea; the western
+chain turns to the left, humbling itself as it threads the narrow
+isthmus, and expands into the level table-land of Mexico. You may cross
+Mexico from ocean to ocean in a carriage, but no wheeled vehicle ever
+crossed South America.
+
+[Footnote 58: This lake is the largest fresh-water accumulation in South
+America. It has diminished within the historic period. Its surface is
+12,795 feet above the Pacific, or higher than the highest peaks of the
+Pyrenees.]
+
+[Footnote 59: This is the loftiest summit of the Andes in the northern
+hemisphere, being 18,200 feet. It is also remarkable for being situated
+farther from the sea (120 miles) than any other active volcano.]
+
+[Illustration: Profiles of Ecuadorian Volcanoes
+
+10,000 ft. Chimborazo.
+
+10,000 ft. Cotopaxi.
+
+10,000 ft. Caraguairazo.
+
+10,000 ft. Pichincha.
+
+]
+
+We will now speak more particularly of the Andes of the equator. The
+mountain chain is built up of granite, gneissoid, and schistose rocks,
+often in vertical position, and capped with trachyte and porphyry.[60]
+Large masses of _solid_ rock are rarely seen; every thing is cracked,
+calcined, or triturated. While in Bolivia the Eastern Cordillera shows a
+succession of sharp, ragged peaks, in contrast with the conical summits
+of the Cordillera of the coast, there is no such distinction in the
+Andes of the equator.[61] The Eastern Cordillera has a greater mean
+height, and it displays more volcanic activity. Twenty volcanic
+mountains surround the valley, of which twelve are in the oriental
+chain. Three of the twenty are now active (Cotopaxi, Sangai, and
+Pichincha), and five others are known to have erupted since the Conquest
+(Chiles, Imbabura, Guamani, Tunguragua, and Quirotoa). The truncated
+cone of Cotopaxi, the jagged, Alpine crest of ruined Altar, and the dome
+of Chimborazo, are the representative forms of the volcanic summits. The
+extinct volcanoes usually have double domes or peaks, while the active
+peaks are slender cones. Antisana and Cayambi are fashioned after
+Chimborazo, though the latter is table-topped rather than convex;
+Caraguairazo, Quirotoa, Iliniza, Sincholagua, Ruminagui, and Corazon,
+resemble Altar; Tunguragua, Sangai, Llanganati, Cotocachi, Chiles, and
+Imbabura, imitate Cotopaxi; Pichincha, Atacatzo, and Guamani are
+irregular. The Ecuadorian volcanoes have rarely ejected liquid lava, but
+chiefly water, mud, ashes, and fragments of trachyte and porphyry.
+Cotopaxi alone produces pure, foam-like pumice, and glossy,
+translucent obsidian.[62] The paucity of quartz, and the absence of
+basalt, are remarkable. Some of the porphyroids are conglomerate, but
+the majority are true porphyries, having a homogeneous base. Dr. T.
+Sterry Hunt calls them porphyroid trachytes. They have a black, rarely
+reddish, vitreous, or impalpable base, approaching obsidian, with a
+specific gravity of 2.59 in pure specimens, and holding crystals or
+crystalline grains of glassy feldspar, and sometimes of pyroxene and
+hematite. They differ from the Old World porphyries in containing no
+quartz, and seldom mica.[63] D'Orbigny considers the porphyries of the
+Andes to have been ejected at the close of the cretaceous period, and
+formed the first relief of the Cordillera. The prevalence of trachyte
+shows that the products have cooled under feeble pressure.
+
+[Footnote 60: "As a general rule, whenever the mass of mountains rises
+much above the limit of perpetual snow, the primitive rocks disappear,
+and the summits are trachyte or trappean porphyry."--_Humboldt_. In
+general, "the great Cordilleras are formed of innumerable varieties of
+granites, gneiss, schists, hornblende, chloritic slates, porphyries,
+etc., and these rocks alternate with each other in meridional bands,
+which in the ridges frequently present the appearance of a radiated or
+fan-shaped structure, and under the plains are more or less
+vertical."--_Evan Hopkins, F.G.S_.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Von Tschudi makes the incorrect statement that "throughout
+the whole extent of South America there is not a single instance of the
+Western Cordillera being intersected by a river." Witness the
+Esmeraldas.]
+
+[Footnote 62: It is a singular fact that true trachyte, pumice, and
+obsidian are wanting in the volcanic Galapagos Islands, only 700 miles
+west of Pichincha.]
+
+[Footnote 63: As many of the crystals are partly fused, or have round
+angles, the porphyries were probably formed by the melting of a
+crystalline rock, the base becoming fused into a homogeneous material,
+while the less fusible crystals remain imbedded.--_Dr. Hunt_.]
+
+From the deluges of water lately thrown out have resulted deep furrows
+in the sides; and from the prevalence of the east wind, which is always
+met by the traveler on the crest of either Cordillera, there is a
+greater accumulation of ashes, and less snow on the west slope. Cotopaxi
+is a fine example of this. In Pichincha, Altar, and Ruminagua, however,
+the western wall is lowest, apparently broken down.[64] There is no
+synchronism in the eruptions of Cotopaxi and Pichincha. These volcanoes
+must have independent reservoirs, for the former is 3000 feet higher
+than the latter, and only thirty miles distant. The reputed eruptions of
+Pichincha are dated 1534, 1539, 1566, 1575, 1588, and 1660; that of 1534
+resting on the assertions of Checa, Garcilazo, and Herrera, indorsed by
+Humboldt. Excepting the traditional eruption in 1534, which probably is
+confounded with that of Pichincha, Cotopaxi did not open till 1742; then
+followed the eruptions of 1743, 1744, 1746, 1766, 1768, 1803, 1851, and
+1855. We must mention, however, that, since the recent awakening of
+Pichincha, Cotopaxi has been unusually silent. There is also a
+remarkable coincidence (which may not be wholly accidental) in the
+renewed activity of Pichincha, and the great eruption of Mauna Loa, both
+occurring in March, 1868. It is generally believed by the natives that
+Cotopaxi and Tunguragua are sympathetic.
+
+[Footnote 64: In the Galapagos volcanoes the south wall is lowest, while
+the craters in Mexico and Sandwich Islands are lowest on the northeast.]
+
+There are fifty-one volcanoes in the Andean chain. Of these, twenty
+girdle the Valley of Quito, three active, five dormant, and twelve
+extinct.[65] Besides these are numerous mountain peaks not properly
+volcanic. Nowhere on the face of the earth is there such a grand
+assemblage of mountains. Twenty-two summits are covered with perpetual
+snow, and fifty are over ten thousand feet high.[66]
+
+[Footnote 65: The altitudes of the most important Ecuadorian volcanoes
+are:
+
+WESTERN CHAIN.
+_Chimborazo_, 21,420 feet (Humboldt).
+_Caraguairazo_, 19,183 feet (Humboldt).
+  It is variously estimated from 15,673
+  feet to 19,720 feet; 18,000 feet is
+  not far from the truth.
+_Iliniza_, 17,370 feet (Wisse); 16,300
+  (Hall).
+_Cotocachi_, 16,440 feet (Humboldt);
+  16,409 (Wisse).
+_Pichincha_, 15,922 feet (Humboldt);
+  15,827 (Orton).
+
+EASTERN CHAIN.
+_Cayambi_, 19,648 feet (Humboldt);
+  19,358 (Wisse).
+_Antisana_, 19,148 feet (Humboldt);
+  19,279 (Wisse).
+_Cotopaxi_, 18,880 feet (Humboldt);
+  18,862 (Wisse).
+_Altar_, 17,400 feet.
+_Sangai_, 17,120 feet (Wisse).
+_Tunguragua_, 16,579 feet (Humboldt).
+_Sincholagua_, 16,434 feet (Humboldt).
+
+]
+
+[Footnote 66: The snow limit at the equator is 15,800 feet. No living
+creature, save the condor, passes this limit; naked rocks, fogs, and
+eternal snows mark the reign of uninterrupted solitude. The following is
+the approximate limit of perpetual snow in different latitudes:
+
+ 0 deg.          15,800 feet.
+27 deg.          18,800  "
+33 deg.          12,780  "
+40 deg.           8,300 feet.
+54 deg.           3,700  "
+70 deg.           3,300  "
+
+The limit appears to descend more rapidly going south of the equator
+than in going north.]
+
+All of these would be visible from a single stand-point--the summit of
+Cotopaxi. The lofty peaks shoot up with so much method as almost to
+provoke the theory that the Incas, in the zenith of their power, planted
+them as signal monuments along the royal road to Cuzco. The eastern
+series is called the _Cordillera real_, because along its flank are the
+remnants of the splendid highway which once connected Quito and the
+Peruvian capital.[67] It can also boast of such tremendous volcanoes as
+Cotopaxi and Sangai. The Western Cordillera contains but one active
+volcano; but then it can point to peerless Chimborazo and the deep
+crater of Pichincha. These twenty volcanic mountains rise within a space
+only two hundred miles long and thirty miles wide. It makes one tremble
+to think of the awful crevice over which they are placed.[68]
+
+[Footnote 67: We traveled over a portion of this ancient road in going
+from Riobamba to Cajabamba. It is well paved with cut blocks of dark
+porphyry. It is not graded, but partakes of the irregularity of the
+country. Designed, not for carriages, but for troops and llamas, there
+are steps when the ascent is steep.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Grand as the Andes are, how insignificant in a general
+view! How slightly they cause our globe to differ from a perfect sphere!
+Cotopaxi constitutes only 1/1100 of the earth's radius; and on a globe
+six feet in diameter, Chimborazo would be represented by a grain of sand
+less than 1/20 of an inch in thickness.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+     The Volcanoes of Ecuador.--Western
+     Cordillera.--Chimborazo.--Iliniza.--Corazon.--Pichincha.--Descent
+     into its Crater.
+
+
+Coming up from Peru through the cinchona forests of Loja, and over the
+barren hills of Assuay, the traveler reaches Riobamba, seated on the
+threshold of magnificence--like Damascus, an oasis in a sandy plain,
+but, unlike the Queen of the East, surrounded with a splendid retinue of
+snowy peaks that look like icebergs floating in a sea of clouds.
+
+On our left is the most sublime spectacle in the New World. It is a
+majestic pile of snow, its clear outline on the deep blue sky describing
+the profile of a lion in repose. At noon the vertical sun, and the
+profusion of light reflected from the glittering surface, will not allow
+a shadow to be cast on any part, so that you can easily fancy the figure
+is cut out of a mountain of spotless marble. This is Chimborazo--yet not
+the whole of it--you see but a third of the great giant. His feet are as
+eternally green as his head is everlastingly white; but they are far
+away beneath the bananas and cocoa-palms of the Pacific coast.
+
+Rousseau was disappointed when he first saw the sea; and the first
+glimpse of Niagara often fails to meet one's expectations. But
+Chimborazo is sure of a worshiper the moment its overwhelming grandeur
+breaks upon the traveler. You feel that you are in the presence-chamber
+of the monarch of the Andes. There is sublimity in his kingly look, of
+which the ocean might be proud.
+
+    "All that expands the spirit, yet appals,
+    Gathers around this summit, as if to show
+    How earth may pierce to heaven, yet leave vain man below."
+
+Well do we remember our disappointment as we stood before that wonder of
+the world--St. Peter's. We mounted the pyramid of steps and looked up,
+but were not overcome by the magnificence. We read in our guide-book
+that the edifice covers eight acres, and to the tip-top of the cross is
+almost five hundred feet; that it took three hundred and fifty years and
+twelve successive artists to finish it, and an expenditure of
+$50,000,000, and now costs $30,000 per annum to keep it in repair; still
+we did not appreciate its greatness. We pushed aside the curtain and
+walked in--walked a day's journey across the transept and up and down
+the everlasting nave, and yet continued heterodox. We tried hard to
+believe it was very vast and sublime, and knew we ought to feel its
+grandeur, but somehow we did not. Then we sat down by the Holy of
+Holies, and there we were startled into a better judgment by the
+astounding fact that the Cathedral of St. Paul--the largest edifice in
+Great Britain--could stand upright, spire, dome, body, and all, inside
+of St. Peter's! that the letters of the inscription which run around the
+_base_ of the dome, though apparently but an inch, are in reality six
+feet high! Then, for the first time, the scales fell from our eyes; the
+giant building began to grow; higher and higher still it rose, longer
+and deeper it expanded, yet in perfect proportions; the colossal
+structure, now a living temple, put on its beautiful garments and the
+robe of majesty. And that dome! the longer we looked at it the vaster it
+grew, till finally it seemed to be a temple not made with hands; the
+spacious canopy became the firmament; the mosaic figures of cherubim and
+seraphim were endowed with life; and as we fixed our eyes on the zenith
+where the Almighty is represented in glory, we thought we had the vision
+of Stephen. Long we gazed upward into this heaven of man's creation, and
+gazed again till we were lost in wonder.
+
+But the traveler needs no such steps to lift him up to the grand
+conception of the divine Architect as he beholds the great white dome of
+Chimborazo. It looks lofty from the very first. Now and then an expanse
+of thin, sky-like vapor would cut the mountain in twain, and the dome,
+islanded in the deep blue of the upper regions, seemed to belong more to
+heaven than to earth. We knew that Chimborazo was more than twice the
+altitude of Etna. We could almost see the great Humboldt struggling up
+the mountain's side till he looked like a black speck moving over the
+mighty white, but giving up in despair four thousand feet below the
+summit. We see the intrepid Bolivar mounting still higher; but the hero
+of Spanish-American independence returns a defeated man. Last of all
+comes the philosophic Boussingault, and attains the prodigious elevation
+of nineteen thousand six hundred feet--the highest point reached by man
+without the aid of a balloon; but the dome remains unsullied by his
+foot. Yet none of these facts increase our admiration. The mountain has
+a tongue which speaks louder than all mathematical calculations.
+
+There must be something singularly sublime about Chimborazo, for the
+spectator at Riobamba is already nine thousand feet high, and the
+mountain is not so elevated above him as Mont Blanc above the vale of
+Chamouni, when, in reality, that culminating point of Europe would not
+reach up even to the snow-limit of Chimborazo by two thousand feet.[69]
+It is only while sailing on the Pacific that one sees Chimborazo in its
+complete proportions. Its very magnitude diminishes the impression of
+awe and wonder, for the Andes on which it rests are heaved to such a
+vast altitude above the sea, that the relative elevation of its summit
+becomes reduced by comparison with the surrounding mountains. Its
+altitude is 21,420 feet, or forty-five times the height of Strasburg
+Cathedral; or, to state it otherwise, the fall of one pound from the top
+of Chimborazo would raise the temperature of water 30 deg.. One fourth of
+this is perpetually covered with snow, so that its ancient name,
+Chimpurazu--the mountain of snow--is very appropriate.[70] It is a
+stirring thought that this mountain, now mantled with snow, once gleamed
+with volcanic fires. There is a hot spring on the north side, and an
+immense amount of debris covers the slope below the snow-limit,
+consisting chiefly of fine-grained, iron-stained trachyte and coarse
+porphyroid gray trachyte; very rarely a dark vitreous trachyte.
+Chimborazo is very likely not a solid mountain: trachytic volcanoes are
+supposed to be full of cavities. Bouguer found it made the plumb-line
+deviate 7" or 8".
+
+[Footnote 69: But Chimborazo is steeper than the Alp-king; and steepness
+is a quality more quickly appreciated than mere massiveness. "Mont Blanc
+(says a writer in _Frazer's Magazine_) is scarcely admired, because he
+is built with a certain regard to stability; but the apparently reckless
+architecture of the Matterhorn brings the traveler fairly on his knees,
+with a respect akin to that felt for the leaning tower of Pisa, or the
+soaring pinnacles of Antwerp."]
+
+[Footnote 70: "White Mountain" is the natural and almost uniform name of
+the highest mountains in all countries: thus Himalaya, Mont Blanc,
+Hocmus, Sierra Nevada, Ben Nevis, Snowdon, Lebanon, White Mountains of
+United States, Chimborazo, and Illimani.]
+
+The valleys which furrow the flank of Chimborazo are in keeping with its
+colossal size. Narrower, but deeper than those of the Alps, the mind
+swoons and sinks in the effort to comprehend their grim majesty. The
+mountain appears to have been broken to pieces like so much thin crust,
+and the strata thrown on their vertical edges, revealing deep, dark
+chasms, that seem to lead to the confines of the lower world. The
+deepest valley in Europe, that of the Ordesa in the Pyrenees, is 3200
+feet deep; but here are rents in the side of Chimborazo in which
+Vesuvius could be put away out of sight. As you look down into the
+fathomless fissure, you see a white fleck rising out of the gulf, and
+expanding as it mounts, till the wings of the condor, fifteen feet in
+spread, glitter in the sun as the proud bird fearlessly wheels over the
+dizzy chasm, and then, ascending above your head, sails over the dome of
+Chimborazo.[71] Could the condor speak, what a glowing description could
+he give of the landscape beneath him when his horizon is a thousand
+miles in diameter. If
+
+    "Twelve fair counties saw the blaze from Malvern's lonely height,"
+
+what must be the panorama from a height fifteen times higher!
+
+[Footnote 71: Humboldt's statement that the condor flies higher than
+Chimborazo has been questioned; but we have seen numbers hovering at
+least a thousand feet above the summit of Pichincha. Baron Mueller, in
+his ascent of Orizaba, saw two falcons flying at the height of full
+18,000 feet; Dr. Hooker found crows and ravens on the Himalayas at
+16,500 feet; and flocks of wild geese are said to fly over the peak of
+Kintschinghow, 22,756 feet.]
+
+Chimborazo was long supposed to be the tallest mountain on the globe,
+but its supremacy has been supplanted by Mount Everest in Asia, and
+Aconcagua in Chile.[72] In mountain gloom and glory, however, it still
+stands unrivaled. The Alps have the avalanche, "the thunderbolt of
+snow," and the glaciers, those icy Niagaras so beautiful and grand. Here
+they are wanting.[73] The monarch of the Andes sits motionless in calm
+serenity and unbroken silence. The silence is absolute and actually
+oppressive. The road from Guayaquil to Quito crosses Chimborazo at the
+elevation of fourteen thousand feet. Save the rush of the trade wind in
+the afternoon, as it sweeps over the Andes, not a sound is audible; not
+the hum of an insect, nor the chirp of a bird, nor the roar of the puma,
+nor the music of running waters. Mid-ocean is never so silent. You can
+almost hear the globe turning on its axis. There was a time when the
+monarch deigned to speak, and spoke with a voice of thunder, for the
+lava on its sides is an evidence of volcanic activity. But ever since
+the morning stars sang together over man's creation, Chimbo has sat in
+sullen silence, satisfied to look "from his throne of clouds o'er half
+the world." There is something very suggestive in this silence of
+Chimborazo. It was once full of noise and fury; it is now a _completed_
+mountain, and thunders no more. How silent was Jesus, a completed
+character! The reason we are so noisy is that we are so full of wants;
+we are _unfinished_ characters. Had we perfect fullness of all things,
+the beatitude of being without a want, we should lapse into the eternal
+silence of God.
+
+[Footnote 72: Mount Everest is 29,000 feet, and Aconcagua 23,200.
+Schlagintweit enumerates thirteen Himalayan summits over 25,000 feet,
+and forty-six above 20,000. We have little confidence in the estimates
+of the Bolivian mountains. Chimborazo has nearly the same latitude and
+altitude as the loftiest peak in Africa, Kilima Njaro.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Humboldt ascribes the absence of glaciers in the Andes to
+the extreme steepness of the sides, and the excessive dryness of the
+air. Dr. Loomis, above quoted, mentions indications of glacial
+action--moraines, and polished and striated rocks--on the crest of the
+Cordillera, between Peru and Bolivia, lat. 21 deg. S.]
+
+Chimborazo is a leader of a long train of ambitious crags and peaks; but
+as he who comes after the king must not expect to be noticed, we will
+only take a glimpse of these lesser lights as we pass up the Western
+Cordillera, and then down the Eastern.
+
+The first after leaving the monarch is Caraguairazo. The Indians call it
+"the wife of Chimborazo." They are separated only by a very narrow
+valley. One hundred and seventy years ago the top of this mountain fell
+in, and torrents of mud flowed out containing multitudes of fishes. It
+is now over seventeen thousand feet high, and is one of the most Alpine
+of the Quitonian volcanoes, having sharp pinnacles instead of the smooth
+trachytic domes--usually double domes--so characteristic of the Andean
+summits. And now we pass in rapid succession numerous picturesque
+mountains, some of them extinct volcanoes, as Iliniza, presenting two
+pyramidal peaks, the highest seventeen thousand feet above the sea, and
+Corazon, so named from its heart-shaped summit, till we reach Pichincha,
+whose smoking crater is only five miles distant in a straight line from
+the city of Quito, or eleven by the traveled route.
+
+The crown of this mountain presents three groups of rocky peaks. The
+most westerly one is called Rucu-Pichincha, and alone manifests
+activity. To the northeast of Rucu is Guagua-Pichincha, a ruined flue of
+the same fiery furnace; and between the two is Cundur-guachana.[74]
+Pichincha is the only volcano in Ecuador which has not a true
+cone-crater. Some violent eruption beyond the reach of history or
+tradition has formed an enormous funnel-shaped basin 2500 feet deep,[75]
+1500 in diameter at the bottom, and expanding upward to a width of three
+fourths of a mile. It is the _deepest_ crater on the globe. That of
+Kilauea is 600 feet; Orizaba, 500; Etna, 300; Hecla, 100. Vesuvius is a
+portable furnace in comparison. The abyss is girt with a ragged wall of
+dark trachyte, which rises on the inside at various angles between 45 deg.
+and perpendicularity. As we know of but one American besides the members
+of our expedition (Mr. Farrand, a photographer) who has succeeded in
+entering the crater of this interesting volcano, we will give a brief
+sketch of our visit.
+
+[Footnote 74: Pichincha, in the Inca language, signifies "the boiling
+mountain;" Rucu means old; Guagua, young; and Cundur-guachana, the
+condor's nest.]
+
+[Footnote 75: More accurately, 2527 feet; Wisse and Moreno made it
+2460.]
+
+[Illustration: Crater of Pichincha.]
+
+Leaving Quito in the afternoon by the old arched gateway at the foot of
+Panecillo, and crossing a spur of the mountain, we stopped for the night
+at the Jesuit hacienda, situated in the beautiful valley of Lloa, but
+nearly ruined by the earthquake of 1859. On the damp walls of this
+monastery, perched 10,268 feet above the ocean, we found several old
+paintings, among them a copy of the _Visitation_ by Rubens. The sunset
+views in this heart of the Andes were surpassingly beautiful. Mounting
+our horses at break of day, and taking an Indian guide, we ascended
+rapidly, by a narrow and difficult path, through the forest that belts
+the volcano, up to the height of 12,000 feet, emerging gradually into a
+thicket of stunted bushes, and then entered the dreary paramo. Splendid
+was the view of the Eastern Cordillera. At least six dazzling white
+volcanoes were in sight just across the Valley of Quito, among them
+table-topped Cayambi, majestic Antisana, and princely Cotopaxi, whose
+tapering summit is a mile above the clouds. Toiling upward, we reached
+the base of the cone, where vegetation ceased entirely; and, tying our
+horses to some huge rocks that had fallen from the mural cliff above,
+started off on hands and feet for the crater. The cone is deeply covered
+with sand and cinders for about two hundred feet, and the sides are
+inclined at an angle of about 35 deg.. At ten o'clock we reached the brim of
+the crater, and the great gulf burst suddenly into view. We can never
+forget the impression made upon us by the sight. We speak of many things
+here below as awful, but that word has its full meaning when carried to
+the top of Pichincha. There you see a frightful opening in the earth's
+crust nearly a mile in width and half a mile deep, and from the dark
+abyss comes rolling up a cloud of sulphurous vapors. Monte Somma in the
+time of Strabo was a miniature; but this crater is on the top of a
+mountain four times the height of the Italian volcano. Imagination finds
+it difficult to conceive a spectacle of more fearful grandeur or such
+solemn magnificence. It well accords with Milton's picture of the
+bottomless pit. The united effect of the silence and solitude of the
+place, the great depth of the cavity, the dark precipitous sides, and
+the column of smoke standing over an unseen crevice, was to us more
+impressive than thundering Cotopaxi or fiery Vesuvius. Humboldt,
+after standing on this same brink, exclaimed, "I have never beheld a
+grander or more remarkable picture than that presented by this volcano;"
+and La Condamine compared it to "the Chaos of the poets." Below us are
+the smouldering fires which may any moment spring forth into a
+conflagration; around us are black, ragged cliffs--fit boundary for this
+gateway to the infernal regions. They look as if they had just been
+dragged up from the central furnace of the earth. Life seems to have
+fled in terror from the vicinity; even lichens, the children of the bare
+rocks, refuse to clothe the scathed and beetling crags. For some
+moments, made mute by the dreadful sight, we stood like statues on the
+rim of the mighty caldron, with our eyes riveted on the abyss below,
+lost in contemplating that which can not be described. The panorama from
+this lofty summit is more pleasing, but equally sublime. Toward the
+rising sun is the long range of the Eastern Cordillera, hiding from our
+view the great valley of the Amazon. To right and left are the peaks of
+another procession of august mountains from Cotocachi to Chimborazo. We
+are surrounded by the great patriarchs of the Andes, and their speaker,
+Cotopaxi, ever and anon sends his muttering voice over the land. The
+view westward is like looking down from a balloon. Those parallel ridges
+of the mountain chain, dropping one behind the other, are the gigantic
+staircase by which the ice-crowned Chimborazo steps down to the sea. A
+white sea of clouds covers the peaceful Pacific and the lower parts of
+the coast. But the vapory ocean, curling into the ravines, beautifully
+represents little coves and bays, leaving islands and promontories like
+a true ocean on a broken shore. We seem raised above the earth, which
+lies like an opened map below us; we can look down on the upper surface
+of the clouds, and, were it night, down too upon the lightnings.
+
+The crater of Pichincha has a sharp, serrated edge, which, happily for
+Quito, is broken down on the west side, so that in the next eruption the
+volcano will doubtless pour its contents into the wilds of Esmeraldas.
+The highest pinnacle is 15,827 feet; so that the mountain just enters
+the region of perpetual winter. Water boils at 185 deg.. The summit is
+generally bare, though snow is always found in the clefts of the rocks.
+It is not compact or crystalline, but resembles a conglomerate of little
+hailstones.[76] Out of the mingled snow and pumice-dust rise a few
+delicate flowers, particularly the violet _Sida Pichinchensis_, the same
+which we had observed on the side of Chimborazo. Think of gay flowers a
+thousand feet higher than the top of Mont Blanc!
+
+[Footnote 76: The snow on the top of Mont Blanc is like dry dust; in
+Lapland, in open places, it consists of hexagonal crystals, and is
+called by the inhabitants "sand-snow." The French and Spanish
+mathematicians, Bouguer, La Condamine, and Ulloa, in their story of
+ascending Pichincha, give a long and dreadful account of their
+sufferings from cold and rarefied air: "whilst eating, every one was
+obliged to keep his plate over a chafing-dish of coals, to prevent his
+food from freezing." The traveler nowadays finds only a chilling wind.
+This rise of temperature, coupled with the fact that La Condamine
+(1745), Humboldt (1802), Boussingault (1831), and Wisse (1863) give to
+Quito a decreasing altitude, inclines us to believe, with Boussingault,
+that the Andes are sinking. Since the activity of the volcano in 1868,
+the summit has been so warm that the snow has totally disappeared.
+Ice-cream has in consequence risen in price in Quito, as snow must be
+brought from Sincholagua, four days' journey.]
+
+The first to reach the brink of the crater were the French Academicians
+in 1742. Sixty years after, Humboldt stood on the summit. But it was not
+till 1844 that any one dared to enter the crater. This was accomplished
+by Garcia Moreno, now President of Ecuador, and Sebastian Wisse, a
+French engineer. Humboldt pronounced the bottom of the crater
+"inaccessible, from its great depth and precipitous descent." We found
+it accessible, but exceedingly perilous. The moment we prepared to
+descend our guide ran away. We went on without him, but when halfway
+down were stopped by a precipice.
+
+On the 22d of October, 1867, we returned to Pichincha with another
+guide, and entered the crater by a different route. Manuel, our Indian,
+led us to the south side, and over the brink we went. We were not long
+in realizing the danger of the undertaking. Here the snow concealed an
+ugly fissure or covered a treacherous rock (for nearly all the rocks are
+crumbling); there we must cross a mass of loose sand moving like a
+glacier down the almost vertical side of the crater; and on every hand
+rocks were giving way, and, gathering momentum at each revolution, went
+thundering down, leaping over precipices, and jostling other rocks,
+which joined in the race, till they all struck the bottom with a deep
+rumbling sound, shivered like so many bombshells into a thousand pieces,
+and telling us what would be our fate it we made a single misstep. We
+followed our Indian in single file, keeping close together, that the
+stones set free by those in the rear might not dash those below from
+their feet; feeling our way with the greatest caution, clinging with our
+hands to snow, sand, rock, tufts of grass, or any thing that would hold
+for a moment; now leaping over a chasm, now letting ourselves down from
+rock to rock; at times paralyzed with fear, and always with death
+staring us in the face; thus we scrambled for two hours and a half, till
+we reached the bottom of the crater.
+
+Here we found a deeply-furrowed plain, strewn with ragged rocks, and
+containing a few patches of vegetation, with half a dozen species of
+flowers. In the centre is an irregular heap of stones, two hundred and
+sixty feet high by eight hundred in diameter. This is the cone of
+eruption--its sides and summit covered with an imposing group of vents,
+seventy in number, all lined with sulphur and exhaling steam, black
+smoke, and sulphurous gas. The temperature of the vapor just within the
+fumarole is 184 deg., water boiling beside it at 189 deg.. The central vent, or
+chimney, gives forth a sound like the violent bubbling of boiling water.
+As we sat on this fiery mount, surrounded by a circular rampart of
+rocks, and looked up at the immense towers of dark dolerite which ran up
+almost vertically to the height of twenty-five hundred feet above us,
+musing over the tremendous force which fashioned this awful
+amphitheatre--spacious enough for all the gods of Tartarus to hold high
+carnival--the clouds which hung in the thin air around the crest of the
+crater pealed forth thunder after thunder, which, reverberating from
+precipice to precipice, were answered by the crash of rocks let loose by
+the storm, till the whole mountain seemed to tremble like a leaf. Such
+acoustics, mingled with the flash of lightning and the smell of
+brimstone, made us believe that we had fairly got into the realm of
+Pluto. It is the spot where Dante's _Inferno_ ought to be read.
+
+Finishing our observations, and warming our dinner over the steaming
+crevices, we prepared to ascend. The escape from this horrid hole was
+more perilous than the entrance, and on reaching the top we sang, with
+grateful hearts, to the tune of "Old Hundred,"
+
+     "Praise God, from whom all blessings flow."
+
+We doubt whether that famous tune and glorious doxology were ever sung
+so near to heaven.
+
+The second line,
+
+     "Praise him all creatures here below,"
+
+had a strange meaning fifteen thousand feet high.
+
+There have been five eruptions of Pichincha since the Conquest. The last
+was in 1660; that of 1566 covered Quito three feet deep with ashes and
+stones, while boiling water and bitumen descended in torrents. In 1867
+the column of smoke did not rise above the crest of the crater, but the
+volcano has lately been showing signs of activity, such as it has not
+exhibited since the last grand eruption two centuries ago. On the 19th
+of March, 1868, detonations were audible at Quito, and three days after
+there were more thunderings, with a great column of vapor visible from
+Chillo, twelve miles to the east. These phenomena were accompanied by an
+unusual fall of rain. Since the great earthquake of August 16th,
+Pichincha has continued to send forth dense columns of black smoke, and
+so much fine sand that it is not possible to reach the crater. The solid
+products of Pichincha since the Conquest have been chiefly pumice,
+coarse-grained and granular trachyte, and reddish porphyroid trachyte.
+The roads leading to Quito cut through hills of pumice-dust. On the
+plain of Inaquito and in the valley of Esmeraldas are vast erratic
+blocks of trachyte, some containing twenty-five cubic yards, having
+sharp angles, and in some cases a polished, unstriated surface. M. Wisse
+does not consider them to have been thrown out of Pichincha, as La
+Condamine and others have judged. It is true, as he says, that they
+could not have come out of the present cone at a less angle than 45 deg.,
+for they would have hit the sides of the high rocky rampart and rolled
+back again; and at a higher angle they would not have reached their
+present location. But we see no reason why they could not be the upper
+portion of the solid trachyte cone blown into the air at the great
+eruption which cleared out this enormous crater. There is a _rumipamba_,
+or "field of stones," around each of the Quitonian volcanoes.
+
+Leaving Pichincha, we travel northward along the battlemented Andes,
+passing by the conical mountains of Yana-urcu and Cotocachi. Yana-urcu,
+or "black mountain," is a mass of calcined rocks. Cotocachi (from
+_cota_? and _cachi_, salt) is always snow-clad. On its side is Cuycocha,
+one of the highest lakes in the world (10,200 feet), and formed by the
+subsidence of a part of the volcano.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+     The Volcanoes of Ecuador.--Eastern
+     Cordillera.--Imbabura.--Cayambi.--Antisana.--Cotopaxi.--Llanganati.
+     --Tunguragua.--Altar.--Sangai.
+
+
+Near the once busy city of Otovalo, utterly destroyed in the late
+earthquake, the two Cordilleras join, and, turning to the right, we go
+down the eastern range. The first in order is Imbabura,[77] which poured
+forth a large quantity of mud, with thousands of fishes, seven years
+before the similar eruption of Caraguairazo. At its feet is the
+beautiful lake of San Pablo, five miles in circumference, and very deep.
+It contains the little black fish (_Pimelodes cyclopum_) already
+referred to as the only species in the valley, and the same that was
+cast out by Imbabura and Caraguairazo. Next comes the square-topped
+Cayambi--the loftiest mountain in this Cordillera, being nineteen
+thousand five hundred feet. It stands exactly on the equator, a colossal
+monument placed by the hand of Nature to mark the grand division of the
+globe. It is the only snowy spot, says Humboldt, which is crossed by the
+equator. Beautiful is the view of Cayambi from Quito, as its enormous
+mass of snow and ice glows with crimson splendor in the farewell rays of
+the setting sun. No painter's brush could do justice to the prismatic
+tints which hover around the higher peaks. But this flood of glory is
+soon followed by the pure whiteness of death. "Like a gigantic ghost
+shrouded in sepulchral sheets, the mountain now hovers in the background
+of the landscape, towering ghastly through the twilight until darkness
+closes upon the scene."
+
+[Footnote 77: From _imba_ (fish), and _bura_, to produce. Its name can
+not be older than 1691, unless the mountain made similar eruptions
+before. It has frequently ejected water.]
+
+Ten miles farther south is the bare-headed Guamani range, over which
+passes the road to the wild Napo country.[78] The view from the crest is
+magnificent; but, like every grand panorama, eludes description. As we
+look eastward over the beginnings of the mighty forest which stretches
+unbroken to the Atlantic, the vast ridges, trending north and south, and
+decreasing in height as they increase in distance, seem like the waves
+of a great ocean rolling toward the mountains.
+
+[Footnote 78: The culminating point of Guamani is _Sara-urcu_, a volcano
+which threw out a vast quantity of ashes in 1843 and 1856.]
+
+Near by stands Antisana in his snowy robe. This volcano ranks next to
+Chimborazo in dignity. It has a double dome, and an elevation of 19,000
+feet. Snow of Dian purity covers it for over 3000 feet; but, judging
+from the enormous streams of lava on its sides, it must have been a
+fierce volcano in ages past. The lava streams are worthy of the great
+mountain from which they flowed. One of them (called "Volcan d'Ansango")
+is ten miles long and five hundred feet deep, with an average slope of
+15 deg.. It is a magnificent sight, as seen from the surrounding paramo--a
+stream of dark, ragged rocks coming down out of the clouds and snows
+which cover the summit. The representative products of Antisana are a
+black, cellular, vitreous trachyte, a fine-grained, tough porphyroid
+trachyte, and a coarse reddish porphyroid trachyte. An eruption, as late
+as 1590, is recorded in _Johnston's Phys. Atlas_. Humboldt saw smoke
+issuing from several openings in March, 1802.
+
+We ascended this volcano to the height of sixteen thousand feet. On its
+side is the celebrated hacienda of Antisana, which, more than sixty
+years ago, sheltered the great Humboldt from the sleet and rain and
+blast of this lofty region. It was a welcome refuge to us, for we had
+well nigh perished with cold on the dreary paramo. It is one of the
+highest human habitations in the world, being thirteen thousand three
+hundred feet above the sea, or a thousand feet higher than the Peak of
+Teneriffe.[79] The mean temperature is the same as that of Quebec, so
+that thirteen thousand feet in elevation at the equator is equal to 47 deg.
+in latitude.[80] Here is an extensive corral, inclosing thousands of
+cattle, owned by a rheumatic old gentleman, Senor Valdevieso, who
+supplies the beef-market of Quito.[81] A desire for beef has alone
+brought man and his beast to this chilly altitude. It is difficult to
+get a quart of milk, and impossible to find a pound of butter at this
+hacienda. The predominant colors of the cattle are red and black. They
+feed on the wild paramo grass, and the beef is not only remarkably
+cheap, but superior in quality. The lasso is used in catching the
+animals, but not so skillfully as by the Gauchos of Rio Plata. It is a
+singular fact that cattle have followed men over the whole earth, from
+the coast of Africa to the highlands of Antisana. The same species is
+attacked by crocodiles and condors.
+
+[Footnote 79: M. d'Abbadie professes to have visited a village in
+Abyssinia (Arquiage) which is 12,450 feet above the sea. Potosi stands
+13,500 feet.]
+
+[Footnote 80: This agrees with Humboldt's calculation that a difference
+of elevation of 278 feet produces the same effect on the annual
+temperature as a change of one degree of latitude. According to the
+experiments of Captain Pullen, the minimum temperature of the great
+depths of the ocean 35 deg., and it commences soon after passing 12,000
+feet.]
+
+[Footnote 81: The great depots of cattle in Ecuador are at the two
+extremes of elevation, the lowlands of St. Elena and the highlands of
+Antisana. On the slope of Cayambi is another extensive cattle estate.]
+
+The atmospheric pressure is here so small that they frequently bleed at
+the nose and mouth when hunted. We have already given our experience in
+ascending high altitudes. We may add that while the pulse of
+Boussingault beat 106 pulsations at the height of 18,600 feet on
+Chimborazo, ours was 87 at 16,000 feet on Antisana. De Saussure says
+that a draught of liquor which would inebriate in the lowlands no
+longer has that effect on Mont Blanc. This appears to be true on the
+Andes; indeed, there is very little drunkenness in Quito. So the higher
+we perch our inebriate asylums, the better for the patients.
+
+Near the hacienda is a little lake called Mica, on which we found a
+species of grebe, with wings so short it could not fly. Its legs, also,
+seem fitted only for paddling, and it goes ashore only to lay its eggs.
+It peeps like a gosling. Associated with them were penguins (in
+appearance); they were so shy we could not secure one. The query is, How
+came they there? Was this a centre of creation, or were the fowls
+upheaved with the Andes? They could not have flown or walked to this
+lofty lake, and there are no water-courses leading to it; it is
+surrounded with a dry, rolling waste, where only the condor lives. We
+turn to Darwin for an answer.[82]
+
+[Footnote 82: The grebe is considered by Messrs. Cassin and Lawrence to
+be the _Podiceps occipitalis_, Lisson (_P. calipareus et Chilensis_ of
+Garnot), which occurs in large flocks on the coast of Chile and in the
+Straits of Magellan. It is quite different from the _P. micropterus_ of
+Lake Titicaca. At Morococha, Peru, 15,600 feet above the sea, Herndon
+found snipes and ducks.]
+
+The ragged Sincholagua[83] and romantic Ruminagui follow Antisana, and
+then we find ourselves looking up at the most beautiful and most
+terrible of volcanoes. This is the far-famed Cotopaxi, or more properly
+Cutu-pacsi, meaning "a brilliant mass." Humboldt calls it the most
+regular and most picturesque of volcanic cones. It looks like a huge
+truncated cone rising out of the Valley of Quito, its sides deeply
+furrowed by the rivers of mud and water which have so often flowed out.
+The cone itself is about six thousand feet high. The east side is
+covered with snow, but the west is nearly bare, owing to the trade
+winds, which, sweeping across the continent, carry the ashes westward.
+Cotopaxi is the loftiest of active volcanoes, though its grand eruptions
+are a century apart, according to the general rule that the higher a
+volcano the less frequent its eruptions, but all the more terrible when
+they do occur. Imagine Vesuvius on the summit of Mont Blanc, and you
+have the altitude of Cotopaxi.
+
+[Footnote 83: In Brigham's _Notes on the Volcanic Phenomena of the
+Hawaiian Islands_, this volcano is put down as active, but there has
+been no eruption in the memory of man. Its lithology is represented in
+our collection by porous, gray, granular trachyte, fine-grained, compact
+trachyte, and dark porphyroid trachyte. The derivation of Sincholagua is
+unknown, Ruminagui means the face of a rock, Cotopaxi, Sincholagua, and
+Ruminagui, and Cotopaxi, Pichincha, and Guamani, form equilateral
+triangles.]
+
+The top just reaches the middle point of density in the atmosphere, for
+at the height of three miles and a half the air below will balance that
+above. The crater has never been seen by man; the steepness of the sides
+and the depth of the ashes covering them render it inaccessible. The
+valiant Col. Hall tried it with scaling ladders, only to fail. The
+telescope reveals a parapet of scoria on the brim, as on Teneriffe.
+Humboldt's sketch of the volcano, so universally copied, is overdrawn.
+It makes the slope about 50 deg., while in truth it is nearer 30 deg.. The
+apical angle is 122 deg. 30'.[84]
+
+[Footnote 84: MM. Zurcher and Margalli make the slope 55 deg.! and Guzman,
+69 deg. 30'!! The slope of Mauna Loa is 6 deg. 30'; of Etna, 9 deg.; of Teneriffe,
+12 deg. 30'; of Vesuvius, 35 deg.. While cinder-cones may have an angle of 40 deg.,
+lava-cones seldom exceed 10 deg..]
+
+Cotopaxi is slumbering now; or, as Mr. Coan says of Hilo, it is "in a
+state of solemn and thoughtful suspense." The only signs of life are the
+deep rumbling thunders and a cloud of smoke lazily issuing from the
+crater.[85] Sometimes at night the smoke looks like a pillar of fire,
+and fine ashes and sand often fall around the base, to the great
+annoyance of the farmers. On the south side is a huge rock of porphyry,
+called the Inca's Head. Tradition has it that this was the original
+summit of the volcano, torn off and hurled down by an eruption on the
+very day Atahuallpa was murdered by Pizarro. The last great eruption
+occurred in 1803, though so late as 1855 it tossed out stones, water,
+and sand. Heaps of ruins, piled up during the lapse of ages, are
+scattered for miles around the mountain, among them great boulders
+twenty feet square. In one place (Quinchevar) the accumulation is 600
+feet deep. Between Cotopaxi and Sincholagua are numerous conical hills
+covering the paramo, reminding one of the mud volcanoes of Jorullo.
+
+[Footnote 85: Even this has now (August, 1869) ceased, save an
+occasional grumble, and the Tacungans are trembling with fear of another
+eruption.]
+
+Pumice and trachyte are the most common rocks around this mountain, and
+these are augitic or porphyroid. Obsidian also occurs, though not on the
+immediate flank, but farther down near Chillo. In plowing, thousands of
+pieces as large as "flints" are turned up. The natives know nothing
+about their origin or use; the large specimens were anciently polished
+and used for mirror. But Cotopaxi is the great pumice-producing volcano.
+The new road up the valley cuts through a lofty hill formed by the
+successive eruptions; the section, presenting alternate layers of mud,
+ashes, and pumice, is a written history of the volcano.[86] The cone
+itself is evidently composed of similar beds super-imposed, and holding
+fragments of porphyry and trachyte. What is Vesuvius, four thousand feet
+high, to Cotopaxi, belching forth fire from a crater fifteen thousand
+feet higher, and shooting its contents three thousand feet above its
+snow-bound summit, with a voice of thunder heard six hundred miles!
+
+[Footnote 86: Compare the following sections:
+
+COTOPAXI (near Tiupullo).
+Soil                                        1 ft. 0 in.
+Fine yellow pumice                          5  "  0  "
+Compact black ashes, with seams of pumice  10  "  0  "
+Fine yellow pumice                          1  "  6  "
+Compact black ashes                        12  "  0  "
+Fine yellow pumice                          2  "  0  "
+Compact black ashes, with seams of pumice.
+
+VESUVIUS (at Pompeii).
+Soil                                        3 ft. 0 in.
+Brown incoherent tuff                       1  "  6  "
+Small scoriae and white lapilli              0  "  3  "
+Brown earthy tuff                           4  "  9  "
+Whitish lapilli                             0  "  1  "
+Gray solid tuff                             0  "  3  "
+Pumice and white lapilli                    0  "  3  "
+
+]
+
+Leaving this terrible "safety-valve" to the imprisoned fires under our
+feet, we travel along the wooded flanks and savage valleys of the
+Llanganati Mountains, whose lofty blue ridge is here and there pointed
+with snow.[87] It is universally believed that the Incas buried an
+immense quantity of gold in an artificial lake on the sides of this
+mountain during the Spanish invasion, and many an adventurous expedition
+has been made for it. The inhabitants will tell you of one Valverde, a
+Spaniard, who, from being very poor, had suddenly become very rich,
+which was attributed to his having married an Indian girl whose father
+showed him where the treasure was hidden, and accompanied him on various
+occasions to bring away portions of it; and that Valverde returned to
+Spain, and on his death-bed bequeathed the secret of his riches to the
+king. But since Padre Longo suddenly disappeared while leading an
+expedition, the timid Ecuadorians have been content with their
+poverty.[88]
+
+[Footnote 87: Immediately south of Cotopaxi, the Cordillera consists of
+paramos sown with lakes and morasses, and is rarely covered with snow.
+Llanganati is probably from _llanga_, to touch: they touch the sources
+of nearly all the Ecuadorian rivers.]
+
+[Footnote 88: The story is doubtless due to the fact that the eastern
+streams, which issue from the foot of this cordillera, are auriferous.]
+
+And now we have reached the perfect cone of Tunguragua, the rival of
+Cotopaxi in symmetry and beauty.[89] It stands 16,500 feet above the
+Pacific, its upper part covered with a splendid robe of snow, while the
+sugar-cane grows in the romantic town of Banos, 10,000 feet below the
+summit. A cataract, 1500 feet high, comes down at three bounds from the
+edge of the snow to the warm valley beneath; and at Banos a hot
+ferruginous spring and a stream of ice-water flow out of the volcano
+side by side. Here, too, the fierce youth of the Pastassa, born on the
+pumice slopes of Cotopaxi, dashes through a deep tortuous chasm and down
+a precipice in hot haste, as if conscious of the long distance before it
+ere it reaches the Amazon and the ocean. Tunguragua was once a
+formidable mountain, for we discovered a great stream of lava reaching
+from the clouds around the summit to the orange-groves in the valley,
+and blocking up the rivers which tumble over it in beautiful cascades.
+It has been silent since 1780; but it can afford to rest, for then its
+activity lasted seven years.[90]
+
+[Footnote 89: From Tunguri, the ankle-joint, alluding to its apical
+angle. It is a little steeper than Cotopaxi, having a slope of 38 deg..]
+
+[Footnote 90: Spruce asserts that he saw smoke issuing from the western
+edge in 1857; and Dr. Terry says that in 1832 smoke ascended almost
+always from the summit. Dr. Taylor, of Riobamba, informs the writer that
+smoke is now almost constantly visible. The characteristic rock is a
+black vitreous trachyte resembling pitchstone, but anhydrous.]
+
+Close by rises beautiful Altar, a thousand feet higher. The Indians call
+it Capac-urcu, or the "Chief." They say it once overtopped Chimborazo;
+but, after a violent eruption, which continued eight years, the walls
+fell in. Its craggy crest is still more Alpine than Caraguairazo; eight
+snowy peaks shoot up like needles into the sky, and surround an altar to
+whose elevated purity no mortal offering will ever attain. The trachyte
+which once formed the summit of this mountain is now spread in fragments
+over the plain of Riobamba.
+
+Leaving this broken-down volcano, but still the most picturesque in the
+Andes, we travel over the rough and rugged range of Cubillin, till our
+attention is arrested by terrific explosions like a naval broadside, and
+a column of smoke that seems to come from the furnace of the Cyclops. It
+is Sangai, the most active volcano on the globe. From its unapproachable
+crater, three miles high, it sends forth a constant stream of fire,
+water, mud, and ashes.[91]
+
+[Footnote 91: La Condamine (1742) adds "sulphur and bitumen."]
+
+No intermission has been noticed since the Spaniards first saw it three
+hundred years ago. Stromboli is the only volcano that will compare with
+it. Its ashes are almost always falling on the city of Guayaquil, one
+hundred miles distant, and its explosions, generally occurring every
+hour or two, are sometimes heard in that city. Wisse, in 1849, counted
+267 explosions in one hour.
+
+We have now completed the series. What an array of snow-clad peaks wall
+in the narrow Valley of Quito--Nature's Gothic spires to this her
+glorious temple! If ever there was a time when all these volcanoes were
+active in concert, this secluded vale must have witnessed the most
+splendid pyrotechnics conceivable. Imagine fifty mountains as high as
+Etna, three of them with smoking craters, standing along the road
+between New York and Washington, and you will have some idea of the ride
+down this gigantic colonnade from Quito to Riobamba. If, as Ruskin says,
+the elements of beauty are in proportion to the increase of mountainous
+character, Ecuador is artistically beautiful to a high degree.
+
+Here, amid these Plutonic peaks, are the energies of volcanic action
+best studied. The constancy of the volcanic fires is a striking fact.
+First we have the deluges of submarine lavas, which were poured out long
+before the Andes lifted their heads above the waters; then alternate
+porphyritic strata, feldspathic streams, and gypseous exhalations; then,
+at a later day, floods of basaltic lava; next the old tertiary
+eruptions; and, lastly, the vast accumulations of boulders, gravel,
+ashes, pumice, and mud of the present day, spread over the Valley of
+Quito and the west slope of the Cordilleras to an unknown depth beneath
+the sea. The incessant eruptions of Sangai, and the frequent
+earthquakes, show that the subterranean energy which heaved the Andes is
+not yet expended.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+     The Valley of Quito.--Riobamba.--A Bed of "Fossil Giants."--Chillo
+     Hacienda.--Otovalo and Ibarra.--The Great Earthquake of 1868.
+
+
+The Valley of Quito has about the same size and shape as the basin of
+Salt Lake, but it is five thousand feet higher.[92] The two cordilleras
+inclosing it are tied by the mountain-knots of Assuay and Chisinchi, so
+that the valley is subdivided into three basins, those of Cuenca,
+Ambato, and Quito proper, which increase in beauty and altitude as we
+travel north. There are several subordinate transversal dikes and some
+longitudinal ridges, but all the basins lie parallel to the axes of the
+cordilleras--a characteristic feature of the Andes. The deep valleys on
+the outside flanks are evidently valleys of erosion, but the basins
+between the cordilleras were created with them.
+
+[Footnote 92: Compare the table-lands in the Old World:
+
+Thibet            11,500 feet.
+South Africa       6,000   "
+Mysore (India)     2,880   "
+Spain              2,240   "
+Bavaria            1,770   "
+
+]
+
+The first is fifty miles long. It contains the cities of Loja and
+Cuenca,[93] the former distinguished for its cinchona forests, the
+latter for Inca graves and mines of precious metals. The middle basin
+(130 miles in length) is covered with vast quantities of volcanic
+debris, the outpourings of Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, and Altar, on one side,
+and of Chimborazo and Caraguairazo on the other. Nothing relieves the
+barrenness of the landscape but hedges of century plant, cactus, and
+wild heliotrope, which border the roads. Whirlwinds of sand are often
+seen moving over the plain. The mean temperature is 61 deg..5. Here exist,
+we can not say thrive, the cities of Riobamba, Ambato, and Tacunga,
+already noticed. Riobamba,[94] properly Rayobamba, the plain of
+lightning, was founded at the beginning of this century, or shortly
+after the destruction of the old city. Excepting the ecclesiastical
+buildings, the houses are of one story, built of stone plastered with
+mud, sometimes of adobe or bamboo, and the windows are grated like those
+of a prison. As in all Spanish-American towns, the main church fronts
+the great Plaza where the weekly fairs are held. Save on fair-day, the
+city is lifeless. Nothing is exported to the coast except a few eggs and
+fowls, lard and potatoes. Such is the power of habit, an Indian will
+take a hen to Bodegas and sell it for four reals (50 cents) when he
+could get three for it in Riobamba, and six on the road. Another
+instance of this dogged adherence to custom was related to us by Dr.
+Taylor: The Indians were accustomed to bring the curate of a certain
+village a bundle of alfalfa every day. A new curate, having no use for
+so much, ordered them not to bring any more. He was besieged by five
+hundred of his wild parishioners, and had he not been a powerful man,
+they would have killed him. They told him they were accustomed to bring
+the curate that much of alfalfa, and should continue.
+
+[Footnote 93: The altitude of Loja is 6768 feet; of Cuenca, 8640 feet.]
+
+[Footnote 94: According to Villavicencio, _Rio_ (or _Rie_) is Quichua
+for road; _bamba_ is plain.]
+
+Old Riobamba (Cajabamba) is situated twelve miles to the west. This has
+been the scene of some of the most terrible paroxysms that over shook
+the Andes. In 1797 a part of Mount Cicalfa was thrown down, crushing the
+city at its foot; hills arose where valleys existed; rivers
+disappeared, and others took their places; and the very site of the
+city was rent asunder. The surviving inhabitants could not tell where
+their houses had stood, and property was so mingled that litigation
+followed the earthquake. Judging from the numerous sculptured columns
+lying broken and prostrate throughout the valley, the city must have had
+a magnificence now unknown in Ecuador. Around a coat of arms (evidently
+Spanish) we read these words: _Malo mori quam fedari_, "I would rather
+die than be disgraced." In the spring of 1868 another convulsion caused
+a lake to disappear and a mountain to take its place.
+
+Near Punin, seven miles southwest of Riobamba, we discovered in a deep
+ravine numerous fossil bones, belonging chiefly to the mastodon, and
+extinct species of the horse, deer, and llama. They were imbedded in the
+middle of an unstratified cliff, four hundred feet high, of very compact
+silt or trachytic clay, free from stones, and resting on a hard
+quartzoze sandstone. In the bed of the stream which runs through the
+ravine (charged with nitrate of soda) are some igneous rocks. The bones
+were drifted to this spot and deposited (many of them in a broken state)
+in horizontal layers along with recent shells. We have, then, this
+remarkable fact, that this high valley was tenanted by elephantine
+quadrupeds, all of which passed away before the arrival of the human
+species, and yet while the land, and probably the sea also, were peopled
+with their present molluscan inhabitants. This confirms the statement of
+Mr. Lyell, that the longevity of mammalian species is much inferior to
+that of the testacea. It is interesting to speculate on the probable
+climate and the character of the vegetation in this high valley when
+these extinct mammifers lived. The great pachyderm would have no
+difficulty in thriving at the present day at Quito, on the score of
+temperature or altitude. The mammoth once flourished in Siberia; and
+Gibbon met an elephant on the high table-lands of Bolivia that had
+walked over the Cordillera at the pass of Antarangua, sixteen thousand
+feet above the sea. Darwin thinks that the climate of the Cordilleras
+has changed since the pleistocene period. "It is a marvelous fact in the
+history of mammalia (says this naturalist) that in South America a
+native horse should have lived and disappeared, to be succeeded in after
+ages by the countless herds descended from the few introduced with the
+Spanish colonists."
+
+The high ridge of Chisinchi, stretching across the great plateau from
+Cotopaxi to Iliniza, separates the evergreen Valley of Quito from the
+arid and melancholy valleys of Cuenca and Ambato. It rolls out like a
+rich carpet of emerald verdure between the towering mountains of
+Pichincha and Antisana, Cotacachi and Cayambi. This was the centre of
+the most ancient native civilization after that of Titicaca. Here, while
+the darkness of the Middle Ages was settling over Europe, dwelt the
+Quitus, whose origin is lost in the mists of fable. Then, while Peter
+the Hermit was leading his fanatic host against the Saracens, the Cara
+nation waged a more successful crusade, and supplanted the Quitus. Here,
+too, in the bloody days of Pizarro, reigned, and was buried, the last of
+the Incas, ill-fated Atahuallpa. To him, indeed, it was a more
+delightful spot than the vale of Vilcamayu--the paradise of Peru.
+
+The Puengasi Hills, running through the valley from north to south,
+partially divide the capital and its vicinity from the charming Valley
+of Chillo, spread out at the foot of Antisana. Here is the venerable
+hacienda of Chillo, where Humboldt and Bonpland resided for some time.
+It is owned by the Aguirres, who are grand-nephews of Don Carlos
+Montufar, the companion of the famous travelers. The hacienda contains
+two valuable paintings--an original "Crucifixion" by Titian, and a
+portrait of the great German from life, as he appeared in 1803. This
+latter relic interested us exceedingly, and, through the kindness of Sr.
+Aguirre, we were allowed to photograph it. It represents Humboldt in his
+prime, a traveler on the Andes, dressed after the court-fashion of
+Berlin; very different from the usual portrait--an old man in his
+library, his head, thinly covered with gray hair, resting on his bosom.
+
+[Illustration: Humboldt in 1802.]
+
+Thirty miles north of Quito, near the volcanic Imbabura, is the ruined
+city of Otovalo, a thousand feet lower than the capital. It was well
+built, and contained 7000 inhabitants. Quichua was the prevailing
+language. Its chief trade was in saddles, ponchos, straw hats, and
+fruit. Here was the cotton factory, or _quinta_, of Sr. Pareja. Three
+miles from Otovalo was the enterprising Indian village of Cotocachi, at
+the mountain of the same name. It was noted for its hand-loom products.
+A heap of ruins now marks the locality. It is a doomed spot, suffering
+more than any other town in 1859.
+
+Four miles northwest of Otovalo was the city of Ibarra, picturesquely
+seated on a plain 2000 feet lower than Quito, and surrounded with
+orchards and gardens. It numbered nearly 10,000 souls. It was not a
+commercial place, but the residence of landed proprietors. The
+neighborhood produced cotton, sugar, and fruit. A league distant was
+Carranqui, the birthplace of Atahuallpa. And, finally, the great valley
+fitly terminates in the plain of Atuntaqui,[95] where the decisive
+battle was fought which ushered in the reign of the Incas.
+
+[Illustration: Ibarra.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Atuntaqui received its name from the big drum which was
+kept here in the days of Huayna-Capac, to give the war-signal.]
+
+This northern province of Imbabura was the focus of the late terrible
+earthquake. At half past one on Sunday morning, August 16, 1868, with
+scarcely a premonitory sign (save a slight trembling at 3 P.M. the
+previous day), there was an upheaving of the ground, and then one
+tremendous shock and rocking of the earth, lasting one minute. In that
+brief moment the rich and flourishing province became a wilderness, and
+"Misericordia!" went up, like tho sound of many waters, from ten
+villages and cities. Otovalo, Ibarra, Cotocachi, and Atantaqui are
+heaps of ruins. At Otovalo 6000 perished. After the first shock, not a
+wall a yard high remained. Houses, in some instances, seemed to have
+been cut from their foundation, and thrown ten feet distant. The large
+stone fountain in the Plaza was thrown many yards. The cotton factory,
+which was built on the edge of a ravine, was by one stroke reduced to
+fragments. Such was the force of the concussion, the looms smashed each
+other, the carding-machines were thrown on their sides, and the roof,
+with part of the machinery, was found in the river below. The proprietor
+was killed. Throughout this whole region roads were broken up, and vast
+chasms created crossing the country in all directions. One is 2000 yards
+long, 500 yards broad, and 80 yards deep. Large fissures were opened on
+the sides of Cotocachi and Imbabura, from which issued immense torrents
+of water, mud, and bituminous substances, carrying away and drowning
+hundreds of cattle. A caravan of mules going to Chillo with cotton-bales
+was found four days after grazing on a narrow strip of land, on each
+side of which was a fearful chasm, while the muleteers were killed.
+
+At Quito comparatively little damage was done. Fifteen lives were lost,
+and the churches, convents, and many private houses are in a state of
+dilapidation. Domes and arches, which are much used because of the
+scarcity of timber, were first to fall.
+
+In the fierceness of the shock, and the extent of the territory shaken,
+the earthquake of August, 1868, is without a parallel in the New World.
+The destruction of life (50,000 officially reported in Ecuador alone)
+has not been equaled in any other earthquake during this century. The
+tremor was felt over four republics, and from the Andes to the Sandwich
+Islands. The water-wave was felt on the coast of New Zealand sixteen
+hours after it had set a United States gunboat, on the sand-hills of
+Arica. In some respects it is surpassed only by the Lisbon earthquake,
+which reached from Sweden to the West Indies, and from Barbary to
+Scotland. The loss of property seems to have been greatest in Peru, and
+the loss of life greatest in Ecuador. The commotion seemed to be most
+violent along the Western Cordillera, though it was felt even on the
+Napo.
+
+There are few places where the crust of our planet is long at rest.
+Brazil, Egypt, Russia, and Greenland are comparatively free from
+earthquakes. But had we delicate instruments scattered throughout the
+world, upheaval and subsidence would doubtless be detected in every part
+of the so-called _terra firma_. The sea, and not the land, is the true
+image of stability.
+
+    "Time writes no wrinkle on thy azure brow:
+    Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now."
+
+Earthquakes have occurred in every period of geological history, and are
+independent of latitude. The first well-known earthquake came in the
+year 63, and shattered Pompeii and Herculaneum sixteen years before they
+were overwhelmed by the first recorded eruption of Vesuvius. The most
+celebrated earthquake, and perhaps the most terrible manifestation of
+force during the human period, was in 1755. The shock, which seemed to
+originate in the bed of the Atlantic, pervaded one twelfth of the
+earth's surface. Unhappy Lisbon stood in its path.
+
+An earthquake is a vertical vibration, having an undulatory progression.
+An example of the simple bounding movement occurred in 1797, when the
+city of Riobamba, in the Quito Valley, was buried under part of a
+mountain shaken down by the violent concussion, and men were tossed
+several hundred feet. We saw one massive structure which had nearly
+turned a somersault. The ordinary vibrations seldom exceed two feet in
+height. The wave-movement has a rate of from twenty to thirty miles a
+minute, depending on the elasticity of the rock and the elevations on
+the surface. When two undulations cross each other, a rotatory or
+twisting motion is produced. The waves are generally transmitted along
+the lines of primary mountain chains, which are doubtless seated on a
+fracture. The Lisbon waves moved from southwest to northeast, or
+parallel to the mountain system of the Old World; those of the United
+States, in 1843, ran parallel to the volcanic chain in Mexico. In South
+America they roll along the Andes. That of 1797 left its tracks along a
+westerly line from Tunguragua through Pelileo and Guano. It is a little
+singular, that while the late trembling at Quito seemed to come from the
+north, the great shock in Peru preceded that in Ecuador by three days.
+Though the origin of earthquakes is deep-seated, the oscillation is
+mostly superficial, as deep mines are little disturbed. The most damage
+is done where the sedimentary plains abut against the hard, upturned
+strata of the mountains. The shock is usually brief. That of Caracas
+lasted fifty seconds, that of Lisbon six minutes; but Humboldt witnessed
+one in South America which continued a quarter of an hour.
+
+Several hypotheses have been advanced to account for earthquakes. Rogers
+ascribes them to billowy pulsations in the molten matter upon which the
+flexible crust of the earth floats. Mallet thinks they may be viewed as
+an uncompleted effort to establish a volcano. Dana holds that they are
+occasioned by the folding up of the rocks in the slow process of cooling
+and consequent contraction of the earth's crust. In this process there
+would occur enormous fractures to relieve the tension; tilted strata
+would slip, and caverns give way. All this no doubt takes place; but the
+sudden, paroxysmal heavings incline us to refer the cause to the same
+eruptive impulse which makes Vesuvius and Cotopaxi discharge pent-up
+subterranean vapor and gas. The most destructive earthquakes occur when
+the overlying rocks do not break and give vent to the imprisoned gas.
+There is some connection between volcanoes and earthquakes; the former
+are, to a certain extent, "safety-valves." The column of smoke from the
+volcano of Pasto suddenly disappeared just before the great earthquake
+at Riobamba. In the spring of 1868 Pichincha and Cotopaxi showed signs
+of increasing activity, but in the summer became quiet again. Cotocachi
+and Sangai, 200 miles apart, were awaked simultaneously; the former,
+silent for centuries, sent forth dense masses of earth and volcanic
+matter to a distance of many miles, covering thousands of acres; the
+latter thundered every half hour instead of hourly, as before. Still,
+the greatest earthquakes do not occur in the vicinity of active
+volcanoes. Lisbon and Lima (where, on an average, forty-five shocks
+occur annually, and two fearful ones in a century) are far distant from
+any volcanic vent; likewise Northern India, South Africa, Scotland, and
+the United States.
+
+An earthquake is beyond the reach of calculation. Professor Perrey, of
+Dijon, France, is endeavoring to prove that there is a periodicity in
+earthquakes, synchronous with that in the tides of the ocean, the
+greatest number occurring at the time of new and full moon.[96] If this
+theory be sustained, we must admit the existence of a vast subterranean
+sea of lava. But all this is problematical. Earthquakes appear
+independently of the geology of a country, though the rate of undulation
+is modified by the mineral structure. Earthquake waves seem to move more
+rapidly through the comparatively undisturbed beds of the Mississippi
+Valley than through the contorted strata of Europe. Meteorology is
+unable to indicate a coming earthquake, for there is no sure prophecy in
+sultry weather, sirocco wind, and leaden sky. The Lisbon shock came
+without a warning. Sudden changes of the weather, however, often occur
+after an earthquake. Since the great convulsion of 1797 the climate of
+the Valley of Quito is said to be much colder. A heavy rain often
+follows a violent earthquake in Peru.
+
+[Footnote 96: Professor Quinby, of the University of Rochester, has, at
+our request, calculated the position of the moon at the late earthquake:
+"August 16th, 1868, 1 A.M., the moon was on meridian 137 deg. 21' east of
+that of Quito, or 42 deg. 30' past the lower meridian of Quito, assuming the
+longitude of Quito west of Greenwich to be 79 deg., which it is very nearly.
+This is but little after the vertex of the tidal wave should have passed
+the meridian of Quito, on the supposition that the interior of the earth
+is a liquid mass. The age of the moon at that time was 27.36 days,
+_i.e._, it was only about two days before new moon." At the time of the
+earthquake, 8 A.M., March 22, 1859, the moon was on meridian 25 deg. 48'
+east of that of Quito, and was 17.6 days old. Shocks have since
+occurred, March 20th at 3 A.M., and April 10th at 8 A.M., 1869.]
+
+No amount of familiarity with earthquakes enables one to laugh during
+the shock, or even at the subterranean thunders which sound like the
+clanking of chains in the realm of Pluto. All animated nature is
+terror-stricken. The horse trembles in his stall; the cow moans a low,
+melancholy tune; the dog sends forth an unearthly yell; sparrows drop
+from the trees as if dead; crocodiles leave the trembling bed of the
+river and run with loud cries into the forest; and man himself becomes
+bewildered and loses all capacity. When the earth rocks beneath our feet
+(the motion resembling, in the words of Darwin, "that felt by a person
+skating over thin ice which bends under the weight of his body"),
+something besides giddiness is produced. We feel our utter
+insignificance in the presence of a mysterious power that shakes the
+Andes like a reed. But more: there is an awful sensation of insecurity.
+"A moment (says Humboldt) destroys the illusion of a whole life: our
+deceptive faith in the repose of nature vanishes, and we feel
+transported, as it were, into a region of unknown destructive forces." A
+judgment day seems impending, and each moment is an age when one stands
+on a world convulsed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+     "The Province of the Orient," or the Wild Napo Country.--The Napos,
+     Zaparos, and Jivaros Indians.--Preparations to cross the Continent.
+
+
+On the eastern slope of the Ecuadorian Andes, between the Maranon and
+its tributary the Putumayo, lies the Napo country. This almost unknown
+region has the area of New York and New England together. The government
+of Quito, by a sonorous decree in 1854, baptized it "La Provincia del
+Oriente." Peru likewise claims it, but neither republic has done any
+thing to colonize it. A dense primeval forest, broken only by the
+rivers, covers the whole territory, and is the home of wild races
+untouched by civilization.[97] There is not a road in the whole
+province. A footpath, open only in the dry season, and barely passable
+then, connects Quito and the Rio Napo. Congress lately promised to put
+Canelos in communication with the capital; but the largest villages in
+this vast and fertile region--Archidona, Canelos, and Macas--still
+remain isolated from the outer world.[98] Ecuador once appointed a
+functionary under the high-sounding title of "Governor of the Orient,"
+with a salary of $700; but now the Indians are not troubled with any
+higher official than an alcalde.
+
+[Footnote 97: The boundary-line between Ecuador and Peru is about as
+indefinite as the eastern limit of Bolivia, Brazilians claiming "as far
+west as the cattle of the empire roam."]
+
+[Footnote 98: Quito might be made more accessible on the Atlantic than
+on the Pacific side. But Ecuadorians dote on Guayaquil, and refuse to
+connect themselves directly with the great nations of the East. We
+believe there is a glorious future for Quito, when it will once more
+become a city of palaces. But it will not come until a road through the
+wilderness and a steamer on the Napo open a short communication with the
+wealth of Amazonia and the enterprise of Europe.]
+
+The country is very thinly inhabited. The chief tribes are the
+semi-Christianized Napos (sometimes called Quijos), dwelling on the
+north bank of the Napo; the peaceful but uncivilized Zaparos, living
+between the Napo and Pastassa, and the warlike Jivaros, spread over the
+unexplored region between the Pastassa and Santiago.
+
+These oriental tribes would probably be assigned by D'Orbigny to the
+Antisian branch of the Alpine races of South America. Dwelling amid the
+darkness of primeval forests, and on the gloomy banks of mountain
+torrents, they have acquired modifications of character, physical and
+moral, which distinguish them from the natives of the high and open
+regions, or the steaming lowlands of the Amazon. In color, however, they
+do not appear to us to be entitled to the name of "white men;" they
+approach nearer to the bronze complexion of the Quichuans than the
+yellow cast of the Brazilians. We see no evidence of that "bleaching
+process" resulting from a life under the dense canopy of foliage of
+which the learned French naturalist speaks, neither did we perceive the
+force of his statement that the color of the South American bears a very
+decided relation to the humidity of the atmosphere.
+
+The features of the Napo Indians are Quichuan, especially the low
+forehead, squarely-built face, and dull expression; but in stature they
+exceed the mountaineers. From a skull in our possession we take the
+following measurements, adding for comparison the dimensions of an
+ancient Peruvian cranium in Dr. Morton's collection:
+
+                                 Napo.              Peruvian.
+
+Longitudinal diameter            6-1/2   in.         6.1 in.
+Parietal        "                5-3/8   "           6.  "
+Frontal         "                4       "           4.7 "
+Vertical        "                4-1/2   "           5.5 "
+Capacity                        83-1/64 cub. in.    83 cub. in.
+Facial angle                    70 deg.                 81 deg.
+
+From this it will be seen that the capacity of this individual Napo is 8
+cubic inches greater than the average bulk (75 cubic inches) of the old
+Peruvians; a trifle less than the average North American (84); 10 cubic
+inches less than the European (94); and the same as the average
+Polynesian and native African. He has a rounded head, somewhat prominent
+vertex, not an excessive protuberance of brain behind--a line through
+the meatus dividing it into very nearly equal parts; but a narrow front
+as viewed from above, small vertical diameter, quadrangular orbits,
+vertical teeth, and low facial angle. These characters place him between
+the Toltecan and the more barbarous tribes of the New World.
+
+The Napos are nominally subject to the Ecuadorian government, which is
+represented by three or four petty alcaldes; but the Jesuit
+missionaries, who have established a bishopric and three curacies,
+generally control affairs--spiritual, political, and commercial. The
+Indians of each village annually elect one of their number governor, who
+serves without salary, and whose only show of authority is a
+silver-headed cane about four feet long. He is attended by half a dozen
+"justices," whose duty it is to supply the curate, alcalde, and any
+traveling _blanco_ who may happen to be in town with daily food at a
+reasonable rate.
+
+The religion of the Napos is a mixture of Paganism and Christianity. In
+common with all the other orient tribes, they believe in good and evil
+principles, and in metempsychosis. They swear in the name of the devil.
+They bury their dead horizontally, in a coffin made of a part of a
+canoe, with a lid of bamboo. They are very kind to the aged. Monogamy is
+the rule: the usual age of wedlock is sixteen or seventeen. The parents
+negotiate the marriage, and the curate's fee is one castellano ($3.50).
+When a person dies they hold an Irish "wake" over the body, and then
+take the widow to the river and wash her. They have seven semi-religious
+feasts in a year. To us they appeared to be nothing more than
+meaningless drunken frolics. Attired in their best, with head-dresses
+consisting of a circlet of short, richly-colored feathers from the
+breast of the toucan, surmounted with the long tail-feathers of the
+macaw, and with necklaces of beads, seeds, and monkeys' teeth, they keep
+up a constant monotonous tapping on little drums, and trot around a
+circle like dogs on a treadmill, stopping only to drink chicha. This is
+kept up for three weeks, when they all start off, with wives and
+children, for the forest to hunt monkeys for meat.
+
+Chicha, the favorite drink of all the Andean Indians, is here brewed
+from yuca, not from corn and barley as in the Quito Valley. So true is
+it, as Humboldt remarks, that almost every where man finds means of
+preparing some kind of beverage from the vegetable kingdom. The
+Chilotans, Darwin informs us, make chicha from a species of _Bromelia_.
+In every zone, too, we find nations in a low degree of civilization
+living almost exclusively upon a single animal or plant. Thus the
+Laplander has his reindeer, the Esquimaux his seal, the Sandwich
+Islander his tara-root, the Malay his sago-palm, the Napo Indian his
+yuca.
+
+Yuca is the staple food in this region. It is more commonly roasted, but
+is sometimes ground into flour. The manufacture of chicha is primitive,
+and not a little disgusting. A "bee," usually old women, sit around a
+wooden trough; each one takes a mouthful of yuca root, and, masticating
+it, throws it into the trough. The mass is then transferred to large
+earthen jars containing water, and left to ferment. The liquor is
+slightly acid, but not intoxicating unless taken in excess. This is done
+on feast-days, when the poor Indian keeps his stomach so constantly
+distended for weeks that the abdominal protrusion is not only
+unsightly, but alarming to a stranger. Chicha-drinking is a part of the
+worship of these simple aborigines. They seem to think that the more
+happy they make themselves while paying their devotions to the Creator,
+the better he is satisfied. The Jesuits have found it impossible to
+change this method of praise. Here, as among all rude nations, an
+ancient custom is one half the religion. In eating meat (usually monkey,
+sea-cow, and peccari), we observed that they did not tear or bite it,
+but, putting one end of a long piece in the mouth, cut off what they
+could not get in, as Darwin noticed among the Fuegians. They keep no
+domestic animals except fowls.
+
+As to dress, they make use of a coarse cotton cloth, called _lienzo_,
+woven by the more enlightened Indians of Quito, dyeing it a dull brown
+by means of achote juice. The men wear a strip of this around the loins,
+and the women a short skirt. On feast-days, or when musquitoes are
+thick, the men add a little poncho and pantaloons. They do not properly
+tattoo, but color the skin with achote or anatto. This substance, which
+serves so many purposes in this part of the world, is the red powder
+which covers the seeds contained in the prickly bur of the _Bixa
+orellana_. The pigment is an article of commerce on the Amazon, and is
+exported to Europe, where it is used for coloring butter, cheese, and
+varnish. They have no fixed pattern; each paints to suit his fancy.
+Usually, however, they draw horizontal bands from the month to the ears,
+and across the forehead; we never saw curved lines in which higher
+savages, like the Tahitians, tattoo.
+
+The Napos have the provoking apathy of all the New World aborigines. As
+Humboldt observed of another tribe, "their poverty, stoicism, and
+uncultivated state render them so rich and so free from wants of every
+kind, that neither money nor other presents will induce them to turn
+three steps out of their ways." They maintain a passive dignity in their
+bearing not seen in the proudest pope or emperor. They seldom laugh or
+smile, even under the inspiration of chicha, and months of intercourse
+with them did not discover to us the power of song, though Villavicencio
+says they do sometimes intone fragments of prose in their festival
+orgies. They manifest little curiosity, and little power of mimicry, in
+which wild men generally excel the civilized.[99] The old Spartans were
+never so laconic. In conversation each says all he has to say in three
+or four words till his companion speaks, when he replies in the same
+curt, ejaculatory style. A long sentence, or a number of sentences at
+one time, we do not remember of hearing from the lips of a Napo
+Indian.[100]
+
+[Footnote 99: All savages appear to possess to an uncommon degree the
+power of mimicry.--_Darwin_.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Gibbon observes of his Indian paddlers on the Marmore:
+"They talk very little; they silently pull along as though they were
+sleeping, but their eyes are wandering all the time in every
+direction."]
+
+The women do most of the work, while their lazy lords drink up the
+chicha and swing in their hammocks, or possibly do a little
+hunting.[101] They catch fish with bone hooks, seines, spears, and by
+poisoning the water with _barbasco_.[102] This last method is quite
+common throughout equatorial America. Mashing the root, they throw it
+into the quiet coves of the river, when almost immediately the fish rise
+to the surface, first the little fry and then the larger specimens. The
+poison seems to stupefy rather than kill, for we observed that some
+individuals behaved in a most lively manner shortly after they were
+caught. The Indians drink the water with impunity.
+
+[Footnote 101: Some of these feminines, however, have a method of
+retaliation which happily does not exist further north. They render
+their husbands idiotic by giving them an infusion of _floripondio_, and
+then choose another consort. We saw a sad example of this near Riobamba,
+and heard of one husband who, after being thus treated, unconsciously
+served his wife and her new man like a slave. _Floripondio_ is the seed
+of the _Datura sanguinea_, which is allied to the poisonous _stramonium_
+used by the priests of Apollo at Delphi to produce their frantic
+ravings.]
+
+[Footnote 102: _Jacquinia armillaris_, an evergreen bush. The Indians on
+the Tapajos use a poisonous liana called _timbo_ (_Paullinia pinnata_).]
+
+The Napos are not brave; their chief weapons for hunting are spears of
+chonta wood, and blowpipes (_bodaqueras_) made of a small palm having a
+pith, which, when removed, leaves a polished bore, or of two separate
+lengths of wood, each scooped out with patient labor and considerable
+skill by means of the incisor teeth of a rodent. The whole is smeared
+with black wax, a mouth-piece fitted to the larger end, and a sight made
+of bone imbedded in the wax. Through this tube, about ten feet long,
+they blow slender arrows cut from the leaf-stalks of a palm. These are
+winged with a tuft of silk-cotton (common cotton would be too heavy),
+and poisoned with _urari_, of which we shall speak hereafter. This
+noiseless gun is universally used on the Upper Amazon.[103]
+
+[Footnote 103: It is there called _zarabatana_ or _gravatana_; by the
+Peruvians _pucuna_. It corresponds to the _sumpitan_ of Borneo. It is
+difficult to recognize the use of the blow-gun, but the natives will
+kill at the distance of 150 feet. One which we brought home sent the
+slender arrow through the panel of a door.]
+
+The Zaparos in physiognomy somewhat resemble the Chinese, having a
+middle stature, round face, small eyes set angularly, and a broad, flat
+nose. Their language is of simple construction, but nasal and guttural.
+They have no words for numbers above three, but show their fingers;
+above ten they know nothing. They take to themselves single names, not
+double. They reckon time by moons and the ripening of certain fruits.
+Their name for God is Piatzo, but we could not learn that it conveyed
+any distinct idea. They believe the evil spirit, "Mungia," is a black
+spectre dwelling in the woods. They think the souls of the good and
+brave enter beautiful birds and feed on delicious fruits, while cowardly
+souls become dirty reptiles. Polygamy is common. They bury in the
+sitting posture, with the hammock of the deceased wrapped around him.
+The very old men are buried with the mouth downward. They make use of a
+narcotic drink called _Ayahuasca_, which produces effects similar to
+those of opium. The Zaparos are pacific and hospitable, but there is
+little social life among them; they never cluster into large villages,
+but inhabit isolated ranchos. Nomadic in their habits, they wander along
+the banks of the Napo, between the Andes and the Maranon. They
+manufacture, from the twisted fibre of the chambiri-palm,[104] most of
+the twine and hammocks seen in Eastern Ecuador. Their government is
+patriarchal.
+
+[Footnote 104: This thorny palm is called _tucum_ in Brazil. The fibres
+of the budding top are used. A woman will twist a hundred yards of twine
+a day, and make a living by selling hammocks for twenty-five cents a
+piece.]
+
+The Jivaros, or "Red Indians" _par excellence_, are the most numerous
+and the most spirited of the oriental tribes. They are brave and
+resentful, yet hospitable and industrious. While the Napos and Zaparos
+live in rude, often temporary huts of split bamboo, the warlike Jivaros
+erect houses of hard wood with strong doors. Blood relations live
+together on the communal principle, the women keeping the rear half of
+the house, which is divided by a partition. Many Jivaros approach the
+Caucasian type, the beard and lighter skin hinting a percentage of
+Spanish blood; for this tribe was never conquered by the Incas, nor did
+it brook Spanish avarice and cruelty, but in one terrible conflict
+(1599) the intruder was swept out of existence. The wives of the El
+Dorado adventurers spent the rest of their days in the harems of the
+Jivaros. These Indians have the singular custom and art of compressing
+the heads of their notable captives; taking off the skin entire and
+drying it over a small mould, they have a hideous mummy which preserves
+all the features of the original face, but on a reduced scale."[105]
+They also braid the long black hair of their foes into girdles, which
+they wear as mementoes of their prowess. They use chonta-lances with
+triangular points, notched and poisoned, and shields of wood or hide.
+They have a telegraphic system which enables them to concentrate their
+forces quickly in time of war; large drums are placed on the tops of the
+hills, and a certain number of strokes, repeated along the line, rapidly
+convey intelligence to the most distant habitation.
+
+[Footnote 105: Bates (ii., 132) speaks of a similar custom among the
+ancient Mundurucus: "They used to sever the head with knives made of
+broad bamboo, and then, after taking out the brain and fleshy parts,
+soak it in bitter vegetable oils, and expose it several days over the
+smoke of a fire, or in the sun."]
+
+An odd custom prevails among these wild Indians when an addition is made
+to the family circle. The woman goes into the woods alone, and on her
+return washes herself and new-born babe in the river; then the husband
+immediately takes to his bed for eight days, during which time the wife
+serves him on the choicest dainties she can procure.[106] They have also
+the unique practice of exchanging wives. The Jivaro speech is sonorous
+and energetic. They do not use salt; so that they distinguish the Napo
+tribes as the "Indians who eat salt." The chief articles manufactured by
+them are cotton goods and blowpipes. They trade mostly at Canelos and
+Macas, generally purchasing iron implements, such as hatchets and
+knives.
+
+[Footnote 106: A like custom existed among some Brazilian and Guiana
+tribes. It also prevailed to some extent among the ancient Cantabrians
+and Corsicans, the Congos and Tartars, and in the Southern French
+provinces.]
+
+Canelos consists of about seventy families of Quichua-speaking Indians,
+and lies on the south bank of the Bobonaza. A trail connects it with
+Banos, at the foot of Tunguragua. Canelos was founded in 1536, and
+derives its name from its situation in the Canela, or American cinnamon
+forest. The bark of the tree has the flavor of the Ceylon aromatic;
+but, according to Dr. Taylor, it is cassia. Macas, in the days of
+Spanish adventure a prosperous city under the name of "Sevilla de Oro,"
+is now a cluster of huts on the banks of the Upano. Its trade is in
+tobacco, vanilla, canela, wax, and copal. The Spaniards took the trouble
+to transplant some genuine cinnamon-trees from Ceylon to this locality,
+and they flourished for a time.
+
+On the 30th of October we left Quito on our march across the continent,
+by the way of the Napo wilderness. The preparations for our departure,
+however, commenced long before that date. To leave Quito in any
+direction is the work of time. But to plunge into that _terra incognita_
+"el Oriente," where for weeks, perhaps months, we should be lost to the
+civilized world and cut off from all resources, east or west, demanded
+more calculation and providence than a voyage round the world.
+
+We were as long preparing for our journey to the Amazon as in making it.
+In the first place, not a man in Quito could give us a single item of
+information on the most important and dangerous part of our route.
+Quitonians are not guilty of knowing any thing about trans-Andine
+affairs or "oriental" geography. From a few petty traders who had, to
+the amazement of their fellow-citizens, traversed the forest and reached
+the banks of the Napo, we gleaned some information which was of service.
+But on the passage down the Napo from Santa Rosa to the Maranon, a
+distance of over five hundred miles, nobody had any thing to say except
+the delightful intelligence that in all probability, if we escaped the
+fever, we would be murdered by the savages. The information we received
+was about as definite and reliable as Herndon obtained respecting any
+tributary to the Lower Amazon: "It runs a long way up: it has rapids;
+savages live upon its banks; every thing grows there." From M. Gillette,
+a Swiss gentleman trading at Para in Moyabamba hats, we learned about
+the movements of the Peruvian steamer on the Maranon; but how long it
+would take us to cross the mountains and the forest, and descend the
+river, we must find out by trial.
+
+The commissary department was of primal importance. As, from all we
+could learn, we could not depend upon obtaining supplies from the
+Indians or with our guns,[107] it was necessary to take provisions to
+last till we should reach the Maranon. But how long we should be in the
+forest and on the river, or what allowance to make for probable delays,
+it was impossible to prophesy. The utmost caution and forethought were
+therefore needed, for to die of starvation in the wilderness was, for
+all practical purposes, equivalent to falling into the hands of
+cannibals. As it turned out, however, we made a most fortunate hit, for
+on arriving at Pebas--the first village on the Maranon--we found we had
+just enough solid food left to have one grand jubilee dinner.
+
+[Footnote 107: The scarcity of game is well illustrated by the fate of
+Pizarro and his comrades. In returning from their expedition to the Napo
+country, they nearly perished with hunger, living on lizards, dogs,
+horses, saddles, sword-belts, etc., and reached Quito looking more like
+spectres than men.]
+
+For the benefit of future travelers, and for the curiosity of others, we
+give the bill of fare we provided for this journey--stomachs, five;
+time, forty-two days:
+
+Flour           100 lbs.
+Corn meal        27  "
+Pea flour        30  "
+Mashka           47  "
+Crackers        100  "
+Rice             50  "
+Sugar            90  "
+Chocolate        25  "
+Dried meat[108]  47  "
+Salt             10  "
+Lard             10  "
+Cream tartar   1-1/2 "
+Soda              1  "
+Tea               2  "
+Ham              10  "
+Tamarinds         9  "
+Eggs            170.
+Anisado      pts. 5.
+
+[Footnote 108: "Jerked beef," as it is called in South America, consists
+of thin strips cut off the carcass after skinning and dried in the sun.
+The butchers do not distinguish between sirloin and round.]
+
+To this we added by purchase from the Indians a few chickens and eggs,
+five gallons of sirup, and a peck of rice; and on the river we helped
+ourselves to a little wild game, as fish, peccari, deer, and turtles'
+eggs. But these made only a drop in the commissary bucket; had we
+depended upon finding provisions on the road, we must have perished from
+sheer hunger. Game, in the dry season, is exceedingly scarce. Our
+provisions were packed in kerosene cans, a part of which were soldered
+up to keep out moisture (for the Valley of the Napo is a steaming
+vapor-bath) and to keep out the hands of Indians. More than once have
+these treacherous yet indispensable guides robbed the white man of his
+food, and then left him to his fate; we lost not a pound by theft. A
+four-gallon keg of aguardiente,[109] from which we dealt out half a gill
+daily to each man, kept our Indians in good humor.
+
+[Footnote 109: This is the rum of the Andes, corresponding to the
+_cashaca_ of Brazil. It is distilled from sugar-cane. When
+double-distilled and flavored with anise, it is called _anisado_.]
+
+As we must ascend to the cold altitude of fifteen thousand feet, and
+then descend to the hot Valley of the Amazon, we were obliged to carry
+both woolen and cotton garments, besides rubber ponchos to shield them
+from the rain by day, and to form the first substratum of our bed at
+night. Two suits were needed in our long travel afoot through the
+forest; one kept dry for the nightly bivouac, the other for day service.
+At the close of each day's journey we doffed every thread of our wearing
+apparel, and donned the reserved suit, for we were daily drenched either
+from the heavens above or by crossing swollen rivers and seas of mud.
+Then, too, as boots would not answer for such kind of travel, we must
+take _alpargates_, a native sandal made of the aloe fibre, and of these
+not a few, for a pair would hardly hold together two days. Two bales of
+_lienzo_, besides knives, fish-hooks, thread, beads, looking-glasses,
+and other trinkets, were also needed; for the Napo Indians must be paid
+in such currency. There _lienzo_, not gold and silver, is the cry. On
+this we made a small but lawful profit, paying in Quito eighteen cents
+per yard, and charging on the river twenty-five.
+
+An extensive culinary apparatus, guns and ammunition, taxidermal and
+medicinal chests, physical instruments, including a photographic
+establishment, rope, macheta, axe, saw, nails, candles, matches, and a
+thousand _et caetera_, completed our outfit. Among the essential _et
+caetera_ were generous passports and mandatory letters from the President
+of Ecuador and the Peruvian Charge d'Affaires, addressed to all
+authorities on the Napo and the Maranon. They were obligingly procured
+for us by Senor Hurtado, the Chilian minister (then acting for the
+United States), through the influence of a communication from our own
+government, and were of great value to the expedition.[110]
+
+[Footnote 110: The following is a copy of the President's order:
+
+     REPUBLICA DEL ECUADOR
+
+Ministeria de Estado        }             Quito a 18 de Octubre,}
+en el Despacho del Interior.}             de 1807.              }
+
+     APERTORIA.
+
+     A las autoridades del transito hasta el Napo, i a los demas
+     empleados civiles i militares de la provincia del Oriente:
+
+     El Sor. James Orton, ciudadano de los EE. UU. de America, profesor
+     de la Universidad de Rochester en Nueva-York, i jefe de una
+     comision cientifica del Instituto de Smithsonian de Washington, va
+     a la provincia de Oriente con el objeto de esplorarla en
+     cumplimiento de su encargo. S.E. el Presidenta de la Republica
+     ordena a U.U. presten al espresado Sor. Orton i su comitiva cuantas
+     consideraciones merecen sus personas, i los ausilios i co-operacion
+     que necesiten para verificar su viaje i hacer sus estudios i
+     observaciones.
+
+     Dios gue. a U.U.
+
+     R. CARVAJAL.
+
+]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+     Departure from Quito.--Itulcachi.--A Night in a
+     Bread-tray.--Crossing the
+     Cordillera.--Guamani.--Papallacta.--Domiciled at the
+     Governor's.--An Indian Aristides.--Our Peon Train.--In the
+     Wilderness.
+
+
+Forty miles east-southeast of Quito, on the eastern slope of the Eastern
+Cordillera, and on the western edge of the great forest, is the Indian
+village of Papallacta. From the capital to this point there is a path
+just passable for horses; but thence to the Napo travelers must take to
+their feet. Through the intervention of the curate of Papallacta, who
+has great influence over his wild people, but who has wit enough to
+reside in Quito instead of his parish, we engaged the Indian governor to
+send over thirteen beasts and three peons to carry our party and baggage
+to Papallacta. Wednesday morning the quadrupeds were at the door of our
+hotel, five of them _bestias de silla_. These horses, judging by size,
+color, shape, and bony prominences, were of five different species. The
+saddles, likewise, differed from one another, and from any thing we had
+ever seen or desired to see. One of them was so narrow and deep none of
+us could get into it; so, filling up the cavity with blankets, we took
+turns in riding on the summit. By noon, October 30th, we had seen our
+Andean collections in the hands of arrieros bound for Guayaquil, whence
+they were to be shipped by way of Panama to Washington, and our baggage
+train for Napo headed toward the rising sun. So, mounting our jades, we
+defiled across the Grand Plaza and through the street of St. Augustine,
+and down the Carniceria to the Alameda, amid the _vivas_ and _adeos_ of
+our Quitonian friends, who turned out to see the largest expedition
+that ever left the city for the wild Napo country since the days of
+Pizarro. Few there were who expected to hear of our safe arrival on the
+shores of the Atlantic.
+
+Crossing the magnificent plain of Inaquito, we reached in an hour the
+romantic village of Guapulo. Here is an elegant stone church dedicated
+to the Virgin of Guadaloupe, to which the faithful make an annual
+pilgrimage. Thence the road led us through the valley of the
+Guaillabamba (a tributary to the Esmeraldas), here and there blessed
+with signs of intelligent life--a mud hut, and little green fields of
+cane and alfalfa, and dotted with trees of wild cherry and myrtle, but
+having that air of sadness and death-like repose so inseparable from a
+Quitonian landscape. The greater part of this day's ride was over a
+rolling country so barren and dreary it was almost repulsive. What a
+pity the sun shines on so much useless territory!
+
+Just before sunset we arrived at Itulcachi, a great cattle estate at the
+foot of the eastern chain of mountains. The hacienda had seen better
+days, and was poorly fitted to entertain man or beast. The major-domo,
+however, managed to make some small potato soup, and find us shelter for
+the night. In the room allotted us there were three immense
+kneading-troughs and two bread-boards to match, for a grist-mill and
+bakery were connected with the establishment. In default of beds, we
+made use of this furniture. Five wiser men have slept in better berths,
+but few have slept more soundly than we did in the bread-trays of
+Itulcachi.
+
+The following day we advanced five miles to Tablon, an Indian hamlet on
+the mountain side. Here we waited over night for our cargo train, which
+had loitered on the road. This was the only spot in South America where
+we found milk to our stomachs' content; Itulcachi, with its herds of
+cattle, did not yield a drop. Our dormitory was a mud hovel, without an
+aperture for light or ventilation, and in this dark hole we all slept on
+a heap of barley. Splendid was the view westward from Tablon. Below us
+were the beautiful valleys of Chillo and Puembo, separated by the
+isolated mountain of Ilalo; around them, in an imposing semicircle,
+stood Cayambi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Corazon, Iliniza, Ruminagui,
+Cotopaxi, Sincholagua, and Antisana. As the sun went down in his glory
+behind the western range, the rocky head of Pichincha stood out in bold
+relief, and cast a long shadow over the plain. At this halting-place we
+made the mortifying discovery that the bare-legged Indian who had
+trotted by our side as a guide and body-servant, and whom we had ordered
+about with all the indifference of a surly slaveholder, was none other
+than his Excellency Eugenio Mancheno, governor of Papallacta! After this
+we were more respectful.
+
+The next morning, our baggage having come up, we pushed up the mountain
+through a grand ravine, and over metamorphic rocks standing on their
+edges with a wavy strike, till we reached a polylepis grove, 12,000 feet
+above the sea. We lunched under the wide-spreading branches of these
+gnarled and twisted trees, which reminded us of the patriarchal olives
+in the Garden of Gethsemane, and then, ascending over the monotonous
+paramo, we stood at the elevation of 15,000 feet on the narrow summit of
+the Guamani ridge. Some priest had been before us and planted a cross by
+the roadside, to guide and bless the traveler on his way.
+
+Of the magnificent prospect eastward, over the beginning of the
+Amazonian Valley, which this lofty point commands, we have already
+spoken. There was a wild grandeur in the scene--mountain behind
+mountain, with deep intervening valleys, all covered with one thick,
+unbroken mass of foliage. A tiny brook, the child of everlasting snows
+still higher up, murmured at our feet, as if to tell us that we were on
+the Atlantic slope, and then dashed into the great forest, to lose
+itself in the mighty Amazon, and be buried with it in the same ocean
+grave. The trade-wind, too, came rushing by us fresh from that sea of
+commerce which laves the shores of two worlds. Guamani gave us also our
+finest view of Antisana, its snow-white dome rising out of a wilderness
+of mountains, and presenting on the north side a profile of the human
+face divine.
+
+And now we rapidly descended by a steep, narrow path, and over paramo
+and bog, to a little tambo, where we had the luxury of sleeping on a bed
+of straw. Here we made the acquaintance of two Indians from the Napo,
+who were on the way to Quito with the mail--probably half a dozen
+letters. A strip of cloth around the loins, and a short cape just
+covering the shoulders, were all their habiliments. We noticed that they
+never sat down, though a bench was close by them; they would squat for
+an hour at a time. The day following we took our last horseback ride in
+South America. It was short, but horrible. Through quagmire and swamp,
+and down a flight of rocky stairs, in striking imitation of General
+Putnam's famous ride--over rocks, too, made wondrously slippery by a
+pitiless rain, but which our unshod Indian horses descended with great
+dexterity, only one beast and his rider taking a somerset--thus we
+traveled two hours, reaching Papallacta at 11 A.M.
+
+We put up at the governor's. This edifice, the best in town, had sides
+of upright poles stuccoed with mud, a thatched roof, and ground floor,
+on which, between three stones, a fire was built for cookery and
+comfort. Three or four earthen kettles, and as many calabashes and
+wooden spoons, were the sum total of kitchen utensils. A large flat
+stone, with another smaller one to rub over it, was the mill for
+grinding corn; and we were astonished to see how quickly our hostess
+reduced the grains to an impalpable meal. The only thing that looked
+like a bed was a stiff rawhide thrown over a series of round poles
+running lengthwise. This primitive couch, and likewise the whole house,
+the obsequious governor gave up to us, insisting upon sleeping with his
+wife and little ones outside, though the nights were cold and
+uncomfortable. Parents and children were of the earth, earthy--unwashed,
+uncombed, and disgustingly filthy. We found the governor one day taking
+lice for his lunch. Sitting behind his little boy, he picked out the
+little parasites with his nails, and crushed them between his teeth with
+a look of satisfaction. Eating lice is an old Indian custom, and
+universal in the Andes. In Inca times it was considered an infallible
+remedy against sore eyes. We have seen half a dozen women sitting on the
+ground in a row, picking out vermin from each other's heads. We thought
+the arrangement was a little unfair, for the first in the series had no
+lice to eat, and the animals were left to roam undisturbed in the
+capillary forest of the last.
+
+Papallacta is a village of thirty dwellings, situated in a deep valley
+on the north slope of Antisana, nearly surrounded by an amphitheatre of
+sandstone and basaltic precipices. Here, too, is the terminus of the
+fourth great lava stream from the volcano; it is not mentioned by
+Humboldt. Papallacta is a thousand feet higher than Quito, yet
+vegetation is more tropical. Its name signifies "the potato country,"
+but not a potato could we find here. Though Mancheno was governor, he
+was not really the greatest man in Papallacta. This was Carlos
+Caguatijo; he was the ruling man, for he could read, write, and speak
+Spanish, while the governor knew nothing but Quichua. Carlos, moreover,
+was a good man; he had an honest, Quaker-like air about him, and his
+face reminded us of George Washington's. In all his transactions we
+noticed no attempt to prevaricate or deceive; what he promised he
+performed to the letter. It was refreshing to meet one such upright soul
+in Ecuador, though we found him not of Caucasian blood, nor dwelling
+under the tiled roofs of the proud capital. The old man was the
+spiritual father of Papallacta, and, in the absence of the curate,
+officiated in the little church. With him, therefore, and not with our
+host the governor, we negotiated for peons to take us through the
+wilderness.
+
+The journey from Papallacta to the Napo occupied us thirteen days,
+including four days of rest. It was performed on foot, for the "road" is
+a trail. But the untraveled reader can have little idea of a trail in a
+tropical forest: fording bridgeless rivers, wading through interminable
+bogs, fens, marshes, quagmires, and swamps, and cutting one's way
+through dense vegetation, must be done to be understood. Half the year
+there is no intercourse between Quito and its Oriental province, for the
+incessant heavy rains of summer swell every rivulet into a furious
+torrent, and the path is overgrown and rendered impassable even by an
+Indian. The only time for travel is between November and April, for
+then, though it rains nearly every day, the clouds drop down in showers,
+not floods. But even then the traveler must sometimes wait two or three
+weeks beside a swollen river in imminent danger of starving, and
+throughout the journey entertain the comforting prospect that his
+Indians may eat up his provisions to lighten their load, or suddenly
+desert him as they did Dr. Jameson. There are other routes across South
+America much more feasible than the one we chose; these will be
+described in Chapter XXIII. But they all yield in interest to this
+passage along the equatorial line, and especially in the line of
+history. Who has not heard of Gonzalo Pizarro and his fatal yet famous
+expedition into "the land of cinnamon?" How he was led farther and
+farther into the wilderness by the glittering illusions of an El
+Dorado,[111] till the faithless Orellana, deserting him, floated down
+the Napo and made the magnificent discovery of the mighty Amazon.
+Gonzalo, "who was held to be the best lancer that ever went to these
+countries--and all confess that he never showed his back to the
+enemy"--returned to Quito with a few survivors to tell a tale of almost
+unparalleled suffering. A century elapsed (1530-1637) before any one
+ascended from Para to Quito by way of the Rio Napo; this was
+accomplished by Pedro Teixeira.
+
+[Illustration: Napo Peon.]
+
+[Footnote 111: The king of this fabulous land was said to wear a
+magnificent attire fragrant with a costly gum, and sprinkled with gold
+dust. His palace was of porphyry and alabaster, and his throne of
+ivory.]
+
+An Indian will carry three arrobas (seventy-five pounds) besides his own
+provisions, his provisions for the journey consisting of about
+twenty-five pounds of roasted corn and barley-meal. The trunk or bundle
+is bound to his back by withes, which pass across the forehead and
+chest; a poncho or a handful of leaves protects the bare back from
+chafing. All our luggage (amounting to nearly fifteen hundred pounds)
+was divided and packed to suit this method of transportation, so that we
+required twenty Indians. So many, however, of the right kind--for they
+must be athletic young men to endure the fatigues of such a
+journey--could not be furnished by the little village of Papallacta, so
+we were obliged to wait a few days till more Indians could be summoned
+from a neighboring town. When these arrived, the little world of
+Papallacta, men, women, and children, assembled in front of the
+governor's house, while Don Carlos sat by our side on a raised seat by
+the doorway. A long parley ensued, resulting in this: that we should pay
+one hundred Ecuadorian dollars for the transfer of our baggage to
+Archidona; while Carlos solemnly promised for the young men that they
+should start the next morning, that they should arrive at Archidona
+within a stipulated time, and that they should not depend upon us for an
+ounce of food. The powerful influence of the curate, which we had
+secured, and the proclamation from the president, which Carlos read
+aloud in the ears of all the people, together with the authoritative
+charge of Carlos himself, had the desired effect; not a transportation
+company in the United States ever kept its engagement more faithfully
+than did these twenty peons--and this, too, though we paid them in
+advance, according to the custom of the country. Upon a blanket spread
+at our feet the money was counted out, and Carlos slowly distributed it
+with a grave and reverend air, to every Indian five dollars.[112]
+
+[Footnote 112: We give below the autograph of this wisest man in all the
+Oriente: "Recibio del Senor James Orton la suma de centos (100) pesos
+por vente (20) peones hasta Archidona.
+
+[Illustration: reproduction of a signature is here]
+
+"Papallacta, 4 Nov., 1867."]
+
+Tuesday morning, November 5th, the peons promptly shouldered their
+burdens, and we, shod with _alpargates_, and with Alpine staff in hand
+(more needed here than in Switzerland), followed after, leaving the
+governor to sleep inside his mansion, and to eat his lice unmolested. On
+a little grassy knoll just outside the town our train halted for a
+moment--the Indians to take their fill of chicha, and bid their friends
+good-by, and we to call the roll and take an inventory. Our leader was
+Isiro, a bright, intelligent, finely-featured, stalwart Indian. He could
+speak Spanish, and his comrades acknowledged his superiority with marked
+deference. Ten women and children followed us for two days, to relieve
+the men of their burdens. Their assistance was not needed in the latter
+part of the journey, for our keen appetites rapidly lightened the
+provision cans. Starting again, we plunged at once into the forest,
+taking a northeasterly course along the left bank of a tributary to the
+Coca. The ups and downs of this day's travel of twelve miles were
+foreshadowings of what might come in our "views afoot" in South America.
+We encamped at a spot the Indians called Maspa. Herndon says: "The
+(Peruvian) Indians take no account of time or distance; they stop when
+they get tired, and arrive when God pleases."[113] But our Napo
+companions measured distance by hours quite accurately, and they always
+traveled as far as we were willing to follow. In ten minutes they built
+us a booth for the night; driving two crotchets into the ground, they
+joined them with a ridge-pole, against which they inclined a number of
+sticks for rafters. These they covered with palm-leaves, so adroitly put
+together that our roof was generally rain-proof. After ablution and an
+entire change of garments, we built a fire, using for fuel a green tree
+called _sindicaspi_ (meaning the wood that burns), a special provision
+in these damp forests where every thing is dripping with moisture. The
+fall of a full-grown tree under the strokes of a Yankee axe was a marvel
+in the eyes of our Indians. Our second day's journey was far more
+difficult than the first, the path winding up steep mountains and down
+into grand ravines, for we were crossing the outlying spurs of the
+Eastern Cordillera. Every where the track was slippery with mud, and
+often we sank two feet into the mire. How devoutly we did wish that the
+Ecuadorian Congress was compelled to travel this horrid road once a
+year! At 10 o'clock we reached a lone habitation called Guila, where
+wooden bowls are made for the Quito market. Here we procured a fresh
+Indian to take the place of one of our peons who had given out under his
+burden. We advanced this day sixteen miles in ten hours, sleeping under
+an old bamboo hut beside a babbling brook bearing the euphonious name of
+Pachamama.
+
+[Footnote 113: "Distance is frequently estimated by the time that a man
+will occupy in taking a chew of coca," or 37-1/2 minutes.--_Herndon_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+     Baeza.--The Forest.--Crossing the
+     Cosanga.--Curi-urcu.--Archidona.--Appearance, Customs, and Belief
+     of the Natives.--Napo and Napo River.
+
+
+Eight hours' hard travel from Pachamama brought us to Baeza. This
+"Antigua Ciudad," as Villavicencio calls it, was founded in 1552 by Don
+Egilio Ramirez Davalos, and named after the quite different spot where
+Scipio the Younger routed Asdrubal a thousand years before. It consists
+of two habitations, the residence of two families of Tumbaco Indians,
+situated in a clearing of the forest on the summit of a high ridge
+running along the right bank of the Coca. This point, about one hundred
+miles east of Quito, is important in the little traffic of the Oriente.
+All Indian trains from the capital to the province pass through Baeza,
+where the trail divides; one branch passing on easterly to San Jose, and
+thence down through Abila and Loreto to Santa Rosa; the other leading to
+the Napo through Archidona. Here we rested one day, taking possession of
+one half of the larger hut--a mere stockade with a palm-leaf roof,
+without chairs, chimney, or fire-place, except any place on the floor.
+We swung our hammocks, while our Indians stretched themselves on the
+ground beneath us. The island of Juan Fernandez is not a more isolated
+spot than Baeza. A dense forest, impenetrable save by the trails,
+stretches away on every side to the Andes and to the Atlantic, and
+northerly and southerly along the slope of the entire mountain chain.
+The forest is such an entangled mass of the living and the fallen, it is
+difficult to say which is the predominant spirit--life or death. It is
+the cemetery, as well as the birthplace, of a world of vegetation. The
+trees are more lofty than on the Lower Amazon, and straight as an
+arrow, but we saw none of remarkable size. A perpetual mist seems to
+hang on the branches, and the dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults,
+which the sunlight never enters. The soil and air are always cool, and
+never dry. Every thing is penetrated with dampness. All our watches
+stopped, and remained immovable till we reached Para. It is this
+constant and excessive humidity which renders it so difficult to
+transport provisions or prepare an herbarium. The pending branches of
+moss are so saturated with moisture that sometimes the branches are
+broken off to the peril of the passing traveler. Yet the climate is
+healthy. The stillness and gloom are almost painful; the firing of a gun
+wakes a dull echo, and any unlooked-for noise is startling. Scarce a
+bird or a flower is to be seen in these sombre shades. Nearly the only
+signs of animal life visible thus far were insects, mostly butterflies,
+fire-flies, and beetles. The only quadruped seen on our journey to the
+Napo was a long-tailed marten caught by the Indians. The silence is
+almost perfect; its chief interruption is the crashing fall of some old
+patriarch of the forest, overcome by the embrace of loving parasites
+that twine themselves about the trunk or sit upon the branches. The most
+striking singularity in these tropical woods is the host of lianas or
+air-roots of epiphytous plants, which hang down from the lofty boughs,
+straight as plumb-lines, some singly, others in clusters; some reaching
+half way to the ground, others touching it and striking their rootlets
+into the earth. We found lianas over one hundred feet long. Sometimes a
+toppling tree is caught in the graceful arms of looping _sipos_, and
+held for years by this natural cable. It is these dead trunks, standing
+like skeletons, which give a character of solemnity to these primeval
+woods. The wildest disorder is seen along the mountain torrents, where
+the trees, prostrated by the undermining current, lie mingled with huge
+stones brought down by the force of the water. In many places the crowns
+of stately monarchs standing on the bank interlock and form a sylvan
+arch over the river.
+
+We left Baeza by the southerly trail for Archidona. From Papallacta we
+had traveled east, or parallel to the streams which flow down from the
+mountains. We were now to cross them (and their name is legion), as also
+the intervening ridges; so that our previous journey was nothing to that
+which followed. Sometimes we were climbing up an almost vertical ascent,
+then descending into a deep, dark ravine, to ford a furious river; while
+on the lowlands the path seemed lost in a jungle of bamboos, till our
+Indian "bushwhackers" opened a passage with their machetas, and we crept
+under a low arcade of foliage. This day we enjoyed something unusual in
+our forest trail--a distant view. The path brought us to the verge of a
+mountain, whence we could look down on the savage valley of the Cosanga
+and upward to the dazzling dome of Antisana; it was our farewell view of
+that glorious volcano. At the distance of twelve miles from Baeza we
+reached the banks of the Rio Cosanga, camping at a spot called
+Chiniplaya. This is the river so much dreaded by Indians and whites
+traversing the Napo wilderness. It is fearfully rapid--a very Tigris
+from its source to its junction with the Coca. The large, smooth
+boulders strewn along its bed show its power. Here, sixty miles from its
+origin in the glaciers of Antisana, it is seventy-five feet wide, but in
+the wet season it is one hundred yards. The day following we threaded
+our difficult way, a _via dolorosa_, fifteen miles up the left bank of
+the Cosanga, where we crossed and camped on the opposite side. The
+Indians had thrown a log over the deepest part of the river, and the
+rest we forded without much danger; but that very night the rain raised
+the river to such a magnitude that the little bridge was carried off.
+Had we been one day later, we might have waited a week on the other side
+of the impassable gulf. Between this point where we forded and
+Chiniplaya, fifteen miles below, the barometer indicated a fall of five
+hundred feet. The roar of the rushing waters is like that of the sea. In
+the beautiful language of Darwin (_Journal_, p. 316): "The sound spoke
+eloquently to the geologist; the thousands and thousands of stones,
+which, striking against each other, made the one dull, uniform sound,
+were all hurrying in one direction. It was like thinking on time, when
+the minute that now glides past is irrecoverable. So was it with these
+stones. The ocean is their eternity, and each note of that wild music
+told of one more step toward their destiny."
+
+On account of the heavy rain and the sickness of a peon, whom finally we
+were obliged to leave behind, we rested one day; but on the morrow we
+traveled fourteen miles, crossing the lofty Guacamayo ridge,[114]
+fording at much risk the deep Cochachimbamba, and camping at a spot (the
+Indians have a name for almost any locality in the forest) called
+Guayusapugaru. The next day we must have advanced twenty miles, besides
+crossing the furious Hondachi. This river was very much swollen by the
+rains, and it was only by the aid of a rope that we made the passage.
+One stout Indian was carried down stream, but soon recovered himself.
+
+[Footnote 114: Humboldt speaks of this as an active volcano, "from which
+detonations are heard almost daily." We heard nothing. It is possible
+that he meant Guamani.]
+
+As we had lowered our altitude since leaving Papallacta seven thousand
+feet, the climate was much warmer, and vegetation more prolific. Nowhere
+else between the Andes and the Atlantic did we notice such a majestic
+forest. The tree-ferns, ennobled by the tropical sun and soil, have a
+palm-like appearance, but with rougher stems and a usual height of fifty
+feet. Plants akin to our "scouring rush" rise twenty-five feet. We saw
+to-day the "water tree," or _huadhuas_ of the natives, a kind of bamboo,
+which sometimes yields between the joints two quarts of clear,
+taste-less water. Late in the evening we reached an old rancho called
+_Curi-urcu_ ("the mountain of gold"); but we had traveled so far ahead
+of our cargo-train we did not see it again till the next morning. We
+were obliged, therefore, to sleep on the ground in our wet clothes, and
+put up with hard commons--half parched corn, which our Indian guides
+gave us, and unleavened cakes or flour-paste baked on the coals. Thence,
+after a short day's journey of ten miles, we arrived at Archidona, by a
+path, however, that was slippery with a soft yellow clay. We were a
+sorry-looking company, soaked by incessant rains, exhausted by
+perspiration, plastered with mud, tattered, and torn; but we were kindly
+met by the Jesuit bishop, who took us to his own habitation, where one
+Indian washed our feet, and another prepared a most refreshing drink of
+_guayusa_ tea. We then took up our quarters at the Government House,
+opposite the bishop's, sojourning several days on account of our swollen
+feet, and also on account of a swollen river which ran between us and
+the Napo. Here we made a valuable collection of birds, lizards, fishes,
+and butterflies.
+
+Archidona is situated in a beautiful plain on the high northern bank of
+the Misagualli, two thousand feet above the Atlantic. The site is a
+cleared spot in the heart of an almost boundless forest; and it was a
+relief, not easily conceived, to emerge from beneath the dense leafy
+canopy into this open space and look up to the sky and to the snowy
+Andes. The climate is uniform and delightful, the mean annual
+temperature being seventy-seven degrees. Sand-flies, however, resembling
+our "punkies," abound; and the natives are constantly slapping their
+naked sides, eating the little pests as the Papallactans do their
+lice.[115] Archidona is the largest village in the Napo country,
+containing about five hundred souls. The houses are of split bamboo and
+palm-thatch, often hid in a plantation of yuca and plantain. The central
+and most important structure is the little church; its rude belfry,
+portico, chancel, images, and other attempts at ornament remind us of
+the fitting words of Mrs. Agassiz, that "there is something touching in
+the idea that these poor, uneducated people of the forest have cared to
+build themselves a temple with their own hands, lavishing upon it such
+ideas of beauty and taste as they have, and bringing at least their best
+to their humble altar." Founded by Davalos in 1560, Archidona has been a
+missionary station for two hundred years. The people are child-like and
+docile, but the bishop confessed there was no intellectual advance.
+Every morning and evening, at the tinkling of a little bell, all
+Archidona assembled in the open porch, where the bishop taught them to
+sing and pray. It was a novel sight to see these children of the forest
+coming out of the woods on all sides and running up to the temple--for
+these natives, whenever they move, almost invariably go on a run. The
+men are tall and slim and of a dark red color, and their legs are bent
+backward at the knees. The governor was the only portly individual we
+saw. The women are short, with high shoulders, and are very timid; they
+seldom stand erect, and with the knees bent forward they run sneakingly
+to church. Their eyes have a characteristic, soft, drooping look. They
+carry their babes generally on the hip; not on the back, as in Quito.
+The men are hatless, shirtless, and shoeless; their only garments are
+short drawers, about six inches long, and little ponchos, both of
+lienzo, dyed a dark purple with achote--the red seeds of the bixa, which
+the cooks of Quito use to color their soups. All paint their bodies with
+the same pigment. The women wear a frock reaching from the waist to the
+knees; it is nothing more than a yard or two of lienzo wound around the
+body. The Archidonians are the most Christianized of all the Napo
+Indians, but they can not be called religious. Their rites (they can
+hardly be said to have a creed) are the _a_, _b_, _c_, of Romanism,
+mingled with some strange notions--the relics of a lost paganism. They
+are very superstitious, and believe, as before remarked, in the
+transmigration of souls. Maniacs they think are possessed by an evil
+demon, and therefore are treated with great cruelty. Negroes (of whom a
+few specimens have come up the Napo from Brazil) are held to be under
+the ban of the Almighty, and their color is ascribed to the singeing
+which they got in the flames of hell. They do not believe in disease;
+but, like the Mundurucus on the Tapajos, say that death is always caused
+by the sorceries of an enemy. They usually bury in the church or in the
+tambo of the deceased. Celibacy and polygamy, homicide and suicide, are
+rare.
+
+[Footnote 115: The Chasuta Indians, Herndon says, eat musquitoes that
+they catch on their bodies with the idea of restoring the blood which
+the insect has abstracted.]
+
+The only sign of industry in Archidona is the manufacture of pita thread
+from the aloe. It is exported to Quito on human backs. The inhabitants
+also collect copal at the headwaters of the Hondachi, and use it for
+illumination. It can be bought in Archidona for three or four cents a
+pound. The gum exudes from a lofty leguminous tree having an oak-like
+bark. It resembles the anime of Madagascar rather than the copal of
+India, which flows from an entirely different tree. Guayusa, or "Napo
+tea," is another and celebrated production of Archidona. It is the large
+leaf of a tall shrub growing wild. An infusion of guayusa, like the
+_mate_ of Paraguay (which belongs to the same genus _Ilex_), is so
+refreshing it supplies for a long time the place of food. The Indians
+will go to Quito on this beverage alone, its virtues being similar to
+those of _coca_, on the strength of which the posts of the Incas used to
+travel incredible distances. It is by no means, however, such a
+stimulant. It is a singular fact, observes Dr. Jameson, that tea,
+coffee, cacao, mate, and guayusa contain the same alkaloid caffeine. The
+last, however, contains only one fifteenth as much of the active
+principle as tea, and no volatile oil. Herndon found guayusa on the
+Ucayali.
+
+At Archidona we took a new set of peons for Napo, as the Papallactans do
+not travel farther. The distance is sixteen miles, and the path is
+comparatively good, though it crosses two rivers, the Misagualli and
+Tena. On this journey we found the only serpent seen since leaving
+Quito. This solitary specimen was sluggish and harmless, but exceedingly
+beautiful. It was the _Amphisboena fuliginosa_, or "slow-worm." It
+lives in the chambers of the Saueba ants. We met a procession of these
+ants, each carrying a circular piece of a leaf vertically over its head.
+These insects are peculiar to tropical America, and are much dreaded in
+Brazil, where they soon despoil valuable trees of their foliage. They
+cut the leaves with their scissor-like jaws, and use them to thatch the
+domes at the entrance of their subterranean dwellings.
+
+At Napo we took possession of the governor's house. Each village in the
+Napo province was obliged to build an edifice of split bamboo for that
+dignitary; and, as he no longer exists, they are left unoccupied. They
+generally stand on the highest and best site in the town, and are a
+god-send to travelers. Immediately on our arrival, the Indian governor
+and his staff of justices called to see what we wanted, and during our
+stay supplied us with chickens, eggs, plantains, yucas, and fuel. His
+excellency would always come, silver-headed cane in hand, though the
+justices had only six eggs or a single fowl to bring us. The alcalde
+also paid us his respects. He is an old blanco (as the whites are
+called), doing a little traffic in gold dust, lienzo, and pita, but is
+the highest representative of Ecuador in the Napo country. Here, too, we
+met, to our great delight, Mr. George Edwards, a native of Connecticut,
+who has settled himself, probably for life, in the depths of this
+wilderness. He was equally rejoiced to see the face and hear the speech
+of a countryman. His industry and upright character have won for him the
+respect and good-will of the Indians, and he is favorably known in
+Quito. The government has given him a tract of land on the Yusupino, two
+miles west of Napo village. Here he is cultivating vanilla, of which he
+has now three thousand plants, and also his patience, for six years
+elapse after transplanting before a pod appears. He has been so long in
+the country (thirteen years) his English would now and then run off into
+Spanish or Quichua.
+
+Napo is prettily situated on the left bank of the Rio Napo, a dense
+forest inclosing it on every side. The maximum number of inhabitants is
+eighty families; but many of these are in town only in festival seasons.
+It was well for us that we reached the Napo during the feasts; otherwise
+we might not have found men enough to man our canoes down the river.
+There are three or four blancos, petty merchants, who follow the old
+Spanish practice of compulsory sales, forcing the Indians to take
+lienzo, knives, beads, etc., at exorbitant prices, and making them pay
+in gold dust and pita. This kind of commerce is known under the name of
+_repartos_. It is hard to find an Indian whose gold or whose labor is
+not claimed by the blancos. The present and possible productions of this
+region are: bananas, plantains, yucas,[116] yams, sweet potatoes, rice,
+beans, corn, lemons, oranges, chirimoyas, anonas (a similar fruit to the
+preceding), pine-apples, palm cabbages, guavas, guayavas, castor-oil
+beans, coffee, cacao, cinnamon, India-rubber, vanilla (two kinds),[117]
+chonta-palm nuts, sarsaparilla, contrayerva (a mint), tobacco (of
+superior quality), and guayusa; of woods, balsam, red wood, Brazil wood,
+palo de cruz, palo de sangre, ramo caspi, quilla caspi, guayacan (or
+"holy wood," being much used for images), ivory palm, a kind of ebony,
+cedar, and aguana (the last two used for making canoes); of dyewoods,
+sarne (dark red), tinta (blue), terriri, and quito (black); of gums,
+estoraque (a balsam) and copal, besides a black beeswax, the production
+of a small (Trigona) bee, that builds its comb in the ground; of
+manufactures, pita, hammocks, twine, calabashes, aguardiente (from the
+plantain), chicha (from the yuca),[118] sugar and molasses (from the
+cane, which grows luxuriantly), and manati-lard; of minerals, gold dust.
+The gold, in minute spangles, is washed down by the rivers at flood
+time, chiefly from the Llanganati Mountains. The articles desired in
+exchange are lienzo, thread, needles, axes, hoes, knives, fish-hooks,
+rings, medals, crosses, beads, mirrors, salt, and poison. Quito nearly
+monopolizes the trade; though a few canoes go down the Napo to the
+Maranon after salt and poison. The salt comes from near Chasuta, on the
+Huallaga;[119] the _urari_ from the Ticuna Indians. It takes about
+twenty days to paddle down to the Maranon, and three months to pole up.
+The Napo is navigable for a flat-bottomed steamer as far as Santa
+Rosa,[120] and it is a wonder that Anglo-Saxon enterprise has not put
+one upon these waters. The profits would be great, as soon as commercial
+relations with the various tribes were established.[121] Four yards of
+coarse cotton cloth, for example, will exchange for one hundred pounds
+of sarsaparilla. _Urari_ is sold at Napo for its weight in silver. By a
+decree of the Ecuadorian Congress, there will be no duty on foreign
+goods entering the Napo for twenty years. The Napo region, under proper
+cultivation, would yield the most valuable productions of either
+hemisphere in profusion. But agriculture is unknown; there is no word
+for plow. The natives spend most of their time in idleness, or feasting
+and hunting. Their weapons are blow-guns and wooden spears; our guns
+they call by a word which signifies "thunder and lightning." Laying up
+for the future or for commerce is foreign to their ideas. The houses are
+all built of bamboo tied together with lianas, and shingled with leaves
+of the sunipanga palm. The Indians are peaceful, good-natured, and idle.
+They seldom steal any thing but food. Their only stimulants are chicha,
+guayusa, and tobacco. This last they roll up in plantain leaves and
+smoke, or snuff an infusion of it through the nose from the upper bill
+of a toucan. "The Peruvians (says Prescott, quoting Garcilasso) differ
+from every other Indian nation to whom tobacco was known by using it
+only for medicinal purposes in the form of snuff." There is no bread on
+the Napo; the nearest approach to flour is yuca starch. There are no
+clocks or watches; time is measured by the position of the sun. The mean
+temperature at Napo village is about one degree warmer than that of
+Archidona. Its altitude above the sea is 1450 feet. The nights are cool,
+and there are no musquitoes; but sand-flies are innumerable. Jiggers
+also have been seen. There are no well-defined wet and dry seasons; but
+the most rain falls in May, June, and July. The lightning, Edwards
+informed us, seldom strikes. Dysentery, fevers, and rheumatism are the
+prevailing diseases; and we saw one case of goitre. But the climate is
+considered salubrious. Few twins are born; and there are fewer children
+than in Archidona--a difference ascribed by some to the exposure of the
+Napo people in gold washing; by others to the greater quantity of
+guayusa drunk by the Archidonians.
+
+[Footnote 116: Sometimes called _yuca dulce_, or sweet yuca, to
+distinguish it from the _yuca brava_, or wild yuca, the mandioca of the
+Amazon, from which farina is made. The yuca is the beet-like root of a
+little tree about ten feet high. It is a good substitute for potatoes
+and bread.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Vanilla belongs to the orchid family, and is the only
+member which possesses any economical value. It is a graceful climber
+and has a pretty star-like flower.]
+
+[Footnote 118: In Peru, the liquor made from yuca is called _masato_.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Rock-salt is found on both sides of the Andes. "The
+general character of the geology of these countries would rather lead to
+the opinion that its origin is in some way connected with volcanic heat
+at the bottom of the sea."--Darwin's _Observations_, pt. iii., p. 235.]
+
+[Footnote 120: "The Napo (Herndon was told) is very full of sand-banks,
+and twenty days from its mouth (or near the confluence of the Curaray)
+the men have to get overboard and drag the canoes!"--_Report_, p. 229.]
+
+[Footnote 121: The chief difficulty throughout the Upper Amazon is in
+getting the Indians to concentrate along the bank. But honorable dealing
+would accomplish this in time.]
+
+The Napo is the largest river in the republic. From its source in the
+oriental defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua to its embouchure at the
+Maranon, its length is not far from eight hundred miles, or about twice
+that of the Susquehanna.[122] From Napo village to the mouth of the
+river our barometer showed a fall of a thousand feet. At Napo the
+current is six miles an hour; between Napo and Santa Rosa there are
+rapids; and between Santa Rosa and the Maranon the rate is not less than
+four miles an hour. At Napo the breadth is about forty yards; at Coca
+the main channel is fifteen hundred feet wide; and at Camindo it is a
+full Spanish mile. Below Coca the river throws out numerous canals,
+which, isolating portions of the forest-clad lowlands, create numerous
+picturesque islands. Around and between them the river winds, usually
+making one bend in every league. The tall trees covering them are bound
+together by creeping plants into a thick jungle, the home of capybaras
+and the lair of the jaguar. The islands, entirely alluvial, are
+periodically flooded, and undergo a constant round of decay and
+renovation. Indeed, the whole river annually changes its channel, so
+that navigation is somewhat difficult. The Indians, on coming to a fork,
+were frequently at a loss to know which was the main channel. Then, too,
+the river is full of snags and _plaias_, or low, shelving sand-banks,
+rising just above the water-level--the resort of turtles during the egg
+season. It was interesting to trace the bed of the river as we floated
+down; on the rapid slope of the Cordilleras rushing over or rolling
+along huge boulders, which farther on were rapidly reduced in size,
+till, in time, boulders were broken into pebbles, pebbles turned into
+sand, and sand reduced to impalpable mud.[123] The _plaias_ are not
+auriferous. Below Coca there is a wilderness of lagunes, all connected
+with the river, the undisturbed retreat of innumerable water-fowl. The
+only spot on the Napo where the underlying rocks are exposed is near
+Napo village. There it is a dark slate, gently dipping east. Farther
+west, in fact, throughout this side of the Andes, the prevailing rock is
+mica-schist. But the entire Napo country is covered with an alluvial
+bed, on the average ten feet thick.
+
+[Footnote 122: Its actual source is the Rio del Valle, which runs
+northward through the Valle Vicioso. Its longest tributary, the Curaray,
+rises only a few miles to the south in the Cordillera de los Mulatos.
+The two rivers run side by side 4 deg. of longitude before meeting. Coca,
+the northern branch, originates in the flanks of Cayambi. The Napo and
+its branches are represented incorrectly in every map we have examined.
+The Aguarico is confounded with the Santa Maria and made too long, and
+the Curaray is represented too far above the mouth of the Napo. There
+are no settlements between Coca and Camindo.]
+
+[Footnote 123: From specimens of sand which we obtained at different
+points in descending the river, we find that at Coca it contains 17.5
+per cent. of pure quartz grains, the rest being colored dark with
+augite: at the mouth of the Napo there is 50 per cent. of pure quartz,
+the other half being light-colored and feldspathic.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+     Afloat on the Napo.--Down the Rapids.--Santa Rosa and its mulish
+     Alcalde.--Pratt on Discipline.--Forest Music.--Coca.--Our Craft and
+     Crew.--Storm on the Napo.
+
+
+We embarked November 20th on our voyage down the river. It is no easy
+matter to hire or cajole the Indians for any service. Out of feast-time
+they are out of town, and during the festival they are loth to leave, or
+are so full of chicha they do not know what they want. We first woke up
+the indolent alcalde by showing him the President's order, and then used
+him to entice or to compel (we know not his motive power) eight Indians,
+including the governor, to take us to Santa Rosa. We paid them about
+twenty-four yards of lienzo, the usual currency here. They furnished
+three canoes, two for baggage and one covered with a palm-leaf awning
+for ourselves. The canoes were of red cedar, and flat-bottomed; the
+paddles had oval blades, to which short, quick strokes were given
+perpendicularly to the water entering and leaving. But there was little
+need of paddling on this trip.
+
+The Napo starts off in furious haste, for the fall between Napo village
+and Santa Rosa, a distance of eighty miles, is three hundred and fifty
+feet. We were about seven hours in the voyage down, and it takes seven
+days to pole back. The passage of the rapids is dangerous to all but an
+Indian. As Wallace says of a spot on the Rio Negro, you are bewildered
+by the conflicting motions of the water. Whirling and boiling eddies
+burst as if from some subaqueous explosion; down currents are on one
+side of the canoe, and an up current on the other; now a cross stream
+at the bows and a diagonal one at the stern, with a foaming Scylla on
+your right and a whirling Charybdis on the left. But our nervousness
+gave way to admiration as our popero, or pilot, the sedate governor,
+gave the canoe a sheer with the swoop of his long paddle, turning it
+gracefully around the corner of a rock against which it seemed we must
+be dashed, and we felt like joining in the wild scream of the Indians as
+our little craft shot like an arrow past the danger and down the rapids,
+and danced on the waters below.
+
+In four hours we were abreast the little village of Aguano; on the
+opposite bank we could see the tambos of the gold washers. At 5 P.M. we
+reached the deserted site of Old Santa Rosa, the village having been
+removed a few years ago on account of its unhealthy location. It is now
+overgrown with sour orange and calabash trees, the latter bearing large
+fruit shells so useful to the Indians in making pilches or cups. In
+pitch darkness and in a drizzling rain we arrived at New Santa Rosa, and
+swung our hammocks in the Government House.
+
+Santa Rosa, once the prosperous capital of the Provincia del Oriente,
+now contains about two hundred men, women, and children. The town is
+pleasantly situated on the left bank of the river, about fifteen feet
+above the water level. A little bamboo church, open only when the
+missionary from Archidona makes his annual visit, stood near our
+quarters. The Indians were keeping one of their seven feasts in a hut
+near by, and their drumming was the last thing we heard as we turned
+into our hammocks, and the first in the morning. The alcalde, Pablo
+Sandoval, is the only white inhabitant, and he is an Indian in every
+respect save speech and color. His habitation is one of the largest
+structures on the Napo; the posts are of chonta-palm, the sides and roof
+of the usual material--split bamboo and palm leaves. It is embowered in
+a magnificent grove of plantains and papayas. In the spacious vestibule
+is a bench, on which the Indian governor and his staff seat themselves
+every morning to confer with the alcalde. In one corner stands a table
+(the only one we remember seeing on the Napo); on the opposite side are
+heaped up jars, pots, kettles, hunting and fishing implements, paddles,
+bows and arrows. Between the posts swing two chambiri hammocks. From
+Santa Rosa to Para the hammock answers for chair, sofa, _tete-a-tete_,
+and bed. When a stranger enters, he is invited to sit in a hammock; and
+at Santa Rosa we were always presented with a cup of guayusa; in Brazil
+with a cup of coffee. Sandoval wore nothing but shirt and pantaloons;
+the dignity of the barefooted functionary was confined to his Spanish
+blood. He had lived long among the Zaparos; and from him, his daughter,
+and a Zaparo servant, we obtained much valuable information respecting
+that wild and little-known tribe.
+
+[Illustration: Papaya-tree.]
+
+At Santa Rosa we procured Indians and canoes for the Maranon. This was
+not easily done. The Indians seemed reluctant to quit their feasts and
+go on such a long voyage, and the alcalde was unwilling they should go,
+and manufactured a host of lies and excuses. He declared there was but
+one large canoe in town, and that we must send to Suno for another, and
+for men to man it. There were indeed few Indians in Santa Rosa, for
+while we were disputing a largo number went off with shoutings down the
+river, to spend weeks in the forest hunting monkeys.[124] It was a
+stirring sight to see these untamed red men in the depths of the Napo
+wilderness starting on a monkey crusade; but it was still more stirring
+to think of paddling our own canoe down to Brazil. After some time lost
+in word-fighting, we tried the virtues of authority. We presented the
+president's order, which commanded all civil and military powers on the
+Napo to aid, and not to hinder, the expedition; then we put into his
+hand an official letter from the alcalde of Napo (to whom Pablo was
+subordinate), which, with a flourish of dignified Spanish, threatened
+Santa Rosa with the doom of Sodom and Gomorrah if any impediment was
+placed in our way.
+
+[Footnote 124: Monkeys form an article of food throughout tropical
+America. The meat is tough, but keeps longer than any other in that
+climate. The Indians told Gibbon that "the tail is the most delicate
+part when the hair is properly singed."]
+
+To all this Edwards, who had kindly accompanied us down the river thus
+far, added, with frightful gestures, that he purposed to report him to
+the Quito government. After this bombardment Sandoval was another man,
+and the two canoes and four Indians we wanted were forthcoming. We had
+to wait, however, two days for the Indians to prepare their chicha for
+the journey and to cover the canoes with palm awnings. The price of a
+canoe for the Maranon is twenty-five varas of lienzo, and the same for
+each Indian. Unfortunately we had only fifty varas left; but, through
+the influence of the now good-natured alcalde, we induced the Indians to
+take the balance in coin. After many delays, we put our baggage into
+one canoe, and ourselves into the other, and pushed off into the rapid
+current of the Napo. We had three styles of valediction on leaving. Our
+Indian quartet, after several last drinks of chicha, bade their friends
+farewell by clasping hands, one kissing the joined hands, and then the
+other. Sandoval muttered _adios_ in reply to ours, meaning, no doubt,
+good riddance, while we shouted a hearty good-bye to Edwards as he
+pushed his way up stream to continue his lonely but chosen Indian life
+on the banks of the Yusupino.
+
+The Napo at Santa Rosa runs at least five miles an hour, and we were
+soon picking our way--now drifting, now paddling--through a labyrinth of
+islands and snags. The Indians, so accustomed to brutal violence from
+the hands of the whites, had begged of us, before our departure, that we
+would not beat them. But shortly after we left, one of them, who was
+literally filled with chicha, dropped his paddle and tumbled into a heap
+at the bottom of the canoe, dead drunk. Pratt, our gigantic Mississippi
+boatman, whom we had engaged at Quito as captain and cook down the
+river, and who was an awful Goliath in the eyes of the red-skins, seized
+the fellow and gave him a terrible shaking, the like of which was never
+seen or heard of in all Napo. At once the liquor left the muddled brain
+of the astonished culprit, and, taking his paddle, he became from that
+hour the best of the crew. This was the only case of discipline on the
+voyage. Always obsequious, they obeyed us with fear and trembling. None
+of them could speak Spanish, so we had provided ourselves with a
+vocabulary of Quichua. But some English words, like the imperative
+_paddle_! were more effective than the tongue of the Incas. Indeed, when
+we mixed up our Quichua with a little Anglo-Saxon, they evidently
+thought the latter was a terrible anathema, for they sprang to their
+places without delay.
+
+In seven hours we arrived at Suno, a collection of half a dozen palm
+booths, five feet high, the miserable owners of which do a little
+fishing and gold-washing. They gave us possession of their largest hut,
+in which they had been roasting a sea-cow, and the stench was
+intolerable. Nevertheless, one of our number bravely threw down his
+blanket within, and went to sleep; two swung their hammocks between the
+trees, and the rest slept in the canoe. Here, for the first time since
+leaving Guayaquil, we were tormented by musquitoes. Bats were also quite
+numerous, but none of them were blood-thirsty; and we may add that
+nowhere in South America were we troubled by those diabolical imps of
+imaginative travelers, the leaf-nosed species. So far as our experience
+goes, we can say, with Bates, that the vampire, so common on the Amazon,
+is the most harmless of all bats. It has, however, a most hideous
+physiognomy. A full-grown specimen will measure twenty-eight inches in
+expanse of wing. Bates found two species on the Amazon--one black, the
+other of a ruddy line, and both fruit-eaters.
+
+The nocturnal music of these forests is made by crickets and tree-toads.
+The voice of the latter sounds like the cracking of wood. Occasionally
+frogs, owls, and goat-suckers croak, hoot, and wail. Between midnight
+and 3 A.M. almost perfect silence reigns. At early dawn the animal
+creation awakes with a scream. Pre-eminent are the discordant cries of
+monkeys and macaws. As the sun rises higher, one musician after another
+seeks the forest shade, and the morning concert ends at noon. In the
+heat of the day there is an all-pervading rustling sound, caused by the
+fluttering of myriad insects and the gliding of lizards and snakes. At
+sunset parrots and monkeys resume their chatter for a season, and then
+give way to the noiseless flight of innumerable bats chasing the
+hawk-moth and beetle. There is scarcely a sound in a tropical forest
+which is joyous and cheering. The birds are usually silent; those that
+have voices utter a plaintive song, or hoarse, shrill cry. Our
+door-yards are far more melodious on a May morning. The most common
+birds on the Napo are macaws, parrots, toucans, and ciganas. The
+parrots, like the majority in South America, are of the green type. The
+toucan, peculiar to the New World, and distinguished by its enormous
+bill, is a quarrelsome, imperious bird. It is clumsy in flight, but
+nimble in leaping from limb to limb. It hops on the ground like a robin,
+and makes a shrill yelping--_pia-po-o-co_. Ecuadorians call it the
+_predicador_, or preacher, because it wags its head like a priest, and
+seems to say, "God gave it you." The feathers of the breast are of most
+brilliant yellow, orange, and rose colors, and the robes of the royal
+dames of Europe in the sixteenth century were trimmed with them. The
+cigana or "gypsy" (in Peru called "chansu") resembles a pheasant. The
+flesh has a musky odor, and it is for this reason, perhaps, that they
+exist in such numbers throughout the country. The Indians never eat
+them. In no country as in the Amazonian Valley is there such a variety
+of insects; nowhere do we find species of larger size or greater beauty.
+It is the richest locality for butterflies; Bates found twelve hundred
+species in Brazil alone, or three times as many as in all Europe. The
+splendid metallic-blue, and the yellow and transparent-winged, are very
+abundant on the Napo; some rise high in the air; others, living in
+societies, look like fluttering clouds. Moths are comparatively rare.
+The most conspicuous beetle on the river is a magnificent green species
+(_Chrysophora chrysochlora_), always found arboreal, like the majority
+of tropical coleopters; they look like emerald gems clinging to the
+branches. There are two kinds of bees, the black and yellow, which the
+Napos name respectively _cushillo mishke_ (monkey honey) and _sara
+mishke_ (corn honey). It is singular these Indians have no term for
+bees, but call them honey, and distinguish them by their color. The
+black species is said to make the most honey, and the yellow the best.
+The quadrupeds of the Oriente are few and far between in the dry season.
+Not a sloth nor armadillo did we see. But when the rains descend the
+wilderness is a menagerie of tigers and tapirs, pumas and bears, while a
+host of reptiles, led by the gigantic boa, creep forth from their
+hiding-places. The most ferocious carnivores are found in the mountains,
+and the most venomous serpents haunt the lowlands. Darwin says that we
+ought not to expect any closer similarity between the organic beings on
+the opposite sides of the Andes than on the opposite shores of the
+ocean. We will remark that we obtained a peccari, a number of birds not
+accustomed to high flights, and five reptilian species, on the Pacific
+slope, identical with species found on the Napo.
+
+Breakfasting on fried yucas, roasted plantains, fish, and guayusa, we
+set sail, arriving at Coca at 2 P.M. This little village, the last we
+shall see till we come within sight of the Amazon, is beautifully
+located on the right bank, twenty-five feet above the river, and
+opposite the confluence of the Rio Coca. Though founded twenty years
+ago, it contains only five or six bamboo huts, a government-house,
+church, alcalde's residence, and a _trapiche_ for the manufacture of
+aguardiente and sirup from the cane.[125] The alcalde was a worthless
+blanco, who spent most of his time swinging in a hammock slung between
+the posts of his veranda, and playing with a tame parrot when not drunk
+or asleep. This spot is memorable in history. Pizarro having reached it
+from Quito by way of Baeza and the Coca, halted and built a raft or
+canoe (Prescott says a brig), in which Orellana was sent down the river
+to reconnoitre, but who never returned. Up to this point the Napo has an
+easterly course; but after receiving the Coca, it turns to the
+southeast. We remained here two days to construct a more comfortable
+craft for our voyage to the Amazon, a distance of at least five hundred
+miles. The canoe is the only means of navigation known to the Indians.
+But the idea of spending fifteen days cooped, cribbed, and cramped in a
+narrow canoe, exposed to a tropical sun and furious rains, was
+intolerable.
+
+[Illustration: Trapiche.]
+
+[Footnote 125: The _trapiche_ or sugar-mill of the Andes is a rude
+affair. The cane is pressed between cogged wooden cylinders worked by
+bullocks, and the juice is received in troughs made of hollowed logs.]
+
+Our Santa Rosa canoes were about thirty feet long. These were placed
+about five feet apart and parallel, and then firmly secured by bamboo
+joists. Over these we spread a flooring of split bamboo, and planted
+four stout chonta sticks to support a palm-thatched roof. A rudder (a
+novel idea to our red-skinned companions), and a box of sand in the
+stern of one of the boats for a fire-place, completed our rig. The
+alcalde, with a hiccough, declared we would be forever going down the
+river in such a huge craft, and the Indians smiled ominously. But when
+our gallant ship left Coca obediently to the helm, and at the rate of
+six miles an hour when paddles and current worked together, they shouted
+"_bueno_!" Our trunks and provision-cans were arranged along the two
+sides of the platform, so that we had abundance of from for exercise by
+day and for sleeping under musquito-tents at night. A little canoe,
+which we bought of the alcalde, floated alongside for a tender, and was
+very serviceable in hunting, gathering fuel, etc. In the
+"forecastle"--the bows of the large canoes which projected beyond our
+cabin--sat three Indians to paddle. The fourth, who was the governor of
+Santa Rosa, we honored with the post of steersman; and he was always to
+be seen on the poop behind the kitchen, standing bolt upright, on the
+alert and on the lookout. On approaching any human habitation, the
+Indians blew horns to indicate that they came as friends. These horns
+must have come from Brazil, as there are no bovines on the Napo.
+Whenever they enter an unknown lagune they blow their horns also to
+charm the _yacu-mama_, or mother-of-waters, as they call the imaginary
+serpent.
+
+At different points down the river they deposited pots of chicha for
+use on their return. The mass breeds worms so rapidly, however, as
+Edwards informed us, that after the lapse of a month or two it is a
+jumble of yuca scraps and writhing articulates. But the owner of the
+heap coolly separates the animal from the vegetable, adds a little
+water, and drinks his chicha without ceremony. During leisure hours the
+Indians busied themselves plaiting palm leaves into ornaments for their
+arms and heads. Not a note did they whistle or sing. Yet they were
+always in good humor, and during the whole voyage we did not see the
+slightest approach to a quarrel. At no time did we have the least fear
+of treachery or violence.
+
+The Napos are not savages. Their goodness, however, as Bates says of the
+Cucama tribe, consists more in the absence of active bad qualities than
+in the possession of good ones. Of an apathetic temperament and dull
+imagination, we could not stir them into admiration or enthusiasm by any
+scientific wonder; the utmost manifestation of surprise was a cluck with
+the tongue.[126] Upon presenting the governor with a vest, he
+immediately cut off the buttons, and, dividing the cloth into four
+parts, shared it with his fellows.[127] When it rained they invariably
+took off their ponchos, but in all our intercourse with these wild men
+we never noticed the slightest breach of modesty. They strictly
+maintained a decent arrangement of such apparel as they possessed. A
+canoe containing a young Indian, his bride, and our governor's wife and
+babe, accompanied us down to the Maranon. They were going after a load
+of salt for Sandoval. The girl was a graceful paddler, and had some
+well-founded pretensions to beauty. Her coarse, black hair was simply
+combed back, not braided into plaits as commonly done by the Andean
+women. All, both male and female, painted their faces with achote to
+keep off the sand-flies.
+
+[Illustration: Our Craft on the Napo.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Bates says the Mundurucus express surprise by making a
+clicking sound with their teeth, and Darwin observes that the Fuegians
+have the habit of making a chuckling noise when pleased.]
+
+[Footnote 127: The like perfect equality exists among the Fuegian
+tribes. "A piece of cloth given to one is torn into shreds and
+distributed, and no one individual becomes richer than
+another."--_Darwin_.]
+
+Pratt managed the helm (the governor could not work the Yankee notion)
+and the kitchen. At Santa Rosa we had added to our Quito stock of
+provisions some manati-lard (bottled up in a joint of a bamboo) and
+sirup, and at Coca we took in three fowls, a bag of rice, and a bunch of
+bananas. So we fared sumptuously every day. We left Coca on Thanksgiving
+Day, November 28th, and to imitate our distant friends, we sacrificed an
+extra meal--fricasseed chicken, jerked beef, boiled yucas, bananas,
+oranges, lemonade, and guayusa. Favored by a powerful current and the
+rhythmic paddling of our Santa Rosans, we made this day sixty miles; but
+our average daily run was fifty miles. The winds (doubtless the trades)
+were almost unchangeably from the east; but an occasional puff would
+come from the northwest, when we relieved our paddlers by hoisting a
+blanket for a sail. Six o'clock was our usual hour of departure, and ten
+or twelve hours our traveling time, always tying up at a plaia or
+island, of which there are hosts in the Napo, but never to the main
+land, for fear of unfriendly Indians and the still more unwelcome tiger.
+Our crew encamped at a respectful though hailing distance.
+
+On the second day from Coca we were caught in a squall, and to save our
+roof we ran ashore. Nearly every afternoon we were treated to a shower,
+accompanied by a strong wind, but seldom by thunder and lightning,
+though at Coca we had a brilliant thunder-storm at night. They always
+came after a uniform fashion and at a regular hour, so that we learned
+when to expect them. About noon the eastern horizon would become
+suddenly black, and when this had spread to the zenith we heard the
+rush of a mighty wind sweeping through the forest, and the crash of
+falling trees, and then down fell the deluge. The Indians have a saying
+that "the path of the sun is the path of the storm." These storm-clouds
+moved rapidly, for in half an hour all was quiet on the Napo. At Quito,
+two hundred miles west, the usual afternoon shower occurs two hours
+later. To-day we enjoyed our last glimpse of the Andes. Far away across
+the great forest we had traversed we could see the beautiful cone of
+Cotopaxi and the flat top of Cayambi standing out in proud pre-eminence.
+Long will it be ere we forget this farewell view of the magnificent
+Cordillera.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+     Sea-Cows and Turtles' Eggs.--The Forest.--Peccaries.--Indian Tribes
+     on the Lower Napo.--Anacondas and Howling Monkeys.--Insect
+     Pests.--Battle with Ants.--Barometric Anomaly.--First View of the
+     Amazon,--Pebas.
+
+
+The thirtieth of November was an exciting day on the monotonous Napo. We
+fell in with numerous sea-cows sporting in the middle of the stream.
+They were greatly disturbed by the sight of our huge craft, and, lifting
+their ugly heads high out of the water, gave a peculiar snort, as if in
+defiance, but always dived out of sight when fired upon. The sea-cow is
+called _vaca marina_ by the Spaniards, _peixe boy_ by the Brazilians,
+and _manati_ in the West Indies. It has no bovine feature except in its
+upper lip. The head and skin remind one of a large seal. In many
+respects it may be likened to a hippopotamus without tusks or legs. It
+has a semicircular flat tail, and behind the head are two oval fins,
+beneath which are the breasts, which yield a white milk. The flesh
+resembles pork, with a disagreeable, fishy flavor.
+
+To-day we anchored at several plaias to hunt turtles' eggs. Our Indians
+were very expert in finding the nests. Guided approximately by the
+tracks of the _tortugas_, as the turtles are called, they thrust a stick
+into the sand, and wherever it went down easily they immediately
+commenced digging with their hands, and invariably "struck" eggs. In
+four nests, whose contents we counted, there were one hundred and
+thirty-two, one hundred and fourteen, one hundred and twelve, and
+ninety-seven; but we have heard of one hundred and sixty eggs in a
+single nest. The turtles lay in the night, and in pits about two feet
+deep, which they excavate with their broad, webbed paws. The eggs are
+about an inch and a half in diameter, having a thin, leathery shell, a
+very oily yolk, and a white which does not coagulate. The Indians ate
+them uncooked. We used them chiefly in making corn griddles.
+
+Here, as throughout its whole course, the Napo runs between two walls of
+evergreen verdure. On either hand are low clay banks (no rocks are
+visible), and from these the forest rises to a uniform height of seventy
+or eighty feet. It has a more cheerful aspect than the sombre, silent
+wilderness of Baeza. Old aristocrats of the woods are overrun by a gay
+democracy of creepers and climbers, which interlace the entire forest,
+and, descending to take root again, appear like the shrouds and stays of
+a line-of-battle ship. Monkeys gambol on this wild rigging, and mingle
+their chatter with the screams of the parrot. Trees as lofty as our oaks
+are covered with flowers as beautiful as our lilies. Here are orchids of
+softest tints;[128] flowering ferns, fifty feet high; the graceful
+bamboo and wild banana; while high over all countless species of palm
+wave their nodding plumes. Art could not arrange these beautiful forms
+so harmoniously as nature has done.
+
+[Footnote 128: Some orchid is in flower all the year round. The finest
+species is the _odontoglossum_, having long, chocolate-colored petals,
+margined with yellow. "Such is their number and variety (wrote Humboldt)
+that the entire life of a painter would be too short to delineate all
+the magnificent Orchideae which adorn the recesses of the deep valleys of
+the Peruvian Andes." For many curious facts respecting the structure of
+these flowers, see Darwin's _Fertilization of Orchids_.]
+
+[Illustration: Hunting Turtles' Eggs]
+
+The tropics, moreover, are strangers to the uniformity of association
+seen in temperate climes. We have so many social plants that we speak of
+a forest of oaks, and pines, and birches; but there variety is the law.
+Individuals of the same species are seldom seen growing together.
+Every tree is surrounded by strangers that seemingly prefer its room
+to its company; and, such is the struggle for possession of the soil, it
+is difficult to tell to which stem the different leaves and flowers
+belong. The peculiar charm of a tropical forest is increased by the
+mystery of its impenetrable thicket. Within that dense, matted
+shrubbery, and behind that phalanx of trees, the imagination of the
+traveler sees all manner of four-footed beasts and creeping things.
+Tropical vegetation is of fresher verdure, more luxuriant and succulent,
+and adorned with larger and more shining leaves than the vegetation of
+the north. The leaves are not shed periodically--a character common, not
+only to the equator, but also to the whole southern hemisphere. Yet
+there is a variety of tints, though not autumnal. The leaves put on
+their best attire while budding instead of falling--passing, as they
+come to maturity, through different shades of red, brown, and green. The
+majority of tropical trees bear small flowers. The most conspicuous
+trees are the palms, to which the prize of beauty has been given by the
+concurrent voice of all ages. The earliest civilization of mankind
+belonged to countries bordering on the region of palms. South America,
+the continent of mingled heat and moisture, excels the rest of the world
+in the number and perfection of her palms. They are mostly of the
+feathery and fan-like species; the latter are inferior in rank to the
+former. The peculiarly majestic character of the palm is given not only
+by their lofty stems, but also in a very high degree by the form and
+arrangement of their leaves. How diverse, yet equally graceful, are the
+aspiring branches of the jagua and the drooping foliage of the cocoa,
+the shuttlecock-shaped crowns of the ubussu and the plumes of the
+jupati, forty feet in length. The inflorescence always springs from the
+top of the trunk, and the male flowers are generally yellowish. Unlike
+the oak, all species of which have similar fruit, there is a vast
+difference in the fruits of the palm: compare the triangular cocoa-nut,
+the peach-like date, and grape-like assai. The silk-cotton tree is the
+rival of the palm in dignity; it has a white bark and a lofty flat
+crown. Among the loveliest children of Flora we must include the mimosa,
+with its delicately pinnated foliage, so endowed with sensibility that
+it seems to have stepped out of the bounds of vegetable life. The
+bamboo, the king of grasses, forms a distinctive feature in the
+landscape of the Napo, frequently rising eighty feet in length, though
+not in height, for the fronds curve downward. Fancy the airy grace of
+our meadow grasses united with the lordly growth of the poplar, and you
+have a faint idea of bamboo beauty.
+
+The first day of winter (how strangely that sounds under a vertical
+sun!) was Sunday; but it was folly to attempt to rest where punkies were
+as thick as atoms, so we floated on. It was only by keeping in mid-river
+and moving rapidly enough to create a breeze through our cabin, that
+life was made tolerable. A little after noon we were again obliged to
+tie up for a storm. Not a human being nor a habitation have we seen
+since leaving Coca; and to-day nothing is visible but the river, with
+its islands, and plains, and the green palisades--the edges of the
+boundless forest. Not a hill over one hundred feet high are we destined
+to see till we reach Obidos, fifteen hundred miles eastward. Were it not
+for the wealth of vegetation--all new to trans-tropical eyes--and the
+concerts of monkeys and macaws, oppressively lonely would be the sail
+down the Napo between its uninhabited shores. But we believe the day,
+though distant, will come when its banks will be busy with life. Toward
+evening three or four canoes pulled out from the shore and came
+alongside. They were filled with the lowest class of Indians we have
+seen in South America. The women were nearly nude; the man (there was
+only one) had on a sleeveless frock reaching to the knees, made from the
+bark of a tree called _llanchama_. All were destitute of eyebrows; their
+hair was parted in the middle, and their teeth and lips were dyed black.
+They had rude pottery, peccari meat, and wooden lances to sell. Like all
+the Napo Indians, they had a weakness for beads, and they wore necklaces
+of tiger and monkey teeth. They were stupid rather than brutal, and
+probably belonged to a degraded tribe of the great Zaparo family. With
+Darwin, "one's mind hurries back over past centuries, and then asks,
+could our progenitors have been men like these?--men whose very signs
+and expressions are less intelligible to us than those of the
+domesticated animals; men who do not possess the instinct of those
+animals, nor yet appear to boast of human reason, or, at least, of arts
+consequent on that reason. I do not believe it is possible to describe
+or paint the difference between savage and civilized man. It is the
+difference between a wild and tame animal; and part of the interest in
+beholding a savage is the same which would lead every one to desire to
+see the lion in his desert, the tiger tearing his prey in the jungle, or
+the rhinoceros wandering over the wild plains of Africa."
+
+On the morrow our falcon-eyed Indians whispered "_cuche_" long before we
+saw any thing.[129] Williams went ashore and came upon a herd of
+peccaries, killing two. The peccari is a pugnacious, fearless animal. It
+is not frightened by the noise of fire-arms, and when wounded is a
+dangerous foe; but captured when young, it is easily tamed. It has a
+higher back than the domestic hog, and cleanlier habits; an odoriferous
+gland on the loins, and three-toed hind feet. We preserved the skins for
+science and a ham for the table; the rest we gave to our crew and
+fellow-voyagers, who devoured every thing, even the viscera. They sat
+up late that night, around their camp-fire, cooking peccari meat: part
+they parboiled in a pot, and some they roasted, skewered on sticks which
+slanted over the flames; the rest they cured with smoke, for lack of
+salt. The meat, though rank, is palatable, but not equal to macaw, which
+we served up the next day.[130]
+
+[Footnote 129: In the Quichua of Quito the peccari is called _saino_.]
+
+[Footnote 130: The Uaupes on the Napo, according to Wallace, will not
+eat peccari meat. "Meat putrifies in this climate (of the Tapajos) in
+less than twenty-four hours, and salting is of no use unless the pieces
+are cut in thin slices and dried immediately in the sun."--_Bates_.]
+
+We had now passed the mouth of the Aguarico, leaving behind us the
+Christian Quitus and the peaceful Zaparos. Henceforth the right bank of
+the Napo is inhabited by the Mazanes and Iquitos; while on the left are
+the wilder Santa Marias, Anguteros, Oritos, and Orejones. The Orejones,
+or "Big Ears," enlarge those appendages to such an extent that they are
+said to lie down on one ear and cover themselves with the other. This
+practice is now going out of fashion. These Indians received their name,
+Orejones, or Oregones, from the Spaniards, on account of this singular
+custom of inserting disks of wood in the ears to enlarge them; the like
+practice prevailed among the tribes on the Columbia River, Oregon. They
+trade in hammocks, poisons, and provisions. The Anguteros, or Putumayos,
+have a bad reputation. They are reported to have killed and robbed
+sarsaparilla traders coming up stream. Nevertheless, we kept watch only
+one night during the voyage, though we always anchored to an island, and
+between Coca and the Amazon we did not see twenty-five men. Equally rare
+were the savage brutes--not a jaguar showed himself, and only one
+anaconda. The anaconda, or water-boa (_Eunectes murinus_[131]), is
+larger and more formidable than the boa-constrictor which lives on the
+land. It has a hideous appearance, broad in the middle, and tapering
+abruptly at both ends. We did not learn from the natives that anacondas
+over twenty feet long had been seen on the Napo, but specimens twice
+that size are found on the Amazon. Land boas do not often exceed fifteen
+feet in length.
+
+[Footnote 131: The specific name was strangely given for its habit, when
+young, of darting upon mice. Anaconda is a Ceylonese word.]
+
+[Illustration: A Howler.]
+
+Gangs of the large howling monkeys often entertained us with their
+terrific, unearthly yells, which, in the truthful language of Bates,
+"increased tenfold the feeling of inhospitable wildness which the forest
+is calculated to inspire." They are of a maroon color (the males wear a
+long red beard), and have under the jaw a bony goitre--an expansion of
+the os hyoides--by means of which they produce their loud, rolling
+noise. They set up an unusual chorus whenever they saw us, scampering to
+the tops of the highest trees, the dams carrying the young upon their
+backs. They are the only monkeys which the natives have not been able to
+tame. Vast numbers of screaming parrots and macaws flew over our heads,
+always going in pairs and at a great height. Groups of "gypsy-birds"
+were perched on the trees overhanging the river, and black ducks,
+cormorants, and white cranes floated on the water or stalked along the
+plaias.
+
+But one form of life superabounded. From the rising of the sun to the
+going down thereof clouds of ubiquitous sand-flies filled our cabin,
+save when the wind was high. As soon as the sand-flies ceased, myriads
+of musquitoes began their work of torture, without much preparatory
+piping, and kept it up all night.[132] These pests were occasionally
+relieved or assisted by piums--minute flies that alight unnoticed, and
+squatting close to the skin, suck their fill of blood, leaving dark
+spots and a disagreeable irritation. Our hands were nearly black with
+their punctures. We also made the acquaintance of the montuca, a large
+black fly whose horny lancets make a gash in the flesh, painless but
+blood-letting. All these insects are most abundant in the latter part of
+the rainy season, when the Maranon is almost uninhabitable. The
+apostrophe of Midshipman Wilberforce was prompted by sufferings which we
+can fully appreciate: "Ye greedy animals! I am ashamed of you. Can not
+you once forego your dinner, and feast your mind with the poetry of the
+landscape?" Right welcome was the usual afternoon squall, which sent
+these pests "kiting" over the stern.
+
+[Footnote 132: Sand-flies are called by the natives _musquitoes_, and
+what we call musquitoes they call _sancudos_.]
+
+On Wednesday we fell in with a petty sarsaparilla trader, with two
+canoes, bound for the Maranon. He was sick with fever. Sarsaparilla
+(written _salsaparrilha_ in Brazil, and meaning "bramble vine") is the
+root of a prickly, climbing plant found throughout the whole Amazonian
+forest, but chiefly on dry, rocky ground. On the morning of the seventh
+day from Coca we passed the mouth of the Curaray, the largest tributary
+of the Napo. It rises on the slopes of the Llanganati mountains, and is
+considered auriferous. It is probably derived from _curi_, gold. Seeing
+a hut on the banks, we sent an Indian to purchase provisions; he
+returned with a few yucas and eggs. The day following we were attacked
+from a new quarter. Stopping to escape a storm, a party went ashore to
+cut down a tree of which we desired a section. It fell with its top in
+the river, just above our craft; when lo! to our consternation, down
+came countless hosts of ants (_Ecitons_). Myriads were, of course, swept
+down stream, but myriads more crawled up the sides of our canoes, and in
+one minute after the tree fell our whole establishment, from hold to
+roof, was swarming with ants. We gave one look of despair at each other,
+our provisions and collections, and then commenced a war of
+extermination. It was a battle for life. The ants, whose nest we had so
+suddenly immersed in the Napo, refused to quit their new lodgings. As we
+were loosely dressed, the tenacious little creatures hid themselves
+under our clothing, and when plucked off would leave their heads and
+jaws sticking in the skin. At last the deck was cleared by means of
+boots, slippers, and towels; but, had the ants persevered, they might
+have taken possession of the boat.
+
+To-day we saw a high bank (called in Quichua _pucaurcu_, or red hill)
+consisting of fine laminated clays of many colors--red, orange, yellow,
+gray, black, and white. This is the beginning of that vast deposit which
+covers the whole Amazonian Valley. It rests upon a bed of lignite, or
+bituminous shale, and a coarse, iron-cemented conglomerate. The latter
+is not visible on the Napo, but crops out particularly at Obidos and
+Para. The Indians prepare their paints from these colored clays.
+
+Our Santa Rosans seemed to have little tact in fishing; still their
+spears and our hooks gathered not a few representatives of ichthyic life
+in the Napo. The species most common belong to the genus _Pimelodus_,
+or catfish tribe. Below tho Curaray the sand bars yielded turtles' eggs
+of a different kind from those found above, the _tracaja_. They were
+smaller and oval, and buried only six or eight inches deep, thirty in a
+nest.
+
+December 9.--Passed early this morning the mouth of the Mazan; four huts
+at the junction. To-day we noticed the anomaly first observed by
+Herndon. From Papallacta to the Curaray the rise of the mercury was
+regular, but on the lower Napo there were great fluctuations. At one
+time both barometer and boiling apparatus, with which we made daily and
+simultaneous observations, unanimously declared that our canoes were
+gliding up stream, though we were descending at the rate of five miles
+an hour. The temperature is decidedly lower and the winds are stronger
+as we near the Amazon.
+
+December 10.--Our last day on the Napo. In celebration of the event we
+killed a fine young doe as it was crossing the river. It closely
+resembled the Virginia deer. At 9 A.M. the Indians shouted in their
+quiet way--"_Maranon_!" It was as thrilling as _Thalatta_ to Xenophon's
+soldiers. We were not expecting to reach it till night, being deceived
+by Villavicencio's map, which, in common with all others, locates the
+Curaray and Mazan too far to the north. We halted for an hour at
+Camindo, a little fishing hamlet claimed by Peru, and then hastened to
+get our first sight of the Amazon. With emotions we can not express, we
+gazed upon this ocean-stream. The march of the great river in its silent
+grandeur is sublime. In its untamed might it rolls through the
+wilderness with a stately, solemn air, showing its awful power in
+cutting away the banks, tearing down trees, and building up islands in a
+day. Down the river we can look till the sky and water meet as on the
+sea, while the forest on either hand dwindles in the perspective to a
+long black line. Between these even walls of ever-living green the
+resistless current hurries out of Peru, sweeps past the imperial guns of
+Tabatinga into Brazil, and plows its way visibly two hundred miles into
+the Atlantic.
+
+At a small island standing where the Napo pays tribute to the monarch of
+rivers, mingling its waters with the Huallaga and Ucayali, which have
+already come down from the Peruvian Andes, we bade adieu to our captain
+and cook, who, in the little canoe, paddled his way westward to seek his
+fortune in Iquitus. At this point the Maranon (for so the natives call
+the Upper Amazon) does not appear very much broader than the Napo; but
+its depth is far greater, and there are few sand-bars.[133] The water is
+always of a turbid yellow; while the Napo, though muddy during our
+voyage, is usually clear. The forest, moreover, on the banks of the
+Maranon, is not so striking as on the tributary. The palms are not so
+numerous, and the uniform height of the trees gives a monotonous,
+sea-like horizon.
+
+[Footnote 133: Herndon makes the mouth of the Napo 150 yards broad, and
+the soundings six or seven fathoms. This is not a fair representation;
+for the Napo, like all the other tributaries, empties its waters by
+several mouths. At Camindo, five miles above the confluence, the Napo is
+certainly a mile wide.]
+
+We arrived at Pebas December 12, ten hours after leaving the mouth of
+the Napo, and a month and a half from Quito. The first individual we met
+addressed us in good English, and proved to be Mr. Hauxwell of birds and
+insects, who has resided thirty years on the Amazon. His house, the
+largest and best in town, though but a roofed stockade, was generously
+placed at our disposal, and the fatted calf--an immense turtle--was
+immediately killed. To us, after the transit of the Andes and the
+dangers and hardships of the wilderness and the river, it seemed as if
+we had reached the end of our journey, though we were over two thousand
+miles from the Atlantic. Pebas is situated on a high clay bluff beside
+the Ambiyacu, a mile above its entrance into the Maranon. Excepting Mr.
+Hauxwell, the Peruvian governor, and two or three other whites, the
+inhabitants are Indians of the Orejones and Yagua tribes. The
+exportations are hammocks, sarsaparilla, palo de cruz, and urari. Palo
+de cruz is the very hard, dark-colored wood of a small leguminous tree
+bearing large pink flowers. Urari is the poison used by all the
+Amazonian Indians; it is made by the Ticunas on the Putumayo, by boiling
+to a jelly the juices of certain roots and herbs, chiefly of the
+_Strychnos toxifera_, though it does not contain any trace of
+strychnine. Tipped with urari, the needle-like arrow used in blow-guns
+will kill an ox in twenty minutes and a monkey in ten. "We have reason
+to congratulate ourselves (wrote the facetious Sidney Smith) that our
+method of terminating disputes is by sword and pistol, and not by these
+medicated pins." But the poison appears to be harmless to man and other
+salt-eating animals, salt being an antidote.[134] We were not troubled
+with sand-flies after leaving the plaias of the Napo, but the musquitoes
+at Pebas were supernumerary. Perhaps, however, it was a special
+gathering on our account, for the natives have a notion that just before
+the arrival of a foreigner the musquitoes come in great numbers.
+
+[Footnote 134: Urari is mentioned by Raleigh. Humboldt was the first to
+take any considerable quantity to Europe. The experiments of Virchau and
+Muenster make it probable that it does not belong to the class of tetanic
+poisons, but that its particular effect is to take away the power of
+voluntary muscular movement, while the involuntary functions of the
+heart and intestines still continue. See _Ann. de Chim. et de Phys._, t.
+xxxix., 1828, p. 24; and Schoemberg's _Reisen in Britisch Guiana_, th.
+i., s. 441. The frightful poison, _tieute_ of India, is prepared from a
+Java species of _strychnos_.]
+
+Many of the Indians are disfigured by dark blotches on the skin, the
+effect of a cutaneous disease very prevalent in Central Amazonia. Here
+we first noticed the singular habit among the children of eating clay.
+This habit is not confined to the Otomacs on the Oronoco, nor to Indians
+altogether; for negroes and whites have the same propensity--Mr.
+Hauxwell found it impossible to restrain his own children. Bates
+ascribes the morbid craving to the meagre diet. This may be true to some
+extent, but it is certainly strange that the extraordinary desire to
+swallow earth (chiefly unctuous clays) is found only in the tropics,
+where vegetation is so rank and fruit so abundant.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+     Down the Amazon.--Steam on the Great River.--Loreto.--San
+     Antonio.--Tabatinga.--Brazilian Steamers.--Scenery on the
+     Amazon.--Tocantins.--Fonte Boa.--Ega.--Rio Negro.--Manaos.
+
+
+We left Pebas for Tabatinga in the Peruvian steamer "Morona," Captain
+Raygado. Going up to Jerusalem by railroad, or ascending the Nile by a
+screw whisking the sacred waters, is not so startling as the sight of a
+steamer in the heart of South America. There is such a contrast between
+the primeval wildness of the country and the people and this triumph of
+civilized life; and one looks forward to the dazzling future of this
+great valley, when the ships of all nations will crowd the network of
+rivers for the gold and perfumes, the gems and woods of this western
+Ophir. The natives call the steamer the "devil's boat," or "big canoe;"
+but they manifest little curiosity. Our Napo Indians were evidently
+afraid of it, and stood afar off. The first steamers that broke the deep
+solitude of the Maranon were the "Huallaga" and "Tirado," brought out in
+1853 by Dr. Whittemore, for Peru. They were built in New York, of
+Georgia pine, costing Peru $75,000, and reflected no credit on the
+United States; they lie rotting near Nauta. Peru has now two iron
+steamers of London make--the "Morona" and "Pastassa"--besides two
+smaller craft for exploring the tributaries. These steamers are for
+government service, but three more are building in England with
+passenger accommodations. The "Morona" has a tonnage of five hundred,
+and an engine of one hundred and fifty horse-power. The engineers are
+English, and the cook is a Chinaman. She makes monthly trips between
+Yurimaguas, on the Huallaga River, and Tabatinga, on the Brazilian
+frontier. Her rate down stream is eighteen miles an hour, and from
+eleven to twelve against the current. These steamers do not pay expenses
+at present; but they preserve the authority of Peru on the Maranon, and
+supply with material the government works at Iquitos. They also do a
+little commerce, taking down sarsaparilla and Moyabamba hats, and
+bringing up English dry-goods. There were not half a dozen passengers on
+board.
+
+The only towns of any consequence west of Pebas are Iquitos, Nauta, and
+Yurimaguas. Peru claims them--in fact, all the villages on the Maranon.
+Iquitos is the most thriving town on the Upper Amazon. It is situated on
+an elevated plain on the left bank of the river, sixty miles above the
+mouth of the Napo. In Herndon's time it was "a fishing village of 227
+inhabitants;" it now contains 2000. Here are the government iron-works,
+carried on by English mechanics. In 1867 there were six engineers, two
+iron-molders, two brass-molders, two coppersmiths, three blacksmiths,
+three pattern-makers, two boiler-makers, five shipwrights, three
+sawyers, besides bricklayers, brick-makers, carpenters, coopers, etc.;
+in all forty-two. All the coal for the furnaces is brought from
+England--the lignite on the banks of the Maranon is unfit for the
+purpose. A floating dock for vessels of a thousand tons has just been
+built. Nauta lies on the north bank of the Maranon, opposite the
+entrance of the Ucayali. Its inhabitants, about 1000, trade in fish,
+sarsaparilla, and wax from Ucayali. Yurimaguas is the port of Moyabamba,
+a city of 10,000 souls, six days' travel southwest. This vast eastern
+slope, lying on the branches of the Maranon, is called the Montana of
+Peru. It is a region of inexhaustible fertility, and would yield ample
+returns to energy and capital. The villages are open to foreign
+commerce, free of duty; but at present the voice of civilized man is
+seldom heard, save on the main fluvial highway between Moyabamba and the
+Brazilian frontier. The Portuguese are the most adventurous traders. The
+value of imports to Peru by the Amazonian steamers during 1867 was
+$324,533; of exports, $267,748.
+
+In two hours and a half we arrive at Maucallacta, or "Old Town," an
+Indian village on the right bank of the river. Here our passports were
+vised by the Peruvian governor, and the steamer wooded up. One of the
+hands on the "Morona" was Manuel Medina, a mameluco, who was employed by
+Bates and Agassiz in their explorations. We left at noon of the
+following day, and anchored for the night off Caballococha, for the
+Peruvian steamers run only in the daytime. Caballococha, or
+"Horse-lake," is a Ticuna town, situated on a level tract of light loam,
+closely surrounded by the dense forest, and beside a cano of clear water
+leading to a pretty lake. Ecuador claims this town, and likewise all the
+settlements on the Maranon; but her learned geographer, Villavicencio,
+with characteristic ignorance of the country, has located it on the
+_north_ bank of the river!
+
+We passed in the afternoon the little tug "Napo," having on board
+Admiral Tucker, the rebel, who, with some associates, is exploring the
+tributaries of the Upper Amazon for the Peruvian government. They had
+just returned from a voyage of two hundred and fifty miles up the
+Javari. One of the party had a tame tiger-cat in his arms. We arrived at
+Loreto early the next morning. This village of twenty houses and a
+church is prettily situated on the left bank, with a green slope in
+front. It is the most easterly town of Peru on the Amazon. Here resides
+Mr. Wilkens, the Brazilian consul, of German birth, but North American
+education. The inhabitants are Peruvians, Portuguese, Negroes, and
+Ticuna Indians. The musquitoes hold high carnival at this place. In two
+hours we were at San Antonio, a military post on the Peruvian frontier,
+commanded by a French engineer, Manuel Charon, who also studied in the
+United States. One large building, and a flag-staff on a high bluff of
+red clay, were all that was visible of San Antonio; but the "Morona"
+brought down a gang of Indians (impressed, no doubt) to build a fort for
+twenty guns. The site is in dispute, a Brazilian claiming it as private
+property. The white barracks of Tabatinga, the first fortress in Brazil,
+are in plain sight, the voyage consuming but twenty minutes. Between San
+Antonio and Tabatinga is a ravine, on either side of which is a white
+pole, marking the limits of the republic and the empire.
+
+Tabatinga has long been a military post, but, excepting the government
+buildings, there are not a dozen houses. Numerous Indians, however, of
+the Ticuna tribe, dwell in the neighboring forest. The commandante was O
+Illustrissimo Senor Tenente Aristides Juste Mavignier, a tall, thin,
+stooping officer, dressed in brown linen. He received us with great
+civility, and tendered a house and servant during our stay in port. We
+preferred, however, to accept the hospitalities of the "Morona" till the
+arrival of the Brazilian steamer. Senor Mavignier was commandante of
+Manaos when visited by Agassiz, and presented the Professor with a
+hundred varieties of wood. With the like courtesy, he gave us a
+collection of reptiles, all of them rare, and many of them new species.
+He showed us also a live raposa, or wild dog, peculiar to the Amazon,
+but seldom seen. Tabatinga stands on an eminence of yellow clay, and is
+defended by twelve guns. The river in front is quite narrow, only about
+half a mile wide. Here our passports, which had been signed at
+Maucallacta and Loreto, were indorsed by the commandante. They were
+afterward examined at Ega, Manaos, and Para. The mean temperature of
+Tabatinga we found to be 82 deg..[135] Some rubber and salt fish are
+exported, but nothing of consequence is cultivated. Grapes, the people
+say, grow well, but are destroyed by the ants. The only fruit-trees we
+noticed were the mamai (in Spanish, papaya), araca, and abio. The
+papaw-tree bears male and female flowers on different trees, and hence
+receives the name of _papaya_ or _mamai_, according to one's view of the
+pre-eminence of the sex. The juice of this tree is used by the ladies of
+the West Indies as a cosmetic, and by the butchers to render the
+toughest meat tender. The fruit is melon-shaped, and of an orange-yellow
+color. Vauquelin discovered in it _fibrine_, till lately supposed to be
+confined to the animal kingdom.
+
+[Footnote 135: According to Lieutenant Azevedo, the latitude of
+Tabatinga is 4 deg. 14' 30"; longitude, 70 deg. 2' 24"; magnetic variation, 6 deg.
+35' 10" N.E.]
+
+The Peruvian steamers connect at Tabatinga with the Brazilian line.
+There are eight imperial steamers on the Amazon: the "Icamiaba," running
+between Tabatinga and Manaos; the "Tapajos" and "Belem," plying between
+Manaos and Para; the "Inca" and "Manaos," between Obidos and Para;
+besides two steamers on the Tocantins, one between Para and Chares, and
+projected lines for the Negro, Tapajos, and Madeira. The captains get a
+small salary, but the perquisites are large, as they have a percentage
+on the freight. One captain pocketed in one year $9000.
+
+We embarked, December 12, on the "Icamiaba," which promptly arrived at
+Tabatinga. The commander, formerly a lieutenant in the Imperial Navy,
+and for twelve years a popular officer on the Upper Amazon, was a
+polished gentleman, but rigid disciplinarian. As an example of
+Brazilian etiquette, we give his full address from one of our letters of
+introduction:
+
+              "Ilmo. Sr. Capn. de Fragata
+          Nuno Alvez Pereira de Mello Cardozo,
+               Digno Commandante de Vapor
+                       Icamiaba."
+
+The "Icamiaba" was an iron boat of four hundred and fifty tons, with two
+engines of fifty horse-power each. The engineer was an Austrian, yet the
+captain gave his orders in English, though neither could speak the
+language. The saloon, with berths for twenty-five passengers, was above
+deck, and open at both ends for ventilation. The passengers, however,
+usually swung their hammocks on the upper deck, which was covered by an
+awning. This was a delightfully breezy and commanding position; and
+though every part of the steamer was in perfect order, this was
+scrupulously neat. Here the table was spread with every tropical luxury,
+and attentively served by young men in spotless attire. Happy the
+traveler who sits at the table of Commandante Cardozo. The refreshment
+hours were: Coffee as soon as the passengers turned out of their
+hammocks, and sometimes before; breakfast at ten, dinner at five, and
+tea at eight. Live bullocks, fowls, and turtles were kept on board, so
+that of fresh meat, particularly beef (the first we had tasted since
+leaving Quito), there was no lack. At breakfast we counted nine
+different courses of meat. The Peruvian steamers are limited to turtle
+and salt fish. Rice and farina are extensively used in Brazil, but we
+saw very little tapioca. Farina is the flour of the country, and is
+eaten in hard, dry grains; it will not keep in any other form. It can
+not be very nutritious, as it contains little gluten. All bread and
+butter are imported from the United States and England. The captains of
+Brazilian steamers are their own stewards; and in the midst of other
+business in port, they stop to negotiate for a chicken, or a dozen
+eggs, with an Indian or Negro. The "Icamiaba" left Tabatinga with only
+three first-class passengers, besides our own party. On no Amazon
+steamer did we meet with a lady passenger. Madame Godin, who came down
+the river from the Andes, and Mrs. Agassiz, who ascended to Tabatinga,
+were among the few ladies who have seen these upper waters. But how
+differently they traveled! one on a raft, the other on the beautiful
+"Icamiaba."
+
+Between Tabatinga and Teffe, a distance of five hundred miles, is
+perhaps the most uncivilized part of the main river. Ascending, we find
+improvements multiply as we near the mountains of Peru; descending, we
+see the march of civilization in the budding cities and expanding
+commerce culminating at Grand Para. The scenery from the deck of an
+Amazonian steamer, if described, appears monotonous. A vast volume of
+smooth, yellow water, floating trees and beds of aquatic grass, low,
+linear-shaped, wooded islets, a dark, even forest--the shores of a
+boundless sea of verdure, and a cloudless sky occasionally obscured by
+flocks of parrots: these are the general features. No busy towns are
+seen along the banks of the Middle Amazon; only here and there a palm
+hut or semi-Indian village half buried in the wilderness. We agree with
+Darwin (speaking of the Plata), that "a wide expanse of muddy water has
+neither grandeur nor beauty." The real grandeur, however, of a great
+river like this is derived from reflecting upon its prospective
+commercial importance and its immense drainage. A lover of nature,
+moreover, can never tire of gazing at the picturesque grouping and
+variety of trees, with their mantles of creeping plants; while a little
+imagination can see in the alligators, ganoid fishes, sea-cows, and tall
+gray herons, the ichthyosaurus, holoptychius, dinotherium, and
+brontozoum of ancient days. Here and there the river is bordered with
+low alluvial deposits covered with feathery-topped arrow-grass and
+amphibious vegetation; but generally the banks are about ten feet high
+and magnificently wooded; they are abrupt, and land-slides are frequent.
+
+A few minutes after leaving Tabatinga we passed the mouth of the Javari,
+which forms the natural boundary between Peru and Brazil. Henceforth the
+river loses the name of Maranon, and is called Solimoens, or, more
+commonly, simply Amazon. We were ten hours in reaching San Paulo, a
+wretched Ticuna village of five hundred souls, built on a grassy
+table-land nearly one hundred feet high. Steps have been cut in the
+slippery clay bluff to facilitate the ascent. Swamps lie back of the
+town, rendering it unhealthy. "On damp nights (says the Naturalist on
+the Amazon) the chorus of frogs and toads which swarm in weedy
+back-yards creates such a bewildering uproar that it is impossible to
+carry on a conversation in doors except by shouting."
+
+In ten hours more we had passed the Putumayo and entered the Tunantins,
+a sluggish, dark-colored tributary emptying into the Amazon about two
+hundred miles below the Javari.[136] On the bank of white earth, which
+strongly contrasts with the tinted stream, is a dilapidated hamlet of
+twenty-five hovels, built of bamboo plastered with mud and whitewashed.
+We saw but one two-storied house; and all have ground-floors and
+double-thatched roofs. The inhabitants are semi-civilized Shumana and
+Passe Indians and half-breeds; but in the gloomy forest which hugs the
+town live the wild Caishanas. The atmosphere is close and steaming, but
+not hot, the mercury at noon standing at 83 deg.. The place is alive with
+insects and birds. The nights on the Amazon were invariably cool; on
+the Lower Amazon, cold, so that we required a heavy blanket.
+
+[Footnote 136: Herndon says (p. 241), "the Tunantins is about fifty
+yards broad, and seems deep with a considerable current."]
+
+[Illustration: Kitchen on the Amazon.]
+
+Taking on board wood, beeves, turtles, salt fish, and water-melons, we
+left at half past 2 P.M. The Brazilian steamers run all night, and with
+no slackening of speed. At one o'clock we were awakened by a cry from
+the watch, "Stop her!" And immediately after there was a crash; but it
+was only the breaking of crockery caused by the sudden stoppage. The
+night was fearfully dark, and for aught we knew the steamer was running
+headlong into the forest. Fortunately there was no collision, and in a
+few minutes we were again on our way, arriving at Fonte Boa at 4 A.M.
+This little village stands in a palm grove, on a high bank of
+ochre-colored sandy clay, beside a slue of sluggish black water, eight
+miles from the Amazon.[137] The inhabitants, about three hundred, are
+ignorant, lazy mamelucos. They dress like the majority of the
+semi-civilized people on the Amazon: the men content with shirt and
+pantaloons, the women wearing cotton or gauze chemises and calico
+petticoats. Fonte Boa is a museum for the naturalist, but the
+headquarters of musquitoes, small but persistent. Taking in a large
+quantity of turtle-oil, the "Icamiaba" turned down the cano, but almost
+immediately ran aground, and we were two hours getting off. These yearly
+shifting shoals in the Amazon can not be laid down in charts, and the
+most experienced pilots often run foul of them. In twelve hours we
+entered the Teffe, a tributary from the Bolivian mountains. Just before
+reaching the Great River it expands into a beautiful lake, with a white,
+sandy beach. On a grassy slope, stretching out into the lake, with a
+harbor on each side of it, lies the city of Ega. A hundred palm-thatched
+cottages of mud and tiled frame houses, each with an inclosed orchard of
+orange, lemon, banana, and guava trees, surround a rude church, marked
+by a huge wooden crucifix on the green before it, instead of a steeple.
+Cacao, assai, and pupunha palms rise above the town, adding greatly to
+its beauty; while back of all, on the summit of the green slope, begins
+the picturesque forest, pathless, save here and there a faint hunter's
+track leading to the untrodden interior. The sheep and cattle grazing on
+the lawn, a rare sight in Alto Amazonas, gives a peaceful and inviting
+aspect to the scene. The inhabitants, numbering about twelve hundred,
+are made up of pure Indians, half-castes, negroes, mulattoes, and
+whites. Ega (also called Teffe) is the largest and most thriving town
+between Manaos and Iquitos, a distance of twelve hundred miles. It is
+also one of the oldest settlements on the river, having been founded
+during the English revolution, or nearly two centuries ago. Tupi is the
+common idiom. The productions of the country are cacao, sarsaparilla,
+Brazil nuts, bast for caulking vessels, copaiba balsam, India-rubber,
+salt fish, turtle-oil, manati, grass hammocks, and tiles. Bates
+calculates the value of the annual exports at nearly forty thousand
+dollars. The "Icamiaba" calls here twice a month; besides which there
+are small schooners which occupy about five months in the round trip
+between Ega and Para. "The place is healthy (writes the charming
+Naturalist on the Amazon), and almost free from insect pests; perpetual
+verdure surrounds it; the soil is of marvelous fertility, even for
+Brazil; the endless rivers and labyrinths of channels teem with fish and
+turtle; a fleet of steamers might anchor at any season of the year in
+the lake, which has uninterrupted water communication straight to the
+Atlantic. What a future is in store for the sleepy little tropical
+village!" Here Bates pursued butterflies for four years and a half, and
+Agassiz fished for six months.
+
+[Footnote 137: Smyth says the town gets its name from the clearness of
+the water; but Herndon found it muddy, and, to our eyes, it was dark as
+the Negro.]
+
+[Illustration: Natives on the Middle Amazon.]
+
+Ega is the half-way point across the continent, but its exact altitude
+above the sea is unknown. Herndon's boiling apparatus gave two thousand
+feet, and, what is worse, the lieutenant believed it. Our barometer made
+it one hundred feet; but as our instrument, though perfect in itself,
+behaved _very_ strangely on the Middle Amazon, we do not rely on the
+calculation. The true height is not far from one hundred and twenty-five
+feet, or one fifth the elevation of the middle point in the North
+American continent.[138] Taking on board salt fish, turtle-oil, and
+tiles, we left Ega two hours after midnight, reaching Coary at noon.
+The Amazon began to look more like a lake than a river, having a width
+of four or five miles. Floating gulls and rolling porpoises remind one
+of the sea. Coary is a huddle of fifteen houses, six of them plastered
+without, whitewashed, and tiled. It is situated on a lake of the same
+name--the expanded outlet of a small river whose waters are dark brown,
+and whose banks are low and covered with bushes. Here we took in turtles
+and turtle-oil, Brazil nuts and cocoa-nuts, rubber, salt fish, and wood;
+and, six hours after leaving, more fish and rubber were received at
+Cudaja. Cudaja is a lonely spot on the edge of an extensive system of
+back-waters and lakes, running through a dense unexplored forest
+inhabited by Mura savages.
+
+[Footnote 138: For a discussion of the barometric perturbations on the
+Amazon, see _American Journal of Science_ for Sept., 1868.]
+
+At three in the afternoon of Christmas, seventy-four hours' running time
+from Tabatinga, we entered the Rio Negro. Strong is the contrast between
+its black-dyed waters and the yellow Amazon. The line separating the two
+rivers is sharply drawn, the waters meeting, not mingling. Circular
+patches of the dark waters of the Negro are seen floating like oil amid
+the turbid waters of the Amazon. The sluggish tributary seems to be
+dammed up by the impetuous monarch. The banks of the latter are low,
+ragged, perpendicular beds of clay, covered with a bright green foliage;
+the Negro is fringed with sandy beaches, with hills in the background
+clothed with a sombre, monotonous forest containing few palms or
+leguminous trees. Musquitoes, piums, and montucas never trouble the
+traveler on the inky stream. When seen in a tumbler, the water of the
+Negro is clear, but of a light-red color; due, undoubtedly, to vegetable
+matter. The visible mouth of the river at this season of the year
+(December) is three miles wide, but from main-land to main-land it can
+not be less than twenty.
+
+[Illustration: A Siesta.]
+
+In forty minutes after leaving the Amazon we arrived at Manaos. This
+important city lies on the left bank of the Negro, ten miles from its
+mouth and twenty feet above high-water level. The site is very uneven,
+and consists of ferruginous sandstone. There was originally a fort here,
+erected by the Portuguese to protect their slave-hunting expeditions
+among the Indians on the river--hence the ancient name of Barra. On the
+old map of Father Fritz (1707) the spot is named _Taromas_. Since 1852
+it has been called Manaos, after the most warlike tribe. Some of the
+houses are two-storied, but the majority are low adobe structures, white
+and yellow washed, floored and roofed with tiles, and having green doors
+and shutters. Every room is furnished with hooks for hanging hammocks.
+We did not see a bed between Quito and New York except on the steamers.
+The population, numbering two thousand,[139] is a mongrel
+set--Brazilians, Portuguese, Italians, Jews, Negroes, and Indians, with
+divers crosses between them. Laziness is the prominent characteristic. A
+gentleman offered an Indian passing his door twenty-five cents if he
+would bring him a pitcher of water from the river, only a few rods
+distant. He declined. "But I will give you fifty cents." Whereupon the
+half-clothed, penniless aboriginal replied: "I will give you a dollar to
+bring me some."[140] While every inch of the soil is of exuberant
+fertility, there is always a scarcity of food. It is the dearest spot on
+the Amazon. Most of the essentials and all of the luxuries come from
+Liverpool, Lisbon, and New York. Agriculture is at a discount on the
+Amazon. Brazilians will not work; European immigrants are traders;
+nothing can be done with Indians; and negroes are few in number, the
+slave-trade being abolished, emancipation begun, and the Paraguayan war
+not ended. A laboring class will ever be a desideratum in this tropical
+country. With a healthy climate,[141] and a situation at the juncture
+of two great navigable rivers, Manaos is destined to become the St.
+Louis of South America. In commercial advantages it is hardly to be
+surpassed by any other city in the world, having water communication
+with two thirds of the continent, and also with the Atlantic. It is now
+the principal station for the Brazilian line of steamers. Here all goods
+for a higher or lower point are reshipped. The chief articles of export
+are coffee (of superior quality), sarsaparilla, Brazil nuts, piassaba,
+and fish. The Negro at this point is really five or six miles wide, but
+the opposite shore is masked by low islands, so that it appears to be
+but a mile and a half.
+
+[Footnote 139: Official returns for 1848 give 3614; Bates (1850) reckons
+3000.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Darwin met a similar specimen in Banda Oriental: "I asked
+two men why they did not work. One gravely said the days were too long;
+the other that he was too poor."]
+
+[Footnote 141: It is, however, one of the warmest spots on the river.
+The average temperature, according to Azevedo and Pinto, is only 79.7 deg.;
+but the highest point readied on the Amazon in 1862 (87.3 deg.) was at
+Manaos, and the extraordinary height of 95 deg. has been noted there.]
+
+The country around Manaos is quite romantic for the Amazonian Valley.
+The land is undulating and furrowed by ravines, and the vegetation
+covering it is marvelously rich and diversified. In the forest, two
+miles from the city, there is a natural curiosity celebrated by all
+travelers from Spix and Martius down. A rivulet coming out of the
+wilderness falls over a ledge of red sandstone ten feet high and fifty
+feet broad, forming a beautiful cascade. The water is cool, and of a
+deep orange color. The foundation of a fine stone cathedral was laid in
+Manaos fourteen years ago, but this generation is not likely to witness
+the dedication. Life in this Amazonian city is dull enough: commerce is
+not brisk, and society is stiff; balls are about the only amusements. On
+Sunday (the holiday) every body who can afford it comes out in Paris
+fashions. There are carts, hut no coaches. We called upon the President
+at his "Palace"--an odd term for a two-storied, whitewashed edifice. His
+excellency received us with less formality and more cordiality than we
+expected to find in the solemn officials of the empire. The first glance
+at the reception-room, with the four chairs for visitors set in two
+lines at right angles to the chair of state, promised cold etiquette;
+but he addressed us with considerable familiarity and evident good-will.
+We found, however, that his authority was quite limited, for a written
+order which he gave us for a subordinate did not receive the slightest
+consideration. At the house of a Jew named Levy we met a party of
+Southerners, Captains Mallory, Jones, Sandedge, and Winn, commanded by
+Dr. Dowsing, who, since "the late onpleasantness," as Nasby calls it,
+have determined to settle in this country. The government grants them
+twenty square leagues of land on any tributary, on condition that they
+will colonize it. They were about to start for the Rio Branco on an
+exploring tour.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+     Down the Amazon.--Serpa.--Villa Nova.--Obidos.--Santarem.--A Colony
+     of Southerners.--Monte Alegre.--Porto do Moz.--Leaving the
+     Amazon.--Breves.--Para River.--The City of Para.--Legislation and
+     Currency.--Religion and Education.--Nonpareil Climate.
+
+
+At 10 P.M. we left Manaos in the "Tapajos," an iron steamer of seven
+hundred tons. We missed the snow-white cleanliness and rigid regularity
+of the "Icamiaba," and Captain Jose Antunes Rodrigues de Oliveira
+Catramby was quite a contrast to Lieutenant Nuno. There were only five
+first-class passengers besides ourselves (and four of these were
+"dead-heads"), though there were accommodations for sixty-four. Between
+Manaos and Para, a distance of one thousand miles, there were fourteen
+additions. Passing the mouth of the Madeira, the largest tributary to
+the Amazon, we anchored thirty miles below at Serpa, after nine hours'
+sailing. Serpa is a village of ninety houses, built on a high bank of
+variegated clay, whence its Indian name, _Ita-coatiara_, or painted
+rock. It was the most animated place we had seen on the river. The town
+is irregularly laid out and overrun with weeds, but there is a busy tile
+factory, and the port was full of canoes, montarias, and cubertas. The
+African element in the population began to show itself prominently here,
+and increased in importance as we neared Para. The Negroes are very
+ebony, and are employed as stevedores. The Indians are well-featured,
+and wear a long gown of bark-cloth reaching to the knees.
+
+Taking on board rubber and salt fish, the "Tapajos" steamed down stream,
+passing the perpendicular pink-clay cliffs of Cararaucu, arriving in
+ten hours at Villa Nova,[142] one hundred and fifty miles below Serpa.
+Villa Nova is a straggling village of mud huts standing on a
+conglomerate bank. The trade is chiefly in rubber, copaiba, and fish.
+The location is healthy, and in many respects is one of the most
+desirable places on the river. Here the Amazon begins to narrow, being
+scarcely three miles wide; but the channel, which has a rocky bed, is
+very deep. One hundred miles from Villa Nova is Obidos, airily situated
+on a bluff of pink and yellow clay one hundred feet above the river. The
+clay rests on a white calcareous earth, and this on red sandstone. It is
+a picturesque, substantially-built town, with a population, mostly
+white, engaged in raising cacao and cattle. Cacao is the most valuable
+product on the Amazon below Villa Nova. The soil is fertile, and the
+surrounding forest is alive with monkeys, birds, and insects, and
+abounds with precious woods and fruits. Obidos is blessed with a church,
+a school, and a weekly newspaper, and is defended by thirty-two guns.
+This is the Thermopylae of the Amazon, the great river contracting to a
+strait not a mile in width, through which it rushes with tremendous
+velocity. The depth is forty fathoms, and the current 2.4 feet per
+second. As Bates remarks, however, the river valley is not contracted to
+this breadth, the southern shore not being continental land, but a low
+alluvial tract subject to inundation. Back of Obidos is an eminence
+which has been named _Mount Agassiz_ in honor of the Naturalist. There
+is no mountain between it and Cotopaxi save the spurs from the Eastern
+Cordillera. Five miles above the town is the mouth of the Trombetas,
+where Orellana had his celebrated fight with the fabulous Amazons.
+
+[Footnote 142: Otherwise called, on Brazilian maps, Villa Bella da
+Imperatriz.]
+
+[Illustration: Santarem.]
+
+Adding to her cargo wood, hides, horses, and Paraguayan prisoners
+(short, athletic men), the "Tapajos" sailed for Santarem. The river
+scenery below Obidos loses its wild and solitary character, and is
+relieved with scattered habitations, factories, and cacao plantations.
+We arrived at Santarem in seven hours from Obidos, a distance of fifty
+miles. This city, the largest on the Amazon save Para, stands on a
+pretty slope at the mouth of the Rio Tapajos, and five hundred miles
+from the sea.[143] It mainly consists of three long-rows of whitewashed,
+tiled houses, girt with green gardens. The citizens, made up of
+Brazilians, Portuguese, mulattoes, and blacks, number about two thousand
+five hundred. The surrounding country, which is an undulating campo,
+with patches of wood, is sparsely inhabited by Tapajocos. Cattle estates
+and cacao plantations are the great investments, but the soil is poor.
+Considerable sarsaparilla of superior quality, rubber, copaiba, Brazil
+nuts, and farina come down the Tapajos. The climate is delightful, the
+trade-winds tempering the heat and driving away all insect pests.
+Leprosy is somewhat common among the poorer class. At Santarem is one of
+the largest colonies which migrated from the disaffected Gulf States for
+Brazil. One hundred and sixty Southerners pitched their tents here. Many
+of them, however, were soon disgusted with the country, and, if we are
+to believe reports, the country was disgusted with them. On the 1st of
+January, 1868, only seventy-five remained. The colony does not fairly
+represent the United States, being made up in great part of the "roughs"
+of Mobile. A few are contented and are doing well. Amazonia will be
+indebted to them for some valuable ideas. Bates says: "Butter-making is
+unknown in this country; the milk, I was told, was too poor." But these
+Anglo-Saxon immigrants have no difficulty in making butter. Santarem
+sends to Para for sugar; but the cavaliers of Alabama are proving that
+the sugar-cane grows better than in Louisiana, attaining the height of
+twenty feet, and that it will yield for ten or twelve years without
+transplanting or cultivation. It is not, however, so sweet or juicy as
+the Southern cane. Some of the colonists are making tapioca and cashaca
+or Brazilian rum; others have gone into the pork business; while one,
+Dr. Jones, expects to realize a fortune burning lime. Here we met the
+rebel ex-General Dobbins, who had been prospecting on the Tapajos River,
+but had not yet located himself.
+
+[Footnote 143: Herndon makes Santarem 460 miles from the Negro, and 650
+from the sea. Bates calls it 400 miles from the Atlantic, and nearly 50
+from Obidos.]
+
+Below Santarem the Amazon vastly increases in width; at one point the
+southern shore was invisible from the steamer. The waves often run very
+high. At 10 A.M., eight hours from Santarem, we entered the romantic
+port of Monte Alegre. The road from the river to the village, just
+visible inland, runs through a pretty dell. Back of the village, beyond
+a low, swampy flat, rise the table-topped blue hills of Almeyrim. It was
+an exhilarating sight and a great relief to gaze upon a mountain range
+from three hundred to one thousand feet high, the greatest elevations
+along the Amazon east of the Andes. Agassiz considers these singular
+mountains the remnants of a plain which once filled the whole valley of
+the Amazon; but Bates believes them to be the southern terminus of the
+high land of Guiana. Their geological constitution--a pebbly
+sandstone--favors the Professor's theory. The range extends ninety miles
+along the north bank of the river, the western limit at Monte Alegre
+bearing the local name of Serra Erere. Mount Agassiz, at Obidos, is a
+spur of the same table-land. The Amazon is here about five miles wide,
+the southern shore being low, uninhabited, and covered with coarse
+grass. Five schooners were anchored in the harbor of Monte Alegre, a
+sign of considerable trade for the Amazon. The place exports cattle,
+cacao, rubber, and fish.
+
+In four hours we reached Prayinha, a dilapidated village of forty
+houses, situated on a low, sandy beach. The chief occupation is the
+manufacture of turtle-oil. In ten hours more we were taking in wood at
+Porto do Moz, situated just within the mouth of the Xingu, the last
+great tributary to the Amazon. Dismal was our farewell sail on the great
+river. With the highlands came foul weather. We were treated to frequent
+and furious showers, accompanied by a violent wind, and the atmosphere
+was filled with smoke caused by numerous fires in the forest. Where the
+Xingu comes in, the Amazon is ten miles wide, but it is soon divided by
+a series of islands, the first of which is Grand Island. Twenty miles
+below Porto do Moz is Gurupa, where we took in rubber. The village,
+nearly as inanimate as Pompeii, consists of one street, half deserted,
+built on an isolated site. Forty miles below Gurupa we left the Amazon
+proper, turning to the right down a narrow channel leading into the
+river Para. The forest became more luxuriant, the palms especially
+increasing in number and beauty. At one place there was a forest of
+palms, a singularity, for trees of the same order are seldom associated.
+The forest, densely packed and gloomy, stands on very low, flat banks of
+hard river mud. Scarcely a sign of animal life was visible; but, as we
+progressed, dusky faces peered out of the woods; little shanties
+belonging to the _seringeros_, or rubber-makers, here and there broke
+the solitude, and occasionally a large group of half-clad natives
+greeted us from the shore. A labyrinth of channels connects the Amazon
+with the Para; the steamers usually take the Tajapuru. This natural
+canal is of great depth, and from fifty to one hundred yards in width;
+so that, hemmed in by two green walls, eighty feet-high, we seemed to
+be sailing through a deep gorge; in some places it was so narrow it was
+nearly overarched by the foliage. One hundred and twenty-five miles from
+Gurupa is Breves, a busy little town on the southwest corner of the
+great island of Marajo. The inhabitants, mostly Portuguese, are engaged
+in the rubber trade; the Indians in the vicinity manufacture fancy
+earthen-ware and painted cuyas or calabashes.
+
+Soon after leaving Breves we entered the Para River, which suddenly
+begins with the enormous width of eight miles. It is, however, shallow,
+and contains numerous shoals and islands. It is properly an estuary,
+immense volumes of fresh water flowing into it from the south. The tides
+are felt through its entire length of one hundred and sixty miles, but
+the water is only slightly brackish. It has a dingy orange-brown color.
+A narrow blue line on our left, miles away, was all that was visible, at
+times, of the island of Marajo; and as we passed the broad mouth of the
+Tocantins, we were struck with the magnificent sea-like expanse, for
+there was scarcely a point of mainland to be seen.
+
+[Illustration: Para.]
+
+At 4 P.M., eighteen hours from Breves, we entered the peaceful bay of
+Goajara, and anchored in front of the city of Para. Beautiful was the
+view of the city from the harbor in the rays of the declining sun. The
+towering spires and cupolas, the palatial government buildings, the long
+row of tall warehouses facing a fleet of schooners, ships, and steamers,
+and pretty white villas in the suburbs, nestling in luxuriant gardens,
+were to us, who had just come down the Andes from mediaeval Quito, the
+_ultima thule_ of civilization. We seemed to have stepped at once from
+the Amazon to New York or London. We might, indeed, say _ne plus ultra_
+in one respect--we had crossed the continent, and Para was the terminus
+of our wanderings, the end of romantic adventures, of privations and
+perils. We were kindly met on the pier by Mr. James Henderson, an
+elderly Scotchman, whom a long residence in Para, a bottomless fund of
+information, and a readiness to serve an Anglo-Saxon, have made an
+invaluable cicerone. We shot through the devious, narrow streets to the
+Hotel Diana, where we made our toilet, for our habiliments, too, had
+reached their _ultima thule_. As La Condamine said on his arrival at
+Quito: "_Je me trouvai hors d'etat de paroitre en public avec decence_."
+
+The same year which saw Shakspeare carried to his grave beside the Avon
+witnessed the founding of Para, or, speaking more respectfully, of Santa
+Maria de Belem do Gram Para. The city stands on a low elbow of land
+formed by the junction of the rivers Guama and Para, seventy-five miles
+from the ocean. The great forest comes close up to the suburbs; and, in
+fact, vegetation is so rapid the city fathers have a hard struggle to
+keep the jungle out of the streets. The river in front is twenty miles
+wide, but the vast expanse is broken by numerous islets. Ships of any
+size will float within, one hundred and fifty yards of the shore. All
+passengers and goods are landed by boats at the custom-house wharf. The
+city is regularly laid out, there are several public squares, and many
+of the streets, especially in the commercial part, are well paved.
+Magnificent avenues, lined with silk-cotton trees, cocoa-palms, and
+almonds, lead out to beautiful _rocinhas_, or country residences, of one
+story, but having spacious verandas. The President's house, built in the
+Italian style, whose marble staircase is a wonder to Brazil; the six
+large churches, including the cathedral, after patterns from Lisbon; the
+post-office, custom-house, and convent-looking warehouses on the
+mole--these are the most prominent buildings. The architecture is
+superior to that of Quito. The houses, generally two-storied, are
+tiled, plastered, and whitewashed or painted; the popular colors are
+red, yellow, and blue. A few have porcelain facing. The majority have
+elegant balconies and glass windows, but not all the old projecting
+lattice casements have disappeared. Some of the buildings bear the marks
+of the cannonading in the Revolution of 1835. Instead of bedrooms and
+beds, the largest apartments and verandahs have hooks in the wall for
+hammocks. A carpeted, cushioned room is seldom seen, and is out of place
+in the tropics. Coaches and gas are supplanting ox-carts and candles.
+There are two hotels, but scant accommodations for travelers. Beef is
+almost the only meat used; the fish are poor and dear; the oysters are
+horrible. Bananas, oranges, and coffee are the best native productions
+on the table.
+
+[Illustration: Fruit Peddlers.]
+
+The population of Para is thirty-five thousand, or double what it was
+when Wallace and Bates entered it twenty years ago. It is the largest
+city on the largest river in the world, and the capital of a province
+ten times the size of New York State. The enterprising, wealthy class
+consists of Portuguese and pure Brazilians, with a few English, Germans,
+French, and North Americans. The multitude is an amalgamation of
+Portuguese, Indian, and Negro. The diversity of races, and the mingled
+dialects of the Amazon and Europe, make an attractive street scene. Side
+by side we see the corpulent Brazilian planter, the swarthy Portuguese
+trader, the merry Negro porter, and the apathetic Indian boatman. Some
+of the more recent offspring are dressed _a la Adam_ before the fall;
+numbers wear only a shirt or skirt; the negro girls who go about the
+streets with trays of sweetmeats on their heads are loosely yet prettily
+dressed in pure white, with massive gilded chains and earrings; but the
+middle and upper classes generally follow Paris fashions. The mechanic
+arts are in the hands of free Negroes and Indians, mulattoes and
+mamelucos.[144] Commerce is carried on almost exclusively by Portuguese
+and other foreigners. Dry-goods come chiefly from England and France;
+groceries from Portugal; flour and hardware from the United States. The
+principal exports are rubber, cacao, coffee,[145] sugar, cotton, Brazil
+nuts, sarsaparilla, vanilla, farina, copaiba, tobacco, rum, hides, fish,
+parrots, and monkeys.[146] Para exceeds in the number of its indigenous
+commodities any other port in the world, but the trade at present is
+insignificant when we consider the vast extent and resources of the
+country. The city can never have a rival at the mouth of the Amazon, and
+is destined to become a great emporium. But Brazilian legislation stands
+in the way. Heavy import duties are charged--from 35 to 45 per cent.;
+and on the 1st of January, 1868, it was ordered that 15 per cent. must
+be paid in English gold. The consequence has been that gold has risen
+from 28 to 30 above par, creating an additional tax. Exportation is
+equally discouraging. There is a duty of nine per cent. to be paid at
+the custom-house, and seven per cent. more at the consulado. But this
+is not the sum total. Those who live outside of the province of Para,
+say above Obidos, must first pay an import of thirteen per cent. to get
+their produce into Para. For example: up the river crude rubber can be
+bought for twenty-five cents a pound; the trader pays twenty-five cents
+an arroba (thirty-two pounds) for transportation to Para from Santarem,
+exclusive of canoe hire and shipping; thirteen per cent. duty in
+entering Para, ten per cent. to the commission merchant, and sixteen per
+cent. more as export tax; making a total loss on labor of about fifty
+per cent. Brazil abounds with the most valuable woods in the world, but
+is prevented from competing with other nations by this system of
+self-strangulation. In 1867 the import duty on timber was twelve per
+cent. Though situated on the edge of a boundless forest, Para consumes
+large quantities of North American pine. There is not a grist-mill on
+the Amazon, and only two or three saw-mills. A dozen boards of red cedar
+(a very common timber) costs 60$000 per thousand (about thirty dollars)
+at Santarem. There is no duty on goods going to Peru. The current money,
+besides foreign gold, consists of copper coins and imperial treasury
+notes. The basis of calculation is the imaginary _rey_, equivalent to
+half a mill. The coins in use are the vintem (twenty reys), answering to
+our cent, the half vintem, and double vintem. The currency has so
+fluctuated in value that many of the pieces have been restamped. Fifty
+vintems make a _milrey_, expressed thus: 1$000. This is the smallest
+paper issue. Unfortunately, the notes may suddenly fall below par. As a
+great many counterfeits made in Portugal are in circulation, the
+government recalls the issue which has been counterfeited, notifying
+holders, by the provincial papers, that all such bills must be exchanged
+for a new issue within six months. Those not brought in at the end of
+that period lose ten per cent. of their value, and ten per cent. for
+each following month, until the value of the note is _nil_. The result
+has been that many persons trading up the river have lost heavily, and
+now demand hard money. Change is very scarce in Para.
+
+[Footnote 144: We are inclined to doubt the assertion of Mansfield that
+Paraguay is the only country in eastern South America with an
+industrious peasantry.]
+
+[Footnote 145: Brazil yields more than one half the quantity of coffee
+consumed by the world. That of Ceara is the best.]
+
+[Footnote 146: In January, 1868, the current prices were as follows:
+
+Refined Sugar, per arroba $3 00
+Rice                       1 40
+Cacao                      3 20
+Coffee                     3 50
+Farina                       75
+Tapioca                    3 00
+Pure rubber               11 50
+Plassaba cord              6 50
+Tobacco                    1 50
+Sarsparilla               11 50
+
+The Brazilian arroba is seven pounds heavier than the Spanish.]
+
+The province of Para is governed by a president chosen at Rio, and every
+four years sends representatives to the Imperial Parliament. The
+Constitution of Brazil is very liberal; every householder, without
+distinction of race or color, has a vote, and may work his way up to
+high position. There are two drawbacks--the want of intelligence and
+virtue in the people, and the immense staff of officials employed to
+administer the government. There are also many formalities which are not
+only useless, but a hinderance to prosperity. Thus, the internal trade
+of a province carried on by Brazilian subjects is not exempt from the
+passport system. A foreigner finds as much trouble in getting his
+passport _en regle_ in Para as in Vienna. The religion of Para is
+Romish, and not so tolerant as in Rio. We arrived during _festa_. (When
+did a traveler enter a Portuguese town on any other than a feast day?)
+That night was made hideous with rockets, fire-crackers, cannon, and
+bells. "Music, noise, and fireworks," says Wallace, "are the three
+essentials to please a Brazilian populace." The most celebrated shrine
+in Northern Brazil is Our Lady of Nazareth. The little chapel stands
+about a mile out of the city, and is now rebuilding for the third time.
+The image is a doll about the size of a girl ten years old, wearing a
+silver crown and a dress of blue silk glittering with golden stars.
+Hosts of miracles are attributed to Our Lady, and we were shown votive
+offerings and models of legs, arms, heads, etc., etc., the grateful _in
+memoriam_ of wonderful cures, besides a boat whose crew were saved by
+invoking the protection of Mary. The facilities for education are
+improving. There are several seminaries in Para, of which the chief is
+the _Lyceo da Capital_. Too many youths, however, as in Quito, are
+satisfied with a little rhetoric and law. The city supports four
+newspapers.
+
+Paraenses may well be proud of their delightful climate. Wallace says
+the thermometer ranges from 74 deg. to 87 deg.; our observation made the mean
+annual temperature 80.2 deg.. The mean daily temperature does not vary more
+than two or three degrees. The climate is more equable than that of any
+other observed part of the New World.[147] The greatest heat is reached
+at two o'clock, but it is never so oppressive as in New York. The
+greater the heat, the stronger the sea-breeze; and in three hundred out
+of three hundred and sixty-five days, the air is farther cooled by an
+afternoon shower. The rainiest month is April; the dryest, October or
+November. Lying in the delta of a great river, in the middle of the
+tropics, and half surrounded by swamps, its salubrity is remarkable. We
+readily excuse the proverb, "_Quem vai para Para para_" ("He who goes to
+Para stops there"); and we might have made it good, had we not been
+tempted by the magnificent steamer "South America," which came up from
+Rio on the way to New York. On the moonlit night of the 7th of January,
+when the ice-king had thrown his white robes over the North, we turned
+our backs upon the glimmering lights of Para, and noiselessly as a canoe
+glided down the great river. As the sun rose for the last time to us
+upon the land of perpetual verdure, our gallant ship was plowing the
+mottled waters on the edge of the ocean--mingled yellow patches of the
+Amazon and dark streaks from the Para floating on the Atlantic green.
+Far behind us we could see the breakers dashing against the Braganza
+Banks; a moment after Cape Magoary dropped beneath the horizon, and with
+it South America vanished from our view.
+
+[Footnote 147: "The traveler, in going from the equator toward the
+tropics, is less struck by the decrease of the mean annual temperature
+than by the unequal distribution of heat in different parts of the
+year."--_Humboldt_. The great German fixes the mean temperature of the
+equator at 81.5 deg.; Brewster, at 82.8 deg.; Kirwan, 83.9 deg.; Atkinson, 84.5 deg..]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+     The River Amazon.--Its Source and Magnitude.--Tributaries and
+     Tints.--Volume and Current.--Rise and
+     Fall.--Navigation.--Expeditions on the Great River.
+
+
+Near the silver mines of Cerro Pasco, in the little Lake of Lauricocha,
+just below the limit of perpetual winter, rises the "King of
+Waters."[148] For the first five hundred miles it flows northerly, in a
+continuous series of cataracts and rapids, through a deep valley between
+the parallel Cordilleras of Peru. Upon reaching the frontier of Ecuador,
+it turns to the right, and runs easterly two thousand five hundred miles
+across the great equatorial plain of the continent.[149] No other river
+flows in the same latitude, and retains, therefore, the same climatic
+conditions for so great a distance. The breadth of the Amazon, also, is
+well proportioned to its extraordinary length. At Tabatinga, two
+thousand miles above its mouth, it is a mile and a half wide; at the
+entrance of the Madeira, it is three miles; below Santarem, it is ten;
+and if the Para be considered a part of the great river, it fronts the
+Atlantic one hundred and eighty miles. Brazilians proudly call it the
+Mediterranean of the New World. Its vast expanse, presenting below
+Teffe magnificent reaches, with blank horizons, and forming a barrier
+between different species of animals; its system of back channels,
+joining the tributaries, and linking a series of lagunes too many ever
+to be named; its network of navigable waters stretching over one third
+of the continent; its oceanic fauna--porpoises and manatis, gulls and
+frigate-birds--remind the traveler of a great inland sea, with endless
+ramifications, rather than a river. The side-channels through the
+forest, called by the Indians _igarapes_, or canoe-paths, are one of the
+characteristic features of the Amazon.[150] They often run to a great
+distance parallel to the great river, and intersecting the tributaries,
+so that one can go from Santarem a thousand miles up the Amazon without
+once entering it. These natural highways will be of immense advantage
+for inter-communication.
+
+[Illustration: Igarape, or Canoe-path.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Herndon gives, for the altitude of Cerro Pasco, 13,802
+feet; Rivero, 14,279. The lieutenant thus describes his first view from
+the rough hills surrounding this birthplace of the greatest of rivers:
+"I can compare it to nothing so fitly as looking from the broken and
+ragged edges of a volcano into the crater beneath."]
+
+[Footnote 149: From Lauricocha to its mouth, the Amazon, following the
+main curves, is 2740 miles long, as estimated by Bates; in a straight
+line, 2050; from Para to the head of the Ucayali, 3000. From north to
+south the tributaries stretch 1720 miles.]
+
+[Footnote 150: _Igarape_ is sometimes limited to a creek filled with
+back-water; _paranamirim_ is the proper term for a narrow arm of the
+main river; and _furos_ are the diminutive mouths of the tributaries.]
+
+But extraordinary as is this network of natural canals, the tributaries
+of the Amazon are still more wonderful. They are so numerous they appear
+on the map like a thousand ribbons streaming from a main mast, and many
+of the obscure affluents, though large as the Hudson, are unknown to
+geography. From three degrees north to twenty degrees south, every river
+that flows down the eastern slope of the Andes is a contributor--as
+though all the rivers between Mexico and Mount Hooker united their
+waters in the Mississippi. While the great river of the northern
+continent drains an area of one million two hundred thousand square
+miles, the Amazon (not including the Tocantins) is spread over a million
+more, or over a surface equal to two thirds of all Europe. Let us
+journey around the grand trunk and take a glimpse of the main branches.
+
+The first we meet in going up the left bank is the Rio Negro. It rises
+in the Sierra Tunuhy, an isolated mountain group in the llanos of
+Colombia, and enters the Amazon at Manaos, a thousand miles from the
+sea. The upper part, down to the parallel of one degree north, has a
+very rapid current; at San Gabriel are the first rapids in ascending;
+between San Gabriel and Barcellos the rate is not over two or three
+miles per hour; between Barcellos and Manaos it is a deep but sluggish
+river, and in the annual rise of the Amazon its waters are stagnant for
+several hundred miles up, or actually flow back. Its extreme length is
+twelve hundred miles, and its greatest breadth is at Barcellos, where it
+is twelve or fifteen miles. Excepting this middle section, the usual
+breadth of the Negro below the equatorial line is about one mile. It is
+joined to the Orinoco by the navigable Cassiquiari,[151] a natural canal
+three fourths of a mile wide, and a portage of only two hours divides
+the head of its tributary, the Branco, from the Essequibo of Guiana. The
+Negro yields to commerce coffee, cacao, farina, sarsaparilla, Brazil
+nuts, pitch, piassaba, and valuable woods. The commerce of Brazil with
+Venezuela by the Rio Negro amounted in 1867 to $22,000, of which $9000
+was the value of imports. The principal villages above Manaos are San
+Miguel and Moroa (which contain about fifty dwellings each), Tireguin,
+Barcellos, Toma, San Carlos, Coana, San Gabriel, and Santa Isabel.
+
+[Footnote 151: The Cassiquiari belongs indifferently to both river
+systems, the level being so complete at one point between them as to
+obliterate the line of water-shed.--_Herschel_.]
+
+The next great affluent is the Japura. It rises in the mountains of New
+Granada, and, flowing southeasterly a thousand miles, enters the Amazon
+opposite Ega, five hundred miles above Manaos. Its principal mouth is
+three hundred feet wide, but it has a host of distributing channels, the
+extremes of which are two hundred miles apart. Its current is only three
+quarters of a mile an hour, and it has been ascended by canoes five
+hundred miles. A natural canal like the Cassiquiari is said to connect
+it with the Orinoco. The products of the Japura are sarsaparilla,
+copaiba, rubber, cacao, farina, Brazil nuts, moira-piranga--a hard,
+fine-grained wood of a rich, cherry-red color--and carajuru, a brilliant
+scarlet dye.
+
+Parallel to the Japura is the Putumayo or Issa. Its source is the Lake
+of San Pablo, at the foot of the volcano of Pasto; its mouth, as given
+by Herndon, is half a mile broad, and its current two and three fourths
+miles an hour.
+
+Farther west are the Napo and Pastassa, starting from the volcanoes of
+Quito. The former is nearly seven hundred miles long, navigable five
+hundred. The latter is an unnavigable torrent. One of its branches, the
+Topo, is one continued rapid; "of those who have fallen into it, only
+one has come out alive." Another, the Patate, rises near Iliniza, runs
+through the plain to a little south of Cotopaxi, receives all streams
+flowing from the eastern side of the western Cordillera from Iliniza to
+Chimborazo, and unites near Tunguragua with the Chambo, which rises near
+Sangai. Castelnau and Bates saw pumice floating on the Amazon; it was
+probably brought from Cotopaxi by the Pastassa.
+
+Crossing the Maranon, and going eastward, we first pass the Huallaga, a
+rapid river of the size of the Cumberland, coming down the Peruvian
+Andes from an altitude of eight thousand six hundred feet, and entering
+the great river nearly opposite the Pastassa. Its mouth is a mile wide,
+and for a hundred miles up its average depth is three fathoms. In July,
+August, and September the steamers are not able to ascend to Yurimaguas.
+Canoe navigation begins at Tinga Maria, three hundred miles from Lima.
+The fertile plain through which the river flows is very attractive to an
+agriculturist. Cotton is gathered six months after sowing, and rice in
+five months. At Tarapoto a large amount of cotton-cloth is woven for
+export.
+
+The next great tributary from the south is the Ucayali. This magnificent
+stream originates near ancient Cuzco, and has a fall of .87 of a foot
+per mile, and a length nearly equal to that of the Negro. For two
+hundred and fifty miles above its mouth it averages half a mile in
+width, and has a current of three miles an hour. At Sarayacu it is
+twenty feet deep. The Ucayali is navigable for at least seven hundred
+miles. The "Morona," a steamer of five hundred tons, has been up to the
+entrance of the Pachitea in the dry season, a distance of six hundred
+miles, and in the wet season ascended that branch to Mayro. A small
+Peruvian steamer has recently ascended the Tambo to within sixty miles
+of Fort Ramon, or seven hundred and seventy-three miles from Nauta.
+
+Leaving the Ucayali, we pass by six rivers rising in the unknown lands
+of Northern Bolivia: the Javari, navigable by steam for two hundred and
+fifty miles; the sluggish Jutahi, half a mile broad and four hundred
+miles long; the Jurua, four times the size of our Connecticut, and
+navigable nearly its entire length; the unhealthy, little-known Teffe
+and Coary; and the Purus, a deep, slow river, over a thousand miles
+long, and open to navigation half way to its source. Soldan and Pinto
+claim to have ascended the Javari, in a steamer, about one thousand
+miles, and it is said Chandlers went up the Purus one thousand eight
+hundred miles. The Teffe is narrow, with a strong current. Of all these
+six rivers, the Purus is the most important. It is probably the
+Amaru-mayu, or "serpent-river," of the Incas, and its affluents enjoy
+the privilege of draining the waters of those beautiful Andes which
+formed the eastern boundary of the empire of Manco Capac, and
+fertilizing the romantic valley of Paucar-tambo, or "Inn of the Flowery
+Meadow." The banks of this noble stream are now held by the untamable
+Chunchos; but the steam-whistle will accomplish what the rifle can not.
+The Purus communicates with the Madeira, proving the absence of rapids
+and of intervening mountains.
+
+Sixty miles below the confluence of the Negro, the mighty Madeira, the
+largest tributary of the Amazon, blends its milky waters with the turbid
+king of rivers. It is about two thousand miles in length; one branch,
+the Beni, rising near Lake Titicaca, drains the fertile valleys of
+Yungus and Apollo, rich in cinchona, chocolate, and gold; the Marmore
+springs from the vicinity of Chuquisaca, within fifteen miles of a
+source of the Paraguay, traversing the territory of the brave and
+intelligent Moxos; while the Itinez washes down the gold and diamonds of
+Matto Grosso. Were it not for the cascade four hundred and eighty miles
+from its mouth, large vessels might sail from the Amazon into the very
+heart of Bolivia. When full, it has a three-mile current, and at its
+junction with the Amazon it is two miles wide and sixty-six feet deep.
+Five hundred miles from its mouth it is a mile wide and one hundred feet
+deep. It contains numerous islands, and runs in a comparatively straight
+course. It received its name from the vast quantity of drift-wood often
+seen floating down. The value of Brazilian commerce with Bolivia by the
+Madeira was, in 1867, $43,000.[152]
+
+[Footnote 152: In the map of Friar Fritz, published in 1707, the Madeira
+is one of the most insignificant of the tributaries, and the Ucayali and
+Putumayo are the largest.]
+
+At Santarem the Amazon receives another great tributary, the Tapajos (or
+Rio Preto, as the Portuguese call it), a thousand miles long, and, for
+the last eighty miles, from four to twelve miles in breadth. It rises
+amid the glittering mines of Matto Grosso, only twenty miles from the
+headwaters of the Rio Plata, and flows rapidly down through a
+magnificent hilly country to the last cataract, which is one hundred and
+sixty miles above Santarem, and is the end of navigation to sailing
+vessels. Thence to the Amazon it has little current and no great depth.
+From Santarem to Diamantino it is about twenty-six days' travel. Large
+quantities of sarsaparilla, rubber, tonka beans, mandioca, and guarana
+are brought down this river.
+
+Parallel to the Tapajos, and about two hundred miles distant, flows the
+Xingu. It rises in the heart of the empire, has the length of the Ohio
+and Monongahela, and can be navigated one hundred and fifty miles. This
+is the last great tributary of the Amazon proper; if, however, we
+consider the Para as only one of the outlets of the great river, we may
+then add to the list the grand Tocantins.[153] This splendid river has
+its source in the rich province of Minas (the source, also, of the San
+Francisco and Uruguay), not six hundred miles from Rio Janeiro--a region
+possessing the finest climate in Brazil, and yielding diamonds and
+rubies, the sapphire, topaz and opal, gold, silver, and petroleum. The
+Tocantins is sixteen hundred miles long, and ten miles broad at its
+mouth; but, unfortunately, rapids commence one hundred and twenty miles
+above Cameta. The Araguaia, its main branch, is, according to Castelnau,
+one mile wide, with a current of three fourths of a mile an hour.
+
+[Footnote 153: We are inclined to hold, with Bates and others, that the
+Para River is not, strictly speaking, one of the mouths of the Amazon.
+"It is made to appear so on many of the maps in common use, because the
+channels which connect it with the main river are there given much
+broader than they are in reality, conveying the impression that a large
+body of water finds an outlet from the main river into the Para. It is
+doubtful, however, if there be any considerable stream of water flowing
+constantly downward through these channels. There is a great contrast in
+general appearance between the Para and the main Amazon. In the former
+the flow of the tide always creates a strong current upward, while in
+the Amazon the turbid flow of the mighty stream overpowers all tides,
+and produces a constant downward current. The color of the water is
+different; that of the Para being of a dingy orange-brown, while the
+Amazon has an ochreous or yellowish-clay tint. The forests on their
+banks have a different aspect. On the Para, the infinitely diversified
+trees seem to rise directly out of the water, the forest-frontage is
+covered with greenery, and wears a placid aspect; while the shores of
+the main Amazon are encumbered with fallen trunks, and are fringed with
+a belt of broad-leaved grasses."--_Naturalist on the Amazon_, i., p.
+3-5.]
+
+Here are six tributaries, all of them superior to any river in Europe,
+outside of Russia, save the Danube, and ten times greater than any
+stream on the west slope of the Andes. While the Arkansas joins the
+Mississippi four hundred miles above New Orleans, the Madeira, of equal
+length, enters the Amazon nine hundred miles from Para. But, vast as are
+these tributary streams, they seem to make no impression on the Amazon;
+they are lost like brooks in the ocean. Our ideas of the magnitude of
+the great river are wonderfully increased when we see the Madeira coming
+down two thousand miles, yet its enormous contribution imperceptible
+half way across the giant river; or the dark waters of the Negro
+creeping along the shore, and becoming undistinguishable five miles from
+its mouth. Though the Amazon carries a larger amount of sediment than
+any other river, it has no true delta, the archipelago in its mouth
+(for, like our own St. Lawrence, it has its Bay of a Thousand Isles) not
+being an alluvial formation, but having a rocky base. The great island
+of Marajo, in physical configuration, resembles the mainland of Guiana.
+The deltoid outlet is confined to the tributaries, nearly all of them,
+like "the disembogning Nile," emptying themselves by innumerable
+embouchures. To several tributaries the Amazon gives water before it
+receives their tribute. Thus, by ascending the Negro sixty miles, we
+have the singular spectacle of water pouring in from the Amazon through
+the Guariba Channel.
+
+The waters of this great river system are of divers tints. The Amazon,
+as it leaps from the Andes, and as far down as the Ucayali, is blue,
+passing into a clear olive-green; likewise the Pastassa, Huallaga,
+Tapajos, Xingu, and Tocantins. Below the Ucayali it is of a pale,
+yellowish olive; the Madeira,[154] Purus, Jurua, Jutahi, Javari,
+Ucayali, Napo, Ica, and Japura are of similar color. The Negro, Coary,
+and Teffe are black. Humboldt observes that "a cooler atmosphere, fewer
+musquitoes, greater salubrity, and absence of crocodiles, as also of
+fish, mark the region of these black rivers." This is not altogether
+true. The Amazon throughout is healthy, being swept by the trade-winds.
+The branches, which are not so constantly refreshed by the ocean
+breezes, are occasionally malarious; the "white-water" tributaries,
+except when they have a slack current in the dry season, have the best
+reputation, while intermittent fevers are nearly confined to the
+dark-colored streams. Much of the sickness on these tropical waters,
+however, is due to exposure and want of proper food rather than to the
+climate. The river system of South America will favorably compare, in
+point of salubrity, with the river system of its continental
+neighbor.[155]
+
+[Footnote 154: The Madeira has often a milky color which it receives
+from the white clay along its banks.]
+
+[Footnote 155: The average temperature of the water in the Lower Amazon
+is 81 deg., that of the air being a little less. The temperature of the
+Huallaga at Yurimaguas was 75 deg. when the air was 88 deg. in the shade; in
+another experiment both the river and air were 80 deg.. The Maranon at
+Iquitos was 79 deg. when the air was 90 deg.. At the mouth of the Jurua, Herndon
+found both water and air 82 deg.. In the tropics the difference between the
+temperature of the water and air is proportionally less than in high
+latitudes.]
+
+As we might expect, the volume of the Amazon is beyond all parallel.
+Half a million cubic feet of water pour through the narrows of Obidos
+every second, and fresh water may be taken up from the Atlantic far out
+of sight of land. The fall of the main easterly trunk of the Amazon is
+about six and a half inches per mile, equivalent to a slope of 21'--the
+same as that of the Nile, and one third that of the Mississippi. Below
+Jaen there are thirty cataracts and rapids; at the Pongo de Manseriche,
+at the altitude of 1164 feet (according to Humboldt), it bids adieu to
+mountain scenery. Between Tabatinga and the ocean the average current is
+three miles an hour. It diminishes toward Para, and is every where at a
+minimum in the dry season; but it always has the "swing" of an ocean
+current.
+
+Though not so rapid as the Mississippi, the Amazon is deeper. There are
+seven fathoms of water at Nauta (2200 miles from the Atlantic), eleven
+at Tabatinga, and twenty-seven on the average below Mandaos.[156]
+
+[Footnote 156: The assertion of the _Ency. Metropolitana_, that "its
+current has great violence and rapidity, and its depth is unfathomable,"
+must be received with some allowance.]
+
+The Amazon and its branches are subject to an annual rise of great
+regularity. It does not take place simultaneously over the whole river,
+but there is a succession of freshets. At the foot of the Andes the rise
+commences in January; at Ega it begins about the end of February.
+Coinciding with this contribution from the west, the October rains on
+the highlands of Bolivia and Brazil swell the southern tributaries,
+whose accumulated floods reach the main stream in February; and the
+latter, unable to discharge the avalanche of waters, inundates a vast
+area, and even crowds up the northern tributaries. As the Madeira,
+Tapajos, and Purus subside, the Negro, fed by the spring rains in Guiana
+and Venezuela, presses downward till the central stream rolls back the
+now sluggish affluents from the south. There is, therefore, a rhythmical
+correspondence in the rise and fall of the arms of the Amazon, so that
+this great fresh-water sea sways alternately north and south; while the
+onward swell in the grand trunk is a progressive undulation eastward. As
+the Cambridge Professor well says: "In this oceanic river the tidal
+action has an annual instead of a daily ebb and flow; it obeys a larger
+orb, and is ruled by the sun and not the moon." As the southern
+affluents have the greatest volume, the Amazon receives its largest
+accession after the sun has been in the southern hemisphere. The rise is
+gradual, increasing to one foot per day. One lowland after another sinks
+beneath the flood; the forest stands up to its middle in the water, and
+shady dells are transformed into navigable creeks.[157] Swarms of
+turtles leave the river for the inland lakes; flocks of wading birds
+migrate to the banks of the Negro and Orinoco to enjoy the cloudless sky
+of the dry season; alligators swim where a short time before the jaguar
+lay in wait for the tapir; and the natives, unable to fish, huddle in
+their villages to spend the "winter of their discontent." The Lower
+Amazon is at its minimum in September or October. The rise above this
+lowest level is between seven and eight fathoms. If we consider the
+average width of the Amazon two miles, we shall have a surface of at
+least five thousand square miles raised fifty feet by the inundation. An
+extraordinary freshet is expected every sixth year.
+
+[Footnote 157: The flooded lands are called _gapos_.]
+
+The Atlantic tide is perceptible at Obidos, four hundred and fifty miles
+above Para, and Bates observed it up the Tapajos, five hundred and
+thirty miles distant. The tide, however, does not flow up; there is only
+a rising and falling of the waters--the momentary check of the great
+river in its conflict with the ocean. The "bore," or _piroroco_, is a
+colossal wave at spring tide, rising suddenly along the whole width of
+the Amazon to a height of twelve or fifteen feet, and then collapsing
+with a frightful roar.
+
+The Amazon presents an unparalleled extent of water communication. So
+many and far reaching are its tributaries, it touches every country on
+the continent except Chile and Patagonia. South America is well nigh
+quartered by its river system: the Amazon starts within sixty miles of
+the Pacific; the Tapajos and Madeira reach down to the La Plata; while
+the Negro mingles its waters with those of the Orinoco. The tributaries
+also communicate with each other by intersecting canals, so numerous
+that central Amazonia is truly a cluster of islands. Wagons and
+railroads will be out of the question for ages hence in this aquatic
+basin. No other river runs in so deep a channel to so great a distance.
+For two thousand miles from its month there are not less than seven
+fathoms of water. Not a fall interrupts navigation on the main stream
+for two thousand five hundred miles; and it so happens that while the
+current is ever east (for even the ocean can not send up its tide
+against it), there is a constant trade-wind westward, so that navigation
+up or down has always something in its favor. As a general rule, the
+breeze is not so strong during the rise of the river. There are at least
+six thousand miles of navigation for large vessels. It was lately said
+that the Mississippi carries more vessels in a month, and the
+Yang-tse-Kiang in a day, than the Amazon all the year round. But this is
+no longer true. Steamers already ascend regularly to the port of
+Moyabamba, which is less than twenty days' travel from the Pacific
+coast. The Amazon was opened to the world September 7, 1867; and the
+time can not be far distant when the exhaustless wealth of the great
+valley--its timber, fruit, medicinal plants, gums, and dye-stuffs--will
+be emptied by this great highway into the commercial lap of the
+Atlantic; when crowded steamers will plow all these waters--yellow,
+black, and blue--and the sloths and alligators, monkeys and jaguars,
+toucans and turtles, will have a bad time of it.
+
+Officially free to the world, the great river is, however, for the
+present practically closed to foreign shipping, as it is difficult to
+compete with the Brazilian steamers. For, by the contract which lasts
+till 1877, the company is allowed an annual subsidy of $4,000,000, which
+has since been increased by 250 milreys per voyage. In 1867 the steamers
+and sailing vessels on the Amazon were divided as follows, though it
+must be remembered that few of the foreign ships, excepting Portuguese,
+ascended beyond Para:
+
+Nationality.     No.    Tonnage
+United States    37     39,901-1/2
+Brazil           49     28,639
+England          52     13,276-1/2
+Portugal         24      7,871
+France           18      5,344
+Prussia           4        889-1/2
+Holland           3        538
+Denmark           2        525
+Holstein          3        498
+Norway            1        135
+Spain             1         90
+
+The vessels carrying the stars and stripes exported from Para to the
+value of 3,235,073$950, or eight times the amount carried by Brazilian
+craft, and 50,000 milreys more than England. While, therefore, the
+Imperial Company has the monopoly of trade on the Amazon, our ships
+distribute one third of the products to the world. The United States is
+the natural commercial partner with Brazil; for not only is New York the
+half-way house between Para and Liverpool, but a chip thrown into the
+sea at the mouth of the Amazon will float close by Cape Hatteras. The
+official value of exports from Para in 1867 was 9,926,912$557, or about
+five millions of dollars, an increase of one million over 1866.
+
+The early expeditions into the Valley of the Amazon, in search of the
+"Gilded King," are the most romantic episodes in the history of Spanish
+discovery. To the wild wanderings of these worshipers of gold succeeded
+the more earnest explorations of the Jesuits, those pioneers of
+geographical knowledge. Pinzon discovered the mouth of the river in
+1500; but Orellana, who came down the Napo in 1541, was the first to
+navigate its waters. Twenty years later Aguirre descended from Cuzco; in
+1637, Texeira ascended to Quito by the Napo; Cabrera descended from Peru
+in 1639; Juan de Palacios by the Napo in 1725; La Condamine from Jaen in
+1744, and Madame Godin by the Pastassa in 1769. The principal travelers
+who preceded us in crossing the continent this century were Mawe (1828),
+Poeppig (1831), Smyth (1834), Von Tschudi (1845), Castelnau (1846),
+Herndon and Gibbon (1851), and Marcoy (1867), who came down through
+Peru, and a Spanish commission (Almagro, Spada, Martinez, and Isern),
+who made the Napo transit in 1865. To Spix and Martius (1820), Bates and
+Wallace (1848-1857), Azevedo and Pinto (1862-1864), and Agassiz (1865),
+the world is indebted for the most scientific surveys of the river in
+Brazil.
+
+Such is the Amazon, the mightiest river in the world, rising amid the
+loftiest volcanoes on the globe, and flowing through a forest
+unparalleled in extent. "It only wants (wrote Father Acuna), in order to
+surpass the Ganges, Euphrates, and the Nile in felicity, that its source
+should be in Paradise." As if one name were not sufficient for its
+grandeur, it has three appellations: Maranon, Solimoens, and Amazon; the
+first applied to the part in Peru, the second to the portion between
+Tabatinga and Manaos, and the third to all below the Rio Negro.[158] We
+have no proper conception of the vast dimensions of the thousand-armed
+river till we sail for weeks over its broad bosom, beholding it
+sweeping disdainfully by the great Madeira as if its contribution was of
+no account, discharging into the sea one hundred thousand cubic feet of
+water per second more than our Mississippi, rolling its turbid waves
+thousands of miles exactly as it pleases,--plowing a new channel every
+year, with tributaries twenty miles wide, and an island in its mouth
+twice the size of Massachusetts.
+
+[Footnote 158: The upper part of the Maranon, from its source to Jaen,
+is sometimes called the Tunguragua. Solimoens is now seldom heard; but,
+instead, Middle Amazon, or simply Amazon. The term Alto Amazonas or High
+Amazon is also applied to all above the Negro. Maranon, says Velasco,
+derives its name from the circumstance that a soldier, sent by Pizarro
+to discover the sources of the Rio Piura, having beheld the mighty
+stream from the neighborhood of Jaen, and, astonished to behold a sea of
+fresh water, exclaimed, _"Hac mare an non?"_ Orellana's pretended fight
+with a nation of female warriors gave rise to the Portuguese name of the
+river, Amazonas (anglicized Amazon), after the mythical women in
+Cappadocia, who are said to have burnt off their right breasts that they
+might use the bow and javelin with more skill and force, and hence their
+name, [Greek: Amazones] from [Greek: a] and [Greek: mazos]. Orellana's
+story probably grew out of the fact that the men wear long tunics, part
+the hair in the middle, and, in certain tribes, alone wear ornaments.
+Some derive the name from the Indian word _amassona_, boat-destroyer.
+The old name, Orellana, after the discoverer, is obsolete, as also the
+Indian term Parana-tinga, or King of Waters. In ordinary conversation it
+is designated as _the_ river, in distinction from its tributaries. "In
+all parts of the world (says Hamboldt), the largest rivers are called by
+those who dwell on their banks, _The River_, without any distinct and
+peculiar appellation."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+     The Valley of the Amazon.--Its Physical
+     Geography.--Geology.--Climate.--Vegetation.
+
+
+From the Atlantic shore to the foot of the Andes, and from the Orinoco
+to the Paraguay, stretches the great Valley of the Amazon. In this vast
+area the United States might be packed without touching its boundaries.
+It could contain the basins of the Mississippi, the Danube, the Nile,
+and the Hoang-Ho. It is girt on three sides by a wall of mountains: on
+the north are the highlands of Guiana and Venezuela; on the west stand
+the Andes; on the south rise the table-lands of Matto Grosso. The valley
+begins at such an altitude, that on the western edge vegetation differs
+as much from the vegetation at Para, though in the same latitude, as the
+flora of Canada from the flora of the West Indies.
+
+The greater part of the region drained by the Amazon, however, is not a
+valley proper, but an extensive plain. From the mouth of the Napo to the
+ocean, a distance of eighteen hundred miles in a straight line, the
+slope is one foot in five miles.[159] At Coca, on the Napo, the altitude
+is 850 feet, according to our observations; at Tinga Maria. on the
+Huallaga, it is 2200 according to Herndon; at the junction of the Negro
+with the Cassiquiari, it is 400 according to Wallace; at the mouth of
+the Marmore, it is 800 according to Gibbon; at the Pongo de Manseriche,
+below all rapids, it is 1160 according to Humboldt; and at the junction
+of Araguaia with the Tocantins, it is 200 according to Castelnau. These
+barometrical measurements represent the basin of the Amazon as a shallow
+trough lying parallel to the equator, the southern side having double
+the inclination of the northern, and the whole gently sloping eastward.
+Farthermore, the channel of the great river is not in the centre of the
+basin, but lies to the north of it: thus, the hills of Almeyrim rise
+directly from the river, while the first falls on the Tocantins, Xingu,
+and Tapajos are nearly two hundred miles above their mouths; the rapids
+of San Gabriel, on the Negro, are one hundred and seventy-five miles
+from the Amazon, while the first obstruction to the navigation of the
+Madeira is a hundred miles farther from the great river.
+
+[Footnote 159: Professor Agassiz gives the average slope as hardly more
+than a foot in ten miles, which is based on the farther assertion that
+the distance from Tabatinga to the sea-shore is more than 2000 miles in
+a straight line. The distance is not 1600, or exactly 1500, from
+Para.--See _A Journey in Brazil_, p. 349.]
+
+Of the creation of this valley we have already spoken. No region on the
+face of the globe of equal extent has such a monotonous geology. Around
+the rim of the basin are the outcroppings of a cretaceous deposit; this
+rests on the hidden mezozoic and palaeozoic strata which form the ribs of
+the Andes. Above it, covering the whole basin from New Granada to the
+Argentine Republic,[160] are the following formations: first, a
+stratified accumulation of sand; second, a series of laminated clays, of
+divers colors, without a pebble; third, a fine, compact sandstone;
+fourth, a coarse, porous sandstone, so ferruginous as to resemble bog
+iron-ore. This last was, originally, a thousand feet in thickness, but
+was worn down, _perhaps_, in some sudden escape of the pent-up waters
+of the valley. The table-topped hills of Almeyrim are almost the sole
+relics.[161] Finally, over the undulating surface of the denuded
+sandstone an ochraceous, unstratified sandy clay was deposited.
+
+[Footnote 160: Messrs. Myers and Forbes found this red clay on the
+Negro, most abundantly near Barcellos; also in small quantities on the
+Orinoco above Maipures. The officers of the "Morona" assured us that the
+same formation was traceable far up the Ucayali and Huallaga. This clay
+from the Amazon, as examined microscopically by Prof. H. James Clark,
+contains fragments of gasteropod shells and bivalve casts. The red earth
+of the Pampas, according to Ehrenberg, contains eight fresh-water to one
+salt-water animalcule.]
+
+[Footnote 161: "On the South American coast, where tertiary and
+supra-tertiary beds have been extensively elevated, I repeatedly noticed
+that the uppermost beds were formed of coarser materials than the lower;
+this appears to indicate that, as the sea becomes shallower, the force
+of the waves or currents increased."--Darwin's _Observations_, pt. ii.,
+131. "Nowhere in the Pampas is there any appearance of much superficial
+denudation."--Pt. iii., 100.]
+
+It is a question to what period this great accumulation is to be
+assigned. Humboldt called it "Old Red Sandstone;" Martius pronounced it
+"New Red;" Agassiz says "Drift"--the glacial deposit brought down from
+the Andes and worked over by the melting of the ice which transported
+it.[162] The Professor farther declares that "these deposits are
+fresh-water deposits; they show no sign of a marine origin; no
+sea-shells nor remains of any marine animal have as yet been found
+throughout their whole extent; tertiary deposits have never been
+observed in any part of the Amazonian basin." This was true up to 1867.
+Neither Bates, Wallace, nor Agassiz found any marine fossil on the banks
+of the great river. But there is danger in building a theory on negative
+evidence. These explorers ascended no farther than Tabatinga. Two
+hundred miles west of that fort is the little Peruvian village of Pebas,
+at the confluence of the Ambiyacu. We came down the Napo and Maranon,
+and stopped at this place. Here we discovered a fossiliferous bed
+intercalated between the variegated clays so peculiar to the Amazon. _It
+was crowded with marine tertiary shells!_ This was Pebas _vs_.
+Cambridge. It was unmistakable proof that the formation was not drift,
+but tertiary; not of fresh, but salt water origin. The species, as
+determined by W.M. Gabb, Esq., of Philadelphia, are: _Neritina pupa,
+Turbonilla minuscula_, _Mesalia Ortoni_, _Tellina Amazonenis_, _Pachydon
+obliqua_, and _P. tenua_.[163] All of these are new forms excepting the
+first, and the last is a new genus. It is a singular fact that the
+_Neritina_ is now living in the West India waters, and the species found
+at Pebas retains its peculiar markings. So that we have some ground for
+the supposition that not many years ago there was a connection between
+the Caribbean Sea and the Upper Amazon; in other words, that Guiana has
+only very lately ceased to be an island. There is no mountain range on
+the water-shed between the Orinoco and the Negro and Japura, but the
+three rivers are linked by natural canals.[164] Interstratified with the
+clay deposit are seams of a highly bituminous lignite; we traced it from
+near the mouth of the Curaray on the Rio Napo to Loreto on the Maranon,
+a distance of about four hundred miles. It occurs also at Iquitos. This
+is farther testimony against the glacial theory of the formation of the
+Amazonian Valley. The paucity of shells in such a vast deposit is not
+astonishing. It is as remarkable in the similar accumulation of reddish
+argillaceous earth, called "Pampean mud," which overspreads the Rio
+Plata region.[165] Some of the Pampa shells, like those at Pebas, are
+proper to brackish water, and occur only on the highest banks. The
+Pampean formation is believed by Mr. Darwin to be an estuary or delta
+deposit. We will mention, in this connection, that silicified wood is
+found at the head waters of the Napo; the Indians use it instead of
+flint (which does not occur there) in striking a light. Darwin found
+silicified trees on the same slope of the Andes as the Uspallata Pass.
+
+[Footnote 162: _A Journey in Brazil_, p. 250, 411, 424. Again, in his
+Lecture before the Lowell Institute, 1866: "These deposits could not
+have been made by the sea, nor in a large lake, as they contain no
+marine nor fresh-water fossils."]
+
+[Footnote 163: These interesting fossils are figured and described in
+the _Am. Journal of Conchology_.]
+
+[Footnote 164: "The whole basin between the Orinoco and the Amazon is
+composed of granite and gneiss, slightly covered with debris. There is a
+total absence of sedimentary rocks. The surface is often bare and
+destitute of soil, the undulations being only a few feet above or below
+a straight line."--Evan Hopkins, in _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc_., vol. vi.]
+
+[Footnote 165: See Darwin on the absence of extensive modern
+conchiferous deposits in South America, _Geological Observations_, pt.
+iii., ch. v.]
+
+The climatology of the Valley of the Amazon is as simple as its physical
+geography. There is no circle of the seasons as with us--nature moves in
+a straight line. The daily order of the weather is uniform for months.
+There is very little difference between the dry and hot seasons; the
+former, lasting from July to December, is varied with showers, and the
+latter, from January to June, with sunny days, while the daily
+temperature is the same within two or three degrees throughout the year.
+On the water-shed between the Orinoco and Negro it rains throughout the
+year, but most water falls between May and November, the coolest season
+in that region. On the Middle Negro the wet season extends from June 1st
+to December 1st, and is the most sultry time.
+
+Comparatively few insects, birds, or beasts are to be seen in summer;
+but it is the harvest-time of the inhabitants, who spend the glorious
+weather rambling over the plaias and beaches, fishing and
+turtle-hunting. The middle of September is the midsummer of the valley.
+The rainy season, or winter, is ushered in by violent thunder-storms
+from the west. It is then that the woods are eloquent with buzzing
+insects, shrill cicadas, screaming parrots, chattering monkeys, and
+roaring jaguars. The greatest activity of animal and vegetable life is
+in June and July. The heaviest rains fall in April, May, and June.
+Scarcely ever is there a continuous rain for twenty-four hours.
+Castelnau witnessed at Pebas a fall of not less than thirty inches in a
+single storm. The greatest amount noticed in New York during the whole
+month of September was 12.2 inches. The humidity of the atmosphere, as
+likewise the luxuriance of vegetation and the abundance and beauty of
+animal forms, increases from the Atlantic to the Andes. At the foot of
+the Andes, Poeppig found that the most refined sugar in a few days
+dissolved into sirup, and the best gunpowder became liquid even when
+inclosed in canisters. So we found the Napo steaming with vapor. Fogs,
+however, are rarely seen on the Amazon.
+
+The animals and plants are not all simultaneously affected by the change
+of seasons. The trees retain their verdure through the dry _vera[=o]_,
+and have no set time for renewing their foliage. There are a few trees,
+like Mongruba, which drop their leaves at particular seasons; but they
+are so few in number they create the impression of a few dead leaves in
+a thick-growing forest. Leaves are falling and flowers drooping all the
+year round. Each species, and, in some cases, each individual, has its
+own particular autumn and spring. There is no hibernation nor aestivation
+(except by land shells); birds have not one uniform time for
+nidification; and moulting extends from February to May.
+
+Amazonia, though equatorially situated, has a temperate climate. It is
+cooler than Guinea or Guiana. This is owing to the constant evaporation
+from so much submerged land, and the ceaseless trade winds. The mean
+annual temperature of the air is about 81 deg..[166] The nights are always
+cool. There are no sudden changes, and no fiery "dog days." Venereal and
+cutaneous affections are found among the people; but they spring from an
+irregular life. A traveler on the slow black tributaries may take the
+tertiana, but only after weeks of exposure. Yellow fever and cholera
+seldom ascend the river above Para; and on the Middle Amazon there are
+neither endemics nor epidemics, though the trades are feebly felt
+there, and the air is stagnant and sultry. According to Bates, swampy
+and weedy places on the Amazon are generally more healthy than dry ones.
+Whatever exceptions be taken to the branches, the main river is
+certainly as healthy as the Mississippi: the rapid current of the water
+and the continual movement of the air maintaining its salubrity. The few
+English residents (Messrs. Hislop, Jeffreys, and Hauxwell), who have
+lived here thirty or forty years, are as fresh and florid as if they had
+never left their native country. The native women preserve their beauty
+until late in life. Great is the contrast between the gloomy winters and
+dusty summers, the chilly springs and frosty autumns of the temperate
+zone, and the perennial beauty of the equator! No traveler on the Amazon
+would exchange what Wallace calls "the magic half-hour after sunset" for
+the long gray twilight of the north. "The man accustomed to this climate
+(wrote Herndon) is ever unwilling to give it up for a more bracing one."
+
+[Footnote 166: Agassiz calls the average temperature 84 deg., which, it
+seems to us, is too high. The mean between the temperatures of Para,
+Manaos, and Tabatinga is 80.7 deg..]
+
+The mineral kingdom is represented only by sand, clay, and loam. The
+solid rock (except the sandstone already mentioned) begins above the
+falls on the tributaries. The precious gems and metals are confined to
+the still higher lands of Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and the slopes of the
+Andes. The soil on the Lower Amazon is sandy; on the Solimoens and
+Maranon it is a stiff loam or vegetable mould, in many places twenty
+feet deep.
+
+Both in botany and zoology, South America is a natural and
+strongly-marked division, quite as distinct from North America as from
+the Old World; and as there are no transverse barriers, there is a
+remarkable unity in the character of the vegetation. No spot on the
+globe contains so much vegetable matter as the Valley of the Amazon.
+From the grassy steppes of Venezuela to the treeless Pampas of Buenos
+Ayres, expands a sea of verdure, in which we may draw a circle of eleven
+hundred miles in diameter, which shall include an ever green, unbroken
+forest. There is a most bewildering diversity of grand and beautiful
+trees--a wild, unconquered race of vegetable giants, draped, festooned,
+corded, matted, and ribboned with climbing and creeping plants, woody
+and succulent, in endless variety. The exuberance of nature displayed in
+these million square acres of tangled, impenetrable forest offers a bar
+to civilization nearly as great as its sterility in the African deserts.
+A _macheta_ is a necessary predecessor: the moment you land (and it is
+often difficult to get a footing on the bank), you are confronted by a
+wall of vegetation. Lithe lianas, starred with flowers, coil up the
+stately trees, and then hang down like strung jewels; they can be
+counted only by myriads, yet they are mere superfluities. The dense dome
+of green overhead is supported by crowded columns, often branchless for
+eighty feet. The reckless competition among both small and great adds to
+the solemnity and gloom of a tropical forest. Individual struggles with
+individual, and species with species, to monopolize the air, light, and
+soil. In the effort to spread their roots, some of the weaker sort,
+unable to find a footing, climb a powerful neighbor, and let their roots
+dangle in the air; while many a full-grown tree has been lifted up, as
+it were, in the strife, and now stands on the ends of its stilt-like
+roots, so that a man may walk upright between the roots and under the
+trunk.[167]
+
+[Footnote 167: Buttress roots are not peculiar to any one species, but
+common to most of the large trees in the crowded forest, where the
+lateral growth of the roots is made difficult by the multitude of
+rivals. The Paxiuba, or big-bellied palm, is a fine example.]
+
+The mass of the forest on the banks of the great river is composed of
+palms (about thirty species[168]), leguminous or pod-bearing trees,
+colossal nut-trees, broad-leaved Musaceae or bananas, and giant grasses.
+The most prominent palms are the architectural Pupunha, or "peach-palm,"
+with spiny stems, drooping, deep green leaves, and bunches of mealy,
+nutritious fruit; the slender Assai, with a graceful head of delicate
+green plumes; the Ubussu, with mammoth, undivided fronds; the stiff,
+serrated-leaved Bussu, and gigantic Miriti. One of the noblest trees of
+the forest is the Massaranduba, or "cow-tree" (_Brosimum
+galactodendron_), often rising one hundred and fifty feet. It is a hard,
+fine-grained, durable timber, and has a red bark, and leathery, fig-like
+foliage. The milk has the consistency of cream, and may be used for tea,
+coffee, or custards. It hardens by exposure, so as to resemble
+gutta-percha. Another interesting tree, and one which yields the chief
+article of export, is the Caucho, or India-rubber tree[169] (_Siphonia
+Brasiliensis_), growing in the lowlands of the Amazon for eighteen
+hundred miles above Para. It has an erect, tall trunk, from forty to
+eighty feet high, a smooth, gray bark, and thick, glossy leaves. The
+milk resembles thick, yellow cream, and is colored by a dense smoke
+obtained by burning palm-nuts. It is gathered between August and
+December. A man can collect six pounds a day, though this is rarely
+done. It is frequently adulterated with sand. The tree belongs to the
+same apetalous family as our castor-oil and the mandioca; while the tree
+which furnishes the caoutchouc of the East Indies and Africa is a
+species of Ficus, and yields an inferior article to the rubber of
+America. Other characteristic trees are the Mongruba, one of the few
+which shed their foliage before the new leaf-buds expand; the giant
+Samauema, or silk-cotton tree (called _huimba_ in Peru); the Calabash, or
+_cuieira_, whose gourd-like fruit furnishes the cups used throughout the
+Amazon; the Itauba, or stone-wood, furnishing ship-timber as durable as
+teak; the red and white Cedar, used for canoes (not coniferous like the
+northern evergreen, but allied to the mahogany); the Jacaranda, or
+rose-wood, resembling our locust; Palo de sangre, one of the most
+valuable woods on the river; Huacapu, a very common timber; Capirona,
+used as fuel on the steamers; and Tauari, a heavy, close-grained wood,
+the bark of which splits into thin leaves, much used in making
+cigarettes. The Piassaba, a palm yielding a fibre extensively
+manufactured into cables and ropes, and exported to foreign countries
+for brushes and brooms, being singularly elastic, strong, and more
+durable than hemp; and the Moira-pinima, or "tortoise-shell wood," the
+most beautiful wood in all Amazonia, if not in the world, grow on the
+Upper Rio Negro. A small willow represents the great catkin family.
+
+[Footnote 168: Von Martius, in his great work on the Brazilian Palms,
+enumerates in all 582 species.]
+
+[Footnote 169: The Portuguese and Brazilians call it _seringa_, or
+syringe, in which form it is still used extensively, injections forming
+a great feature in the popular system of cures. The tree mentioned above
+yields most of the rubber of commerce, and is considered distinct from
+the species in Guiana, _S. elastica;_ while the rubber from the Upper
+Amazon and Rio Negro comes from the _S. lutea_ and _S. brevifolia_.
+Agassiz puts milk-weed in the same family!]
+
+The valley is as remarkable for the abundance, variety, and value of its
+timber as for any thing else. Within an area of half a mile square,
+Agassiz counted one hundred and seventeen different kinds of woods, many
+of them eminently fitted, by their hardness, tints, and beautiful grain,
+for the finest cabinet-work. Enough palo de sangre or moira-pinima is
+doubtless wasted annually to veneer all the palaces of Europe.
+
+While most of our fruits belong to the rose family, those of the Amazon
+come from the myrtle tribe. The delicious flavor, for which our fruits
+are indebted to centuries of cultivation, is wanting in many of the
+torrid productions. We prefer the sweetness of Pomona in temperate
+climes to her savage beauty in the sunny south. It is a curious fact,
+noticed by Herndon, that nearly all the valuable fruits of the valley
+are inclosed in hard shells or acid pulps. They also reach a larger
+size in advancing westward. The common Brazil nut is the product of one
+of the tallest trees in the forest (_Bertholletia excelsa_). The fruit
+is a hard, round shell, resembling a common ball, which contains from
+twenty to twenty-four nuts. Eighteen months are required for the bud to
+reach maturity. This tree, says Humboldt, offers the most remarkable
+example of high organic development. Akin to it is the Sapucaya or
+"chickens' nuts" (_Lecythis sapucaya_), whose capsule has a natural lid,
+and is called "monkey's drinking-cup." The nuts, about a dozen in
+number, are of irregular shape and much richer than the preceding. But
+they do not find their way to market, because they drop out of the
+capsule as soon as ripe, and are devoured by peccaries and monkeys. The
+most luscious fruit on the Amazon is the atta of Santarem. It has the
+color, taste, and size of the chirimoya; but the rind, which incloses a
+rich, custardly pulp, frosted with sugar, is scaled. Next in rank are
+the melting pine-apples of Para, and the golden papayas, fully equal to
+those on the western coast. This is the original home of the cacao. It
+grows abundantly in the forests of the upper river, and particularly on
+the banks of the Madeira. The wild nut is smaller but more oily than the
+cultivated. The Amazon is destined to supply the world with the bulk of
+chocolate. The aromatic tonka beans (Cumaru) used in flavoring snuff,
+and the Brazilian nutmegs (Puxiri), inferior to the Ceylon, grow on
+lofty trees on the Negro and Lower Amazon. The Guarana beans are the
+seeds of a trailing plant; from these the Mauhes prepare the great
+medicine, on the Amazon, for diarrhoea and intermittent fevers. Its
+active principle, caffeine, is more abundant than in any other
+substance, amounting to 5.07 per cent.; while black tea contains only
+2.13. Coffee, rice, tobacco, and sugar-cane are grown to a limited
+extent. Rio Negro coffee, if put into the market, would probably
+eclipse that of Ceara, the best Brazilian. Wild rice grows abundantly on
+the banks of the rivers and lakes. The cultivated grain is said to yield
+forty fold. Most of the tobacco comes down from the Maranon and Madeira.
+It is put up in slender rolls from three to six feet long, tapering at
+each end, and wound with palm fibre. The sugar-cane is an exotic from
+Southeastern Asia, but grows well. The first sugar made in the New World
+was by the Dutch in the island of St. Thomas, 1610. Farina is the
+principal farinaceous production of Brazil. The mandioca or cassava
+(_Manihot utilissima_) from which it is made is supposed to be
+indigenous, though it is not found wild. It does not grow at a higher
+altitude than 2000 feet. Life and death are blended in the plant, yet
+every part is useful. The cattle eat the leaves and stalks, while the
+roots are ground into pulp, which, when pressed and baked, forms farina,
+the bread of all classes. The juice is a deadly poison: thirty-five
+drops were sufficient to kill, in six minutes, a negro convicted of
+murder; but it deposits a fine sediment of pure starch that is the
+well-known tapioca; and the juice, when fermented and boiled, forms a
+drink. On the upper waters grow the celebrated coca, a shrub with small,
+light-green leaves, having a bitter, aromatic taste. The powdered
+leaves, mixed with lime, form _ypadu_. This is to Peruvians what opium
+is to the Turk, betel to the Malay, and tobacco to the Yankee. Thirty
+million pounds are annually consumed in South America. It is not,
+however, an opiate, but a powerful stimulant. With it the Indian will
+perform prodigies of labor, traveling days without fatigue or food. Von
+Tschudi considers its moderate consumption wholesome, and instances the
+fact that one coca-chewer attained the good old age of one hundred and
+thirty years; but when used to excess it leads to idiocy. The signs of
+intemperance are an uncertain step, sallow complexion, black-rimmed,
+deeply-sunken eyes, trembling lips, incoherent speech, and stolid
+apathy. Coca played an important part in the religious rights of the
+Incas, and divine honors were paid to it. Even to-day the miners of Peru
+throw a quid of coca against the hard veins of ore, affirming that it
+renders them more easily worked; and the Indians sometimes put coca in
+the mouth of the dead to insure them a welcome in the other world. The
+alkaloid cocaine was discovered by Woehler.
+
+Flowers are nearly confined to the edges of the dense forest, the banks
+of the rivers and lagunes. There are a greater number of species under
+the equator, but we have brighter colors in the temperate zone. "There
+is grandeur and sublimity in the tropical forest (wrote Wallace, after
+four years of observation), but little of beauty or brilliancy of
+color." Perhaps the finest example of inflorescence in the world is seen
+in the _Victoria Regia_, the magnificent water-lily discovered by
+Schoemberg in 1837. It inhabits the tranquil waters of the shallow lakes
+which border the Amazon. The leaves are from fifteen to eighteen feet in
+circumference, and will bear up a child twelve years old; the upper part
+is dark, glossy green, the under side violet or crimson. The flowers are
+a foot in diameter, at first pure white, passing, in twenty-four hours,
+through successive hues from rose to bright red. This queen of
+water-plants was dedicated to the Queen whose empire is never at once
+shrouded in night.
+
+[Illustration: Coca-plant.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+     Life within the Great
+     River.--Fishes.--Alligators.--Turtles.--Porpoises and Manatis.
+
+
+The Amazon is a crowded aquarium, holding representatives of every
+zoological class--infusoria, hydras, fresh-water shells (chiefly
+Ampullaria, Melania, and Unios), aquatic beetles (belonging mostly to
+new genera), fishes, reptiles, water birds, and cetaceans. The abundance
+and variety of fishes are extraordinary; so also are the species. This
+great river is a peculiar ichthyic province, and each part has its
+characteristics. According to Agassiz, the whole river, as well as its
+tributaries, is broken up into numerous distinct fauna.[170] The
+_pirarucu_, or "redfish" (the _Sudis gigas_ of science), is at once the
+largest, most common, and most useful fish. The Peruvian Indians call it
+_payshi_. It is a powerful fish, often measuring eight feet in length
+and five in girth, clad in an ornamental coat-of-mail, its large scales
+being margined with bright red. It ranges from Peru to Para. It is
+usually taken by the arrow or spear. Salted and dried, the meat will
+keep for a year, and forms, with farina, the staple food on the Amazon.
+The hard, rough tongue is used as a grater. Other fishes most frequently
+seen are the prettily-spotted catfish, Pescada, Piranha, Acara, which
+carries its young in its mouth, and a long, slender needle-fish. There
+are ganoids in the river, but no sturgeons proper. Pickerel, perch, and
+trout are also wanting. The sting-ray represents the shark family. As a
+whole, the fishes of the Amazon have a marine character peculiarly their
+own.
+
+[Footnote 170: We await the Professor's examination of his "more than
+80,000 specimens" before we give the number of new species.]
+
+The reptilian inhabitants of this inland sea are introduced by numerous
+batrachians, water-snakes (_Heliops_), and anacondas. But alligators
+bear the palm for ugliness, size, and strength. In summer the main river
+swarms with them; in the wet season they retreat to the interior lakes
+and flooded forests. It was for this reason that we did not see an
+alligator on the Napo. At low water they are found above the entrance of
+the Curaray. About Obidos, where many of the pools dry up in the fine
+months, the alligator buries itself in the mud, and sleeps till the
+rainy season returns. "It is scarcely exaggerating to say (writes Bates)
+that the waters of the Solimoens are as well stocked with large
+alligators in the dry season as a ditch in England is in summer with
+tadpoles." There are three or four species in the Amazon. The largest,
+the Jacare-uassu of the natives, attains a length of twenty feet. The
+Jacare-tinga is a smaller kind (only five feet long when full grown),
+and has the long, slender muzzle of the extinct teleosaurus. The South
+American alligators are smaller than the crocodiles of the Nile or
+Ganges, and they are also inferior in rank. The head of the Jacare-uassu
+(the ordinary species) is broad, while the gavial of India has a long,
+narrow muzzle, and that of the Egyptian lizard is oblong. The dentition
+differs: while in the Old World saurian the teeth interlock, so that the
+two jaws are brought close together, the teeth in the upper jaw of the
+Amazonian cayman pass by the lower series outside of them. The latter
+has therefore much less power. It has a ventral cuirass as well as
+dorsal, and it is web-footed, while the crocodile has the toes
+free--another mark of inferiority. Sluggish on land, the alligator is
+very agile in its element. It never attacks man when on his guard, but
+it is cunning enough to know when it may do this with safety. It lays
+its eggs (about twenty) some distance from the river bank, covering them
+with leaves and sticks. They are larger than those of Guayaquil, or
+about four inches long, of an elliptical shape, with a rough, calcareous
+shell. Negro venders sell them cooked in the streets of Para.
+
+Turtles are, perhaps, the most important product of the Amazon, not
+excepting the pirarucu. The largest and most abundant species is the
+Tortaruga grande. It measures, when full grown, nearly three feet in
+length and two in breadth, and has an oval, smooth, dark-colored shell.
+Every house has a little pond (called _currul_) in the back yard to hold
+a stock of turtles through the wet season. It furnishes the best meat on
+the Upper Amazon. We found it very tender, palatable, and wholesome; but
+Bates, who was obliged to live on it for years, says it is very cloying.
+Every part of the creature is turned to account. The entrails are made
+into soup; sausages are made of the stomach; steaks are cut from the
+breast; and the rest is roasted in the shell.[171] The turtle lays its
+eggs (generally between midnight and dawn) on the central and highest
+part of the plaias, or about a hundred feet from the shore. The Indians
+say it will lay only where itself was hatched out. With its hind
+flippers it digs a hole two or three feet deep, and deposits from eighty
+to one hundred and sixty eggs (Gibbon says from one hundred and fifty to
+two hundred). These are covered with sand, and the next comer makes
+another deposit on the top, and so on until the pit is full. Egg-laying
+comes earlier on the Amazon than on the Napo, taking place in August and
+September. The tracaja, a smaller species, lays in July and August; its
+eggs are smaller and oval, but richer than those of the great turtles.
+
+[Footnote 171: The natives have this notion about the land-tortoise,
+that by throwing it three times over the head, the liver (the best part)
+will be enlarged.]
+
+The mammoth tortoise of the Galapagos lays an egg very similar in size
+and shape to that of the Tortaruga, but a month later, or in October.
+The hunting of turtle eggs is a great business on the Amazon. They are
+used chiefly in manufacturing oil (manteca) for illumination. Thrown
+into a canoe, they are broken and beaten up by human feet; water is then
+poured in, and the floating oil is skimmed off, purified over the fire
+in copper kettles, and finally put up in three-gallon earthen jars for
+the market. The turtles are caught for the table as they return to the
+river after laying their eggs. To secure them, it suffices to turn them
+over on their backs. The turtles certainly have a hard time of it. The
+alligators and large fishes swallow the young ones by hundreds; jaguars
+pounce upon the full-grown specimens as they crawl over the plaias, and
+vultures and ibises attend the feast. But man is their most formidable
+foe. The destruction of turtle life is incredible. It is calculated that
+fifty millions of eggs are annually destroyed. Thousands of those that
+escape capture in the egg period are collected as soon as hatched and
+devoured, "the remains of yolk in their entrails being considered a
+great delicacy." An unknown number of full-grown turtles are eaten by
+the natives on the banks of the Maranon and Solimoens and their
+tributaries, while every steamer, schooner, and little craft that
+descends the Amazon is laden with turtles for the tables of Manaos,
+Santarem, and Para. When we consider, also, that all the mature turtles
+taken are females, we wonder that the race is not well-nigh extinct.
+They are, in fact, rapidly decreasing in numbers. A large turtle which
+twenty years ago could be bought for fifty cents, now commands three
+dollars. One would suppose that the males, being unmolested, would far
+outnumber the other sex, but Bates says "they are immensely less
+numerous than the females." The male turtles, or _Capitaris_, "are
+distinguishable by their much smaller size, more circular shape, and the
+greater length and thickness of their tails." Near the Tapajos we met a
+third species, called _Mata-mata_. It has a deeply-keeled carapax,
+beautifully bossed, and a hideous triangular head, having curious,
+lobed, fleshy appendages, and nostrils prolonged into a tube. It is
+supposed to have great virtues as a remedy for rheumatism. But the most
+noticeable feature of the Amazonian fauna, as Agassiz has remarked, is
+the abundance of cetaceans through its whole extent. From the brackish
+estuary of Para to the clear, cool waters at the base of the Andes,
+these clumsy refugees from the ocean may be seen gamboling and blowing
+as in their native element. Four different kinds of porpoises have been
+seen. A black species lives in the Bay of Marajo. In the Middle Amazon
+are two distinct porpoises, one flesh-colored;[172] and in the upper
+tributaries is the _Inia Boliviensis_, resembling, but specifically
+different from the sea-dolphin and the soosoo of the Ganges. "It was
+several years (says the Naturalist on the Amazon) before I could induce
+a fisherman to harpoon dolphins (_Boutos_) for me as specimens, for no
+one ever kills these animals voluntarily; the superstitious people
+believe that blindness would result from the use of the oil in lamps."
+The herbivorous manati (already mentioned, Chap. XV.) is found
+throughout the great river. It differs slightly from the Atlantic
+species. It rarely measures over twelve feet in length. It is taken by
+the harpoon or nets of chambiri twine. Both Herndon and Gibbon mention
+seals as occurring in the Peruvian tributaries; but we saw none, neither
+did Bates, Agassiz, or Edwards. They probably meant the manati.
+
+[Footnote 172: _Dephinus pallidus_. Bates observed this species at Villa
+Nova; we saw it at Coary, 500 miles west; and Herndon found it in the
+Huallaga.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+     Life around the Great River.--Insects.--Reptiles.--Birds.--Mammals.
+
+
+The forest of the Amazon is less full of life than the river. Beasts,
+birds, and reptiles are exceedingly scarce; still there is, in fact, a
+great variety, but they are widely scattered and very shy. In the
+animal, as in the vegetable kingdom, diversity is the law; there is a
+great paucity of individuals compared with the species.[173] Insects are
+rare in the dense forest; they are almost confined to the more open
+country along the banks of the rivers. Ants are perhaps the most
+numerous. There is one species over an inch long. But the most
+prominent, by their immense numbers, are the dreaded sauebas. Well-beaten
+paths branch off in every direction through the forest, on which broad
+columns may be seen marching to and fro, each bearing vertically a
+circular piece of leaf. Unfortunately they prefer cultivated trees,
+especially the coffee and orange. They are also given to plundering
+provisions; in a single night they will carry off bushels of farina.
+They are of a light red color, with powerful jaws. In every formicarium
+or ant colony there are three sets of individuals--males, females, and
+workers; but the sauebas have the singularity of possessing three classes
+of workers. The light-colored mounds often met in the forest, sometimes
+measuring forty feet in diameter by two feet in height, are the domes
+which overlie the entrances to the vast subterranean galleries of the
+saueba ants. These ants are eaten by the Rio Negro Indians, and esteemed
+a luxury; while the Tapajos tribes use them to season their mandioca
+sauce. Akin to the vegetable-feeding sauebas are the carnivorous ecitons,
+or foraging ants, of which Bates found ten distinct species. They hunt
+for prey in large organized armies, almost every species having its own
+special manner of marching and hunting. Fortunately the ecitons choose
+the thickest part of the forest. The fire-ant is the great plague on the
+Tapajos. It is small, and of a shiny reddish color; but its sting is
+very painful, and it disputes every fragment of food with the
+inhabitants. All eatables and hammocks have to be hung by cords smeared
+with copaiba balsam.
+
+[Footnote 173: Amazonia is divided into four distinct zoological
+districts: those of Ecuador, Peru, Guiana, and Brazil; the limits being
+the Amazon, Madeira, and Negro. The species found on one side of these
+rivers are seldom found on the other.]
+
+The traveler on the Amazon frequently meets with conical hillocks of
+compact earth, from three to five feet high, from which radiate narrow
+covered galleries or arcades. The architects of these wonderful
+structures are the termites, or "white ants," so called, though they
+belong to a higher order of insects, widely differing from the true
+ants. The only thing in common is the principle of division of labor.
+The termite neuters are subdivided into two classes, soldiers and
+workers, both wingless and blind. Their great enemy is the ant-eater;
+but it is a singular fact, noticed by Bates, that the soldiers only
+attach themselves to the long worm-like tongue of this animal, so that
+the workers, on whom the prosperity of the termitarum depends, are saved
+by the self-sacrifice of the fighting caste. The office of the termites
+in the tropics seems to be to hasten the decomposition of decaying
+vegetation. But they also work their way into houses, trunks, wardrobes,
+and libraries. "It is principally owing to their destructiveness" (wrote
+Humboldt) "that it is so rare to find papers in tropical America older
+than fifty or sixty years."
+
+Dragon-flies are conspicuous specimens of insect life on the Amazon. The
+largest and most brilliant kinds are found by the shady brooks and
+creeks in the recesses of the forest, some of them with green or crimson
+bodies seven inches long, and their elegant lace-like wings tipped with
+white or yellow. Still more noticeable are the butterflies. There is a
+vast number of genera and species, and great beauty of dress, unequaled
+in the temperate zone. Some idea of the diversity is conveyed by the
+fact mentioned by Mr. Bates that about 700 species are found within an
+hour's walk of Para, and 550 at Ega; while the total number found in the
+British Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports
+only 300. After a shower in the dry season the butterflies appear in
+fluttering clouds (for they live in societies), white, yellow, red,
+green, purple, black, and blue, many of them bordered with metallic
+lines and spots of a silvery or golden lustre. The sulphur-yellow and
+orange-colored kinds predominate. A colossal morpho, seven and a half
+inches in expanse, and visible a quarter of a mile off, frequents the
+shady glades; splendid swallow-tailed papilios, green, rose, or
+velvety-black, are seen only in the thickets; while the _Hetaira
+esmeralda_, with transparent wings, having one spot of a violet hue, as
+it flies over the dead leaves in the dense forest looks "like a
+wandering petal of a flower." Very abundant is the _Heliconius_, which
+plays such an important figure, by its variations, in Wallace's theory
+of the origin of species. On the Maranon we found _Callidryas eubule_, a
+yellow butterfly common in Florida. The most brilliant butterflies are
+found on the Middle Amazon, out of reach of the strong trade winds. The
+males far outnumber the other sex, are more richly colored, and
+generally lead a sunshiny life.
+
+The females are of dull hues, and spend their lives in the gloomy
+shadows of the forest. Caterpillars and nocturnal moths are rare.
+
+There are no true hive-bees (_Apides_) in South America,[174] but
+instead there are about one hundred and fifty species of bees (mostly
+social _Moliponas_), smaller than the European, stingless, and
+constructing oblong cells. Their colonies are much larger than those of
+the honey-bee. The _Trigona_ occurs on the Napo. Unlike the _Melipona_,
+it is not confined to the New World. A large sooty-black Bombus
+represents our humble-bee. Shrill cicadas, blood-thirsty mantucas,
+piums, punkies, and musquitoes are always associated in the traveler's
+memory with the glorious river. Of the last there are several kinds.
+"The forest musquito belongs to a different species from that of the
+town, being much larger and having transparent wings. It is a little
+cloud that one carries about his person every step on a woodland ramble,
+and their hum is so loud that it prevents one hearing well the notes of
+birds. The town musquito has opaque, speckled wings, a less severe
+sting, and a silent way of going to work. The inhabitants ought to be
+thankful the big noisy fellows never come out of the forest" (Bates,
+ii., 386). There are few musquitoes below Ega; above that point a
+musquito net is indispensable. Beetles abound, particularly in shady
+places, and are of all sizes, from that of a pin's head to several
+inches in length. The most noticeable are the gigantic _Megalosoma_ and
+_Enema_, armed with horns. Very few are carnivorous. "This is the more
+remarkable," observes Darwin, "when compared to the case of carnivorous
+quadrupeds, which are so abundant in hot countries." Very few are
+terrestrial, even the carnivorous species being found clinging to
+branches and leaves. In going from the pole to the equator we find that
+insect life increases in the same proportion as vegetable life. There is
+not a single beetle on Melville Island; eleven species are found in
+Greenland; in England, 2500; in Brazil, 8000. Here lives the king of
+spiders, the _Mygale Blondii_, a monstrous hairy fellow, five inches
+long, of a brown color, with yellowish lines along its stout legs. Its
+abode is a slanting subterranean gallery about two feet in length, the
+sides of which are beautifully lined with silk. Other spiders barricade
+the walks in the forest with invisible threads; some build nests in the
+trees and attack birds; others again spin a closely-woven web,
+resembling fine muslin, under the thatched roofs of the houses.
+
+[Footnote 174: The honey-bee of Europe was introduced into South America
+in 1845.]
+
+Of land vertebrates, lizards are the first to attract the attention of
+the traveler on the equator. Great in number and variety, they are met
+every where--crawling up the walls of buildings, scampering over the
+hot, dusty roads, gliding through the forest. They stand up on their
+legs, carry their tails cocked up in the air, and run with the activity
+of a warm-blooded animal. It is almost impossible to catch them. Some of
+them are far from being the unpleasant-looking animals many people
+imagine; but in their coats of many colors, green, gray, brown, and
+yellow, they may be pronounced beautiful. Others, however, have a
+repulsive aspect, and are a yard in length. The iguana, peculiar to the
+New World tropics, is covered with minute green scales handed with brown
+(though it changes its color like the chameleon), and has a serrated
+back and gular pouch. It grows to the length of five feet, and is
+arboreal. Its white flesh, and its oblong, oily eggs, arc considered
+great delicacies. We heard of a lady who kept one as a pet. Frogs and
+toads, the chief musicians in the Amazonian forest, are of all sizes,
+from an inch to a foot in diameter. The _Bufo gigas_ is of a dull gray
+color, and is covered with warts. Tree-frogs (_Hyla_) are very
+abundant; they do not occur on the Andes or on the Pacific coast. Their
+quack-quack, drum-drum, hoo-hoo, is one of our pleasant memories of
+South America. Of snakes there is no lack; and yet they are not so
+numerous as imagination would make them. There are one hundred and fifty
+species in South America, or one half as many, on the same area, as in
+the East Indies. The diabolical family is led by the boa, while the rear
+is brought up by the Amphisbaenas, or "double-headed snakes," which
+progress equally well with either end forward, so that it is difficult
+to make head or tail of them. The majority are harmless. The deadly
+coral is found on both sides of the Andes, and wherever there is a cacao
+plantation. One of the most beautiful specimens of the venomous kind is
+a new species (_Elaps imperator_, Cope), which we discovered on the
+Maranon. It has a slender body more than two feet in length, with black
+and red bands margined with yellow, and a black and yellow head, with
+permanently erect fangs.
+
+[Illustration: Iguana.]
+
+We have already mentioned the most common birds. Probably, says Wallace,
+no country in the world contains a greater variety of birds than the
+Amazonian Valley. But the number does not equal the expectations of the
+traveler; he may ramble a whole day without meeting one. The rarity,
+however, is more apparent than real; we forget, for the moment, the
+vastness of their dwelling-place. The birds of the country, moreover,
+are gregarious, so that a locality may be deserted and silent at one
+time and swarming with them at another. Parrots and toucans are the most
+characteristic groups. To the former belong true parrots, parroquets,
+and macaws. The first are rarely seen walking, but are rapid flyers and
+expert climbers. On the trees they are social as monkeys, but in flight
+they always go in pairs. The parroquets go in flocks. The Hyacinthine
+macaw (the Araruna of the natives) is one of the finest and rarest
+species of the parrot family. It is found only on the south side of the
+Amazon. The macaw was considered sacred by the Maya Indians of Yucatan,
+and dedicated to the sun. The Quichuans call it guacamayo, guaca meaning
+sacred. Of toucans there are many species; the largest is the toco, with
+a beak shaped like a banana; the most beautiful are the curb-crested, or
+Beauharnais toucans, and the _P. flavirostris_, whose breast is adorned
+with broad belts of red, crimson, and black. "Wherefore such a beak?"
+every naturalist has asked; but the toucan still wags his head, as much
+as to say, "you can not tell." There must be some other reason than
+adaptation. Birds of the same habits are found beside it--the ibis,
+pigeon, spoonbill, and toucan are seen feeding together. "How
+astonishing are the freaks and fancies of Nature! (wrote the funny
+Sidney Smith). To what purpose, we say, is a bird placed in the woods of
+Cayenne with a bill a yard long, making a noise like a puppy-dog, and
+laying eggs in hollow trees? The toucan, to be sure, might retort, to
+what purpose are certain foolish, prating members of Parliament created,
+pestering the House of Commons with their ignorance and folly, and
+impeding the business of the country? There is no end to such questions;
+so we will not enter into the metaphysics of the toucan."
+
+[Illustration: Toucans.]
+
+On the flooded islands of the Negro and Upper Amazon is found the rare
+and curious umbrella bird, black as a crow, and decorated with a crest
+of hairy plumes and a long lobe suspended from the neck, covered with
+glossy blue feathers. This latter appendage is connected with the vocal
+organs, and assists the bird in producing its deep, loud, and lengthy
+fluty note. There are three species. Another rare bird is the Uruponga,
+or Campanero, in English the tolling-bell bird, found only on the
+borders of Guiana. It is of the size of our jay, of a pure white color,
+with a black tubercle on the upper side of the bill. "Orpheus himself
+(says Waterton) would drop his lute to listen to him, so sweet, so
+novel, and romantic is the toll of the pretty, snow-white Campanero."
+"The Campanero may be heard three miles! (echoes Sidney Smith). This
+single little bird being more powerful than the belfry of a cathedral
+ringing for a new dean! It is impossible to contradict a gentleman who
+has been in the forests of Cayenne, but we are determined, as soon as a
+Campanero is brought to England, to make him toll in a public place, and
+have the distance measured."[175] But the most remarkable songster of
+the Amazonian forest is the Realejo, or organ-bird. Its notes are as
+musical as the flageolet. It is the only songster, says Bates, which
+makes any impression on the natives. Besides those are the Jacamars,
+peculiar to equatorial America, stupid, but of the most beautiful
+golden, bronze, and steel colors; sulky Trogons, with glossy green backs
+and rose-colored breasts; long-toed Jacanas, half wader, half fowl; the
+rich, velvety purple and black _Rhamphocoelus Jacapa_, having an immense
+range from Archidona to Para; the gallinaceous yet arboreal Ciganas;
+scarlet ibises, smaller, but more beautiful than their sacred cousins of
+the Nile; stilted flamingoes, whose awkwardness is atoned for by their
+brilliant red plumage; glossy black Mutums, or curassow turkeys; ghostly
+storks, white egrets, ash-colored herons, black ducks, barbets,
+kingfishers, sandpipers, gulls, plovers, woodpeckers, oreoles; tanagers,
+essentially a South American family, and, excepting three or four
+species, found only east of the Andes; wagtails, finches, thrushes,
+doves, and hummers. The last, "by western Indians _living sunbeams_
+named," are few, and not to be compared with the swarms in the Andean
+valleys. The birds of the Amazon have no uniform time for breeding. The
+majority, however, build their nests between September and New Year's,
+and rarely lay more than two eggs.
+
+[Footnote 175: Review of Waterton's _Wanderings in South America_.]
+
+[Illustration: Brazilian Hummers.]
+
+[Illustration: Capybara]
+
+Amazonia, like Australia, is poor in terrestrial mammals, and the
+species are of small size. Nearly the only game a hunter can depend upon
+for food, besides toucans and macaws, is peccari. One species of tapir,
+to represent the elephants and rhinoceroses of the Old World; three
+small species of deer, taking the places of deer, antelopes, buffaloes,
+sheep, and goats of the other continent; three species of large Felidae;
+one peccari, and a wild dog, with opossums, ant-eaters, armadilloes,
+sloths, squirrels (the only rodents which approach ours),[176]
+capybaras, pacas, agoutis, and monkeys, comprise all the quadrupeds of
+equatorial America. The last two are the most numerous. Marsupial rats
+take the place of the insectivorous mammals. Of ant-eaters, there are at
+least four distinct species; but they are scattered sparingly, and are
+seldom found on the low flooded lands. Four or five species of
+armadillo inhabit the valley. These little nocturnal burrowing edentates
+are the puny representatives of the gigantic Glyptodon of Pleistocene
+times, and the sloths are the dwindling shadows of the lordly
+Megatherium. There are two species of three-toed sloths--one inhabiting
+the swampy lowlands, the other confined to the terra-firma land. They
+lead a lonely life, never in groups, harmless and frugal as a hermit.
+They have four stomachs, but not the long intestines of ruminating
+animals. They feed chiefly on the leaves of the trumpet-tree
+(_Cecropia_), resembling our horse-chestnut. The natives, both Indian
+and Brazilian, hold the common opinion that the sloth is the type of
+laziness. The capybara or ronsoco, the largest of living rodents, is
+quite common on the river side. It is gregarious and amphibious, and
+resembles a mammoth guinea-pig. Pacas and agoutis are most abundant in
+the lowlands, and are nocturnal. These semi-hoofed rodents, like the
+Toxodon of old, approach the Pachyderms. The tapir, or gran-bestia, as
+it is called, is a characteristic quadruped of South America. It is a
+clumsy-looking animal, with a tough hide of an iron-gray color, covered
+with a coat of short coarse hair. Its flesh is dry, but very palatable.
+It has a less powerful proboscis than the Malay species. M. Roulin
+distinguishes another species from the mountains, which more nearly
+resembles the Asiatic. The tapir, like the condor, for an unknown
+reason, is not found north of 8 deg. N., though it wanders as far south as
+40 deg.. We met but one species of peccari, the white-lipped (_D.
+labiatus_). It is much larger than the "Mexican hog," and, too
+thick-headed to understand danger, is a formidable antagonist. The
+raposa is seen only on the Middle Amazon, and very rarely there. It has
+a long tapering muzzle, small ears, bushy tail, and grayish hair. It
+takes to the water, for the one we saw at Tabatinga was caught while
+crossing the Amazon. Fawn-colored pumas, spotted jaguars, black tigers,
+tiger-cats--all members of the graceful feline family--inhabit all parts
+of the valley, but are seldom seen. The puma, or panther, is more common
+on the Pacific side of the Andes. The jaguar[177] is the fiercest and
+most powerful animal in South America. It is marked like the
+leopard--roses of black spots on a yellowish ground; but they are
+angular instead of rounded, and have a central dot. There are also
+several black streaks across the breast, which easily distinguish it
+from its transatlantic representative. It is also longer than the
+leopard; indeed, Humboldt says he saw a jaguar "whose length surpassed
+that of any of the tigers of India which he had seen in the collections
+of Europe." The jaguar frequents the borders of the rivers and lagunes,
+and its common prey is the capybara. It fears the peccari. The night air
+is alive with bats of many species, the most prominent one being the
+_Dysopes perotis_, which measures two feet from tip to tip of the wings.
+If these Cheiropters are as impish as they look, and as blood-thirsty as
+some travelers report, it is singular that Bates and Waterton, though
+residing for years in the country, and ourselves, though sleeping for
+months unprotected, were unmolested.
+
+[Footnote 176: Large rats abound on the Marnanon, but they are not
+American.]
+
+[Footnote 177: The Tupi word for dog is _yaguara_, and for wolf,
+_yagua-men_, or old dog.]
+
+[Illustration: Jaguar.]
+
+About forty species of monkeys, or one half of the New World forms,
+inhabit the Valley of the Amazon. Wallace, in a residence of four years,
+saw twenty-one species--seven with prehensile and fourteen with
+non-prehensile tails. They all differ from the apes of the other
+hemisphere. While those of Africa and Asia (Europe has only one) have
+opposable thumbs on the fore feet as well as hind, uniformly ten molar
+teeth in each jaw, as in man, and generally cheek-pouches and naked
+collosities, the American monkeys arc destitute of the two latter
+characteristics. None of them are terrestrial, like the baboon; all
+(save the marmosets) have twenty-four molars; the thumbs of the
+fore-hands are not habitually opposed to the fingers (one genus, Ateles,
+"the imperfect," is thumbless altogether); the nostrils open on the
+sides of the nose instead of beneath it, as in the gorilla, and the
+majority have long prehensile tails. They are inferior in rank to the
+anthropoids of the Old World, though superior to the lemurs of
+Madagascar. They are usually grouped in two families--Marmosets and
+Cebidre. The former are restless, timid, squirrel-like lilliputs (one
+species is only seven inches long), with tails not prehensile--in the
+case of the scarlet-faced, nearly wanting. The Barigudos, or gluttons
+(_Lagothrix_), are the largest of American monkeys, but are not so tall
+as the Coaitas. They are found west of Manaos. They have more human
+features than the other monkeys, and, with their woolly gray fur,
+resemble an old negro. There are three kinds of howlers (_Mycetes_)--the
+red or mono-colorado of Humboldt, the black, and the _M. beelzebub_,
+found only near Para. The forest is full of these surly, untamable
+guaribas, as the natives call them. They are gifted with a voice of
+tremendous power and volume, with which they make night and day hideous.
+They represent the baboons of the Old World in disposition and facial
+angle (30 deg.), and the gibbons in their yells and gregarious habits.[178]
+The Sapajous (_Cebus_) are distributed throughout Brazil, and have the
+reputation of being the most mischievous monkeys in the country. On the
+west coast of South America there are at least three or four species of
+monkeys, among them a black howler and a _Cebus capucinus_. The Coitas,
+or spider-monkeys, are the highest of American quadrumana. They are
+slender-legged, sluggish, and thumbless, with a most perfectly
+prehensile tail, terminating in a naked palm, which answers for a fifth
+hand. The Indians say they walk under the limbs like the sloth. They are
+the most common pets in Brazil, but they refuse to breed in captivity.
+Both Coitas and Barigudos are much persecuted for their flesh, which is
+highly esteemed by the Indians.
+
+[Footnote 178: Ruetimeyer has found a fossil howler in the Swiss
+Jura--middle cocene.]
+
+Mr. Bates has called our attention to the arboreal character of a large
+share of the animals in the Amazonian forest. All the monkeys and bats
+are climbers, and live in the trees. Nearly all the carnivores are
+feline, and are therefore tree-mounters, though they lead a terrestrial
+life. The plantigrade Cercoleptes has a long tail, and is entirely
+arboreal. Of the edentates, the sloth can do nothing on the ground. The
+gallinaceous birds, as the cigana and curassow--the pheasant and turkey
+of the Amazon--perch on the trees, while the great number of arboreal
+frogs and beetles is an additional proof of the adaptation of the fauna
+to a forest region. Even the epiphytous plants sitting on the branches
+suggest this arboreal feature in animal life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+     Life around the Great River.--Origin of the Red Man.--General
+     Characteristics of the Amazonian Indians.--Their Languages,
+     Costumes, and Habitations.--Principal Tribes.--Mixed
+     Breeds.--Brazilians and Brazil.
+
+
+We come now to the genus Homo. Man makes a very insignificant figure in
+the vast solitudes of the Amazon. Between Manaos and Para, the most
+densely-peopled part of the valley, there is only one man to every four
+square miles; and the native race takes a low place in the scale of
+humanity. As the western continent is geologically more primitive than
+the eastern, and as the brute creation is also inferior in rank, so the
+American man, in point of progress, seems to stand in the rear of the
+Old World races. Both the geology and zoology of the continent were
+arrested in their development. Vegetable life alone has been favored.
+"The aboriginal American (wrote Von Martius) is at once in the
+incapacity of infancy and unpliancy of old age; he unites the opposite
+poles of intellectual life."[179]
+
+[Footnote 179: "I think I discover in the Americans (said Humboldt) the
+descendants of a rare which, early separated from the rest of mankind,
+has followed up for a series of years a peculiar road in the unfolding
+of its intellectual faculties and its tendency toward civilization." The
+South American Indian seems to have a natural aptitude for the arts of
+civilized life not found in the red men of our continent.]
+
+We will not touch the debatable ground of the red man's origin, nor
+inquire whether he is the last remains of a people once high in
+civilization. But we are tempted to express the full belief that
+tropical America is not his "centre of creation." He is not the true
+child of the tropics; and he lives as a stranger, far less fitted for
+its climate than the Negro or Caucasian. Yet a little while, and the
+race will be as extinct as the Dodo. He has not the supple organization
+of the European, enabling him to accommodate himself to diverse
+conditions. Among the Andean tribes there are seldom over five children,
+generally but one, in a family; and Bates, speaking of Brazilian
+Indians, says "their fecundity is of a low degree, and it is very rare
+to find a family having so many as four children."[180]
+
+[Footnote 180: We do not infer, however, from this fact alone, that the
+race is exotic, for the Negroes of Central Africa multiply very slowly.]
+
+While it is probable that Mexico was peopled from the north, it is very
+certain that the Tupi and Guarani, the long-headed hordes that occupied
+eastern South America, came up from the south, moving from the Paraguay
+to the banks of the Orinoco. From the Tupi nation (perhaps a branch of
+the Guarani) sprung the multitudinous tribes now dwelling in the vast
+valley of the Amazon. In such a country--unbroken by a mountain, uniform
+in climate--we need not look for great diversity. The general characters
+are these: skin of a brown color, with yellowish tinge, often nearly the
+tint of mahogany; thick, straight, black hair; black, horizontal eyes;
+low forehead, somewhat compensated by its breadth; beardless; of the
+middle height, but thick-set; broad, muscular chest; small hands and
+feet; incurious; unambitious; impassive; undemonstrative; with a dull
+imagination and little superstition; with no definite idea of a Supreme
+Being, few tribes having a name for God, though one for the "Demon;"
+with no belief in a future state; and, excepting civility, with virtues
+all negative. The semi-civilized along the Lower Amazon, called
+_Tupuyos_, seem to have lost (in the language of Wallace) the good
+qualities of savage life, and gained only the vices of civilization.
+
+There are several hundred different tribes in Amazonia, each having a
+different language; even the scattered members of the same tribe can not
+understand each other.[181] This segregation of dialects is due in great
+part to the inflexibility of Indian character, and his isolated and
+narrow round of thought and life. When and where the Babel existed,
+whence the many branches of the great Tupi family separated, we know
+not. We only know that though different in words, these languages have
+the same grammatical construction. In more than one respect the polyglot
+American is antipodal to the Chinese. The language of the former is
+richest in words, that of the latter the poorest. The preposition
+follows the noun, and the verb ends the sentence. Ancient Tupi is the
+basis of the Lingoa Geral, the inter-tribal tongue on the Middle Amazon.
+The semi-civilized Ticunas, Mundurucus, etc., have one costume--the men
+in trowsers and white cotton shirts, the women in calico petticoats,
+with short, loose chemises, and their hair held in a knot on the top of
+the head by a comb, usually of foreign make, but sometimes made of
+bamboo splinters. The wild tribes north and south go nearly or quite
+nude, while those on the western tributaries wear cotton or bark togas
+or ponchos. The habitations are generally a frame-work of poles,
+thatched with palm-leaves; the walls sometimes latticed and plastered
+with mud, and the furniture chiefly hammocks and earthen vessels.
+
+[Illustration: Native Comb.]
+
+[Footnote 181: Authors compute in South America from 280 to 700
+languages (Abbe Royo said 2000), of which four fifths are composed of
+idioms radically distinct.]
+
+The Mundurucus are the most numerous and warlike tribe in Amazonia. They
+inhabit both banks of the Tapajos, and can muster, it is said, 2000
+fighting men. They are friendly to the whites, and industrious, selling
+to traders large quantities of farina, sarsaparilla, rubber, and tonka
+beans. Their houses are conical or quadrangular huts, sometimes open
+sheds, and generally contain many families. According to Wallace, the
+Mundurucus are the only perfectly tattooed nation in South America. It
+takes at least ten years to complete the tattooing of the whole person.
+The skin is pricked with spines, and then the soot from burning pitch
+rubbed in. Their neighbors, the Pararauates, are intractable, wandering
+savages, roaming through the forest and sleeping in hammocks slung to
+the trees. They have delicately-formed hands and feet, an oval face, and
+glistening black eyes. On the west side of the Tapajos, near Villa Nova,
+are the Mauhes, an agricultural tribe, well formed, and of a mild
+disposition. On the Lower Madeira are the houseless, formidable Araras,
+who paint their chins red with achote (anatto), and usually have a black
+tattooed streak on each side of the face. They have long made the
+navigation of the great tributary hazardous. Above them dwell the
+Parentintins, light colored and finely featured, but nude and savage. In
+the labyrinth of lakes and channels at the mouth of the Madeira live the
+lazy, brutal Muras, the most degraded tribe on the Amazon. They have a
+darker skin than their neighbors, an extraordinary breadth of chest,
+muscular arms, short legs, protuberant abdomens, a thin beard, and a
+bold, restless expression. They pierce the lips, and wear peccari tusks
+in them in time of war. The Indians on the Purus live generally on the
+communal principle, and are unwarlike and indolent. The Puru-purus bury
+in sandy beaches, go naked, and have one wife.
+
+On the great northwest tributary of the Rio Negro, the Uacaiari, there
+are numerous tribes, collectively known as the Uaupes. They have
+permanent abodes, in shape a parallelogram, with a semicircle at one
+end, and of a size to contain several families, sometimes a whole tribe.
+One of them, Wallace informs us, was 115 feet long by 75 broad, and
+about 30 high. The walls are bullet-proof. Partitions of palm-leaves
+divide it into apartments for families, the chief occupying the
+semicircular end. The men alone wear clothes and ornaments, but both
+sexes paint their bodies with red, black, and yellow colors in regular
+patterns. The men have a little beard, which they pull out, as also the
+eyebrows, and allow the hair to grow unshorn, tying it behind with a
+cord and wearing a comb; while the women cut theirs and wear no comb.
+They are an agricultural people--peaceable, ingenious, apathetic,
+diffident, and bashful.
+
+The Catauishes inhabit the banks of the Teffe. They perforate the lips,
+and wear rows of sticks in the holes. At the mouth of the Jurua are the
+uncivilized, but tall, noble-looking Marauas. They pierce the ears and
+lips, and insert sticks. They live in separate families, and have no
+common chief. Above them live the treacherous Arauas.[182] On the
+opposite side of the Amazon are the nearly extinct Passes and Juris, the
+finest tribes in central South America. They are peaceable and
+industrious, and have always been friendly to the whites. The Passes are
+a slenderly-built, light-colored, dignified, superior race,
+distinguished by a large square tattooed patch in the middle of the
+face. The Juris tattoo in a circle round the mouth. Near by are the
+Uaenambeus, or "Humming-birds," distinguished by a small blue mark on
+the upper lip. Higher up the Japura is the large cannibal tribe of
+Miranhas, living in isolated families; and on the Tocantins dwell the
+low Caishanas, who kill their first-born children. Along the left bank
+of the Amazon, from Loreto to Japura, are the scattered houses and
+villages of the Tucunas. This is an extensive tribe, leading a settled
+agricultural life, each horde having a chief and a "medicine-man," or
+priest of their superstitions. They are good-natured and ingenious,
+excelling most of the other tribes in the manufacture of pottery; but
+they are idle and debauched, naked except in the villages, and tattooed
+in numbers of short, straight lines on the face. The Marubos, on the
+Javari, have a dark complexion and a slight beard; and on the west side
+of the same river roam the Majeronas--fierce, hostile, light colored,
+bearded cannibals. In the vicinity of Pebas dwell the inoffensive
+Yaguas. The shape of the head (but not their vacant expression) is well
+represented by Catlin's portrait of "Black Hawk," a Sauk chief. They are
+quite free from the encumbrance of dress, the men wearing a girdle of
+fibrous bark around the loins, with bunches looking like a mop hanging
+down in front and rear, and similar bunches hung around the neck and
+arms. The women tie a strip of brown cotton cloth about the hips. They
+paint the whole body with achote.[183] They sometimes live in
+communities. One large structure, with Gothic roof, is used in common;
+on the inside of which, around the walls, are built family
+sleeping-rooms. The Yaguas are given to drinking and dancing. They are
+said to bury their dead inside the house of the deceased, and then set
+fire to it; but this conflicts with their communal life. Perhaps, with
+the other tribes on the Japura, Ica, and Napo, they are fragments of
+the great Omagua nation; but the languages have no resemblance. Of the
+Oriente Indians we have already spoken. The tall, finely-built Cucamas
+near Nauta are shrewd, hard-working canoe-men, notorious for the
+singular desire of acquiring property; and the Yameos, a white tribe,
+wander across the Maranon as far as Sarayacu. On the Ucayali are
+numerous vagabond tribes, living for the most part in their canoes and
+temporary huts. They are all lazy and faithless, using their wives
+(polygamy is common) as slaves. Infanticide is practiced, _i.e._,
+deformed children they put out of the way, saying they belong to the
+devil. They worship nothing. They bury their dead in a canoe or earthen
+jar under the house (which is vacated forever), and throw away his
+property.[184] The common costume is a long gown, called _cushma_, of
+closely-twilled cotton, woven by the women. Their weapons are two-edged
+battle-axes of hard wood, as palo de sangre, and bows and arrows. The
+arrows, five or six feet long, are made from the flower-stalk of the
+arrow-grass (_Gynerium_), the head pointed with the flinty chonta and
+tipped with bone, often anointed with poison. At the base two rows of
+feathers are spirally arranged, showing the Indian's knowledge of the
+rifle principle. When they have fixed abodes several families live
+together under one roof, with no division separating the women, as among
+the Red Indians on the Pastassa. The roof is not over ten feet from the
+ground. The Piros are the highest tribe; they have but one wife. The
+Conibos are an agricultural people, yet cannibals, stretching from the
+Upper Ucayali to the sources of the Purus. They are a fair-looking,
+athletic people, and, like the Shipibos, of ten wear a piece of money
+under the lip. The Campas are the most numerous and warlike.[185] They
+are little known, as travelers give them a wide berth. Herndon fancied
+they were the descendants of the Inca race. They are said to be
+cannibals, and from the specimen we saw we should judge them uncommonly
+sharp. He was averse to telling us any thing about his tribe, but turned
+our questions with an equivocal repartee and a laugh. The Cashibos, on
+the Pachitea, is another cannibal tribe. They are light colored and
+bearded. The dwarfish, filthy Rimos alone of the Ucayali Indians tattoo,
+though not so perfectly as the Mundurucus, using black and blue colors.
+The other tribes simply paint. It was among these wild Indians on the
+Ucayali that the Franciscan friars labored so long and zealously, and
+with a success far greater and more lasting than that which attended any
+other missionary enterprise in the valley.
+
+[Footnote 182: Near the sources of this river Castlenau locates the
+Canamas and Uginas; the former dwarfs, the latter having tails a palm
+and a half long--a hybrid from an Indian and Barigudo monkey.]
+
+[Footnote 183: Query: Is the name Yagua (blood) derived from the
+practice of coloring the body red?]
+
+[Footnote 184: Compare the ancient burial custom on the Andes: "On the
+decease of the Inca his palaces are abandoned: all his treasures, except
+those that were employed in his obsequies, his furniture and apparel,
+were suffered to remain as he left them, and his mansions, save one,
+were closed up forever."--_Prescott_.]
+
+[Footnote 185: The women circumcise themselves, and a man will not marry
+a woman who is not circumcised. They perform the singular rite upon
+arriving at the age of puberty, and have a great feast at the time.
+Other tribes flog and imprison their daughters when they reach
+womanhood.]
+
+The remaining inhabitants of the Amazon are mixed-breeds, Negroes, and
+whites. The amalgamations form the greater part of the population of the
+large towns. Von Tschudi gives a catalogue of twenty-three hybrids in
+Peru, and there are undoubtedly as many, or more, in Brazil. The most
+common are Mamelucos (offspring of white with Indian), Mulattoes (from
+white and Negro), Cafuzos or Zambos (from Indian and Negro), Curibocos
+(from Cafuzo and Indian); and Xibaros (from Cafuzo and Negro). "To
+define their characteristics correctly," says Von Tschudi, "would be
+impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood. As a
+general rule, it may be said that they unite in themselves all the
+faults without any of the virtues of their progenitors. As men they are
+generally inferior to the pure races, and as members of society they are
+the worst class of citizens." Yet they display considerable talent and
+enterprise, as in Quito; a proof that mental degeneracy does not
+necessarily result from the mixture of white with Indian blood. "There
+is, however," confesses Bates, after ten years' experience, "a
+considerable number of superlatively lazy, tricky, and sensual
+characters among the half-castes, both in rural places and in the
+towns." Our observations do not support the opinion that the result of
+amalgamation is "a vague compound, lacking character and expression."
+The moral part is perhaps deteriorated; but in tact and enterprise they
+often excel their progenitors.
+
+Negroes are to be seen only on the Lower Amazon. By the new act of
+emancipation, such as are slaves continue so, but their children are
+free. Negroes born in the country are called creoles.
+
+Of the white population, save a handful of English, French, and German,
+the Portuguese immigrants are the most enterprising men on the river.
+They are willing to work, trade, or do any thing to turn a penny. Those
+who acquire a fortune generally retire to Lisbon. The Brazilians proper
+are the descendants of the men who declared themselves "free and
+independent" of the mother country. Few of them are of pure Caucasian
+descent, for the immigration from Portugal for many years has been
+almost exclusively of the male sex. "It is generally considered bad
+taste in Brazil to boast purity of descent" (Bates, i, 241). Brazilians
+are stiff and formal, yet courteous and lively, communicative and
+hospitable, well-bred and intelligent. They are not ambitious, but
+content to live and enjoy what nature spontaneously offers. The most a
+Brazilian wants is farina and coffee, a hammock and cigar. Brazilian
+ladies have led a dreary life of constraint and silence, without
+education or society, the husband making a nun of his wife after the old
+bigoted Portuguese notion; but during the last twenty years the doors
+have been opened. Brazil attained her independence in 1823; Brazilian
+women in 1848.
+
+Here, in this virgin valley, where every plant is an evergreen,
+possessing the most agreeable and enjoyable climate in the world, with a
+brilliant atmosphere, rivaled only by that of Quito, and with no changes
+of seasons--here we may locate the paradise of the lazy. Life may be
+maintained with as little labor as in the Garden of Eden. Perhaps no
+country in the world is capable of yielding so large a return for
+agriculture. Nature, evidently designing this land as the home of a
+great nation, has heaped up her bounties of every description--fruits of
+richest flavors, woods of finest grain, dyes of gayest colors, and drugs
+of rarest virtues; and left no sirocco or earthquake to disturb its
+people. Providence, moreover, has given the present emperor a wise and
+understanding heart; and the government is a happy blending of imperial
+dignity and republican freedom. White, Negro, half-caste, and Indian may
+be seen sitting side by side on the jury-bench. Certainly "the nation
+can not be a despicable one whose best men are able to work themselves
+up to positions of trust and influence."
+
+God bless the Empire of the South!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+     How to Travel in South
+     America.--Routes.--Expenses.--Outfit.--Precautions.--Dangers.
+
+
+The most vague and incorrect notions prevail in respect to traveling in
+South America. The sources of trustworthy and desirable information are
+very meagre. Murray has not yet published a "Hand-book for the Andes;"
+routes, methods, and expenses of travel are almost unknown; and the
+imagination depicts vampires and scorpions, tigers and anacondas, wild
+Indians and fevers without end, impassable rivers and inaccessible
+mountains as the portion of the tourist. The following statements, which
+can be depended upon, may therefore be acceptable to those who
+contemplate a trip on the Andes and the Amazon.
+
+The shortest, cheapest, most feasible, and least interesting route
+across the continent is from Valparaiso to Buenos Ayres. The breadth of
+South America is here only eight hundred miles. By railroad from
+Valparaiso to the foot of the Andes; thence a short mule-ride by the
+Uspallata Pass (altitude 12,000 feet), under the shadow of Aconcagua to
+Mendoza; thence by coach across the pampas to the Rio Plata. The
+Portillo Pass (traversed by Darwin) is nearer, but more lofty and
+dangerous.
+
+Bolivia offers the difficult path of Gibbon: From the coast to
+Cochabamba; thence down the Marmore and Madeira. There are three routes
+through Peru: First, from Lima to Mayro, by way of Cerro Pasco and
+Huanaco, by mule, ten days; thence down the Pachitea, by canoe, six
+days; thence down the Ucayali to Iquitos, by steamer, six days
+(forty-five hours' running time). When the road from Lima to Mayro is
+finished the passage will be shortened four days. No snow is met in
+crossing the Andes in summer, but in winter it is very deep. Second
+(Herndon's route), from Lima to Tinga Maria, by way of Huanaco, by mule,
+fifteen days, distance three hundred miles (the passage is difficult in
+the rainy season); thence by canoe fifteen days down the Huallaga to
+Yurimaguas. Third and best, by mule from Truxillo to Caximarca, five
+days (note the magnificent ruins); thence to Chachapoyas, seven days
+(here are pre-Incarial relics); thence to Moyabamba, eight days; thence
+on foot to Balsa Puerto, four days; thence by canoe to Yurimaguas, two
+days. Price of a mule from Truxillo to Moyabamba is $30; canoe-hire,
+$10. The Peruvian steamers arrive at Yurimaguas the fifth of every month
+and leave the seventh; reach Nauta the ninth and Iquitos the tenth;
+leave Iquitos the sixteenth and arrive at Tabatinga the nineteenth, to
+connect with the Brazilian line. Going up, they leave Tabatinga the
+twenty-first and arrive at Iquitos the twenty-fourth, stopping six days.
+Running time from Yurimaguas to Tabatinga, forty-eight hours; fare, $70,
+gold; third-class, $17. La Condamine's route, _via_ Loxa and the
+Maranon, is difficult; and Md. Godin's, _via_ the Pastassa, is perilous
+on account of rapids and savages. The transit by the Napo we will now
+give in detail.
+
+Six hundred dollars in gold will be amply sufficient for a first-class
+passage from New York to New York across the continent of South America,
+making no allowance for stoppages. For necessary expenses in Ecuador,
+take a draft on London, which will sell to advantage in Guayaquil; so
+will Mexican dollars. American gold should be taken for expenses on the
+Amazon in Brazil; at Para it commands a premium. On the Maranon it is
+below par; Peruvian gold should therefore be bought at Guayaquil for
+that part of the route. Also French _medios_, or quarter francs; they
+will be very useful every where on the route, especially on the Upper
+Amazon, where change is scarce. Fifty dollars' worth will not be too
+many; for, as the Scotchman said of sixpences, "they are canny little
+dogs, and often do the work of shillings." Take a passport for Brazil.
+Leave behind your delicacies and superfluities of clothing; woolen
+clothes will be serviceable throughout. A trunk for mountain travel
+should not exceed 24 by 15 by 15 inches--smaller the better. Take a
+rubber air-pillow and mattress: there is no bed between Guayaquil and
+Para. A hammock for the Amazon can be bought on the Napo.
+
+The Pacific Mail steamships, which leave New York on the first and
+sixteenth of each month, connect at Panama without delay with the
+British Steam Navigation line on the South Pacific. Fare, first-class,
+from New York to Guayaquil, by way of Panama and Paita, $215, gold;
+second-class, $128. Time to Panama, eight days; to Paita, four days; to
+Guayaquil, one day. A coasting steamer leaves Panama for Guayaquil the
+thirteenth of each month. There are two so-called hotels in Guayaquil.
+"Los tres Mosqueteros," kept by Sr. Gonzales, is the best. Take a front
+room ($1 per day), and board at the Fonda Italiana or La Santa Rosa ($1
+per day). Here complete your outfit for the mountains: saddle, with
+strong girth and crupper; saddle-bags, saddle-cover, sweat-cloth, and
+bridle ($40, paper), woolen poncho ($9), rubber poncho ($4), blanket
+($6), leggins, native spurs and stirrups, knife, fork, spoon, tea-pot,
+chocolate (tea, pure and cheap, should be purchased at Panama), candles,
+matches, soap, towels, and tarpaulin for wrapping up baggage. Convert
+your draft into paper, _quantum sufficit_ for Guayaquil; the rest into
+silver.
+
+Besides this outer outfit, an inner one is needed--of patience without
+stint. You will soon learn that it is one thing to plan and quite
+another to execute. "To get out of the inn is one half of the journey"
+is very appropriately a Spanish proverb. Spaniards do nothing
+_d'appressado_ (in a hurry), but every thing _manana_ (to-morrow). You
+will find fondas, horses, and roads divided into the bad, the worse, and
+the worst, and bad is the best. But fret not thyself. "Serenity of
+mind," wrote Humboldt, "almost the first requisite for an undertaking in
+inhospitable regions, passionate love for some class of scientific
+labor, and a pure feeling for the enjoyment which nature in her freedom
+is ready to impart, are elements which, when they meet together in an
+individual, insure the attainment of valuable results from a great and
+important journey."
+
+The journey to Quito must be made between May and November; in the rainy
+season the roads are impassable. From Guayaquil to Bodegas by Yankee
+steamer; fare, $2; time, eight hours. At Bodegas hire beasts at the
+_Consignacion_ for Guaranda; price for riding and cargo beasts, $4 each.
+No extras for the _arriero_. A mule will carry two hundred and fifty
+pounds. Buy bread at Bodegas and Guaranda. The Indians on the road are
+very loth to sell any thing; buy a fowl, therefore, at the first
+opportunity, or you will have to live on dirty potato soup, and be glad
+of that. At the tambos, or wayside inns, you pay only for _yerba_
+(fodder). Never unsaddle your beast till it is cool; an Indian will even
+leave the bridle on for a time. To Guaranda, three full days. There take
+mules (safer than horses in climbing the mountains) for Quito; $6 25,
+silver, per beast; time, five days. Be sure to leave Guaranda by 4 a.m.,
+for in the afternoon Chimborazo is swept by furious winds. Also start
+with a full stomach; you will get nothing for two days. Drink sparingly
+of the snow-water which dashes down the mountain. You will be tempted
+to curse Chuquipoyo; but thank heaven it is no worse.
+
+There are two hotels in Quito, French and American; the former has the
+better location, the latter the better rooms. Best front room,
+furnished, half a dollar a day; cheaper by the month. Meals (two),
+twenty-five cents each. The beef is excellent, but the _cuisine_--oh,
+onions! "God sends the meat, and the evil one cooks." You can hire a
+professional male cook (Indian) for $5 a month, but you can't teach him
+any thing. Fish is not to be had in Quito. Gibbon speaks of having some
+in Cuzco, but does not tell us where it came from.[186] Price of best
+flour, $3 60 per quintal; butter, thirty cents a pound; beef, $1 an
+arroba (twenty-five pounds); refined sugar, $3 50 an arroba; brown sugar
+(_rapidura_),[187] five cents a pound; cigars, from six to sixteen for a
+dime; cigarettes, five cents a hundred. Horse hire, from fifty cents to
+$1 per day. If you are to remain some time, buy a beast: a good mule
+costs $40; an ordinary horse, $50. The Post-office Department is a
+swindle. If you "pay through" you will find on your arrival home that
+your letters have been paid at both ends. Ask our consul at Guayaquil to
+forward them.
+
+[Footnote 186: The Guayaquil market is well supplied with fish of a fair
+quality. Usually the fish of warm tropical waters are poor, but the cold
+"Humboldt current," which passes along the west coast of Ecuador,
+renders them as edible as those of temperate zones.]
+
+[Footnote 187: Called _chancaca_ in Peru. In flavor it is very nearly
+equal to maple-sugar.]
+
+The necessary preparations for the Napo journey have been given in a
+previous chapter (Chap. XI). We might add to the list a few cans of
+preserved milk from New York, for you will not see a drop between the
+Andes and the Atlantic. Fail not to take plenty of lienzo; you must have
+it to pay the Indians, and any surplus can be sold to advantage. A bale
+of thirty varas costs about five dollars. Rely not at all on game; a
+champion sharpshooter could not live by his rifle. Santa Rosa and Coca
+will be represented to you as small New Yorks; but you will do well if
+you can buy a chicken between them.
+
+From Quito to Papallacta, two days and a half; riding beast, $2 silver,
+and $1 20 for each cargo of three arrobas. At Papallacta hire Indians
+for Archidona; each carries three arrobas, and wants $5 silver in
+advance. You take to your feet; time, nine days, including one day of
+rest at Baeza. At Archidona you take a new set of peons for Napo at
+twenty-five cents apiece; time, one day. From Napo down the river to
+Santa Rosa, one day. You give two and a half varas of lienzo to each
+Indian, and the same for the canoe. From Santa Rosa to Pebas, on the
+Maranon, fifteen days; cost of an Indian, twenty-five varas; ditto for a
+canoe. We advise you to stop at Coca and rig up a raft or craft of some
+kind; we ascribe our uninterrupted good health to the length and breadth
+of our accommodations. The Peruvian steamer from the west arrives at
+Pebas on the sixteenth of each month; fare to Tabatinga, $15 gold; time,
+four days; running time, eleven hours. Brazilian steamer leaves
+Tabatinga the twentieth of each month; fare to Manaos, $44 44 gold;
+time, five days; distance, one thousand miles. From Manaos to Para, $55
+55 gold; time, six days; distance, one thousand miles. The Brazilian
+steamers make semi-monthly trips. We found two hotels in Para--the
+"Italiana," dear and poor; the "Diana," unpretending but comfortable.
+Charges at the latter for room and board, $2 a day. The best time for
+traveling on the Amazon is between July and December. The United States
+and Brazilian steamships on their homeward voyage call at Para the
+seventh of each month; fare to New York, $150 gold (the same as down the
+whole length of the Amazon); second class, $75; time, fourteen days;
+distance by way of St. Thomas, 1610 + 1400 miles. Steamer for Rio the
+ninth of each month; fare, $125; time, twelve days; distance, 2190
+miles. Fare from Rio to New York, $200. Fare by sailing vessel from Para
+to New York, from $50 to $75; time, three weeks. A British steamer from
+Rio stops at Para and Lisbon.
+
+A word about health. First, take one grain of common-sense daily; do as
+the natives do, keep out of the noon-day sun, and make haste slowly.
+Secondly, take with you quinine in two-grain pills, and begin to take
+them before leaving New York, as the great African traveler, Du Chaillu,
+recommended us. As preventive against the intermittent fevers on the
+lowlands and rivers, nothing is better than Dr. Copeland's celebrated
+pills--quinine, twelve grains; camphor, twelve grains; cayenne pepper,
+twelve grains. Mix with mucilage, and divide into twelve pills: take one
+every night or morning as required. On the Amazon carry guarana. Woolen
+socks are recommended by those who have had much experience of tropical
+fevers. Never bathe when the air is moist; avoid a chill; a native will
+not bathe till the sun is well up. Rub yourself with _aguardiente_
+(native rum) after a bath, and always when caught in a shower. Freely
+exercise in Quito to ward off liver complaints. Drink little water;
+coffee or chocolate is better, and tea is best. Avoid spirits with
+fruit, and fruit after dinner. The sickliest time in Guayaquil is at the
+breaking up of the rainy season.
+
+As to dangers: First, from the people. Traveling is as safe in Ecuador
+as in New York, and safer than in Missouri. There are no Spanish
+banditti, though some places, as Chambo, near Riobamba, bear a bad name.
+It is not wise to tempt a penniless footpad by a show of gold; but no
+more so in Ecuador than any where. We have traveled from Guayaquil to
+Damascus, but have never had occasion to use a weapon in self-defense;
+and only once for offense, when we threatened to demolish an Arab sheik
+with an umbrella. Secondly, from brutes. Some travelers would have us
+infer that it is impossible to stir in South America without being
+"affectionately entwined by a serpent, or sprung upon by a jaguar, or
+bitten by a rattlesnake; jiggers in every sand-heap and scorpions under
+every stone" (_Edinburgh Review_, xliii, 310). Padre Vernazza speaks of
+meeting a serpent two yards in diameter! But you will be disappointed at
+the paucity of animal life. We were two months on the Andes (August and
+September) before we saw a live snake. They are plentiful in the wet
+season in cacao plantations; but the majority are harmless. Dr. Russel,
+who particularly studied the reptiles of India, found that out of
+forty-three species which he examined not more than seven had poisonous
+fangs; and Sir E. Tennent, after a long residence in Ceylon, declared he
+had never heard of the death of an European by the bite of a snake. It
+is true, however, that the number and proportion of the venomous species
+are greater in South America than in any other part of the world; but it
+is some consolation to know that, zoologically, they are inferior in
+rank to the harmless ones; "and certainly," adds Sidney Smith, "a snake
+that feels fourteen or fifteen stone stamping on his tail has little
+time for reflection, and may be allowed to be poisonous." If bitten,
+apply ammonia externally immediately, and take five drops in water
+internally; it is an almost certain antidote. The discomforts and
+dangers arising from the animal creation are no greater than one would
+meet in traveling overland from New York to New Orleans.
+
+Finally, of one thing the tourist in South America may be assured--that
+dear to him, as it is to us, will be the remembrance of those romantic
+rides over the Cordilleras amid the wild magnificence of nature, the
+adventurous walk through the primeval forest, the exciting canoe-life on
+the Napo, and the long, monotonous sail on the waters of the Great
+River.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+IN MEMORIAM.
+
+    "A life that all the Muses decked
+      With gifts of grace that might express
+      All comprehensive tenderness,
+    All-subtilizing intellect."--TENNYSON.
+
+
+On the east of the city of Quito is a beautiful and extensive plain, so
+level that it is literally a _table-land_. It is the classic ground of
+the astronomy of the eighteenth century: here the French and Spanish
+academicians made their celebrated measurement of a meridian of the
+earth. As you stand on the edge of this plain just without the city, you
+see the dazzling summit of Cayambi looking down from the north; on your
+left are the picturesque defiles of Pichincha; on your right the slopes
+of Antisana. Close by you, standing between the city and the plain, is a
+high white wall inclosing a little plot, like the city above, "four
+square." You are reminded by its shape, and also by its position
+relative to Quito and Pichincha, of that other sacred inclosure just
+outside the walls of Jerusalem and at the foot of Olivet, the Garden of
+Gethsemane. This is the Protestant Cemetery.
+
+[Illustration: P. Staunton]
+
+Through the efforts of our late representative--now also numbered with
+the dead--this place was assigned by the government for the interment of
+foreigners who do not die in the Romish faith. And there we buried our
+fellow-traveler, COLONEL PHINEAS STAUNTON, the artist of the expedition,
+and Vice-Chancellor of Ingham University, New York. On the 8th of
+September, 1867, we bore him through the streets of Quito to this
+quiet resting-place, without parade and in solemn silence--just as we
+believe his unobtrusive spirit would have desired, and just as his
+Savior was carried from the cross to the sepulchre. No splendid hearse
+or nodding plumes; no long procession, save the unheard tread of the
+angels; no requiem, save the unheard harps of the seraphs. We gave him a
+Protestant Christian burial, such as Quito never saw. In this corner of
+nature's vast cathedral, the secluded shrine of grandeur and beauty not
+found in Westminster Abbey, we left him. We parted with him on the mount
+which is to be the scene of his transfiguration.
+
+It would be difficult for an artist to find a grave whose surroundings
+are so akin to his feelings. He lies in the lofty lap of the Andes, and
+snow-white pinnacles stand around him on every side, just as we imagine
+the mountains are around the city of God. We think we hear him saying,
+as Fanny Kemble Butler said of another burial-ground: "I will not rise
+to trouble any one if they will let me sleep here. I will only ask to be
+permitted, once in a while, to raise my head and look out upon this
+glorious scene." No dark and dismal fogs gather at evening about that
+spot. It lies nearer to heaven than any other Protestant cemetery in the
+world. "It is good (says Beecher) to have our mortal remains go upward
+for their burial, and catch the earliest sounds of that trumpet which
+shall raise the dead." And the day is coming when that precious vein of
+gold that now lies in the bosom of the mighty Andes shall leave its
+rocky bed and shine in seven-fold purity. Indeed, the artist is already
+in that higher studio among the mountains of Beulah.
+
+A simple sculptured obelisk of sorrow stands over the dust of Colonel
+Staunton: his most fitting monument is his own life-work. He was the
+very painter Humboldt longed for in his writings--"the artist, who,
+studying in nature's great hot-house bounded by the tropics, should add
+a new and more magnificent kingdom of nature to art." Colonel Staunton,
+true and lovely in his own character, was ever seeking in nature for
+whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are pure, and now was
+about to add whatsoever things are grand. He was a _Christian_ artist,
+in sympathy with such men as Raphael and Leonardo de Vinci. "The
+habitual choice of sacred subjects (says Ruskin) implies that the
+painter has a natural disposition to dwell on the highest thoughts of
+which humanity is capable." No shallow or false person could have
+conceived his _Ascension_. Only the highest qualities of the intellect
+and heart--a soul already half ascended--could have given such ethereal
+lightness to those "two men in white apparel." Only the pure in heart
+see God. As we revisit in imagination the spot where he sleeps so well,
+we behold, in the calm sublimity of the mountains that surround his
+grave, an image of the undisturbed repose of his spirit on the Rock of
+Ages.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES.
+
+APPENDIX A.
+
+
+BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA.[188]
+
+
+[Footnote 188: First published in the _American Journal of Science_ for
+September, 1868, to which the reader is referred for other physical
+observations. The barometric anomaly, noticed particularly on the Lower
+Amazon, was also observed by Herndon, Castelnau, Chandlers, Spruce, and
+Wallace.]
+
++----------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+---------------+
+|Locality. |Altitude.|Barometer.|Boiling|Regnault's|Difference.|Other          |
+|          |         |          | Point.|  Equiv.  |           |Estimates.     |
++----------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+---------------+
+|          |         |          |    deg.   |          |           |               |
+|Pacific   |       0 |    29.930| 212.01|          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|  Ocean   |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 29.904;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 29.867.       |
+|Guayaquil |       10|    29.899| 211.95|    29.831|      -.008|_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 211.8 deg. |
+|Guaranda  |    8,840|    21.976|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 8872;  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Hall, 8928.   |
+|Arenal    |   14,250|    18.123|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 13,917;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Hall, 14,268. |
+|Mocha     |   10,900|    20.393|       |          |           |               |
+|Ambato    |    8,490|    22.241|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 8541;  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 8787.         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 22.218.       |
+|Tacunga   |    9,181|    21.693|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 9180;  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9384.         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.700.       |
+|Tiupullo  |   11,662|    19.858|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 11,702.|
+|Machachi  |    9,900|    21.212|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 9823.  |
+|Quito     |    9,520|    21.530|  195.8|    21.485|      -.045|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | La Condamine, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9596;         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9570; Caldas, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 8947;         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9567; Aguilar,|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9496; Visse,  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9307; Bureau  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | des Longs.,   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9540;         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Tramblay's    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | _Ann._,       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9538;         |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson, 9513.|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | La Condamine, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.404;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.403;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Aguilar,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.465;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.566.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 195.6 deg.;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Tramblay,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 184.18 deg..      |
+|Panecillo |   10,101|    21.043|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 10,244;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Aguilar,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 10,135.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 21.207.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 194.7 deg. |
+|Pichincha,|   15,827|    17.038|  184.5|    17.030|      -.008|_Alt._ of      |
+|  top     |         |          |       |          |           | La Condamine, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,606;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,922;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,676; Visse,|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 16,200; Hall, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,380;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 15,704.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 16.942.|
+|Pichincha,|   13,300|          |  189.2|    18.672|           |_Alt._ of      |
+|   crater |         |          |       |          |           | Visse and     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Moreno,       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 18,600.       |
+|Antisana  |   13,300|    18.583|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|  H.      |         |          |       |          |           | Humboldt,     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 13,465;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 13,356.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Aguirre,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 18.573;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Jameson,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 18.630.       |
+|On        |   16,000|    16.782|       |          |           |               |
+|  Antisana|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Pinatura  |   10,410|    20.791|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 10,348.       |
+|Padregal  |   11,860|    19.817|       |          |           |               |
+|On        |   12,690|    19.004|       |          |           |               |
+|  Cotopaxi|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Riobamba  |    9,200|    21.705|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Visse, 9157;  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Boussingault, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 9413.         |
+|Cajabamba |   10,918|    20.512|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | La Condamine, |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 11,000.       |
+|Itulcachi |    8,885|    22.006|       |          |           |               |
+|Tablon    |   10,516|    20.800|       |          |           |               |
+|Papallacta|   10,511|    20.803|  193.8|    20.598|      -.205|               |
+|Guila     |    8,622|    22.206|       |          |           |               |
+|Pachamama |    7,920|    22.751|       |          |           |               |
+|Baeza     |    6,625|    23.793|       |          |           |               |
+|Cochachim-|    4,252|    25.832|       |          |           |               |
+|  bamba   |         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Curi-urcu |    3,247|    26.746|    deg.   |          |           |               |
+|Archidona |    2,115|    27.816| 209.00|    28.180|      +.364|               |
+|Napo      |    1,450|    28.419| 209.4 |    28.407|      -.012|               |
+|Santa Rosa|    1,100|    28.814| 210.4 |    28.982|      +.168|               |
+|Coca      |      858|    29.022| 210.65|    29.127|      +.105|               |
+|Mouth of  |      586|    29.321| 211.00|    29.331|      +.010|               |
+| the River|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|  Aguarico|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Do. River |      500|    29.408|  210.8|    29.215|      -.193|               |
+|   Curaray|         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Do. River |      385|    29.526|  211.4|    29.566|      +.040|_Alt._ at      |
+|  Napo    |         |          |       |          |           | Nauta, by     |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Castelnau,    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 365.          |
+|Pebas     |      345|    29.510|  211.1|    29.390|      -.120|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 537. |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 211.1 deg..       |
+|Loreto    |         |          |  211.4|    29.566|           |               |
+|San       |      256|    29.655|       |          |           |               |
+|  Antonio |         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Tabatinga |      255|    29.656|  211.5|    29.625|      -.041|_Alt._ of Spix |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | and Martius,  |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 670;          |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 150;   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Agassiz, 200. |
+|Tunantins |     138?|    29.770|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 124.   |
+|Ega       |     100?|    29.813|  211.9|    29.862|      +.049|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 2052;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 120.   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 208.2 deg..       |
+|Manaos    |     199?|    29.705|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 1475;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Castelnau,    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 293; Spix and |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Martius, 556; |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 92.    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 209.3 deg.;       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Gibbon,       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 210.87 deg.;      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Wallace,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 212 deg..5.       |
+|Serpa     |     158?|    29.752|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | and Pinto, 84.|
+|Obidos    |      114|    29.802|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | and Pinto, 58;|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Agassiz, 45.  |
+|Santarem  |      107|    29.808|  211.5|    29.625|      -.183|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 846; |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 50.    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 210.5 deg..       |
+|Mount     |       83|    29.834|       |          |           |               |
+|  Alegre  |         |          |       |          |           |               |
+|Gurupa    |       38|    29.890|       |          |           |_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | and Pinto, 42.|
+|Para      |       15|    29.889| 211.95|    29.891|      +.002|_Alt._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon, 320; |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Azevedo and   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Pinto, 35;    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Dewey, 35.    |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_Bar._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 29.708; Dewey,|
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 29.941; Orton |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | (reduced to   |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | level of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | river),       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 29.914.       |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           |_B.P._ of      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | Herndon,      |
+|          |         |          |       |          |           | 211.5 deg..       |
+|Atlantic  |       -2|    29.932| 212.16|          |           |_Bar._ of Dewey|
+|  Ocean   |         |          |       |          |           | 29.977.       |
++----------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+---------------+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B.
+
+VOCABULARIES FROM THE QUICHUA, ZAPARO, YAGUA, AND CAMPAS LANGUAGES.
+
+[SPANISH PRONUNCIATION]
+
+
+_English.                Quichua.             Zaparo.        Yagua._
+
+Father,                   Yaya,                Apochojo,      Yen.
+Mother,                   Mama,                Anno,          Nihua.
+Son
+ (said by father),        Churi,               Niato,         Poen.
+Son
+ (said by mother),        Cari huahua,         Tauqu,         Poen.
+Daughter
+ (said by father),        Ushushi,             Coniat _or_ cuniato.
+Daughter
+ (said by mother),        Huarmi huahua,       Itum.
+Own father,               Quiquin yaya,        Cuqu mano.
+Own mother,               Quiquin mama,        La cuano.
+Step-father,              La yaya,             Tama quira.
+Step-mother,              La mama,             Tama quira (mama?).
+Own son,                  Quiquin churi,       Ia cuniana.
+Step-son,                 Quipai churi,        Saquina cuniana.
+Elder son
+ (said by father),        Cura
+                        (_or_ naupa)
+                          churi,               Cuniapira.
+Elder son
+ (said by mother),        Cura
+                        (_or_ naupa)
+                          huahua,              Cuniapira.
+Younger son
+ (said by mother),        Sullca
+                        (_or_ quipa)
+                         churi,                Nunoe.
+Younger daughter
+ (said by father),        Sullca
+                        (or quipa) ushushi,    Nunoe cuniato.
+Only son
+ (said by father),        Zapalla
+                        (_or_ zapai)
+                          churi,               Noqui cunian, Tiqui rai (huahua).
+Only son
+ (said by mother),        Zapalla
+                           (_or_ zapai)
+                          cari huahua,   Noqui tauco cunian, Tiqui rai (huahua).
+Grandson,                 Cari huahuay,        Cuajenano.
+Granddaughter,            Huarmi huahuay.
+Great-grandson,           Cari villca,         Cuajenano.
+Great-great-grandson,     Cari chupullu.
+Grandfather,              Hatun yaya,          Quirraito piatzo,   Yen.
+Grandmother,              Hatun mama,          Quitraito ocuaje.
+Great-grandfather,        Machui yaya,         Quirishepui.
+Great-grandmother,        Paya (or apa)        Para.
+                             mama,
+Great-great-grandfather,  Apusqui (or          Piatzo.
+                             apunche) yaya,
+Ancestors,                Apusqui cuna,        Idasipoa.
+Brother (said by male),   Hauauqui,            Cuquihuno,         Rai taire.
+Brother (said by female), Turi,                Cuauno,            Rai puipuin.
+Sister (said by male),    Pani,                Cuirimato,         Rai popo.
+Sister (said by female),  Nana,                Taqui,             Rai taire tu.
+Elder brother,            Curac huauqui,       Irishia cuquino.
+Younger brother,          Sullca huauqui,      Noqui.
+Cousin (said by male),    Chispa huauqui,      Cuanerano,         Primoine.
+Cousin (said by female),  Chispa pani,         Cuanerano,         Primaine.
+Second cousin,            Cailla chispa        Cuanerano
+                            huauqui,            (or cuarama,
+                                                relation).
+Third cousin,             Caru chispa          Cuanerano (or
+                            huauqui,            cuarama,
+                                                relation).
+Uncle (father's brother), Yayapac huauqui      Tauco.
+                            (or hachi),[189]
+Uncle (mother's brother), Mamapac (or caca)    Cuanoro.
+                            turi,
+Aunt (father's sister),   Ypa (on Maranon,     Cuiquina.
+                            tiaine),
+Aunt (mother's sister),   Mamapac nana,        Cuano cuino.
+Father-in-Law,            Cacay (of male);
+                            quihuachi (of
+                            female).
+Mother-in-law,            Quihuac (of male);
+                            quihuachi (of
+                            female).
+Son-in-Law,               Masha,               Acamia,            Quiria.
+Daughter-in-law,          Kachun,              Cuari rano.
+Brother-in-law,           Masani               Cuajinojono.
+                            (or catay),
+Sister-in-law,            Ypa (or kachun
+                            pura).
+God-son,                  Churi cashcai
+                       (_or_ chascai), (_Not used_).
+God-father,               Shutichic
+                       (_or_ shutishca) yaya,
+                                               Na achiatano.
+God-mother,               Shutichic
+                       (_or_ shutishca) mama,
+                                               Noaichozano.
+Relation, Aillu,          Cuarama,             (_Same as brother_).
+Husband, Cusa,            Cuiran,              Rai-huano.
+Wife, Huarmi,             Cuirichan,           Rai-huatura.
+Widower,                  Huaccha cari,        Machicho.
+Widow,                    Huaccha huarmi,      Machicho.
+Twins,                    Yshcai huachashca
+                       (_or_ huachac).    Sarro.
+Hand,                     Maqui,               Cuichoac.          Samutu.
+Foot,                     Chaqui,              Cuinoca,           Nimutu.
+Fingers,                  Maqui palca,         Canasu,        (_No terms for
+                                                                  Toes, Chaqui
+                                                                  palca, Cuinoca
+                                                                  canasu.
+                                                                  fingers and
+                                                                  toes_).
+Thumb, (_No separate terms Cumacana. for thumb and big toe_).
+Nails,                    Silhu,               Anahuacha.
+God,                      Apunchi-yaya
+                       (_God our Father_),     Piatzo,            Tupana.
+One,                      Shuc
+                           (_or_ Shug),        Noqui,             Tiqui.
+Two,                      Ishcay,              Ammasaniqui,       Nanoijoi.
+Three,                    Quinsa,              Imucu maraqui
+                                            (_above three they
+                                             have no names, but show
+                                             their fingers; do not count
+                                             above ten_).         Momuhi.
+Four,                     Chuscu,              Nanunjuia.
+Five,                     Pishca                                  Tanaijo.
+                           (_or_ pitchca),
+Six,                      Socta,                                  Tiqui nihate.
+Seven,                    Canchis,                                Nanoujaiate.
+Eight,                    Pusac
+                           (_or_ pusag),                          Momunhuaiate.
+Nine,                     Iscun,                                  Nanauyuia-ate.
+Ten,                      Chunga,                                 Nanjui.
+                                                                 (_Go no
+                                                                  higher._)
+Eleven,                   Chunga shug.
+Twelve,                   Chunga ishcay, _etc._
+Twenty,                   Ishcay-chunga.
+Twenty-one,               Ishcay-chunga shug, _etc._
+Thirty,                   Quinsa chunga.
+One hundred,              Pachac (_or_ patzag).
+One thousand,             Guaranga.
+Ten thousand, (_Would be_ chunga-guaranga; _but they never go
+  over 1000_).
+Ordinal numbers, (Niqui _is joined to the number:_ e.g., _first is_
+  shug niqui: _second_, ishcay niqui).
+
+[Footnote 189: Qu'ichua on Maranon, tiuiut.]
+
+(_The Conibos count by twos. Thus, one is_ avicho; _two_, raboi.
+_Above two, so many twos, as four is_ raboi-raboi; _and six_,
+raboi-raboi-raboi. _Ten is expressed by spreading both hands, and twenty
+by bringing fingers and toes together. Thus the Caribs. Decimal
+numeration is found among all the American aborigines, ancient and
+modern, juxtaposition usually designating multiplication._)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CAMPAS WORDS.
+
+Mother,          Ina.   | Nose,  Aquiry.      | Leg,          Aitse.
+Brother (said           | Mouth, Apa-anti.    | Belly,        Amutse.
+ by male),       Incho. | Hand,  Naco.        | Wrist,        Acu.
+Brother (said           | Foot,  Aitse-cunida.| Knee,         Airitu.
+ by female),     Iga    | Lips,  Achira.      | Ankle,        Atunque.
+Sister (said by         | Teeth, Aiqui.       | Nails,        Achite.
+ by male),       Incho. | Hair,  Quisti.      | Fly,          Chimboque.
+Head,            Aitu.  | Neck,  Aquince.     | Musquito,     Chitu.
+Eyes,            Oqui.  | Arm,   Acu.         | Armadillo     Picha.
+
+Curasson,  Choichites.| Rope,  Piaminita.
+Turtle,    Tuta.      | Twine, Quiritari.
+Monkey,    Tsepe.     | Maize, Chinque.
+Cocoa,     Quinbito.  | One,   Paniro.
+Clay,      Quipatei.  | Two,   Pitini.
+Shirt,     Papani.    | Three, Pariotohuay.
+Fire,      Pamari.    | Four,  Pariopatota.
+Hammock,   Quio-ots.  | Five,  Pariotohuaygae.
+
+(_My informant on numerals, a boy, though quite intelligent, could go no
+farther; but the tribe undoubtedly count ten._)
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C.
+
+COMMERCE OF THE AMAZON.
+
+
+I.--VALUE OF PRODUCTS EXPORTED FROM DIFFERENT TOWNS ON THE AMAZON BY THE
+IMPERIAL STEAMERS IN 1867.[190]
+
+[Footnote 190: This Table is taken from the _Relatoria da Companhia de
+Navegacao e Commercio do Amazonas_, and includes only the commerce by
+the Brazilian steamers and the staple products. The vast amount carried
+by sailing craft and by Peruvian steamers on the Maranon is unknown to
+us. The number of passengers transported by the steamers in 1867 was
+13,886; receipts from passage, $75,744; from freight, $210,654. In the
+reduction, the milrey has been taken at 50 cts. U.S. currency, which was
+the rate very nearly in 1867. The alquiere (alq.)--.988 of a bushel;
+arr. = arroba of 32 lbs.]
+
+--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+Products.     |Cameta.|Braves.|Macapa.|Gurupa.|Porto  |Prainha.|
+              |       |       |       |       |do Moz.|        |
+--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+Brazil Nuts.  | ....  |   $600|   $400|   $290|    $10|   $16  |
+Cacao.        |$44,054|  1,615|  6,429|  1,345|    257|$1,677  |
+Cattle.       | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | 1,575  |
+Coffee.       | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Copaiba.      | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Cotton, raw.  | ....  | ....  |    100|     90| ....  | ....   |
+Dried Meat.   | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  |   145  |
+Farina.       | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Guarana.      | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Hides.        |  138  |    800|  3,302|    858|    271|   152  |
+Horses.       | ....  |     75|    600| ....  | ....  |   375  |
+India-rubber. |123,460|128,440|306,880| 85,110| 85,780| 1,430  |
+Piassaba.     | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Pirarucu.     | ....  |     10|     20| ....  |    200| 1,805  |
+Sasparilla.   | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  |    60  |
+Tallow.       | ....  |     12|    212| ....  | ....  |    60  |
+Tobacco.      | ....  |     50| ....  |     25| ....  |    25  |
+Tonka Beans.  | ....  | ....  | ....  |     43| ....  | ....   |
+Turtles.      | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Turtle-oil.   | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+
+--------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+Products.     |Mt.    |Santarum.|Obidos.|Villa  |Serpa. |Manaos.|Cudajaz.|
+              |Alegre.|         |       |Nova.  |       |       |        |
+--------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+Brazil Nuts.  | ....  | $1,334  | $6,938| $2,564| $6,886|$15,010|$1,442  |
+Cacao.        | $86   |$69,111  |172,421| 28,907| 34,462| 38,802| 1,945  |
+Cattle.       | 600   |    550  |     25| ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Coffee.       | ....  |     56  |     33|      7| ....  |    172| ....   |
+Copaiba.      | ....  |     18  |  1,422|  4,383|  8,651|  5,175|   132  |
+Cotton, raw.  | ....  | ....    | ....  | ....  |    103|    293| ....   |
+Dried Meat.   | ....  |  2,744  | 15,699|    167| ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Farina.       | ....  | ....    | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....  | ....   |
+Guarana.      | ....  |  1,620  |    750| 24,240| 14,550|     60| ....   |
+Hides.        | ....  |  2,426  |  4,087|  5,787|  6,290|  2,103| ....   |
+Horses.       |3,225  |  3,975  |  2,100| ....  | ....  |    300| ....   |
+India-rubber. | ....  | 22,670  |  8,640| 20,100|209,400|219,340|30,468  |
+Piassaba.     | ....  | ....    | ....  | ....  | ....  |  7,612| ....   |
+Pirarucu.     |  525  | 18,902  | 31,525| 40,827| 21,025| 79,055| 8,273  |
+Sasparilla.   | ....  |  2,376  |  1,392|    108|    372| 33,708|   207  |
+Tallow.       | ....  |    200  |  1,484|  1,368|  4,164|     16| ....   |
+Tobacco.      | ....  | ....    | ....  |    225|  1,187|    237| ....   |
+Tonka Beans.  | ....  | ....    |    120|  1,070|      5|      9| ....   |
+Turtles.      | ....  | ....    |     70| ....  |      2|     76|   136  |
+Turtle-oil.   | ....  | ....    |    100| ....  |      5|  8,220|   216  |
+--------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
+
+--------------+------+-----+-----+----------+------+----------+
+Products.     |Coary.|Ega. |Fonte|Touantina.|S.    |Tabatluga.|
+              |      |     |Boa. |          |Paulo.|          |
+--------------+------+-----+-----+----------+------+----------+
+Brazil Nuts.  | $498 | $325| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Cacao.        |5,192 |4,907| $957|   $365   |  $310|   $227   |
+Cattle.       | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Coffee.       | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... |     25   |
+Copaiba.      | .... |1,559|  123| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Cotton, raw.  | .... | ....|    1|      6   | .... |    232   |
+Dried Meat.   | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Farina.       |   80 |   37|   15|    105   |    10| ....     |
+Guarana.      | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Hides.        | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Horses.       | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+India-rubber. |7,644 |6,808|5,460|  2,252   |9,155 | 15,054   |
+Piassaba.     | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Pirarucu.     |5,944 |6,205|7,572|  6,768   |2,018 |    920   |
+Sasparilla.   |  943 |5,163|4,876|  5,209   |2,334 |  3,703   |
+Tallow.       | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Tobacco.      |   48 |  300| ....| ....     |   12 |    360   |
+Tonka Beans.  | .... | ....| ....| ....     | .... | ....     |
+Turtles.      |   39 |   33|   10|     50   |    3 |      3   |
+Turtle-oil.   |2,382 |3,123|1,693|  1,646   |  298 |    335   |
+--------------+------+-----+-----+----------+------+----------+
+
+--------------+-------------+------+---------+
+Products.     |Quantity.    |Mean  |Total    |
+              |             |Price.|Value.   |
+--------------+-------------+------+---------+
+Brazil Nuts.  | 18,397 alq. | $2.00|  $35,794|
+Cacao.        |314,327 arr. |  3.00|  942,981|
+Cattle.       |    110      | 25.00|    2,750|
+Coffee.       |     79 arr. |  3.70|      292|
+Copaiba.      | 72,030 lbs. |   .30|    2,160|
+Cotton, raw.  |    653 arr. |  1.25|      816|
+Dried Meat.   |  6,821  "   |  2.75|   18,757|
+Farina.       |     90 alq. |  2.50|      247|
+Guarana.      |  1,374 arr. | 30.00|   41,220|
+Hides.        | 11,871      |  2.00|   23,742|
+Horses.       |    142      | 75.00|   10,650|
+India-rubber. |128,955 arr. | 10.00|1,289,550|
+Piassaba.     |  7,612  "   |  1.00|    7,612|
+Pirarucu.     | 94,316  "   |  2.50|  235,790|
+Sasparilla.   |  5,119  "   | 11.80|   60,442|
+Tallow.       |  1,893  "   |  4.00|    7,572|
+Tobacco.      |    205  "   | 12.23|    2,525|
+Tonka Beans.  |    260  "   |  4.80|    1,248|
+Turtles.      |    331      |  1.80|      596|
+Turtle-oil.   |  3,762 j'rs.|  4.75|   17,760|
+--------------+-------------+------+---------+
+
+II. ARTICLES EXPORTED FROM PARA TO THE UNITED STATES IN 1860.
+
+Annatto                  lbs.    64,832
+Balsam Copaiba             "     89,670
+Cacao                      "    145,888
+Copper, old                "      1,171
+Hides, wet                 "    616,172
+   "   dry                 "      4,503
+Nuts, Brazil               "     23,582
+  "     "   unshelled      "     19,481
+Piassaba                 lbs.     3,488
+Rubber, fine               "  2,394,656
+  "     mixed              "     69,120
+  "     coarse             "    420,000
+Skins, Deer                "     64,406
+Tapioca                    "    118,080
+Tonka Beans                "     18,298
+
+III. ARTICLES IMPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES TO PARA IN 1860.
+
+Axes                      dozens,        1,826
+Candles                    boxes,          594
+Chairs                    dozens,          333
+Codfish                    drums,        1,943
+Clocks                    number,          660
+Combs                     dozens,        7,353
+Domestics                package,        2,370
+Drugs                       "              435
+Flour                    barrels,       16,755
+Fire-crackers              boxes,        1,800
+Gunny-bags                number,       13,000
+Gunpowder                   kegs,        2,150
+Hams                     tierces,           38
+Hardware                packages,          201
+Hats, Palm-leaf            cases,          506
+Knives                    dozens,        2,195
+Lard                    packages,        2,709
+Lumber                      feet,       75,955
+Nails                       kegs,          588
+Matches                    cases,          174
+Oars                      number,          592
+Pepper                      bags,          190
+Rosin                    barrels,        1,556
+Rubber and other Shoes     pairs,        3,398
+Shooks (box)              number,       16,428
+Soap                       boxes,        6,891
+Specie, in Gold          dollars,      113,827
+Straw Paper                reams,       12,903
+Soda-biscuit         12-lb. tins,        5,954
+Saltpetre                   kegs,           95
+Tea                       chests,          235
+Tea                        boxes,          533
+Tar and Pitch            barrels,          329
+Tobacco                    boxes,          257
+Twine, Cotton             pounds,       13,322
+Tortoise-shell              "              299-1/2
+
+IV. DUTIES ON PRINCIPAL IMPORTS FROM UNITED STATES AT PARA.
+
+Axes and Hatchets              30 reys per pound.
+Biscuit, Soda                 400       "  arroba.
+Brooms                        600       "  dozen.
+Chairs, cane-seat           1,000       "  article.
+  "        rocking          3,000       "    "
+  "    "           extra    6,000       "    "
+Cinnamon, Ceylon              500       "  pound.
+Combs, rubber                 600       "    "
+  "         ivory           2,000       "    "
+Cotton Goods                   90       "  sq. vara.
+  "      "  colored twills    150       "    "
+Candles                       240          pound.
+Cigars                      1,200       "    "
+Cordage                        50       "    "
+Dirks, ordinary             6,000       "  article.
+   "   extra               12,000       "    "
+Flour                         150       "  arroba.
+Hats, Palm-leaf.              180       "  article.
+Hams                           70       "  pound.
+Homoeopathic Medicine       300       "  ounce.
+Knives                        250       "  article.
+Lard                        1,500
+Matting, India                240       "  pound.
+Nails, to two inches           40       "    "
+   "     over   "              20       "    "
+Padlocks, brass               250       "    "
+ "  iron                      180       "    "
+Pearl Barley                  400       "  arroba.
+Pepper, India                  70       "  pound.
+Plows                        free.
+Pork                          600       "  arroba.
+Powder                        200       "  pound.
+Paper, Straw                   30       "    "
+Pilot Bread                   150       "  arroba.
+Roman Cement                   50       "    "
+Rosin                       1,200
+Sieves, iron wire              30       "  pound.
+  "     brass                  50       "    "
+Shoes, Rubber                 400       "    "
+Store Trucks                  900       "  article.
+Shooks, boxes                 400       "  arroba.
+Soap, Yellow                   30       "  pound.
+Scales, simple                120       "    "
+Tar and Pitch                 200       "  arroba.
+Tortoise-shell              2,500       "  pound.
+Tea                           450       "    "
+Twine, Cotton                 300       "    "
+Trunks, 2 to 4 palms        2,700       "  article.
+   "    over 4   "          3,600       "    "
+Tobacco, chewing            4,800       "  arroba.
+   "     cut                9,600       "  arroba.
+
+This Tariff went into operation February 23, 1861.
+
+
+
+
+ADDENDA.
+
+
+_Orchilla_, page 29.--This valuable lichen comes chiefly from Tumbez. It
+is not found on the rocks, like the orchilla of the Old World, but grows
+on various trees. The foliage of a tree disappears when the orchilla
+commences. The sea air is indispensable to its production, as it is
+found only near the coast.
+
+_Religious Intolerance_, p. 91.--The expression "Protestant dogs" has
+since been publicly repeated by a priest in a sermon, who told the
+people to confess, or they would be treated in a similar way. It called
+forth a remonstrance from Mr. Hamilton, the British Minister, directed
+to the archbishop, declaring such conduct inhuman and unchristian. The
+Pope's Nuncio left Quito for good in July, 1869.
+
+_Fish in the Quito Valley_, p. 107.--Dr. Gill informs me that the true
+name of this little fish is _Cyclopium Humboldtii_, Swainson. It belongs
+to the sub-family Trachelypterinae, under Siluridae.
+
+_Hummers' Nests_, p. 108.--They are not always of a lengthened form, as
+the text would imply, but are sometimes quite shallow. They are
+invariably lined with the softest vegetable materials and covered with
+moss. The nests are not as compact as those of our Northern hummer, and,
+so far as we observed, are never shingled with flat lichens.
+
+_Humboldt in 1802_, p. 156.--He spent five months in the valley of
+Quito.
+
+_Pebas Fossils_, p. 282.--In a letter to the author, Mr. Darwin says:
+"Your discovery of marine shells high up the Amazon possesses _extreme_
+interest, not only in itself, but as one more most striking instance how
+rash it is to assert that any deposit is not a marine formation because
+it does not contain fossils. As for myself, I never believed for a
+moment in Agassiz's idea of the origin of the Amazonian formation."
+Agassiz "candidly confesses (Lyell's _Principles_, i., 468) that he
+failed to discover any of those proofs which we are accustomed to
+regard, even in temperate latitudes, as essential for the establishment
+of the former existence of glaciers where they are now no more. No
+glaciated pebbles, or far-transported angular blocks with polished and
+striated sides; no extensive surface of rock, smooth, and traversed by
+rectilinear furrows, were observed." The fossiliferous bed at Pebas is
+as plainly _in situ_ as the Medina sandstone at Genesee Falls.
+
+_Tropical Flowers_, p. 292.--"During twelve years spent amid the
+grandest tropical vegetation, I have seen nothing comparable to the
+effect produced on our landscapes by gorse, broom, heather, wild
+hyacinths, hawthorns, purple orchises, and buttercups."--Wallace's
+_Malay Archipelago_.
+
+_Coca-plant_, p. 293.--The engraving conveys the impression that the
+leaves are parallel-veined; but the coca is a dicotyledon, with the
+under surface of the leaf strongly marked with veins, of which two, in
+addition to the midrib, run parallel with the margin.
+
+_Pedrero_, Map.--This town on the Rio Negro is also written _Pedreira_.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Adobe dwellings, page 46.
+
+Agassiz, Mount, 250.
+  Prof., on the geology of the Amazonian valley, 280, 282, 347.
+
+Agriculture on the Amazon, 243.
+    Andes, 75.
+
+Aground on the Amazon, 239.
+
+Aguano, 201.
+
+Aguardiente, 175.
+
+Alcalde's house, 202.
+
+Alligators, 35, 296.
+
+Almeyrim Hills, 252.
+
+Aloe, American, 100.
+
+Alpargates, 70.
+
+Altar, volcano of, 150.
+
+Amazon River, annual rise, 274.
+    birds on, 306.
+    cetaceans, 299.
+    climate, 273, 284.
+    commerce, 277.
+    current, 273.
+    delta, 272.
+    depth, 274.
+    etymology, 278.
+    expeditions, 277.
+    first view of, 226.
+    fishes, 295.
+    foreign vessels on, 276.
+    insects, 300.
+    life within, 295.
+    magnitude, 264, 272, 278.
+    natural canals, 265.
+    navigation, 276.
+    reptiles, 296.
+    scenery, 236.
+    source, 264.
+    tints, 272.
+    tributaries, 266, 271.
+    volume, 273.
+  Valley, 280.
+    creation of, 117.
+    forest, 287.
+    fruits, 289.
+    geology, 281, 347.
+    minerals, 286.
+    slope, 280.
+    soil, 286.
+    trees, 289.
+    zoology, 284.
+
+Amazonian Indians, 316.
+
+Ambato, 52, 153.
+
+America, the continent of vegetation, 103.
+
+America, South, geology of, 114.
+
+Amphisboena, 194.
+
+Amusements in Quito, 80.
+
+Anacondas, 222.
+
+Andean chain, 119.
+
+Andes, as a geological boundary, 207.
+  birds on the, 105, 146.
+  equipped for the, 37.
+  first sight of the, 33.
+  heart of the, 48.
+  last view of the, 214.
+  of Ecuador, 121.
+  reptiles on the, 107.
+  rise of the, 115.
+  sinking of the, 138.
+  summit of the, 49, 134.
+  valleys of the, 130.
+  views from the, 45, 134, 141.
+
+Anguteros Indians, 222.
+
+Animal life, dearth of, 188.
+
+Animals on the Napo, 207.
+
+Antisana, volcano of, 144, 180.
+  hacienda, 144.
+
+Ants, battle with, 225.
+  on the Amazon, 300.
+  on the Napo, 194.
+
+Apothecaries in Quito, 93.
+
+Archidona, 191.
+
+Architecture in Quito, 78.
+
+Arenal, 49.
+
+Armadillo, 310.
+
+Army of Ecuador, 87.
+
+Arrieros, 36.
+
+Arrows, Indian, 321.
+
+Arts in Quito, 78.
+
+Ascending the Andes, 43, 96, 144.
+
+Astronomy on the Andes, 97.
+
+Atahuallpa, 56.
+
+Atmosphere of Quito, 97.
+
+
+Baeza, 187.
+
+Balsas, 32.
+
+Bamboos on the Napo, 220.
+
+Banana, 34.
+
+Banos, 149.
+
+Barometric measurements, 337.
+  anomaly, 241, 226.
+  variations at Quito, 92.
+
+Barra, 243.
+
+Bartholomew, St., 54.
+
+Bats, 205, 312.
+
+Bears, 105.
+
+Bed, Andean, 181.
+
+Bees on the Amazon, 303.
+  of Quito, 108.
+  on the Napo, 207.
+
+Beetles on the Amazon, 303.
+  on the Napo, 206.
+
+Bells of Quito, 89.
+
+"Big-ear" Indians, 222.
+
+Birds on the Amazon, 306.
+  coloration of, in the tropics, 105.
+  moulting of, 285.
+  of South America, 105.
+
+Blow-guns, 170.
+
+Boa-constrictor, 223.
+
+Bodegas, 35.
+
+Botany of South America, 286.
+
+Brazilian etiquette, 235, 246.
+  frontier, 233.
+  steamers, 234.
+
+Brazilians, 323.
+
+Brazil-nut trees, 290.
+
+Bread-tree, 34.
+
+Breves, 254.
+
+Buildings, Andean, 46.
+
+Bull-baits, 80.
+
+Burial Customs, 91, 321.
+  at Quito, 91.
+
+Butter, 251.
+
+Butterflies on the Amazon, 302.
+  on the Napo, 206.
+
+Buzzards, 29.
+
+
+Caballococha, 232.
+
+Cacao, 30, 290.
+
+Cajabamba, 153.
+
+Calabash-tree, 289.
+
+Camino Real, 45.
+
+Camellones, 43.
+
+Camindo on the Napo, 226.
+
+Campas Indians, 322.
+
+Canelos, 172.
+
+Canoe-life on the Napo, 213.
+
+Canoe-paths, 265.
+
+Canoes on the Napo, 200.
+
+Capybara, 310.
+
+Caraguairazo, 132.
+
+Carnival, 81.
+
+Carranqui, 157.
+
+Cassiquiari Canal, 267.
+
+Cathedral of Guayaquil, 26.
+  of Quito, 66.
+
+Cattle on the Andes, 145.
+
+Caucho-tree, 288.
+
+Cayambi, 143.
+
+Cedar on the Amazon, 289.
+
+Cemetery, Protestant, 91.
+
+Century-plant, 100.
+
+Cerro, 33.
+
+Cetaceans in the Amazon, 299.
+
+Chicha, 167, 210.
+
+Chillo hacienda, 155.
+
+Chimbo, Valley of, 46.
+
+Chimborazo, 33, 44, 49, 127.
+
+Chimneys, absence of, 44.
+
+Chirimoya, 101.
+
+Chuquipoyo, 51.
+
+Chuquiragua, 100.
+
+Cigana, 206, 308.
+
+Cinchona, 47.
+
+Cinnamon, American, 172.
+
+Circumcision, 322.
+
+Civility, Ecuadorian, 35, 71.
+
+Civilization on the Amazon, 236.
+
+Clay-eating, 229.
+  formation of the Amazon, 225.
+
+Climate of Guayaquil, 28.
+  of Quito, 91.
+  of the Amazon, 238, 251.
+
+Coary, River, 242, 269.
+
+Coca-chewing, 291, 348.
+
+Coca village, 207.
+
+Cochineal, 108.
+
+Cock-fighting, 35, 80.
+
+Cocoa-palm, 35.
+
+Coffee, 31, 259, 290.
+
+Colleges of Ecuador, 79.
+
+Combativeness on the Andes, 95.
+
+Commerce on the Amazon, 342.
+
+Compressed heads, 171.
+
+Compulsory commerce, 195.
+
+Condor, 106, 131.
+
+Cones of volcanoes, 122.
+
+Conibos Indians, 321.
+
+Cookery in Quito, 44, 84.
+
+Copal-gum, 193.
+
+Cordillera, 33, 126.
+
+Cosanga River, 189.
+
+Costumes of Amazonian Indians, 239, 241.
+
+Cotocachi, village, 154.
+  volcano, 142.
+
+Cotopaxi, 55, 146.
+  eruptions of, 125.
+
+Cotton-mills, 77, 155.
+
+Cow-tree, 288.
+
+Craft on the Napo, 209.
+
+Craters, deep, 133.
+
+Crocodiles, 296.
+
+Cudaja, 242.
+
+Cuenca, 152.
+
+Cunchebamba, 53.
+
+Curaray River, 224.
+
+Curassow, 308.
+
+Curi-urcu, 191.
+
+Currency of Para, 260.
+  Quito, 75.
+
+Cuzco ladies, 82.
+
+
+Dangers in South America, 331.
+
+Darwin on the geology of the Pampas, 282.
+
+Darwin on the geology of the Amazon, 347.
+
+Debt of Ecuador, 87.
+
+Deer on the Napo, 226.
+  fossil, 154.
+
+Descent into Pichincha, 139.
+
+Discipline on the Napo, 204.
+
+Diseases on the Andes, 93, 331.
+
+Dogs on the Andes, 95.
+
+Dolphins, 299.
+
+Dragon-flies, 302.
+
+Dress in Quito, 69.
+
+Drunkenness at Quito, 146.
+
+
+Earthquake at Ibarra, 157.
+  at Riobamba, 153.
+  effect of, on climate, 91.
+  experience of, 163.
+  theories of, 161.
+
+Eastern Cordillera, 179.
+
+Eciton ants, 301.
+
+Ecuador, army, 87.
+  Congress, 86.
+  debt, 87.
+  extent, 85.
+  flora and fauna, 103.
+  government, 86.
+  population, 85.
+  religion, 89.
+  repudiation, 86.
+  revenue, 87.
+  revolutions, 86.
+  supreme court, 87.
+  volcanoes, 122, 148.
+
+Ecuadorian cooking, 44, 84.
+
+Education on the Andes, 79.
+
+Edwards, George, 195.
+
+Ega, 239.
+
+Eggs of the alligator, 297.
+  of the turtle, 297.
+
+El Dorado, 183.
+
+Elephant at high altitudes, 155.
+
+Equator, mean temperature, 262.
+
+Expenses of travel, 327.
+
+
+Farina, 235, 291.
+
+Ferns, tree, 38.
+
+Fever remedies, 331.
+
+Fire-flies, 25.
+
+Fish in the Napo, 226.
+  in Quito Valley, 107, 347.
+  in the tropics, 329.
+
+Fishes ejected from volcanoes 107, 132, 143.
+  of the Amazon, 295.
+
+Fishing with barbasco, 169.
+
+Flamingoes, 308.
+
+Flowers on the Amazon, 292, 347.
+  on the Andes, 50, 102, 136.
+
+Fonte Boa, 239.
+
+Forest on the Napo, 216, 219.
+  trail, 182, 186.
+  tropical, 36, 38, 287.
+
+Fossil bones on the Andes, 154.
+
+Fossils in the Amazon Valley, 282, 347.
+
+Frogs in Quito Valley, 107.
+  of the Amazon, 304.
+
+Fruits of Quito, 101.
+  on the Amazon, 289.
+
+
+Galapagos Islands, 105, 124.
+
+Gentians, 103.
+
+Geology of South America, 114.
+  of the Amazon Valley, 225, 347.
+
+Glacial theory of Agassiz, 282, 347.
+
+Glaciers, absence of, 131.
+
+Glimpse of the Andes, 33.
+
+Goitre, 94.
+
+Gold on the Napo, 196.
+
+Grapes on the Amazon, 234.
+
+Grebe on the Andes, 146.
+
+Guacamayo Mountain, 190.
+
+Guamani, 144, 179.
+
+Guapulo, 178.
+
+Guarani race, 316.
+
+Guarana, 290.
+
+Guaranda, 46.
+
+Guayaquil, city and people, 25.
+  climate, 28.
+  commerce, 29.
+  history, 28.
+  market, 30.
+
+Guayas River, scenes on, 32.
+
+Guayusa tea, 193.
+
+Gurupa, 253.
+
+Gypsy-birds, 223.
+
+
+Hammocks, 202.
+
+Hats of Guayaquil, 31.
+
+Hatuntaqui, battle of, 56, 154.
+
+Hauxwell, Mr., 227, 229.
+
+Health in the tropics, 331.
+  on the Andes, 93.
+
+Heart of the Andes, 48.
+
+High altitudes, experience at, 96, 142.
+
+Himalayas, vegetation on, 50, 100.
+
+Horns, blowing of, 209.
+
+Horses, extinct species of, 154.
+  for the Andes, 36.
+
+Hospitality, Ecuadorian, 35, 71.
+
+Hotels, Andean, 40, 53.
+  in Guayaquil, 328.
+  in Quito, 329.
+
+Howling monkeys, 223, 313.
+
+Huallaga River, 266.
+
+Humboldt, 136, 156, 348.
+
+Hummers in Quito, 107, 347.
+  on the Amazon, 307.
+
+Hybrids, 43.
+
+Hypsometric zones, 50.
+
+
+Ibarra, 157.
+
+Ibis, 308.
+
+Ida Pfeiffer, 53.
+
+Iguana, 304.
+
+Imbabura, 143, 154.
+
+Immorality of priests, 89.
+
+Incarial relics, 109, 112, 124.
+
+Incas in Quito, 56.
+
+Indian character, 153, 203, 243.
+  dwellings, 78.
+  peons, 36, 183.
+  savages, 221.
+  villages, 237.
+
+Indians, Amazonian, 315.
+  Andean, 69, 109, 111.
+  as travelers, 186.
+
+India-rubber-tree, 288.
+
+In memoriam, 334.
+
+Insect pests, 224.
+
+Insects, Amazon, 206, 300.
+  in Quito, 108.
+
+Iquitos, 231.
+
+Itulcachi, 178.
+
+
+Jacamars, 308.
+
+Jacanas, 308.
+
+Jacapas, 308.
+
+Jaguars, 311.
+
+Japura River, 267, 320.
+
+Javari River, 269, 320.
+
+Jesuits, 89, 321.
+
+Jiggers, 108.
+
+Jivaros Indians, 165, 171.
+
+Juris Indians, 319.
+
+Jurua River, 269, 319.
+
+Jutahi River, 269.
+
+
+Lady travelers on the Amazon, 236.
+
+La Mona, 38.
+
+Lauguage of Ecuador, 71.
+
+Latacunga, 53.
+
+Lava, absence of, 122.
+  streams, 144.
+
+Lepers, 55, 94.
+
+Lianas, 188.
+
+Lice-eating, 181.
+
+Life within the Amazon, 295.
+  around the Amazon, 300.
+
+Lignite on the Amazon, 225, 283.
+
+Lion, American, 105.
+
+Living on the Amazon, 235.
+
+Lizards of the Amazon, 304.
+
+Llama, 104.
+  fossil, 154.
+
+Llanganati Mountains, 149.
+
+Locro, 44.
+
+Loja, 152.
+
+Longevity on the Andes, 92.
+
+Loreto, 232.
+
+Lotteries in Quito, 90.
+
+Lungs of mountaineers, 95.
+
+Lyell on the Valley of the Amazon, 347.
+
+
+Macaws, 306.
+
+Machachi, 55.
+
+Madeira River, 269.
+
+Mamai, 234.
+
+Mamelucos, 239.
+
+Mammals on the Amazon, 309.
+
+Manaos, 243.
+
+Manati, 215, 299.
+
+Mandioca, 291.
+
+Mango, 34.
+
+Manufactures of Quito, 77.
+
+Maranon River, 227.
+  steamers, 230.
+
+Maravilla, 48.
+
+Market of Quito, 77.
+
+Mashka, 36.
+
+Maspa, 186.
+
+Masquerade, Indian, 110.
+
+Mastodon, Andean, 154.
+
+Mata-mata turtle, 299.
+
+Maucallacta, 232.
+
+Mauhes Indians, 318.
+
+Mazan River, 226.
+
+Meat, preservation of, 222.
+
+Merchants of Quito, 74.
+
+Mica Lake, 146.
+
+Milk on the Andes, 179.
+
+Milky Way at Quito, 98.
+
+Mixed races, 68, 322.
+
+Mocha, 52.
+
+Mongruba-tree, 288.
+
+Monkey meat, 203.
+
+Monkeys, 223, 313.
+
+Montana of Peru, 231.
+
+Monte Alegre, 252.
+
+Montuca flies, 224.
+
+Moreno, President, 54, 86, 138.
+
+Mountaineers, 43, 69, 95.
+
+Mountains on the Amazon, 252.
+
+Moyabamba, 231.
+
+Mules, 43.
+
+Muleteers, 36.
+
+Mundurucus Indians, 318.
+
+Muras Indians, 318.
+
+Music in the forest, 205.
+
+Musquitoes, 224, 228, 303.
+
+
+Napo country, 164.
+  diseases, 198.
+  fish, 226.
+  Indians, 165, 197, 180, 210.
+  journey, 174.
+  navigation, 197, 209.
+  productions, 196.
+  rapids, 200.
+  river, 197, 199, 227, 268.
+  scenery, 216, 220.
+  tea, 193.
+  turtles, 226.
+  village, 194.
+  wilderness, 188, 191.
+
+Nauta, 231.
+
+Negroes on the Amazon, 247, 323.
+
+Negro River, 242, 266, 319.
+
+Newspapers in Ecuador, 27, 80.
+
+Nocturnal music, 205.
+
+
+Obidos, 248.
+
+Obsidian, 124, 148.
+
+Orchids, 216.
+
+Orchilla, 347.
+
+Orejones, 222.
+
+Orellana's expedition, 183, 207.
+
+Organ-bird, 308.
+
+Oriente, 164.
+
+Otovalo, 157.
+
+Outfit for travel, 327.
+
+
+Paita, raised beach at, 115.
+
+Paja, or Paramo grass, 49.
+
+Palms, cocoa, 35.
+  on the Amazon, 287.
+  on the Napo, 219.
+
+Palo de cruz, 228.
+
+Pampas, geology of, 282.
+
+Panama hats, 31.
+
+Panuelon, 69.
+
+Papallacta, 177, 181.
+
+Papaya-tree, 202, 234.
+
+Para City, buildings, 257.
+  climate, 262.
+  commerce, 259.
+  currency, 260.
+  government, 261.
+  people, 258.
+  view of, 254.
+
+Para River, 254, 271.
+
+Paramo, 33.
+
+Parrots, 206, 306.
+
+Passes Indians, 319.
+
+Pastassa River, 150, 268.
+
+Pebas, 227.
+  fossils, 282, 347.
+
+Peccaries, 221, 310.
+
+Peons, 36, 183.
+
+Peruvian bark, 47.
+  steamers, 230.
+
+Pfeiffer, Ida, 53.
+
+Piassaba palm, 289.
+
+Pichincha volcano, 124, 133, 140.
+
+Pigs, mode of dressing, 49.
+
+Pirarucu fish, 295.
+
+Piums, 224.
+
+Pizarro at Coca, 183, 207.
+
+Plantain, 34.
+
+Poison antidote, 332.
+
+Politeness, Ecuadorian, 35, 71.
+
+Politics in Quito, 86.
+
+Polylepis-trees, 50, 179.
+
+Poncho, 69.
+
+Porphyroid trachytes, 124.
+
+Porpoises, 299.
+
+Porto do Moz, 253.
+
+Potatoes on the Andes, 101.
+
+Potato soup, 44, 50.
+
+Prayinha, 253.
+
+President's order, 176.
+
+Priests of Quito, 89.
+
+Protestant cemetery, 90, 334.
+
+Puma, 105.
+
+Pumice, 148.
+  on the Amazon, 268.
+
+Puna, 96.
+
+Purus Indians, 318.
+  River, 269.
+
+
+Quadrupeds on the Amazon, 309.
+
+Quartz, paucity of, 122.
+
+Quito agriculture, 75.
+  amusements, 80.
+  architecture, 78.
+  arts, 78.
+  atmosphere, 96.
+  bells, 89.
+  birds, 106.
+  bull-baits, 80, 94.
+  butterflies, 108.
+  capital, 66.
+  carnival, 81.
+  climate, 91.
+  cock-fights, 81.
+  cookery, 84.
+  currency, 75.
+  diseases, 93.
+  dress, 69.
+  drunkenness, 142.
+  education, 79.
+  fashions, 70.
+  fish, 108.
+  flour, 98, 101.
+  history, 56, 152.
+  insects, 108.
+  ladies, 70, 81.
+  manufactures, 77.
+  market, 77.
+  masquerades, 81.
+  merchants, 74.
+  newspapers, 80.
+  politics, 86.
+  population, 68.
+  potatoes, 101.
+  prices, 329.
+  Protestant cemetery, 90.
+  religion, 87.
+  reptiles, 107.
+  scenery, 178.
+  servants, 83.
+  situation, 55, 59, 62.
+  streets and buildings, 64, 65.
+  street scene, 60.
+  suburbs, 55, 59.
+  under the Incas, 56.
+  under the Spaniards, 57.
+  Valley, 51, 55, 73, 149, 152.
+    archaeology of, 109, 112.
+
+Quitonians, character of the, 71, 86.
+  primeval, 109.
+
+
+Rain-fall at Quito, 93.
+   line on the Andes, 45.
+
+Raposa, 233, 311.
+
+Regularity of nature, 92.
+
+Religion of Ecuador, 87.
+
+Religious intolerance, 91, 347.
+
+Reptiles at Quito, 107.
+  on the Amazon, 296.
+
+Revenue of Ecuador, 87.
+
+Ride down the Andes, 180.
+
+Rimos Indians, 322.
+
+Riobamba, 150, 153.
+
+River systems of South America, 118, 275.
+
+Roads on the Andes, 43, 53, 74.
+
+Rodents on the Amazon, 309.
+
+Romanism on the Andes, 88.
+
+Rose of the Andes, 101.
+
+Routes across South America, 325.
+
+Ruminagui, 146.
+
+
+Salt on the Andes, 193.
+
+San Antonio, 233.
+
+Sand-flies, 224.
+
+Sangai volcano, 150.
+
+San Paulo, 237.
+
+Santarem, 251.
+
+Santa Rosa, 201.
+
+Sapucaya nut, 290.
+
+Sarsaparilla, 224.
+
+Saueba ants, 194, 300.
+
+Savages on the Napo, 221.
+
+Savaneta, 40.
+
+Scenery on the Amazon, 253.
+
+Sea-cows, 215.
+
+Serpa, 247.
+
+Shells in Quito Valley, 109.
+  in the Amazon Valley, 293.
+
+Sierra, 33.
+
+Silk-cotton-tree, 220, 289.
+
+Sincholagua, 146.
+
+Sloths, 310.
+
+Slow-worm on the Napo, 194.
+
+Snakes, scarcity of, 195, 332.
+
+Snakes on the Amazon, 305.
+
+Snow at high altitudes, 138.
+  limit in the Andes, 125.
+
+Soil in the Amazon Valley, 286.
+
+Solimoens, 237.
+
+South America, geology of, 114.
+  American fauna and flora, 103.
+  American Indians, 315.
+
+Southerners on the Amazon, 246, 251.
+
+Spanish character, 328.
+
+Spanish language, 71.
+
+Spanish Republicanism, 58.
+
+Spiders on the Amazon, 304.
+
+Stars at Quito, 97.
+
+Staunton, Col., burial of, 91, 334.
+
+Steam on the Amazon, 230, 234, 330.
+
+Storm on the Napo, 213.
+
+Sugar on the Amazon, 252.
+  on the Andes, 329
+
+Sugar-cane on the Amanzon, 291.
+
+Suno, 205.
+
+Superstition, 54.
+
+
+Tabatinga, 233.
+
+Table-lands of the Old World, 152.
+
+Tablon, 178.
+
+Tacunga, 53
+
+Tambillo ridge, 55.
+
+Tambo on the mountains, 40.
+
+Tapajos River, 270.
+
+Tapir, 104, 310.
+
+Teffe River, 269.
+
+Temperature, correspondence of altitude and latitude as to, 145.
+
+Termite ants, 301.
+
+Thermometer, variations of, 92.
+
+Tide on the Amazon, 275.
+
+Timber on the Amazon, 289.
+
+Tiupullo, 54.
+
+Toads of the Amazon, 304.
+
+Tobacco on the Amazon, 291.
+  use of, by the Napos, 197.
+
+Tocantins River, 271.
+
+Tolling-bell bird, 307.
+
+Tortoise-shell wood, 289.
+
+Toucan, 206, 306.
+
+Trade wind, 118.
+
+Trail in the forest, 182.
+
+Trapiche, 207.
+
+Traveling in South America, 325.
+
+Trees in Quito Valley, 100.
+  on the Amazon, 288.
+
+Trogon, 308.
+
+Tropical flowers, 292, 347.
+  forest, 287.
+
+Tropical vegetation, 34, 38, 188, 190, 219.
+
+Tucuna Indians, 320.
+
+Tucker, Admiral, 232.
+
+Tunantins, 237.
+
+Tunguragua volcano, 149.
+
+Tupi race, 316.
+
+Turtles in the Amazon, 297.
+  in the Napo, 215, 220.
+
+
+Uaupes Indians, 319.
+
+Ucayali Indians, 321.
+  River, 268.
+
+Umbrella bird, 307.
+
+Upper Amazon towns, 231.
+
+Urari poison, 228.
+
+
+Valediction on the Napo, 204.
+
+Valley of the Amazon, 280.
+  of the Andes, 130.
+  of the Chimbo, 46.
+  of Quito, 51, 55, 73, 149, 151, 155.
+
+Vanilla on the Napo, 196.
+
+Vegetation in the tropics 34, 38.
+  on the Amazon, 287.
+  zones of, on the Andes, 50.
+
+Verdure on the Amazon, 285.
+
+
+Veta, 96.
+
+Victoria Regia, 292.
+
+Views from the Andes, 45.
+
+Villa Nora, 248.
+
+Vocabularies Indian, 339.
+
+Volcanoes of Ecuador, 122, 125, 151.
+
+
+Washerwomen of Quito, 83.
+
+Water-beetles, 295.
+  carriers, 61.
+
+Water-shed of the Atlantic and Pacific, 54.
+
+Water-snakes, 296.
+
+Wayside inn. 40.
+
+White ants, 301.
+
+Wisse, M., descent into Pichincha, 138.
+
+Wool, Andean, 104.
+
+
+Xingu River, 271.
+
+
+Yagua Indians, 320.
+
+Yana-urcu, 142.
+
+Ypadu, 291.
+
+Yuca, 167.
+
+Yurimaguas, 231.
+
+
+Zaparo Indians, 165, 170.
+
+Zodiacal light, 98.
+
+Zones of vegetation, 50.
+
+Zoology of the Napo, 206.
+
+Zoology of South America, 286.
+
+Zoological provinces of Amazonia, 300.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Andes and the Amazon, by James Orton
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