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diff --git a/19213-0.txt b/19213-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c46201 --- /dev/null +++ b/19213-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19269 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of England in Three Volumes, +Vol.I., Part C., by David Hume + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of England in Three Volumes, Vol.I., Part C. + From Henry VII. to Mary + +Author: David Hume + +Release Date: September 8, 2006 [EBook #19213] +Last Updated: September 1, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ENGLAND *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND + +FROM THE INVASION OF JULIUS CÆSAR + +TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF JAMES THE SECOND, + + +BY DAVID HUME, ESQ. + +1688 + + + +London: James S. Virtue, City Road and Ivy Lane +New York: 26 John Street +1860 + +And + +Philadelphia: +J. B. Lippincott & Co. +March 17, 1901 + + + +In Three Volumes: + +VOLUME ONE: The History Of England From The Invasion Of Julius Cæsar To +The End Of The Reign Of James The Second............ By David Hume, Esq. + +VOLUME TWO: Continued from the Reign of William and Mary to the Death of +George II........................................... by Tobias Smollett. + +VOLUME THREE: From the Accession of George III. to the Twenty-Third Year +of the Reign of Queen Victoria............... by E. Farr and E.H. Nolan. + + + + +VOLUME ONE + +Part C. + +HENRY VII. TO MARY + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +[Illustration: 1-309-henry7.jpg HENRY VII.] + + + + +HENRY VII. + +{1485.} THE victory which the earl of Richmond gained at Bosworth was +entirely decisive; being attended, as well with the total rout and +dispersion of the royal army, as with the death of the king himself. Joy +for this great success suddenly prompted the soldiers, in the field of +battle, to bestow on their victorious general the appellation of king, +which he had not hitherto assumed; and the acclamations of “Long live +Henry VII.,” by a natural and unpremeditated movement, resounded from +all quarters. To bestow some appearance of formality on this species +of military election, Sir William Stanley brought a crown of ornament, +which Richard wore in battle, and which had been found among the spoils; +and he put it on the head of the victor. Henry himself remained not +in suspense; but immediately, without hesitation, accepted of the +magnificent present which was tendered him. He was come to the crisis +of his fortune; and being obliged suddenly to determine himself, amidst +great difficulties which he must have frequently revolved in his mind, +he chose that part which his ambition suggested to him, and to which he +seemed to be invited by his present success. + +There were many titles on which Henry could found his right to the +crown; but no one of them free from great objections, if considered with +respect either to justice or to policy. + +During some years, Henry had been regarded as heir to the house of +Lancaster by the party attached to that family; but the title of the +house of Lancaster itself was generally thought to be very ill founded. +Henry IV., who had first raised it to royal dignity, had never clearly +defined the foundation of his claim; and while he plainly invaded the +order of succession, he had not acknowledged the election of the people. +The parliament, it is true, had often recognized the title of the +Lancastrian princes; but these votes had little authority, being +considered as instances of complaisance towards a family in possession +of present power; and they had accordingly been often reversed during +the late prevalence of the house of York. Prudent men also, who had been +willing for the sake of peace to submit to any established authority, +desired not to see the claims of that family revived; claims which must +produce many convulsions at present, and which disjointed for the future +the whole system of hereditary right. Besides, allowing the title of the +house of Lancaster to be legal, Henry himself was not the true heir of +that family; and nothing but the obstinacy natural to faction, which +never without reluctance will submit to an antagonist, could have +engaged the Lancastrians to adopt the earl of Richmond as their head. +His mother indeed, Margaret, countess of Richmond, was sole daughter +and heir of the duke of Somerset, sprung from John of Gaunt, duke of +Lancaster: but the descent of the Somerset line was itself illegitimate, +and even adulterous. And though the duke of Lancaster had obtained +the legitimation of his natural children by a patent from Richard II., +confirmed in parliament, it might justly be doubted whether this deed +could bestow any title to the crown: since in the patent itself all the +privileges conferred by it are fully enumerated, and the succession to +the kingdom is expressly excluded.[*] In all settlements of the crown +made during the reigns of the Lancastrian princes, the line of Somerset +had been entirely overlooked; and it was not till the failure of the +legitimate branch, that men had paid any attention to their claim. And +to add to the general dissatisfaction against Henry’s title, his mother, +from whom he derived all his right was still alive; and evidently +preceded him in the order of succession. + + * Rymer, tom. vii. p. 849. Coke’s Inst. iv. Inst. part i. p. + 37. + +His title of the house of York, both from the plain reason of the case, +and from the late popular government of Edward IV., had universally +obtained the preference in the sentiments of the people; and Henry might +ingraft his claim on the rights of that family, by his intended marriage +with the princess Elizabeth, the heir of it; a marriage which he had +solemnly promised to celebrate, and to the expectation of which he had +chiefly owed all his past successes. But many reasons dissuaded Henry +from adopting this expedient. Were he to receive the crown only in right +of his consort, his power, he knew, would be very limited; and he must +expect rather to enjoy the bare title of king by a sort of courtesy, +than possess the real authority which belongs to it. Should the princess +die before him without issue, he must descend from the throne, and give +place to the next in succession; and even if his bed should be blest +with offspring, it seemed dangerous to expect that filial piety in his +children would prevail over the ambition of obtaining present possession +of regal power. An act of parliament, indeed, might easily be procured +to settle the crown on him during life; but Henry knew how much superior +the claim of succession by blood was to the authority of an assembly,[*] +which had always been overborne by violence in the shock of contending +titles, and which had ever been more governed by the conjunctures of the +times, than by any consideration derived from reason or public interest. + +There was yet a third foundation on which Henry might rest his claim, +the right of conquest, by his victory over Richard, the present +possessor of the crown. But besides that Richard himself was deemed +no better than a usurper, the army which fought against him consisted +chiefly of Englishmen; and a right of conquest over England could +never be established by such a victory. Nothing also would give greater +umbrage to the nation than a claim of this nature; which might be +construed as an abolition of all their rights and privileges, and the +establishment of absolute authority in the sovereign.[**] + + *Bacon in Kennet’s Complete History, p. 579. + + **Bacon, p. 579. + +William himself, the Norman, though at the head of a powerful and +victorious army of foreigners, had at first declined the invidious +title of Conqueror; and it was not till the full establishment of his +authority, that he had ventured to advance so violent and destructive a +pretension. + +But Henry was sensible that there remained another foundation of power, +somewhat resembling the right of conquest, namely, present possession; +and that this title, guarded by vigor and abilities, would be sufficient +to secure perpetual possession of the throne. He had before him the +example of Henry IV., who, supported by no better pretension, had +subdued many insurrections, and had been able to transmit the crown +peaceably to his posterity. He could perceive that this claim, which had +been perpetuated through three generations of the family of Lancaster, +might still have subsisted, notwithstanding the preferable title of the +house of York, had not the sceptre devolved into the hands of Henry +VI., which were too feeble to sustain it. Instructed by this recent +experience, Henry was determined to put himself in possession of regal +authority, and to show all opponents, that nothing but force of arms and +a successful war should be able to expel him. His claim as heir to the +house of Lancaster he was resolved to advance, and never allow it to +be discussed; and he hoped that this right, favored by the partisans of +that family, and seconded by present power, would secure him a perpetual +and an independent authority. + +These views of Henry are not exposed to much blame; because founded on +good policy, and even on a species of necessity; but there entered into +all his measures and counsels another motive, which admits not of the +same apology. The violent contentions which, during so long a period, +had been maintained between the rival families, and the many sanguinary +revenges which they had alternately taken on each other, had inflamed +the opposite factions to a high pitch of animosity, Henry himself, who +had seen most of his near friends and relations perish in battle or +by the executioner, and who had been exposed in his own person to many +hardships and dangers, had imbibed a violent antipathy to the York +party, which no time or experience were ever able to efface. Instead +of embracing the present happy opportunity of abolishing these fatal +distinctions, of uniting his title with that of his consort, and of +bestowing favor indiscriminately on the friends of both families, he +carried to the throne all the partialities which belong to the head of +a faction, and even the passions which are carefully guarded against by +every true politician in that situation. To exalt the Lancastrian party, +to depress the adherents of the house of York, were still the favorite +objects of his pursuit; and through the whole course of his reign, he +never forgot these early prepossessions. Incapable from his natural +temper of a more enlarged and more benevolent system of policy, he +exposed himself to many present inconveniences, by too anxiously +guarding against that future possible event, which might disjoin his +title from that of the princess whom he espoused. And while he treated +the Yorkists as enemies, he soon rendered them such, and taught them to +discuss that right to the crown, which he so carefully kept separate, +and to perceive its weakness and invalidity. + +To these passions of Henry, as well as to his suspicious politics, we +are to ascribe the measures which he embraced two days after the battle +of Bosworth. Edward Plantagenet, earl of Warwick, son of the duke of +Clarence, was detained in a kind of confinement at Sherif-Hutton, in +Yorkshire, by the jealousy of his uncle Richard, whose title to the +throne was inferior to that of the young prince. Warwick had now reason +to expect better treatment, as he was no obstacle to the succession +either of Henry or Elizabeth; and from a youth of such tender years no +danger could reasonably be apprehended. But Sir Robert Willoughby was +despatched by Henry with orders to take him from Sherif-Hutton, to +convey him to the Tower, and to detain him in close custody.[*] The same +messenger carried directions, that the princess Elizabeth, who had been +confined to the same place, should be conducted to London, in order to +meet Henry, and there celebrate her nuptials. + +Henry himself set out for the capital, and advanced by slow journeys. +Not to rouse the jealousy of the people, he took care to avoid all +appearance of military triumph; and so to restrain the insolence +of victory, that every thing about him bore the appearance of an +established monarch, making a peaceable progress through his dominions, +rather than of a prince who had opened his way to the throne by force of +arms. The acclamations of the people were every where loud, and no less +sincere and hearty. Besides that a young and victorious prince, on his +accession, was naturally the object of popularity, the nation promised +themselves great felicity from the new scene which opened before them. + + * Bacon, p. 579. Polyd. Virg. p. 565. + +During the course of near a whole century, the kingdom had been laid +waste by domestic wars and convulsions; and if at any time the noise of +arms had ceased, the sound of faction and discontent still threatened +new disorders. Henry, by his marriage with Elizabeth, seemed to insure a +union of the contending titles of the two families; and having prevailed +over a hated tyrant, who had anew disjointed the succession even of the +house of York, and had filled his own family with blood and murder, +he was every where attended with the unfeigned favor of the people. +Numerous and splendid troops of gentry and nobility accompanied +his progress. The mayor and companies of London received him as he +approached the city; the crowds of people and citizens were zealous +in their expressions of satisfaction. But Henry, amidst this general +effusion of joy, discovered still the stateliness and reserve of his +temper, which made him scorn to court popularity: he entered London in +a close chariot, and would not gratify the people with a sight of their +new sovereign. + +But the king did not so much neglect the favor of the people, as +to delay giving them assurances of his marriage with the princess +Elizabeth, which he knew to be so passionately desired by the nation. +On his leaving Brittany, he had artfully dropped some hints that, if he +should succeed in his enterprise, and obtain the crown of England, +he would espouse Anne, the heir of that duchy; and the report of this +engagement had already reached England, and had begotten anxiety in +the people, and even in Elizabeth herself. Henry took care to dissipate +these apprehensions, by solemnly renewing, before the council and +principal nobility, the promise which he had already given to celebrate +his nuptials with the English princess. But though bound by honor, +as well as by interest, to complete this alliance, he was resolved to +postpone it till the ceremony of his own coronation should be finished, +and till his title should be recognized by parliament. Still anxious to +support his personal and hereditary right to the throne, he dreaded lest +a preceding marriage with the princess should imply a participation of +sovereignty in her, and raise doubts of his own title by the house of +Lancaster. + +There raged at that time in London, and other parts of the kingdom, +a species of malady unknown to any other age or nation, the sweating +sickness, which occasioned the sudden death of great multitudes; though +it seemed not to be propagated by any contagious infection, but arose +from the general disposition of the air and of the human body. In less +than twenty-four hours the patient commonly died or recovered, but when +the pestilence had exerted its fury for a few weeks, it was observed, +either from alterations in the air, or from a more proper regimen which +had been discovered, to be considerably abated.[*] Preparations were +then made for the ceremony of Henry’s coronation. In order to heighten +the splendor of that spectacle, he bestowed the rank of knight banneret +on twelve persons; and he conferred peerages on three. Jasper, earl of +Pembroke, his uncle, was created duke of Bedford; Thomas Lord Stanley, +his father-in-law, earl of Derby; and Edward Courtney, earl of +Devonshire. At the coronation, likewise, there appeared a new +institution, which the king had established for security as well as +pomp, a band of fifty archers, who were termed yeomen of the guard. But +lest the people should take umbrage at this unusual symptom of jealousy +in the prince, as if it implied a personal diffidence of his subjects, +he declared the institution to be perpetual. The ceremony of coronation +was performed by Cardinal Bourchier, archbishop of Canterbury. + +The parliament being assembled at Westminster, the majority immediately +appeared to be devoted partisans of Henry; all persons of another +disposition either declining to stand in those dangerous times, or being +obliged to dissemble their principles and inclinations. The Lancastrian +party had every where been successful in the elections; and even many +had been returned who, during the prevalence of the house of York, had +been exposed to the rigor of law, and had been condemned by sentence +of attainder and outlawry. Their right to take seats in the house being +questioned, the case was referred to all the judges, who assembled in +the exchequer chamber, in order to deliberate on so delicate a subject. +The opinion delivered was prudent, and contained a just temperament +between law and expediency.[**] The judges determined, that the members +attainted should forbear taking their seat till an act were passed for +the reversal of their attainder. There was no difficulty in obtaining +this act; and in it were comprehended a hundred and seven persons of the +king’s party.[***] + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 567. + + ** Bacon, p. 661. + + *** Rot. Parl. 1 Henry VII. n. 2, 3, 4-15, 17, 26-65. + +But a scruple was started of a nature still more important. The king +himself had been attainted; and his right of succession to the crown +might thence be exposed to some doubt The judges extricated themselves +from this dangerous question by asserting it as a maxim, “That the crown +takes away all defects and stops in blood; and that from the time +the king assumed royal authority, the fountain was cleared, and all +attainders and corruptions of blood discharged.” [*] Besides that the +case, from its urgent necessity, admitted of no deliberation, the judges +probably thought that no sentence of a court of judicature had authority +sufficient to bar the right of succession; that the heir of the crown +was commonly exposed to such jealousy as might often occasion stretches +of law and justice against him; and that a prince might even be engaged +in unjustifiable measures during his predecessor’s reign, without +meriting on that account to be excluded from the throne, which was his +birthright. + +With a parliament so obsequious, the king could not fail of obtaining +whatever act of settlement he was pleased to require. He seems only to +have entertained some doubt within himself on what claim he should found +his pretensions. In his speech to the parliament, he mentioned his just +title by hereditary right: but lest that title should not be esteemed +sufficient, he subjoined his claim by the judgment of God, who had given +him victory over his enemies. And again, lest this pretension should be +interpreted as assuming a right of conquest, he insured to his subjects +the full enjoyment of their former properties and possessions. + +The entail of the crown was drawn according to the sense of the king, +and probably in words dictated by him. He made no mention in it of +the princess Elizabeth, nor of any branch of her family: but in other +respects the act was compiled with sufficient reserve and moderation. +He did not insist that it should contain a declaration or recognition of +his preceding right; as, on the other hand, he avoided the appearance of +a new law or ordinance. He chose a middle course which, as is generally +unavoidable in such cases, was not entirely free from uncertainty and +obscurity. It was voted, “That the inheritance of the crown should rest, +remain, and abide in the king:” [**] but whether as rightful heir, or +only as present possessor, was not determined. + + * Bacon, p. 581. + + ** Bacon, p. 581. + +In like manner, Henry was contented that the succession should be +secured to the heirs of his body; but he pretended not, in case of their +failure, to exclude the house of York or to give the preference to that +of Lancaster: he left that great point ambiguous for the present, and +trusted that, if it should ever become requisite to determine it, future +incidents would open the way for the decision. + +But even after all these precautions, the king was so little satisfied +with his own title, that in the following year, he applied to papal +authority for a confirmation of it; and as the court of Rome gladly laid +hold of all opportunities which the imprudence, weakness, or necessities +of princes afforded it to extend its influence, Innocent VIII., the +reigning pope, readily granted a bull, in whatever terms the king +was pleased to desire. All Henry’s titles, by succession, marriage, +parliamentary choice, even conquest, are there enumerated; and to the +whole the sanction of religion is added; excommunication is denounced +against every one who should either disturb him in the present +possession, or the heirs of his body in the future succession of the +crown; and from this penalty no criminal, except in the article of +death, could be absolved but by the pope himself, or his special +commissioners. It is difficult to imagine that the security derived from +this bull could be a compensation for the defect which it betrayed in +Henry’s title, and for the danger of thus inviting the pope to interpose +in these concerns. + +It was natural, and even laudable in Henry to reverse the attainders +which had passed against the partisans of the house of Lancaster: +but the revenges which he exercised against the adherents of the York +family, to which he was so soon to be allied, cannot be considered in +the same light. Yet the parliament, at his instigation, passed an act +of attainder against the late king himself, against the duke of Norfolk, +the earl of Surrey, Viscount Lovel, the lords Zouche and Ferrars of +Chartley, Sir Walter and Sir James Harrington, Sir William Berkeley, +Sir Humphrey Stafford, Catesby, and about twenty other gentlemen who +had fought on Richard’s side in the battle of Bosworth. How men could be +guilty of treason by supporting the king in possession against the +earl of Richmond, who assumed not the title of king, it is not easy to +conceive; and nothing but a servile complaisance in the parliament could +have engaged them to make this stretch of justice. Nor was it a small +mortification to the people in general, to find that the king, prompted +either by avarice or resentment could, in the very beginning of his +reign, so far violate the cordial union which had previously been +concerted between the parties, and to the expectation of which he had +plainly owed his succession to the throne. + +The king, having gained so many points of consequence from the +parliament, thought it not expedient to demand any supply from them, +which the profound peace enjoyed by the nation, and the late forfeiture +of Richard’s adherents, seemed to render somewhat superfluous. The +parliament, however, conferred on him during life the duty of tonnage +and poundage, which had been enjoyed in the same manner by some of his +immediate predecessors; and they added, before they broke up, other +money bills of no great moment. The king, on his part, made returns +of grace and favor to his people. He published his royal proclamation, +offering pardon to all such as had taken arms, or formed any attempts +against him, provided they submitted themselves to mercy by a certain +day, and took the usual oath of fealty and allegiance. Upon this +proclamation many came out of their sanctuaries; and the minds of men +were every where much quieted. Henry chose to take wholly to himself +the merit of an act of grace so agreeable to the nation, rather than +communicate it with the parliament, (as was his first intention,) by +passing a bill to that purpose. The earl of Surrey, however, though he +had submitted, and delivered himself into the king’s hands, was sent +prisoner to the Tower. + +During this parliament, the king also bestowed favors and honors on some +particular persons who were attached to him. Edward Stafford, eldest son +of the duke of Buckingham attainted in the late reign, was restored +to the honors of his family, as well as to his fortune, which was very +ample. This generosity, so unusual in Henry, was the effect of his +gratitude to the memory of Buckingham, who had first concerted the plan +of his elevation, and who by his own ruin had made way for that great +event. Chandos of Brittany was created earl of Bath, Sir Giles Daubeny, +Lord Daubeny, and Sir Robert Willoughby, Lord Broke. These were all +the titles of nobility conferred by the king during this session of +parliament.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 566 + +But the ministers whom Henry most trusted and favored were not chosen +from among the nobility, or even from among the laity. John Morton and +Richard Fox, two clergymen persons of industry, vigilance, and capacity, +were the men to whom he chiefly confided his affairs and secret +counsels. They had shared with him all his former dangers and +distresses; and he now took care to make them participate in his good +fortune. They were both called to the privy council; Morton was restored +to the bishopric of Ely, Fox was created bishop of Exeter. The former, +soon after, upon the death of Bourchier, was raised to the see of +Canterbury. The latter was made privy seal; and successively bishop +of Bath and Wells, Durham, and Winchester. For Henry, as Lord Bacon +observes, loved to employ and advance prelates; because, having rich +bishoprics to bestow, it was easy for him to reward their services: and +it was his maxim to raise them by slow steps, and make them first pass +through the interior sees.[*] He probably expected that, as they were +naturally more dependent on him than the nobility, who during that age +enjoyed possessions and jurisdictions dangerous to royal authority, so +the prospect of further elevation would render them still more active in +his service, and more obsequious to his commands. + + * Bacon, p. 582. + +{1486.} In presenting the bill of tonnage and poundage, the parliament, +anxious to preserve the legal, undisputed succession to the crown, had +petitioned Henry, with demonstrations of the greatest zeal, to espouse +the princess Elizabeth; but they covered their true reason under the +dutiful pretence of their desire to have heirs of his body. He now +thought in earnest of satisfying the minds of his people in that +particular. His marriage was celebrated at London; and that with +greater appearance of universal joy than either his first entry or his +coronation. Henry remarked with much displeasure this general favor +borne to the house of York. The suspicions which arose from it not only +disturbed his tranquillity during his whole reign, but bred disgust +towards his consort herself, and poisoned all his domestic enjoyments. +Though virtuous, amiable, and obsequious to the last degree, she never +met with a proper return of affection, or even of complaisance, from her +husband; and the malignant ideas of faction still, in his sullen mind, +prevailed over all the sentiments of conjugal tenderness. + +The king had been carried along with such a tide of success ever since +his arrival in England, that he thought nothing could withstand the +fortune and authority which attended him. + +He now resolved to make a progress into the north, where the friends of +the house of York, and even the partisans of Richard, were numerous, in +hopes of curing, by his presence and conversation, the prejudices of +the malecontents. When he arrived at Nottingham, he heard that Viscount +Lovel, with Sir Humphrey Stafford, and Thomas his brother, had secretly +withdrawn themselves from their sanctuary at Colchester: but this news +appeared not to him of such importance as to stop his journey; and he +proceeded forward to York. He there heard that the Staffords had levied +an army, and were marching to besiege the city of Worcester; and that +Lovel, at the head of three or four thousand men, was approaching to +attack him in York. Henry was not dismayed with this intelligence. His +active courage, full of resources, immediately prompted him to find +the proper remedy. Though surrounded with enemies in these disaffected +counties, he assembled a small body of troops, in whom he could confide; +and he put them under the command of the duke of Bedford. He joined to +them all his own attendants; but he found that this hasty armament was +more formidable by their spirit and their zealous attachment to him, +than by the arms or military stores with which they were provided. He +therefore gave Bedford orders not to approach the enemy; but previously +to try every proper expedient to disperse them. Bedford published a +general promise of pardon to the rebels, which had a greater effect +on their leader than on his followers. Lovel, who had undertaken an +enterprise that exceeded his courage and capacity, was so terrified +with the fear of desertion among his troops, that he suddenly withdrew +himself; and after lurking some time in Lancashire, he made his escape +into Flanders, where he was protected by the duchess of Burgundy. His +army submitted to the king’s clemency; and the other rebels, hearing of +this success, raised the siege of Worcester, and dispersed themselves. +The Staffords took sanctuary in the church of Colnham, a village near +Abingdon; but as it was found that this church had not the privilege +of giving protection to rebels, they were taken thence; the elder was +executed at Tyburn; the younger, pleading that he had been misled by his +brother, obtained a pardon.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 569. + +Henry’s joy for this success was followed, some time after, by the birth +of a prince, to whom he gave the name of Arthur in memory of the famous +British king of that name, from whom it was pretended the family of +Tudor derived its descent. + +Though Henry had been able to defeat this hasty rebellion raised by +the relics of Richard’s partisans, his government was become in general +unpopular: the source of public discontent arose chiefly from his +prejudices against the house of York which was generally beloved by +the nation, and which, for that very reason, became every day more +the object of his hatred and jealousy. Not only a preference on all +occasions, it was observed, was given to the Lancastrians, but many +of the opposite party had been exposed to great severity, and had been +bereaved of their fortunes by acts of attainder. A general resumption +likewise had passed of all grants made by the princes of the house of +York; and though this rigor had been covered under the pretence that the +revenue was become insufficient to support the dignity of the crown, and +though the grants during the later years of Henry VI. were resumed by +the same law, yet the York party, as they were the principal sufferers +by the resumption, thought it chiefly levelled against them. The +severity exercised against the earl of Warwick begat compassion for +youth and innocence exposed to such oppression; and his confinement in +the Tower, the very place where Edward’s children had been murdered by +their uncle, made the public expect a like catastrophe for him, and led +them to make a comparison between Henry and that detested tyrant. And +when it was remarked that the queen herself met with harsh treatment, +and even after the birth of a son, was not admitted to the honor of +a public coronation, Henry’s prepossessions were then concluded to be +inveterate, and men became equally obstinate in their disgust to his +government. Nor was the manner and address of the king calculated to +cure these prejudices contracted against his administration; but had +in every thing a tendency to promote fear, or at best reverence, rather +than good will and affection.[*] While the high idea entertained of +his policy and vigor retained the nobility and men of character in +obedience, the effects of his unpopular government soon appeared, by +incidents of an extraordinary nature. + + * Bacon, p. 583. + +There lived in Oxford one Richard Simon, a priest, who possessed +some subtlety, and still more enterprise and temerity. This man had +entertained the design of disturbing Henry’s government, by raising a +pretender to his crown, and for that purpose he cast his eyes on Lambert +Simnel, a youth of fifteen years of age, who was son of a baker, and +who, being endowed with understanding above his years, and address +above his condition, seemed well fitted to personate a prince of royal +extraction. A report had been spread among the people, and received, +with great avidity, that Richard, duke of York, second son of Edward +IV., had, by a secret escape, saved himself from the cruelty of his +uncle, and lay somewhere concealed in England. Simon, taking advantage +of this rumor, had at first instructed his pupil to assume that name, +which he found to be so fondly cherished by the public: but hearing +afterwards a new report, that Warwick had made his escape from the +Tower, and observing that this news was attended with no less general +satisfaction, he changed the plan of his imposture, and made Simnel +personate that unfortunate prince.[*] Though the youth was qualified by +nature for the part which he was instructed to act, yet was it remarked, +that he was better informed in circumstances relating to the royal +family, particularly in the adventures of the earl of Warwick, than he +could be supposed to have learned from one of Simon’s condition: and it +was thence conjectured, that persons of higher rank, partisans of the +house of York, had laid the plan of this conspiracy, and had conveyed +proper instructions to the actors. The queen dowager herself was exposed +to suspicion; and it was indeed the general opinion, however unlikely +it might seem, that she had secretly given her consent to the imposture. +This woman was of a very restless disposition. Finding that, instead +of receiving the reward of her services in contributing to Henry’s +elevation, she herself was fallen into absolute insignificance, her +daughter treated with severity, and all her friends brought under +subjection, she had conceived the most violent animosity against him, +and had resolved to make him feel the effects of her resentment. She +knew that the impostor, however successful, might easily at last be +set aside; and if a way could be found at his risk to subvert the +government, she hoped that a scene might be opened, which, though +difficult at present exactly to foresee, would gratify her revenge, and +be on the whole less irksome to her than that slavery and contempt to +which she was now reduced.[**] + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 569. 570. + + ** Polyd. Virg. p. 570. + +But whatever care Simon might take to convey instruction to his pupil +Simnel, he was sensible that the imposture would not bear a close +inspection; and he was therefore determined to open the first public +scene of it in Ireland. That island, which was zealously attached to +the house of York, and bore an affectionate regard to the memory +of Clarence, Warwick’s father, who had been their lieutenant, was +improvidently allowed by Henry to remain in the same condition in +which he found it; and all the counsellors and officers, who had been +appointed by his predecessor, still retained their authority. No sooner +did Simnel present himself to Thomas Fitzgerald, earl of Kildare, the +deputy, and claim his protection as the unfortunate Warwick, than that +credulous nobleman, not suspecting so bold an imposture, gave attention +to him, and began to consult some persons of rank with regard to this +extraordinary incident. These he found even more sanguine in their zeal +and belief than himself: and in proportion as the story diffused itself +among those of lower condition, it became the object of still greater +passion and credulity, till the people in Dublin with one consent +tendered their allegiance to Simnel, as to the true Plantagenet. Fond of +a novelty which flattered their natural propension, they overlooked +the daughters of Edward IV., who stood before Warwick in the order +of succession; they paid the pretended prince attendance as their +sovereign, lodged him in the Castle of Dublin, crowned him with a diadem +taken from a statue of the Virgin, and publicly proclaimed him king, by +the appellation of Edward VI. The whole island followed the example of +the capital; and not a sword was any where drawn in Henry’s quarrel. + +When this intelligence was conveyed to the king, it reduced him to some +perplexity. Determined always to face his enemies in person, he yet +scrupled at present to leave England, where he suspected the conspiracy +was first framed, and where he knew many persons of condition, and the +people in general, were much disposed to give it countenance. In order +to dis cover the secret source of the contrivance, and take measures +against this open revolt, he held frequent consultations with his +ministers and counsellors, and laid plans for a vigorous defence of his +authority, and the suppression of his enemies. + +The first event which followed these deliberations gave surprise to the +public; it was the seizure of the queen dowager the forfeiture of all +her lands and revenue, and the close confinement of her person in the +nunnery of Bermondsey. The act of authority was covered with a very thin +pretence. It was alleged that, notwithstanding the secret agreement to +marry her daughter to Henry, she had yet yielded to the solicitations +and menaces of Richard, and had delivered that princess and her sisters +into the hands of the tyrant. This crime, which was now become obsolete, +and might admit of alleviations, was therefore suspected not to be the +real cause of the severity with which she was treated; and men believed +that the king, unwilling to accuse so near a relation of a conspiracy +against him, had cloaked his vengeance or precaution under color of +an offence known to the whole world.[*] They were afterwards the more +confirmed in this suspicion, when they found that the unfortunate queen, +though she survived this disgrace several years, was never treated with +any more lenity, but was allowed to end her life in poverty, solitude, +and confinement. + + * Bacon, p. 583, Polyd. Virg. p. 571. + +The next measure of the king’s was of a less exceptionable nature. +He ordered that Warwick should be taken from the Tower, be led in +procession through the streets of London, be conducted to St. Paul’s, +and there exposed to the view of the whole people. He even gave +directions, that some men of rank, attached to the house of York, and +best acquainted with the person of this prince, should approach him and +converse with him: and he trusted that these, being convinced of the +absurd imposture of Simnel, would put a stop to the credulity of the +populace. The expedient had its effect in England: but in Ireland the +people still persisted in their revolt, and zealously retorted on the +king the reproach of propagating an imposture, and of having shown a +counterfeit Warwick to the public. + +Henry had soon reason to apprehend, that the design against him was +not laid on such slight foundations as the absurdity of the contrivance +seemed to indicate. John, earl of Lincoln, son of John de la Pole, duke +of Suffolk, and of Elizabeth, eldest sister to Edward IV., was engaged +to take part in the conspiracy. This nobleman, who possessed capacity +and courage, had entertained very aspiring views; and his ambition was +encouraged by the known intentions of his uncle Richard, who had formed +a design, in case he himself should die without issue, of declaring +Lincoln successor to the crown. The king’s jealousy against all eminent +persons of the York party, and his rigor towards Warwick, had further +struck Lincoln with apprehensions, and made him resolve to seek +for safety in the most dangerous counsels. Having fixed a secret +correspondence with Sir Thomas Broughton, a man of great interest in +Lancashire, he retired to Flanders, where Lovel had arrived a little +before him; and he lived during some time in the court of his aunt the +duchess of Burgundy, by whom he had been invited over. + +Margaret, widow of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, not having any +children of her own, attached herself with an entire friendship to her +daughter-in-law, married to Maximilian, archduke of Austria; and after +the death of that princess, she persevered in her affection to Philip +and Margaret, her children, and occupied herself in the care of their +education and of their persons. By her virtuous conduct and demeanor +she had acquired great authority among the Flemings and lived with much +dignity, as well as economy, upon that ample dowry which she inherited +from her husband. The resentments of this princess were no less warm +than her friendships; and that spirit of faction, which it is so +difficult for a social and sanguine temper to guard against, had taken +strong possession of her heart, and intrenched somewhat on the probity +which shone forth in the other parts of her character. Hearing of the +malignant jealousy entertained by Henry against her family, and +his oppression of all its partisans, she was moved with the highest +indignation; and she determined to make him repent of that enmity to +which so many of her friends, without any reason or necessity, had +fallen victims. + +{1487.} After consulting with Lincoln and Lovel she hired a body of two +thousand veteran Germans, under the command of Martin Swart, a brave +and experienced officer; [*] and sent them over, together with these two +noblemen, to join Simnel in Ireland. The countenance given by persons +of such high rank, and the accession of this military force, much raised +the courage of the Irish, and made them entertain the resolution of +invading England, where they believed the spirit of disaffection as +prevalent as it appeared to be in Ireland. The poverty also under which +they labored, made it impossible for them to support any longer their +new court and army, and inspired them with a strong desire of enriching +themselves by plunder and preferment in England. + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 572, 573. + +Henry was not ignorant of these intentions of his enemies, and he +prepared himself for defence. He ordered troops to be levied in +different parts of the kingdom, and put them under the command of the +duke of Bedford and earl of Oxford. He confined the marquis of Dorset, +who, he suspected, would resent the injuries suffered by his mother, the +queen dowager; and, to gratify the people by an appearance of devotion, +he made a pilgrimage to our lady of Walsingham, famous for miracles; +and there offered up prayers for success, and for deliverance from his +enemies. + +Being informed that Simnel was landed at Foudrey in Lancashire, he drew +together his forces, and advanced towards the enemy as far as Coventry. +The rebels had entertained hopes that the disaffected counties in the +north would rise in their favor; but the people in general, averse to +join Irish and German invaders, convinced of Lambert’s imposture, and +kept in awe by the king’s reputation for success and conduct, either +remained in tranquillity, or gave assistance to the royal army. The earl +of Lincoln, therefore, who commanded the rebels, finding no hopes but +in victory, was determined to bring the matter to a speedy decision; and +the king, supported by the native courage of his temper, and emboldened +by a great accession of volunteers, who had joined him under the earl of +Shrewsbury and Lord Strange, declined not the combat. The hostile armies +met at Stoke, in the county of Nottingham, and fought a battle, which +was bloody, and more obstinately disputed than could have been expected +from the inequality of their force. All the leaders of the rebels were +resolved to conquer or to perish; and they inspired their troops +with like resolution. The Germans also, being veteran and experienced +soldiers, kept the event long doubtful; and even the Irish, though +ill-armed and almost defenceless, showed themselves not defective in +spirit and bravery. The king’s victory was purchased with loss, but was +entirely decisive. Lincoln, Broughton, and Swart perished in the field +of battle, with four thousand of their followers. As Lovel was never +more heard of, he was believed to have undergone the same fate; Simnel, +with his tutor, Simon, was taken prisoner. Simon, being a priest, was +not tried at law, and was only committed to close custody: Simnel was +too contemptible to be an object either of apprehension or resentment to +Henry. He was pardoned, and made a scullion in the king’s kitchen whence +he was afterwards advanced to the rank of a falconer.[*] + + * Bacon, p. 586. Polyd. Virg. p; 574. + +Henry had now leisure to revenge himself on his enemies. He made a +progress into the northern parts, where he gave many proofs of his +rigorous disposition. A strict inquiry was made after those who had +assisted or favored the rebels. The punishments were not all sanguinary: +the king made his revenge subservient to his avarice. Heavy fines were +levied upon the delinquents. The proceedings of the courts, and even the +courts themselves, were arbitrary. Either the criminals were tried by +commissioners appointed for the purpose, or they suffered punishment +by sentence of a court-martial. And as a rumor had prevailed before the +battle of Stoke, that the rebels had gained the victory, that the royal +army was cut in pieces, and that the king himself had escaped by flight, +Henry was resolved to interpret the belief or propagation of this report +as a mark of disaffection; and he punished many for that pretended +crime. But such in this age was the situation of the English government, +that the royal prerogative, which was but imperfectly restrained during +the most peaceable periods, was sure, in tumultuous or even suspicious +times, which frequently recurred, to break all bounds of law, and to +violate public liberty. + +After the king had gratified his rigor by the punishment of his enemies, +he determined to give contentment to the people in a point which, though +a mere ceremony, was passionately desired by them. The queen had +been married near two years, but had not yet been crowned; and this +affectation of delay had given great discontent to the public, and had +been one principal source of the disaffection which prevailed. The king, +instructed by experience, now finished the ceremony of her coronation; +and to show a disposition still more gracious, he restored to liberty +the marquis of Dorset, who had been able to clear himself of all the +suspicions entertained against him. + + * Bacon, p. 586. Polyd. Virg. p; 574. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + + + + +HENRY VII. + +{1488.} The king acquired great reputation throughout Europe by the +vigorous and prosperous conduct of his domestic affairs; but as some +incidents about this time invited him to look abroad, and exert himself +in behalf of his allies, it will be necessary, in order to give a +just account of his foreign measures, to explain the situation of +the neighboring kingdoms, beginning with Scotland, which lies most +contiguous. + +The kingdom of Scotland had not yet attained that state which +distinguishes a civilized monarchy, and which enables the government, by +the force of its laws and institutions alone, without any extraordinary +capacity in the sovereign, to maintain itself in order and tranquillity. +James III., who now filled the throne, was a prince of little industry +and of a narrow genius; and though it behoved him to yield the reins of +government to his ministers, he had never been able to make any choice +which could give contentment both to himself and to his people. When he +bestowed his confidence on any of the principal nobility, he found that +they exalted their own family to such a height as was dangerous to the +prince, and gave umbrage to the state: when he conferred favor on any +person of meaner birth, on whose submission he could more depend, +the barons of his kingdom, enraged at the power of an upstart minion, +proceeded to the utmost extremities against their sovereign. Had Henry +entertained the ambition of conquests, a tempting opportunity now +offered of reducing that kingdom to subjection; but as he was probably +sensible that a warlike people, though they might be overrun by reason +of their domestic divisions, could not be retained in obedience without +a regular military force, which was then unknown in England, he rather +intended the renewal of the peace with Scotland, and sent an embassy to +James for that purpose. But the Scots, who never desired a durable peace +with England, and who deemed their security to consist in constantly +preserving themselves in a warlike posture, would not agree to more than +a seven years’ truce, which was accordingly concluded.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 575. + +The European states on the continent were then hastening fast to the +situation in which they have remained, without any material alteration, +for near three centuries; and began to unite themselves into one +extensive system of policy, which comprehended the chief powers of +Christendom. Spain, which had hitherto been almost entirely occupied +within herself, now became formidable by the union of Arragon and +Castile in the persons of Ferdinand and Isabella, who, being princes +of great capacity, employed their force in enterprises the most +advantageous to their combined monarchy. The conquest of Granada from +the Moors was then undertaken, and brought near to a happy conclusion. +And in that expedition the military genius of Spain was revived; honor +and security were attained; and her princes, no longer kept in awe by a +domestic enemy so dangerous, began to enter into all the transactions of +Europe, and make a great figure in every war and negotiation. + +Maximilian, king of the Romans, son of the emperor Frederick, had, by +his marriage with the heiress of Burgundy, acquired an interest in +the Netherlands; and though the death of his consort had weakened his +connections with that country, he still pretended to the government +as tutor to his son Philip, and his authority had been acknowledged +by Brabant, Holland, and several of the provinces. But as Flanders and +Hainault still refused to submit to his regency, and even appointed +other tutors to Philip, he had been engaged in long wars against that +obstinate people, and never was able thoroughly to subdue their spirit. +That he might free himself from the opposition of France, he had +concluded a peace with Lewis XI., and had given his daughter Margaret, +then an infant, in marriage to the dauphin; together with Artois, +Franche Compte, and Charolois, as her dowry. But this alliance had +not produced the desired effect. The dauphin succeeded to the crown of +France by the appellation of Charles VIII.; but Maximilian still found +the mutinies of the Flemings fomented by the intrigues of the court of +France. + +France, during the two preceding reigns, had made a mighty increase in +power and greatness; and had not other states of Europe at the same time +received an accession of force, it had been impossible to have retained +her within her ancient boundaries. Most of the great fiefs, Normandy, +Champagne, Anjou, Dauphny, Guienne, Provence, and Burgundy, had +been united to the crown; the English had been expelled from all their +conquests; the authority of the prince had been raised to such a height +as enabled him to maintain law and order; a considerable military force +was kept on foot, and the finances were able to support it. Lewis XI, +indeed, from whom many of these advantages were derived, was dead, and +had left his son, in early youth and ill educated, to sustain the weight +of the monarchy: but having intrusted the government to his daughter +Anne, lady of Beaujeu, a woman of spirit and capacity, the French power +suffered no check or decline. On the contrary, this princess formed the +great project, which at last she happily effected, of uniting to the +crown Brittany, the last and most independent fief of the monarchy. + +Francis II., duke of Brittany, conscious of his own incapacity for +government, had resigned himself to the direction of Peter Landais, +a man of mean birth, more remarkable for abilities than for virtue or +integrity. The nobles of Brittany, displeased with the great advancement +of this favorite, had even proceeded to disaffection against their +sovereign; and after many tumults and disorders, they at last united +among themselves, and in a violent manner seized, tried, and put to +death the obnoxious minister. Dreading the resentment of the prince for +this invasion of his authority, many of them retired to France; others, +for protection and safety, maintained a secret correspondence with the +French ministry, who, observing the great dissensions among the Bretons, +thought the opportunity favorable for invading the duchy; and so +much the rather as they could cover their ambition under the specious +pretence of providing for domestic security. + +Lewis, duke of Orleans, first prince of the blood, and presumptive +heir of the monarchy, had disputed the administration with the lady of +Beaujeu; and though his pretensions had been rejected by the states, he +still maintained cabals with many of the grandees, and laid schemes +for subverting the authority of that princess. Finding his conspiracies +detected, he took to arms, and fortified himself in Beaugeune; +but as his revolt was precipitate, before his confederates were ready to +join him, he had been obliged to submit, and to receive such conditions +as the French ministry were pleased to impose upon him. Actuated, +however, by his ambition, and even by his fears, he soon retired out of +France, and took shelter with the duke of Brittany, who was desirous of +strengthening himself against the designs of the lady of Beaujeu by the +friendship and credit of the duke of Orleans. This latter prince +also, perceiving the ascendant which he soon acquired over the duke of +Brittany, had engaged many of his partisans to join him at that court, +and had formed the design of aggrandizing himself by a marriage with +Anne, the heir of that opulent duchy. + +The barons of Brittany, who saw all favor engrossed by the duke of +Orleans and his train, renewed a stricter correspondence with France, +and even invited the French king to make an invasion on their country. +Desirous, however, of preserving its independency, they had regulated +the number of succors which France was to send them, and had stipulated +that no fortified place in Brittany should remain in the possession of +that monarchy; a vain precaution, where revolted subjects treat with a +power so much superior! The French invaded Brittany with forces three +times more numerous than those which they had promised to the barons; +and advancing into the heart of the country, laid siege to Ploerrnel. To +oppose them, the duke raised a numerous but ill-disciplined army, which +he put under the command of the duke of Orleans, the count of Dunois, +and others of the French nobility. The army, discontented with this +choice, and jealous of their confederates, soon disbanded, and left +their prince with too small a force to keep the field against his +invaders. He retired to Vannes; but being hotly pursued by the French, +who had now made themselves masters of Ploermel, he escaped to Nantz; +and the enemy, having previously taken and garrisoned Vannes, Dinant, +and other places, laid close siege to that city. The barons of Brittany, +finding their country menaced with total subjection, began gradually to +withdraw from the French army, and to make peace with their sovereign. + +This desertion, however, of the Bretons discouraged not the court +of France from pursuing her favorite project of reducing Brittany to +subjection The situation of Europe appeared favorable to the execution +of this design. Maximilian was indeed engaged in close alliance with the +duke of Brittany and had even opened a treaty for marrying his daughter; +but he was on all occasions so indigent, and at that time so disquieted +by the mutinies of the Flemings, that little effectual assistance could +be expected from him. Ferdinand was entirely occupied in the conquest of +Granada; and it was also known, that if France would resign to him +Roussillon and Cerdagne, to which he had pretensions, she could at any +time engage him to abandon the interests of Brittany. England, alone, +was both enabled by her power, and engaged by her interests, to support +the independency of that duchy; and the most dangerous opposition was +therefore, by Anne of Beaujeu, expected from that quarter. In order to +cover her real designs, no sooner was she informed of Henry’s success +against Simnel and his partisans, than she despatched ambassadors to the +court of London, and made professions of the greatest trust and +confidence in that monarch. + +The ambassadors, after congratulating Henry on his late victory, and +communicating to him, in the most cordial manner, as to an intimate +friend, some successes of their master against Maximilian, came in +the progress of their discourse to mention the late transactions in +Brittany. They told him that the duke having given protection to French +fugitives and rebels, the king had been necessitated, contrary to his +intention and inclination, to carry war into that duchy; that the honor +of the crown was interested not to suffer a vassal so far to forget +his duty to his liege lord; nor was the security of the government less +concerned to prevent the consequences of this dangerous temerity: that +the fugitives were no mean or obscure persons; but among others, +the duke of Orleans, first prince of the blood, who, finding himself +obnoxious to justice for treasonable practices in France, had fled +into Brittany; where he still persevered in laying schemes of rebellion +against his sovereign: that the war being thus, on the part of the +French monarch, entirely defensive, it would immediately cease, when the +duke of Brittany, by returning to his duty, should remove the causes of +it: that their master was sensible of the obligations which the duke, +in very critical times, had conferred on Henry; but it was known also, +that, in times still more critical, he or his mercenary counsellors +had deserted him, and put his life in the utmost hazard: that his sole +refuge in these desperate extremities had been the court of France, +which not only protected his person, but supplied him with men and +money, with which, aided by his own valor and conduct, he had been +enabled to mount the throne of England; that France in this transaction +had, from friendship to Henry acted contrary to what, in a narrow view, +might be esteemed her own interest; since, instead of an odious tyrant, +she had contributed to establish on a rival throne a prince endowed with +such virtue and abilities; and that, as both the justice of the cause +and the obligations conferred on Henry thus preponderated on the side +of France, she reasonably expected that, if the situation of his affairs +did not permit him to give her assistance, he would at least preserve a +neutrality between the contending parties.[*] + + * Bacon, p. 589. + +This discourse of the French ambassadors was plausible; and to give +it greater weight, they communicated to Henry, as in confidence, their +master’s intention, after he should have settled the differences with +Brittany to lead an army into Italy, and make good his pretensions to +the kingdom of Naples; a project which, they knew, would give no umbrage +to the court of England. But all these artifices were in vain employed +against the penetration of the king. He clearly saw that France had +entertained the view of subduing Brittany; but he also perceived, that +she would meet with great, and, as he thought, insuperable difficulties +in the execution of her project. The native force of that duchy, he +knew, had always been considerable, and had often, without any foreign +assistance, resisted the power of France; the natural temper of +the French nation, he imagined, would make them easily abandon any +enterprise which required perseverance; and as the heir of the crown +was confederated with the duke of Brittany, the ministers would be +still more remiss in prosecuting a scheme which must draw on them his +resentment and displeasure. Should even these internal obstructions be +removed, Maximilian, whose enmity to France was well known, and who now +paid his addresses to the heiress of Brittany, would be able to make a +diversion on the side of Flanders; nor could it be expected that France, +if she prosecuted such ambitious projects, would be allowed to remain in +tranquillity by Ferdinand and Isabella. Above all, he thought the French +court could never expect that England, so deeply interested to preserve +the independency of Brittany, so able by her power and situation to give +effectual and prompt assistance, would permit such an accession of force +to her rival. He imagined, therefore, that the ministers of France, +convinced of the impracticability of their scheme, would at last embrace +pacific views, and would abandon an enterprise so obnoxious to all the +potentates of Europe. + +This reasoning of Henry was solid, and might justly engage him in +dilatory and cautious measures: but there entered into his conduct +another motive, which was apt to draw him beyond the just bounds, +because founded on a ruling passion. His frugality, which by degrees +degenerated into avarice, made him averse to all warlike enterprises and +distant expeditions, and engaged him previously to try the expedient +of negotiation. He despatched Urswic, his almoner, a man of address and +abilities, to make offer of his mediation to the contending parties; +an offer which, he thought, if accepted by France, would soon lead to +a composure of all differences; if refused or eluded, would at least +discover the perseverance of that court in her ambitious projects. +Urswic found the lady of Beaujeu, now duchess of Bourbon, engaged in the +siege of Nantz, and had the satisfaction to find that his master’s +offer of mediation was readily embraced and with many expressions of +confidence and moderation. That able princess concluded, that the duke +of Orleans, who governed the court of Brittany, foreseeing that every +accommodation must be made at his expense, would use all his interest to +have Henry’s proposal rejected; and would by that means make an apology +for the French measures, and draw on the Bretons the reproach of +obstinacy and injustice. The event justified her prudence. When the +English ambassador made the same offer to the duke of Brittany, he +received for answer, in the name of that prince, that having so long +acted the part of protector and guardian to Henry during his youth and +adverse fortune, he had expected from a monarch of such virtue more +effectual assistance in his present distresses than a barren offer of +mediation, which suspended not the progress of the French arms: that if +Henry’s gratitude were not sufficient to engage him in such a measure, +his prudence, as king of England, should discover to him the pernicious +consequences attending the conquest of Brittany, and its annexation to +the crown of France: that that kingdom, already too powerful, would be +enabled, by so great an accession of force, to display, to the ruin of +England, that hostile disposition which had always subsisted between +those rival nations: that Brittany, so useful an ally, which, by its +situation, gave the English an entrance into the heart of France, being +annexed to that kingdom, would be equally enabled from its situation to +disturb, either by piracies or naval armaments, the commerce and +peace cf England: and that if the duke rejected Henry’s mediation, it +proceeded neither from an inclination to a war, which he experienced to +be ruinous to him, nor from a confidence in his own force, which he knew +to be much inferior to that of the enemy; but, on the contrary, from a +sense of his present necessities, which must engage the king to act the +part of his confederate, not that of a mediator. + +When this answer was reported to the king, he abandoned not the plan +which he had formed; he only concluded that some more time was requisite +to quell the obstinacy of the Bretons, and make them submit to reason. +And when he learned that the people of Brittany, anxious for their +duke’s safety, had formed a tumultuary army of sixty thousand men, and +had obliged the French to raise the siege of Nantz, he fortified himself +the more in his opinion, that the court of France would at last be +reduced, by multiplied obstacles and difficulties, to abandon the +project of reducing Brittany to subjection. He continued, therefore, his +scheme of negotiation, and thereby exposed himself to be deceived by +the artifices of the French ministry; who, still pretending pacific +intentions, sent Lord Bernard Daubigni, a Scotchman of quality, +to London, and pressed Henry not to be discouraged in offering his +mediation to the court of Brittany. The king, on his part, despatched +another embassy, consisting of Urswic, the abbot of Abingdon, and Sir +Richard Tonstal, who carried new proposals for an amicable treaty. No +effectual succors, meanwhile, were provided for the distressed Bretons. +Lord Woodville, brother to the queen dowager, having asked leave +to raise underhand a body of volunteers, and to transport them into +Brittany, met with a refusal from the king, who was desirous of +preserving the appearance of a strict neutrality. That nobleman, +however, still persisted in his purpose. He went over to the Isle of +Wight, of which he was governor, levied a body of four hundred men; and +having at last obtained, as is supposed, the secret permission of +Henry, sailed with them to Brittany. This enterprise proved fatal to the +leader, and brought small relief to the unhappy duke. The Bretons rashly +engaged in a general action with the French at St. Aubin, and were +discomfited. Woodville and all the English were put to the sword, +together with a body of Bretons, who had been accoutred in the garb of +Englishmen in order to strike a greater terror into the French, to whom +the martial prowess of that nation was always formidable.[*] The duke of +Orleans the prince of Orange, and many other persons of rank were taken +prisoners; and the military force of Brittany was totally broken. The +death of the duke, which followed soon after, threw affairs into +still greater confusion, and seemed to threaten the state with a final +subjection. + +Though the king did not prepare against these events, so hurtful to the +interests of England, with sufficient vigor and precaution, he had not +altogether overlooked them. Determined to maintain a pacific conduct, +as far as the situation of affairs would permit, he yet knew the warlike +temper of his subjects, and observed that their ancient and inveterate +animosity to France was now revived by the prospect of this great +accession to her power and grandeur. He resolved, therefore to make +advantage of this disposition, and draw some supplies from the people, +on pretence of giving assistance to the duke of Brittany. He had +summoned a parliament at Westminster;[**] and he soon persuaded them +to grant him a considerable subsidy.[***] But this supply, though +voted by parliament, involved the king in unexpected difficulties. +The counties of Durham and York, always discontented with Henry’s +government, and further provoked by the late oppressions under which +they had labored, after the suppression of Simnel’s rebellion, resisted +the commissioners who were appointed to levy the tax. The commissioners, +terrified with this appearance of sedition, made application to the +earl of Northumberland, and desired of him advice and assistance in +the execution of their office. That nobleman thought the matter of +importance enough to consult the king; who, unwilling to yield to +the humors of a discontented populace, and foreseeing the pernicious +consequence of such a precedent, renewed his orders for strictly levying +the imposition. Northumberland summoned together the justices and chief +freeholders, and delivered the king’s commands in the most imperious +terms which, he thought, would enforce obedience, but which tended only +to provoke the people, and make them believe him the adviser of those +orders which he delivered to them. [****] + + * Argentré Hist, de Bretagne, liv. xii. + + ** 9th November, 1487. + + *** Polyd. Virg. (p 579) says, that this imposition was a + capitation tax; the other historians say, it was a tax of + two shillings in the pound. + + **** Bacon, p. 595. + +They flew to arms, attacked Northumberland in his house, and put him to +death. Having incurred such deep guilt, their mutinous humor prompted +them to declare against the king himself; and being instigated by John +Achamber, a seditious fellow of low birth, they chose Sir John Egremond +their leader, and prepared themselves for a vigorous resistance. Henry +was not dismayed with an insurrection so precipitate and ill supported. +He immediately levied a force, which he put under the command of the +earl of Surrey, whom he had freed from confinement and received into +favor. His intention was to send down these troops, in order to check +the progress of the rebels; while he himself should follow with a +greater body, which would absolutely insure success. But Surrey thought +himself strong enough to encounter alone a raw and unarmed multitude; +and he succeeded in the attempt. The rebels were dissipated; John +Achamber was taken prisoner, and afterwards executed with some of his +accomplices; Sir John Egremond fled to the duchess of Burgundy, who gave +him protection; the greater number of the rebels received a pardon. + +Henry had probably expected, when he obtained this grant from +parliament, that he should be able to terminate the affair of Brittany +by negotiation, and that he might thereby fill his coffers with the +money levied by the imposition. But as the distresses of the Bretons +still multiplied, and became every day more urgent, he found himself +under the necessity of taking more vigorous measures, in order to +support them. On the death of the duke, the French had revived some +antiquated claims to the dominion of the duchy; and as the duke of +Orleans was now captive in France, their former pretence for hostilities +could no longer serve as a cover to their ambition. The king resolved +therefore to engage as auxiliary to Brittany; and to consult the +interests, as well as desires of his people, by opposing himself to +the progress of the French power. Besides entering into a league with +Maximilian, and another with Ferdinand, which were distant resources, +he levied a body of troops, to the number of six thousand men, with an +intention of transporting them into Brittany. + +{1489.} Still anxious, however, for the repayment of his expenses, he +concluded a treaty with the young duchess, by which she engaged to +deliver into his hands two seaport towns, there to remain till she +should entirely refund the charges of the armament.[*] + + * Du Tillet, Recueil des Traités. + +Though he engaged for the service of these troops during the space of +ten months only, yet was the duchess obliged, by the necessity of her +affairs, to submit to such rigid conditions, imposed by any ally so +much concerned in interest to protect her. The forces arrived under the +command of Lord Willoughby of Broke; and made the Bretons, during some +time, masters of the field. The French retired into their garrisons; +and expected by dilatory measures to waste the fire of the English, and +disgust them with the enterprise. The scheme was well laid, and met with +success. Lord Broke found such discord and confusion in the counsels of +Brittany, that no measures could be concerted for any undertaking; no +supply obtained; no provisions, carriages, artillery, or military stores +procured. The whole court was rent into factions: no one minister had +acquired the ascendant: and whatever project was formed by one, was +sure to be traversed by another. The English, disconcerted in every +enterprise by these animosities and uncertain counsels, returned home +as soon as the time of their service was elapsed, leaving only a small +garrison in those towns which had been consigned into their hands. +During their stay in Brittany, they had only contributed still further +to waste the country; and by their departure, they left it entirely at +the mercy of the enemy. So feeble was the succor which Henry in this +important conjuncture afforded his ally, whom the invasion of a foreign +enemy, concurring with domestic dissensions, had reduced to the utmost +distress. + +The great object of the domestic dissensions in Brittany was the +disposal of the young duchess in marriage. The mareschal Rieux, favored +by Henry, seconded the suit of the lord D’Albret, who led some forces to +her assistance. The chancellor Montauban, observing the aversion of the +duchess to this suitor, insisted that a petty prince, such as +D’Albret, was unable to support Anne in her present extremities; and +he recommended some more powerful alliance, particularly that of +Maximilian, king of the Romans. + +{1490.} This party at last prevailed; the marriage with Maximilian was +celebrated by proxy; and the duchess thenceforth assumed the title of +queen of the Romans. But this magnificent appellation was all she +gained by her marriage. Maximilian, destitute of troops and money, and +embarrassed with the continual revolts of the Flemings, could send +no succor to his distressed consort; while D’Albret, enraged at the +preference given to his rival, deserted her cause, and received the +French into Nantz, the most important place in the duchy both for +strength and riches. + +The French court now began to change their scheme with regard to the +subjection of Brittany. Charles had formerly been affianced to Margaret, +daughter of Maximilian; who, though too young for the consummation of +her marriage, had been sent to Paris to be educated, and at this time +bore the title of queen of France. Besides the rich dowry which she +brought the king, she was, after her brother Philip, then in early +youth, heir to all the dominions of the house of Burgundy; and seemed in +many respects the most proper match that could be chosen for the young +monarch. These circumstances had so blinded both Maximilian and Henry, +that they never suspected any other intentions in the French court; nor +were they able to discover that engagements, seemingly so advantageous +and so solemnly entered into, could be infringed and set aside. But +Charles began to perceive that the conquest of Brittany, in opposition +to the natives, and to all the great powers of Christendom, would prove +a difficult enterprise; and that even if he should overrun the country +and make himself master of the fortresses, it would be impossible for +him long to retain possession of them. The marriage alone of the duchess +could fully reannex that fief to the crown; and the present and certain +enjoyment of so considerable a territory, seemed preferable to the +prospect of inheriting the dominions of the house of Burgundy; a +prospect which became every day more distant and precarious. Above all, +the marriage of Maximilian and Anne appeared destructive to the grandeur +and even security of the French monarchy; while that prince, possessing +Flanders on the one hand, and Brittany on the other, might thus, from +both quarters, make inroads into the heart of the country. The only +remedy for these evils was therefore concluded to be the dissolution of +the two marriages, which had been celebrated, but not consummated; and +the espousal of the duchess of Brittany by the king of France. + +It was necessary that this expedient, which had not been foreseen by any +court in Europe, and which they were all so much interested to oppose, +should be kept a profound secret, and should be discovered to the +world only by the full execution of it. The measures of the French +ministry in the conduct of this delicate enterprise were wise and +political. While they pressed Brittany with all the rigors of war, they +secretly gained the count of Dunois, who possessed great authority with +the Bretons; and having also engaged in their interests the prince of +Orange, cousin-german to the duchess, they gave him his liberty, and +sent him into Brittany. These partisans, supported by other emissaries +of France, prepared the minds of men for the great revolution projected, +and displayed, though still with many precautions, all the advantages +of a union with the French monarchy. They represented to the barons +of Brittany, that their country, harassed during so many years with +perpetual war, had need of some repose, and of a solid and lasting peace +with the only power that was formidable to them: that their alliance +with Maximilian was not able to afford them even present protection; +and, by closely uniting them to a power which was rival to the greatness +of France, fixed them in perpetual enmity with that potent monarchy: +that their vicinity exposed them first to the inroads of the enemy; and +the happiest event which, in such a situation, could befall them, would +be to attain a peace, though by a final subjection to France, and by the +loss of that liberty transmitted to them from their ancestors: and that +any other expedient, compatible with the honor of the state and their +duty to their sovereign, was preferable to a scene of such disorder and +devastation. + +These suggestions had influence with the Bretons: but the chief +difficulty lay in surmounting the prejudices of the young duchess +herself. That princess had imbibed a strong prepossession against the +French nation, particularly against Charles, the author of all the +calamities which, from her earliest infancy, had befallen her family. +She had also fixed her affections on Maximilian; and as she now deemed +him her husband, she could not, she thought, without incurring the +greatest guilt, and violating the most solemn engagements, contract a +marriage with any other person. + +{1491.} In order to overcome her obstinacy, Charles gave the duke of +Orleans his liberty; who, though formerly a suitor to the duchess, was +now contented to ingratiate himself with the king, by employing in his +favor all the interest which he still possessed in Brittany. Mareschal +Rieux and Chancellor Montauban were reconciled by his mediation; and +these rival ministers now concurred with the prince of Orange and the +count of Dunois, in pressing the conclusion of a marriage with Charles. +By their suggestion, Charles advanced with a powerful army, and invested +Rennes, at that time the residence of the duchess; who, assailed on all +hands, and finding none to support her in her inflexibility, at last +opened the gates of the city, and agreed to espouse the king of France, +She was married at Langey, in Touraine; conducted to St. Denis, where +she was crowned; thence made her entry into Paris, amidst the joyful +acclamations of the people, who regarded this marriage as the most +prosperous event that could have befallen the monarchy. + +The triumph and success of Charles was the most sensible mortification +to the king of the Romans. He had lost a considerable territory, which +he thought he had acquired, and an accomplished princess, whom he had +espoused; he was affronted in the person of his daughter Margaret, who +was sent back to him, after she had been treated during some years as +queen of France; he had reason to reproach himself with his own supine +security, in neglecting the consummation of his marriage, which was +easily practicable for him, and which would have rendered the tie +indissoluble: these considerations threw him into the most violent rage, +which he vented in very indecent expressions; and he threatened France +with an invasion from the united arms of Austria, Spain, and England. + +The king of England had also just reason to reproach himself with +misconduct in this important transaction; and though the affair had +terminated in a manner which he could not precisely foresee, his +negligence, in leaving his most useful ally so long exposed to the +invasion of superior power, could not but appear on reflection the +result of timid caution and narrow politics. As he valued himself on his +extensive foresight and profound judgment, the ascendant acquired over +him by a raw youth, such as Charles, could not but give him the highest +displeasure, and prompt him to seek vengeance, after all remedy for +his miscarriage was become absolutely impracticable. But he was further +actuated by avarice, a motive still more predominant with him +than either pride or revenge; and he sought, even from his present +disappointments, the gratification of this ruling passion. On pretence +of a French war, he issued a commission for levying a “benevolence” + on his people;[*] a species of taxation which had been abolished by a +recent law of Richard III. + + * Rymer, vol. xii. p. 446. Bacon says that the benevolence + was levied with consent of parliament, which is a mistake. + +This violence (for such it really was) fell chiefly on the commercial +part of the nation, who were possessed of the ready money. London +alone contributed to the amount of near ten thousand pounds. Archbishop +Morton, the chancellor, instructed the commissioners to employ a +dilemma, in which every one might be comprehended: if the persons +applied to lived frugally, they were told that their parsimony must +necessarily have enriched them; if their method of living were splendid +and hospitable, they were concluded to be opulent on account of their +expenses. This device was by some called Chancellor Morton’s fork, by +others his crutch. + +So little apprehensive was the king of a parliament on account of his +levying this arbitrary imposition, that he soon after summoned that +assembly to meet at Westminster; and he even expected to enrich himself +further by working on their passions and prejudices. He knew the +displeasure which the English had conceived against France on account of +the acquisition of Brittany; and he took care to insist on that topic, +in the speech which he himself pronounced to the parliament. He told +them, that France, elated with her late successes, had even proceeded to +a contempt of England, and had refused to pay the tribute which Lewis XI +had stipulated to Edward IV.: that it became so warlike a nation as +the English to be roused by this indignity, and not to limit their +pretensions merely to repelling the present injury: that, for his part, +he was determined to lay claim to the crown itself of France, and to +maintain by force of arms so just a title, transmitted to him by his +gallant ancestors: that Crecy, Poictiers, and Azincour were sufficient +to instruct them in their superiority over the enemy; nor did he despair +of adding new names to the glorious catalogue; that a king of France +had been prisoner in London, and a king of England had been crowned at +Paris; events which should animate them to an emulation of like glory +with that which had been enjoyed by their forefathers: that the domestic +dissensions of England had been the sole cause of her losing these +foreign dominions; and her present internal union would be the effectual +means of recovering them: that where such lasting honor was in view, and +such an important acquisition, it became not brave men to repine at the +advance of a little treasure: and that, for his part, he was determined +to make the war maintain itself; and hoped by the invasion of so opulent +a kingdom as France, to increase rather than diminish the riches of the +nation.[*] + + * Bacon, p. 601. + +Notwithstanding these magnificent vaunts of the king, all men of +penetration concluded, from the personal character of the man, and still +more from the situation of affairs, that he had no serious intention of +pushing the war to such extremities as he pretended. France was not now +in the same condition as when such successful inroads had been made +upon her by former kings of England. The great fiefs were united to +the crown; the princes of the blood were desirous of tranquillity; the +nation abounded with able captains and veteran soldiers; and the general +aspect of her affairs seemed rather to threaten her neighbors, than to +promise them any considerable advantages against her. The levity and +vain-glory of Maximilian were supported by his pompous titles; but +were ill seconded by military power, and still less by any revenue +proportioned to them. The politic Ferdinand, while he made a show of +war, was actually negotiating for peace; and rather than expose himself +to any hazard, would accept of very moderate concessions from France. +Even England was not free from domestic discontents; and in Scotland, +the death of Henry’s friend and ally, James III., who had been murdered +by his rebellious subjects, had made way for the succession of his son, +James IV., who was devoted to the French interest, and would surely be +alarmed at any important progress of the English arms. But all these +obvious considerations had no influence on the parliament. Inflamed by +the ideas of subduing France, and of enriching themselves by the spoils +of that kingdom, they gave into the snare prepared for them, and voted +the supply which the king demanded. Two fifteenths were granted him; and +the better to enable his vassals and nobility to attend him, an act was +passed, empowering them to sell their estates, without paying any fines +for alienation. + +{1492.} The nobility were universally seized with a desire of military +glory; and having credulously swallowed all the boasts of the king, they +dreamed of no less than carrying their triumphant banners to the +gates of Paris, and putting the crown of France on the head of their +sovereign. Many of them borrowed large sums, or sold off manors, that +they might appear in the field with greater splendor, and lead out their +followers in more complete order. The king crossed the sea, and arrived +at Calais on the sixth of October, with an army of twenty-five thousand +foot and sixteen hundred horse, which he put under the command of the +duke of Bedford and the earl of Oxford: but as some inferred, from +his opening the campaign in so late a season, that peace would soon be +concluded between the crowns, he was desirous of suggesting a contrary +inference. “He had come over,” he said, “to make an entire conquest of +France, which was not the work of one summer. It was therefore of no +consequence at what season he began the invasion; especially as he had +Calais ready for winter quarters.” As if he had seriously intended this +enterprise, he instantly marched into the enemy’s country, and laid +siege to Boulogne: but notwithstanding this appearance of hostility, +there had been secret advances made towards peace above three months +before; and commissioners had been appointed to treat of the terms. The +better to reconcile the minds of men to this unexpected measure, the +king’s ambassadors arrived in the camp from the Low Countries, and +informed him, that Maximilian was in no readiness to join him; nor was +any assistance to be expected from that quarter. Soon after, messengers +came from Spain, and brought news of a peace concluded between that +kingdom and France, in which Charles had made a cession of the counties +of Roussillon and Cerdagne to Ferdinand. Though these articles of +intelligence were carefully dispersed throughout the army, the king was +still apprehensive lest a sudden peace, after such magnificent promises +and high expectations, might expose him to reproach. In order the more +effectually to cover the intended measures, he secretly engaged the +marquis of Dorset, together with twenty-three persons of distinction, +to present him a petition for agreeing to a treaty with France. The +pretence was founded on the late season of the year, the difficulty of +supplying the army at Calais during winter, the obstacles which arose +in the siege of Boulogne, the desertion of those allies whose assistance +had been most relied on: events which might, all of them, have been +foreseen before the embarkation of the forces. + +In consequence of these preparatory steps, the bishop of Exeter and Lord +Daubeney were sent to confer at Estaples with the mareschal de Cordes, +and to put the last hand to the treaty. A few days sufficed for that +purpose: the demands of Henry were wholly pecuniary; and the king of +Franco, who deemed the peaceable possession of Brittany an equivalent +for any sum, and who was all on fire for his projected expedition into +Italy, readily agreed to the proposals made him. He engaged to pay Henry +seven hundred and forty-five thousand crowns, near four hundred thousand +pounds sterling of our present money; partly as a reimbursement of +the sums advanced to Brittany, partly as arrears of the pension due to +Edward IV. And he stipulated a yearly pension to Henry and his heirs +of twenty-five thousand crowns. Thus the king, as remarked by his +historian, made profit upon his subjects for the war, and upon his +enemies for the peace.[*] And the people agreed that he had fulfilled +his promise, when he said to the parliament that he would make the war +maintain itself. Maximilian was, if he pleased, comprehended in Henry’s +treaty; but he disdained to be in any respect beholden to an ally, of +whom, he thought, he had reason to complain: he made a separate peace +with France, and obtained restitution of Artois, Franche Compte, and +Charolois, which had been ceded as the dowry of his daughter when she +was affianced to the king of France. + + * Bacon, p. 605. Polyd Virg. p. 586. + +The peace concluded between England and France was the more likely to +continue, because Charles, full of ambition and youthful hopes, bent +all his attention to the side of Italy, and soon after undertook the +conquest of Naples; an enterprise which Henry regarded with the greater +indifference, as Naples lay remote from him, and France had never, in +any age, been successful in that quarter. The king’s authority was +fully established at home; and every rebellion which had been attempted +against him, had hitherto tended only to confound his enemies, and +consolidate his power and influence. His reputation for policy and +conduct was daily augmenting; his treasures had increased even from the +most unfavorable events; the hopes of all pretenders to his throne were +cut off, as well by his marriage as by the issue which it had brought +him. In this prosperous situation, the king had reason to flatter +himself with the prospect of durable peace and tranquillity; but his +inveterate and indefatigable enemies, whom he had wantonly provoked, +raised him an adversary, who long kept him in inquietude, and sometimes +even brought him into danger. + +The duchess of Burgundy, full of resentment for the depression of her +family and its partisans, rather irritated than discouraged by the ill +success of her past enterprises, was determined at least to disturb that +government which she found it so difficult to subvert. By means of +her emissaries, she propagated a report that her nephew, Richard +Plantagenet, duke of York, had escaped from the Tower when his elder +brother was murdered, and that he still lay somewhere concealed: and +finding this rumor, however improbable, to be greedily received by the +people, she had been looking out for some young man proper to personate +that unfortunate prince. + +There was one Osbec, or Warbec, a renegade Jew of Tournay, who had been +carried by some business to London in the reign of Edward IV., and had +there a son born to him. Having had opportunities of being known to +the king, and obtaining his favor, he prevailed with that prince, whose +manners were very affable, to stand godfather to his son, to whom +he gave the name of Peter, corrupted, after the Flemish manner, into +Peterkin, or Perkin. It was by some believed that Edward, among his +amorous adventures, had a secret commerce with Warbec’s wife; and people +thence accounted for that resemblance which was afterwards remarked +between young Perkin and that monarch.[*] + + * Bacon, p. 606. + +Some years after the birth of this child, Warbec returned to Tournay; +where Perkin, his son, did not long remain, but by different accidents, +was carried from place to place, and his birth and fortunes became +thereby unknown, and difficult to be traced by the most diligent +inquiry. The variety of his adventures had happily favored the natural +versatility and sagacity of his genius; and he seemed to be a youth +perfectly fitted to act any part, or assume any character. In this light +he had been represented to the duchess of Burgundy, who, struck with the +concurrence of so many circumstances suited to her purpose, desired to +be made acquainted with the man, on whom she already began to ground +her hopes of success. She found him to exceed her most sanguine +expectations; so comely did he appear in his person, so graceful in his +air, so courtly in his address, so full of docility and good sense in +his behavior and conversation. The lessons necessary to be taught him, +in order to his personating the duke of York, were soon learned by a +youth of such quick apprehension; but as the season seemed not then +favorable for their enterprise, Margaret, in order the better to conceal +him, sent him, under the care of Lady Brampton into Portugal, where he +remained a year unknown to all the world. + +The war, which was then ready to break out between France and England, +seemed to afford a proper opportunity for the discovery of this new +phenomenon; and Ireland, which still retained its attachments to +the house of York, was chosen as the proper place for his first +appearance.[*] He landed at Cork; and immediately assuming the name of +Richard Plantagenet, drew to him partisans among that credulous people. +He wrote letters to the earls of Desmond and Kildare, inviting them to +join his party: he dispersed every where the strange intelligence of +his escape from the cruelty of his uncle Richard: and men, fond of every +thing new and wonderful, began to make him the general subject of their +discourse, and even the object of their favor. + +The news soon reached France; and Charles, prompted by the secret +solicitations of the duchess of Burgundy, and the intrigues of one +Frion, a secretary of Henry’s, who had deserted his service, sent Perkin +an invitation to repair to him at Paris. He received him with all the +marks of regard due to the duke of York; settled on him a handsome +pension, assigned him magnificent lodgings, and in order to provide at +once for his dignity and security, gave him a guard for his person, +of which Lord Congresal accepted the office of captain. The French +courtiers readily embraced a fiction which their sovereign thought +it his interest to adopt: Perkin, both by his deportment and personal +qualities, supported the prepossession which was spread abroad of his +royal pedigree: and the whole kingdom was full of the accomplishments, +as well as the singular adventures and misfortunes, of the young +Plantagenet. Wonders of this nature are commonly augmented at a +distance. From France the admiration and credulity diffused themselves +into England: Sir George Nevil,[*] Sir John Taylor, and above a hundred +gentlemen more, came to Paris, in order to offer their services to the +supposed duke of York, and to share his fortunes: and the impostor had +now the appearance of a court attending him, and began to entertain +hopes of final success in his undertakings. + + * Polyd Virg. p. 589. + +When peace was concluded between France and England at Estaples, Henry +applied to have Perkin put into his hands; but Charles, resolute not +to betray a young man, of whatever birth, whom he had invited into his +kingdom, would agree only to dismiss him. The pretended Richard retired +to the duchess of Burgundy, and craving her protection and assistance, +offered to lay before her all the proofs of that birth to which he laid +claim. The princess affected ignorance of his pretensions; even put +on the appearance of distrust: and having, as she said, been already +deceived by Simnel, she was determined never again to be seduced by +any impostor. She desired before all the world to be instructed in his +reasons for assuming the name which he bore; seemed to examine every +circumstance with the most scrupulous nicety; put many particular +questions to him; affected astonishment at his answers; and at last, +after long and severe scrutiny, burst out into joy and admiration at +his wonderful deliverance, embraced him as her nephew, the true image of +Edward, the sole heir of the Plantagenets, and the legitimate successor +to the English throne. + +{1493.} She immediately assigned him an equipage suited to his pretended +birth; appointed him a guard of thirty halberdiers; engaged every one to +pay court to him; and on all occasions honored him with the appellation +of the White Rose of England. The Flemings, moved by the authority which +Margaret, both from her rank and personal character, enjoyed among them, +readily adopted the fiction of Perkin’s royal descent: no surmise of his +true birth was as yet heard of little contradiction was made to the +prevailing opinion: and the English, from their great communication with +the Low Countries, were every day more and more prepossessed in favor of +the impostor. + +It was not the populace alone of England that gave credit to Perkin’s +pretensions. Men of the highest birth and quality, disgusted at Henry’s +government, by which they found the nobility depressed, began to turn +their eyes towards the new claimant; and some of them even entered into +a correspondence with him. Lord Fitzwater, Sir Simon Mountfort, Sir +Thomas Thwaites, betrayed their inclination towards him: Sir William +Stanley himself, lord chamberlain, who had been so active in raising +Henry to the throne, moved either by blind credulity or a restless +ambition, entertained the project of a revolt in favor of his enemy.[*] + + + * Bacon, p. 608. + +Sir Robert Clifford and William Barley were still more open in their +measures: they went over to Flanders, were introduced by the duchess of +Burgundy to the acquaintance of Perkin, and made him a tender of their +services. Clifford wrote back to England, that he knew perfectly the +person of Richard, duke of York, that this young man was undoubtedly +that prince himself, and that no circumstance of his story was exposed +to the least difficulty. Such positive intelligence, conveyed by a +person of rank and character, was sufficient with many to put the matter +beyond question, and excited the attention and wonder even of the most +indifferent. The whole nation was held in suspense; a regular conspiracy +was formed against the king’s authority, and a correspondence settled +between the malecontents in Flanders and those in England. + +The king was informed of all these particulars; but agreeably to +his character, which was both cautious and resolute, he proceeded +deliberately, though steadily, in counterworking the projects of his +enemies. His first object was to ascertain the death of the real duke of +York, and to confirm the opinion that had always prevailed with regard +to that event. Five persons had been employed by Richard in the murder +of his nephews, or could give evidence with regard to it; Sir James +Tyrrel, to whom he had committed the government of the Tower for that +purpose, and who had seen the dead princes; Forrest, Dighton, and +Slater, who perpetrated the crime; and the priest who buried the bodies. +Tyrrel and Dighton alone were alive, and they agreed in the same story; +but as the priest was dead, and as the bodies were supposed to have +been removed by Richard’s orders from the place where they were first +interred, and could not now be found, it was not in Henry’s power to put +the fact, so much as he wished, beyond all doubt and controversy. + +He met at first with more difficulty, but was in the end more +successful, in detecting who this wonderful person was that thus boldly +advanced pretensions to his crown. He dispersed his spies all over +Flanders and England; he engaged many to pretend that they had embraced +Perkin’s party; he directed them to insinuate themselves into the +confidence of the young man’s friends; in proportion as they conveyed +intelligence of any conspirator, he bribed his retainers, his domestic +servants, nay, sometimes his confessor, and by these means traced up +some other confederate; Clifford himself he engaged, by the hope of +rewards and pardon, to betray the secrets committed to him; the more +trust he gave to any of his spies, the higher resentment did he feign +against them, some of them he even caused to be publicly anathematized, +in order the better to procure them the confidence of his enemies: and +in the issue, the whole plan of the conspiracy was clearly laid before +him; and the pedigree, adventures, life, and conversation of the +pretended duke of York. This latter part of the story was immediately +published for the satisfaction of the nation: the conspirators he +reserved for a slower and surer vengeance. + +{1494.} Meanwhile he remonstrated with the archduke Philip, on account +of the countenance and protection which was afforded in his dominions +to so infamous an impostor; contrary to treaties subsisting between the +sovereigns, and to the mutual amity which had so long been maintained +by the subjects of both states. Margaret had interest enough to get his +application rejected; on pretence that Philip had no authority over the +demesnes of the duchess dowager. And the king, in resentment of this +injury, cut off all commerce with the Low Countries, banished the +Flemings, and recalled his own subjects from these provinces. Philip +retaliated by like edicts; but Henry knew, that so mutinous a people as +the Flemings would not long bear, in compliance with the humors of their +prince, to be deprived of the beneficial branch of commerce which they +carried on with England. + +He had it in his power to inflict more effectual punishment on his +domestic enemies; and when his projects were sufficiently matured, he +failed not to make them feel the effects of his resentment. Almost +in the same instant he arrested Fitzwater, Mountfort, and Thwaites, +together with William Daubeney, Robert Rateliff, Thomas Cressenor, and +Thomas Astwood. All these were arraigned, convicted, and condemned +for high treason, in adhering and promising aid to Perkin. Mountfort, +Ratcliff, and Daubeney were immediately executed: Fitzwater was +sent over to Calais, and detained in custody; but being detected in +practising on his keeper for an escape, he soon after underwent the same +fate. The rest were pardoned, together with William Worseley, dean of +St. Paul’s, and some others, who had been accused and examined, but not +brought to public trial.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 592. + +Greater and more solemn preparations were deemed requisite for the +trial of Stanley, lord chamberlain, whose authority in the nation, whose +domestic connections with the king, as well as his former services, +seemed to secure him against any accusation or punishment. Clifford was +directed to come over privately to England, and to throw himself at the +king’s feet while he sat in council; craving pardon for past offences +and offering to atone for them by any services which should be required +of him. Henry then told him, that the best proof he could give of +penitence, and the only service he could now render him, was the full +confession of his guilt, and the discovery of all his accomplices, +however distinguished by rank or character. Encouraged by this +exhortation, Clifford accused Stanley, then present, as his chief +abettor; and offered to lay before the council the full proof of +his guilt. Stanley himself could not discover more surprise than was +affected by Henry on the occasion. He received the intelligence as +absolutely false and incredible; that a man, to whom he was in a great +measure beholden for his crown, and even for his life; a man, to, whom, +by every honor and favor, he had endeavored to express his gratitude; +whose brother, the earl of Derby, was his own father-in-law; to whom +he had even committed the trust of his person, by creating him lord +chamberlain: that this man, enjoying his full confidence and affection, +not actuated by any motive of discontent or apprehension, should engage +in a conspiracy against him. Clifford was therefore exhorted to weigh +well the consequences of his accusation; but as he persisted in the same +positive asseverations, Stanley was committed to custody, and was soon +after examined before the council.[*] He denied not the guilt imputed to +him by Clifford; he did not even endeavor much to extenuate it; whether +he thought that a frank and open confession would serve as an atonement, +or trusted to his present connections and his former services for pardon +and security. But princes are often apt to regard great services as +a ground of jealousy, especially if accompanied with a craving and +restless disposition in the person who has performed them. The general +discontent also, and mutinous humor of the people, seemed to require +some great example of severity. And as Stanley was one of the most +opulent subjects in the kingdom, being possessed of above three thousand +pounds a year in land, and forty thousand marks in plate and money, +besides other property of great value, the prospect of so rich a +forfeiture was deemed no small motive for Henry’s proceeding to +extremities against him. + + * Bacon, p. 611 Polyd. Virg. p. 593. + +{1495.} After six weeks’ delay, which was interposed in order to show +that the king was restrained by doubts and scruples, the prisoner +was brought to his trial, condemned, and presently after beheaded. +Historians are not agreed with regard to the crime which was proved +against him. The general report is, that he should have said in +confidence to Clifford, that if he were sure the young man who appeared +in Flanders was really son to King Edward, he never would bear arms +against him. The sentiment might disgust Henry, as implying a preference +of the house of York to that of Lancaster; but could scarcely be the +ground, even in those arbitrary times, of a sentence of high treason +against Stanley. It is more probable, therefore, as is asserted by some +historians, that he had expressly engaged to assist Perkin, and had +actually sent him some supply of money. + +The fate of Stanley made great impression on the kingdom, and struck +all the partisans of Perkin with the deepest dismay. From Clifford’s +desertion, they found that all their secrets were betrayed; and as +it appeared that Stanley, while he seemed to live in the greatest +confidence with the king, had been continually surrounded by spies, who +reported and registered every action in which he was engaged, nay, every +word which fell from him, a general distrust took place, and all mutual +confidence was destroyed, even among intimate friends and acquaintance. +The jealous and severe temper of the king, together with his great +reputation for sagacity and penetration, kept men in awe, and quelled +not only the movements of sedition, but the very murmurs of faction. +Libels, however, crept out against Henry’s person and administration; +and being greedily propagated by every secret art, showed that there +still remained among the people a considerable root of discontent, which +wanted only a proper opportunity to discover itself. + +But Henry continued more intent on increasing the terrors of his people, +than on gaining their affections. Trusting to the great success which +attended him in all his enterprises, he gave every day more and more a +loose to his rapacious temper, and employed the arts of perverted law +and justice, in order to exact fines and compositions from his people. +Sir William Capel, alderman of London, was condemned on some penal +statutes to pay the sum of two thousand seven hundred and forty-three +pounds, and was obliged to compound for sixteen hundred and fifteen. +This was the first noted case of the kind; but it became a precedent, +which prepared the may for many others. The management, indeed, of these +arts of chicanery, was the great secret of the king’s administration. +While he depressed the nobility, he exalted, and honored, and caressed +the lawyers; and by that means both bestowed authority on the laws, and +was enabled, whenever he pleased, to pervert them to his own advantage. +His government was oppressive; but it was so much the less burdensome, +as, by his extending royal authority, and curbing the nobles, he became +in reality the sole oppressor in his kingdom. + +As Perkin found that the king’s authority daily gained ground among the +people, and that his own pretensions were becoming obsolete, he resolved +to attempt something which might revive the hopes and expectations of +his partisans. Having collected a band of outlaws, pirates, robbers, and +necessitous persons of all nations, to the number of six hundred men, +he put to sea, with a resolution of making a descent in England, and of +exciting the common people to arms, since all his correspondence with +the nobility was cut off by Henry vigilance and severity. Information +being brought him that the king had made a progress to the north, he +cast anchor on the coast of Kent, and sent some of his retainers ashore, +who invited the country to join him. The gentlemen of Kent assembled +some troops to oppose him; but they purposed to do more essential +service than by repelling the invasion: they carried the semblance of +friendship to Perkin, and invited him to come himself ashore, in order +to take the command over them. But the wary youth, observing that they +had more order and regularity in their movements than could be supposed +in new levied forces who had taken arms against established authority, +refused to intrust himself into their hands; and the Kentish troops, +despairing of success in their stratagem, fell upon such of his +retainers as were already landed; and besides some whom they slew, they +took a hundred and fifty prisoners. These were tried and condemned and +all of them executed, by orders from the king, who was resolved to use +no lenity towards men of such desperate fortunes.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 595. + +This year a parliament was summoned in England, and another in Ireland; +and some remarkable laws were passed in both countries. The English +parliament enacted, that no person who should by arms, or otherwise +assist the king for the time being, should ever afterwards, either by +course of law or act of parliament, be attainted for such an instance of +obedience. This statute might be exposed to some censure, as favorable +to usurpers; were there any precise rule, which always, even during +the most factious times, could determine the true successor, and render +every one inexcusable who did not submit to him. But as the titles of +princes are then the great subject of dispute, and each party pleads +topics in its own favor, it seems but equitable to secure those who act +in support of public tranquillity, an object at all times of undoubted +benefit and importance. Henry, conscious of his disputed title, promoted +this law, in order to secure his partisans against all events; but as +he had himself observed a contrary practice with regard to Richard’s +adherents, he had reason to apprehend that, during the violence which +usually ensues on public convulsions, his example, rather than his law, +would, in case of a new revolution, be followed by his enemies. And the +attempt to bind the legislature itself, by prescribing rules to future +parliaments, was contradictory to the plainest principles of political +government. + +This parliament also passed an act, empowering the king to levy, by +course of law, all the sums which any person had agreed to pay by way +of benevolence; a statute by which that arbitrary method of taxation was +indirectly authorized and justified. + +The king’s authority appeared equally prevalent and uncontrolled in +Ireland. Sir Edward Poynings had been sent over to that country, with +an intention of quelling the partisans of the house of York, and of +reducing the natives to subjection. He was not supported by forces +sufficient for that enterprise: the Irish, by flying into their woods, +and morasses, and mountains, for some time eluded his efforts; but +Poynings summoned a parliament at Dublin, where he was more successful. +He passed that memorable statute, which still bears his name, and which +establishes the authority of the English government in Ireland. By this +statute, all the former laws of England were made to be of force in +Ireland; and no bill can be introduced into the Irish parliament, unless +it previously receive the sanction of the council of England. This +latter clause seems calculated for insuring the dominion of the English; +but was really granted at the desire of the Irish commons who intended, +by that means, to secure themselves from the tyranny of their lords, +particularly of such lieutenants or deputies as were of Irish birth.[*] + + * Sir John Davis, p. 236. + +While Henry’s authority was thus established throughout his dominions, +and general tranquillity prevailed, the whole continent was thrown into +combustion by the French invasion of Italy, and by the rapid success +which attended Charles in that rash and ill-concerted enterprise. The +Italians, who had entirely lost the use of arms, and who, in the midst +of continual wars, had become every day more unwarlike, were astonished +to meet an enemy that made the field of battle, not a pompous +tournament, but a scene of blood, and sought, at the hazard of their own +lives, the death of their enemy. Their effeminate troops were dispersed +every where on the approach of the French army: their best fortified +cities opened their gates: kingdoms and states were in an instant +overturned; and through the whole length of Italy, which the French +penetrated without resistance, they seemed rather to be taking quarters +in their own country, than making conquests over an enemy. The maxims +which the Italians during that age followed in negotiations, were as +ill calculated to support their states, as the habits to which they were +addicted in war: a treacherous, deceitful, and inconsistent system of +politics prevailed; and even those small remains of fidelity and honor, +which were preserved in the councils of the other European princes, were +ridiculed in Italy, as proofs of ignorance and rusticity. Ludovico, duke +of Milan, who invited the French to invade Naples, had never desired +or expected their success; and was the first that felt terror from the +prosperous issue of those projects which he himself had concerted. By +his intrigues, a league was formed among several potentates, to oppose +the progress of Charles’s conquests, and secure their own independency. +This league was composed of Ludovico himself, the pope, Maximilian, king +of the Romans, Ferdinand of Spain, and the republic of Venice. Henry too +entered into the confederacy; but was not put to any expense or trouble +in consequence of his engagements. The king of France, terrified by so +powerful a combination, retired from Naples with the greater part of +his army, and returned to France. The forces which he left in his new +conquest were, partly by the revolt of the inhabitants, partly by the +invasion of the Spaniards, soon after subdued; and the whole kingdom +of Naples suddenly returned to its allegiance under Ferdinand, son to +Alphonso, who had been suddenly expelled by the irruption of the +French. Ferdinand died soon after, and left his uncle Frederick in full +possession of the throne. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + + + + +HENRY VII. + + +{1495.} After Perkin was repulsed from the coast of Kent, he retired +into Flanders; but as he found it impossible to procure subsistence for +himself and his followers while he remained in tranquillity, he soon +after made an attempt upon Ireland, which had always appeared forward +to join every invader of Henry’s authority. But Poynings had now put the +affairs of that island in so good a posture, that Perkin met with little +success; and being tired of the savage life which he was obliged to +lead, while skulking among the wild Irish, he bent his course towards +Scotland, and presented himself to James IV., who then governed that +kingdom. He had been previously recommended to this prince by the king +of France, who was disgusted at Henry for entering into the general +league against him; and this recommendation was even seconded by +Maximilian, who, though one of the confederates, was also displeased +with the king, on account of his prohibiting in England all commerce +with the Low Countries. The countenance given to Perkin by these princes +procured him a favorable reception with the king of Scotland, who +assured him, that, whatever he were, he never should repent putting +himself in his hands:[*] the insinuating address and plausible behavior +of the youth himself, seem to have gained him credit and authority. +James, whom years had not yet taught distrust or caution, was seduced to +believe the story of Perkin’s birth and adventures; and he carried his +confidence so far as to give him in marriage the lady Catharine Gordon, +daughter of the earl of Huntley, and related to himself; a young lady +too, eminent for virtue as well as beauty. + + * Bacon, p. 615. Polyd. Virg. p. 596, 597. + +{1496.} There subsisted at that time a great jealousy between the courts +of England and Scotland; and James was probably the more forward on that +account to adopt any fiction which he thought might reduce his enemy +to distress or difficulty. He suddenly resolved to make an inroad into +England, attended by some of the borderers; and he carried Perkin along +with him, in hopes that the appearance of the pretended prince might +raise an insurrection in the northern counties. Perkin himself dispersed +a manifesto, in which he set forth his own story, and craved the +assistance of all his subjects in expelling the usurper, whose tyranny +and maladministration, whose depression of the nobility by the +elevation of mean persons, whose oppression of the people by multiplied +impositions and vexations, had justly, he said, rendered him odious +to all men. But Perkin’s pretensions, attended with repeated +disappointments, were now become stale in the eyes even of the populace; +and the hostile dispositions which subsisted between the kingdoms, +rendered a prince supported by the Scots but an unwelcome present to the +English nation. The ravages also committed by the borderers, accustomed +to license and disorder, struck a terror into all men, and made the +people prepare rather for repelling the invaders than for joining them. +Perkin, that he might support his pretensions to royal birth, feigned +great compassion for the misery of his plundered subjects, and publicly +remonstrated with his ally against the depredations exercised by the +Scottish army;[*] but James told him, that he doubted his concern was +employed only in behalf of an enemy, and that he was anxious to preserve +what never should belong to him. That prince now began to perceive that +his attempt would be fruitless; and hearing of an army which was on its +march to attack him, he thought proper to retreat into his own country. + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 598. + +The king discovered little anxiety to procure either reparation or +vengeance for this insult committed on him by the Scottish nation: his +chief concern was to draw advantage from it, by the pretence which it +might afford him to levy impositions on his own subjects. He summoned a +parliament, to whom he made bitter complaints against the irruption of +the Scots, the absurd imposture countenanced by that nation, the cruel +devastations committed in the northern counties, and the multiplied +insults thus offered both to the king and kingdom of England. The +parliament made the expected return to this discourse, by granting +a subsidy to the amount of one hundred and twenty thousand pounds, +together with two fifteenths. After making this grant, they were +dismissed. + +{1497.} The vote of parliament for imposing the tax was without much +difficulty procured by the authority of Henry but he found it not +so easy to levy the money upon his subjects. The people, who were +acquainted with the immense treasures which he had amassed, could ill +brook the new impositions raised on every slight occasion; and it is +probable that the flaw which was universally known to be in his title, +made his reign the more subject to insurrections and rebellions. When +the subsidy began to be levied in Cornwall, the inhabitants, numerous +and poor, robust and courageous, murmured against a tax occasioned by a +sudden inroad of the Scots, from which they esteemed themselves entirely +secure, and which had usually been repelled by the force of the northern +counties. Their ill humor was further incited by one Michael Joseph, a +farrier of Bodmin, a notable prating fellow, who, by thrusting himself +forward on every occasion, and being loudest in every complaint against +the government, had acquired an authority among those rude people. +Thomas Flammoc, too, a lawyer, who had become the oracle of the +neighborhood, encouraged the sedition, by informing them that the tax, +though imposed by parliament, was entirely illegal; that the northern +nobility were bound by their tenures to defend the nation against the +Scots; and that if these new impositions were tamely submitted to, +the avarice of Henry and of his ministers would soon render the burden +intolerable to the nation. The Cornish, he said, must deliver to the +king a petition, seconded by such a force as would give it authority; +and in order to procure the concurrence of the rest of the kingdom, +care must be taken, by their orderly deportment, to show that they +had nothing in view but the public good, and the redress of all those +grievances under which the people had so long labored. + +Encouraged by these speeches, the multitude flocked together, and armed +themselves with axes, bills, bows, and such weapons as country people +are usually possessed of. Flammoc and Joseph were chosen their leaders. +They soon conducted the Cornish through the county of Devon, and reached +that of Somerset. At Taunton, the rebels killed, in their fury, an +officious and eager commissioner of the subsidy, whom they called the +provost of Perin. When they reached Wells, they were joined by Lord +Audley, a nobleman of an ancient family, popular in his deportment, but +vain, ambitious and restless in his temper. He had from the beginning +maintained a secret correspondence with the first movers of the +insurrection, and was now joyfully received by them as their leader. +Proud of the countenance given them by so considerable a nobleman, they +continued their march, breathing destruction to the king’s ministers +and favorites, particularly to Morton, now a cardinal, and Sir +Reginald Bray, who were deemed the most active instruments in all his +oppressions. Notwithstanding their rage against the administration, they +carefully followed the directions given them by their leaders; and as +they met with no resistance, they committed, during their march, no +violence or disorder. + +The rebels had been told by Flammoc that the inhabitants of Kent, +as they had ever, during all ages, remained unsubdued, and had even +maintained their independence during the Norman conquest, would surely +embrace their party, and declare themselves for a cause which was no +other than that of public good and general liberty. But the Kentish +people had very lately distinguished themselves by repelling Perkin’s +invasion; and as they had received from the king many gracious +acknowledgments for this service, their affections were by that means +much conciliated to his government. It was easy, therefore, for the +earl of Kent, Lord Abergavenny, and Lord Cobham, who possessed great +authority in those parts, to retain the people in obedience; and the +Cornish rebels, though they pitched their camp near Eltham, at the +very gates of London, and invited all the people to join them, got +reënforcement from no quarter. There wanted not discontents every where, +but no one would take part in so rash and ill-concerted an enterprise; +and besides, the situation in which the king’s affairs then stood +discouraged even the boldest and most daring. + +Henry, in order to oppose the Scots, had already levied an army, which +he put under the command of Lord Daubeney, the chamberlain; and as +soon as he heard of the Cornish insurrection, he ordered it to march +southwards and suppress the rebels. Not to leave the northern frontier +defenceless, he despatched thither the earl of Surrey, who assembled the +forces on the borders, and made head against the enemy. Henry found +here the concurrence of the three most fatal incidents that can befall a +monarchy; a foreign enemy, a domestic rebellion, and a pretender to +his crown; but he enjoyed great resources in his army and treasure, and +still more in the intrepidity and courage of his own temper. He did not, +however, immediately give full scope to his military spirit. On other +occasions, he had always hastened to a decision; and it was a usual +saying with him, “that he desired but to see his rebels:” but as the +Cornish mutineers behaved in an inoffensive manner, and committed no +spoil on the country; as they received no accession of force on their +march or in their encampment, and as such hasty and popular tumults +might be expected to diminish every moment by delay; he took post in +London, and assiduously prepared the means of insuring victory. + +After all his forces were collected, he divided them into three bodies, +and marched out to assail the enemy. The first body, commanded by the +earl of Oxford, and under him by the earls of Essex and Suffolk, were +appointed to place themselves behind the hill on which the rebels were +encamped: the second, and most considerable, Henry put under the command +of Lord Daubeney, and ordered him to attack the enemy in front, and +bring on the action. The third he kept as a body of reserve about his +own person, and took post in St. George’s Fields; where he secured the +city, and could easily, as occasion served, either restore the fight or +finish the victory. To put the enemy off their guard, he had spread +a report that he was not to attack them till some days after; and the +better to confirm them in this opinion, he began not the action till +near the evening. Daubeney beat a detachment of the rebels from Deptford +bridge; and before their main body could be in order to receive him, he +had gained the ascent of the hill, and placed himself in array before +them. They were formidable from their numbers, being sixteen thousand +strong, and were not defective in valor; but being tumultuary troops, +ill armed, and not provided with cavalry or artillery, they were but +an unequal match for the king’s forces. Daubeney began the attack with +courage, and even with a contempt of the enemy which had almost proved +fatal to him. He rushed into the midst of them, and was taken prisoner; +but soon after was released by his own troops. After some resistance, +the rebels were broken and put to flight.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 601. + +Lord Audley, Flammoc, and Joseph, their leaders, were taken, and all +three executed. The latter seemed even to exult in his end, and boasted, +with a preposterous ambition, that he should make a figure in his tory. +The rebels, being surrounded on every side by the king’s troops, were +almost all made prisoners; and immediately dismissed without further +punishment: whether, that Henry was satisfied with the victims who had +fallen in the field, and who amounted to near two thousand, or that he +pitied the ignorance and simplicity of the multitude, or favored them +on account of their inoffensive behavior; or was pleased that they had +never, during their insurrection, disputed his title, and had shown +no attachment to the house of York, the highest crime of which, in his +eyes, they could have been guilty. + +The Scottish king was not idle during these commotions in England. He +levied a considerable army, and sat down before the Castle of Norham, in +Northumberland; but found that place, by the precaution of Fox, bishop +of Durham, so well provided both with men and ammunition, that he made +little or no progress in the siege. Hearing that the earl of Surrey had +collected some forces, and was advancing upon him, he retreated into +his own country, and left the frontiers exposed to the inroads of the +English general, who besieged and took Aiton, a small castle lying a few +miles beyond Berwick. These unsuccessful or frivolous attempts on both +sides prognosticated a speedy end to the war; and Henry, notwithstanding +his superior force, was no less desirous than James of terminating +the differences between the nations. Not to depart, however, from his +dignity, by making the first advances, he employed in this friendly +office Peter Hialas, a man of address and learning, who had come to him +as ambassador from Ferdinand and Isabella, and who was charged with a +commission of negotiating the marriage of the Infanta Catharine, their +daughter, with Arthur, prince of Wales.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 603. + +Hialas took a journey northwards, and offered his mediation between +James and Henry, as minister of a prince who was in alliance with both +potentates. Commissioners were soon appointed to meet and confer on +terms of accommodation. The first demand of the English was, that Perkin +should be put into their hands: James replied, that he himself was +no judge of the young man’s pretensions; but having received him as a +supplicant, and promised him protection, he was determined not to betray +a man who had trusted to his good faith and his generosity. The next +demand of the English met with no better reception: they required +reparation for the ravages committed by the late inroads into England: +the Scottish commissioners replied, that the spoils were like water +spilt upon the ground, which could never be recovered; and that Henry’s +subjects were better able to bear the loss, than their master to repair +it. Henry’s commissioners next proposed, that the two kings should have +an interview at Newcastle, in order to adjust all differences; but James +said, that he meant to treat of a peace, not to go a begging for it. +Lest the conferences should break off altogether without effect, a truce +was concluded for some months; and James, perceiving that while Perkin +remained in Scotland he himself never should enjoy a solid peace with +Henry, privately desired him to depart the kingdom. + +Access was now barred Perkin into the Low Countries, his usual retreat +in all his disappointments. The Flemish merchants, who severely felt the +loss resulting from the interruption of commerce with England, had made +such interest in the archduke’s council, that commissioners were sent to +London, in order to treat of an accommodation. The Flemish court agreed, +that all English rebels should be excluded the Low Countries; and in +this prohibition the demesnes of the duchess dowager were expressly +comprehended. When this principal article was agreed to, all the other +terms were easily adjusted. A treaty of commerce was finished, which was +favorable to the Flemings, and to which they long gave the appellation +of “intercursus magnus,” the great treaty. And when the English +merchants returned to their usual abode at Antwerp, they were publicly +received, as in procession, with joy and festivity. + +Perkin was a Fleming by descent, though born in England; and it might +therefore be doubted whether he were included in the treaty between the +two nations: but as he must dismiss all his English retainers if he took +shelter in the Low Countries, and as he was sure of a cold reception, +if not bad usage, among people who were determined to keep on terms +of friendship with the court of England, he thought fit rather to +hide himself during some time in the wilds and fastnesses of Ireland. +Impatient, however, of a retreat which was both disagreeable and +dangerous, he held consultations with his followers, Herne, Skelton, and +Astley, three broken tradesmen: by their advice he resolved to try the +affections of the Cornish, whose mutinous disposition, notwithstanding +the king’s lenity, still subsisted after the suppression of their +rebellion. No sooner did he appear at Bodmin, in Cornwall, than the +populace, to the number of three thousand, flocked to his standard, and +Perkin, elated with this appearance of success, took on him, for the +first time, the appellation of Richard IV., king of England. Not to +suffer the expectations of his followers to languish, he presented +himself before Exeter; and by many fair promises invited that city to +join him. Finding that the inhabitants shut their gates against him, +he laid siege to the place; but being unprovided with artillery, +ammunition, and every thing requisite for the attempt, he made no +progress in his undertaking. Messengers were sent to the king, informing +him of this insurrection: the citizens of Exeter meanwhile were +determined to hold out to the last extremity, in expectation of +receiving succor from the well-known vigilance of that monarch. + +When Henry was informed that Perkin was landed in England, he expressed +great joy, and prepared himself with alacrity to attack him, in hopes of +being able, at length, to put a period to pretensions which had so long +given him vexation and inquietude. All the courtiers, sensible that +their activity on this occasion would be the most acceptable service +which they could render the king, displayed their zeal for the +enterprise, and forwarded his preparations. The lords Daubeney and +Broke, with Sir Rice ap Thomas, hastened forward with a small body of +troops to the relief of Exeter. The earl of Devonshire, and the most +considerable gentlemen in the county of that name, took arms of their +own accord, and marched to join the king’s generals. The duke of +Buckingham put himself at the head of a troop, consisting of young +nobility and gentry, who served as volunteers, and who longed for an +opportunity of displaying their courage and their loyalty. The king +himself prepared to follow with a considerable army; and thus all +England seemed united against a pretender who had at first engaged their +attention and divided their affections. + +Perkin, informed of these great preparations, immediately raised the +siege of Exeter, and retired to Taunton. Though his followers now +amounted to the number of near seven thousand, and seemed still resolute +to maintain his cause, he himself despaired of success, and secretly +withdrew to the sanctuary of Beaulieu, in the new forest. The Cornish +rebels submitted to the king’s mercy, and found that it was not yet +exhausted in their behalf. Except a few persons of desperate fortunes, +who were executed, and some others who were severely fined, all the rest +were dismissed with impunity Lady Catharine Gordon, wife to Perkin fell +into the hands of the victor, and was treated with a generosity which +does him honor. He soothed her mind with many marks of regard, placed +her in a reputable station about the queen and assigned her a pension, +which she enjoyed even under his successor. + +{1498.} Henry deliberated what course to take with Perkin himself. Some +counselled him to make the privileges of the church yield to reasons of +state, to take him by violence from the sanctuary, to inflict on him +the punishment due to his temerity, and thus at once to put an end to +an imposture which had long disturbed the government, and which the +credulity of the people and the artifices of malcontents were still +capable of reviving. But the king deemed not the matter of such +importance as to merit so violent a remedy, He employed some persons to +deal with Perkin, and persuade him, under promise of pardon, to deliver +himself into the king’s hands.[*] The king conducted him in a species of +mock triumph to London. As Perkin passed along the road and through +the streets of the city, men of all ranks flocked about him, and the +populace treated with the highest derision his fallen fortunes. They +seemed desirous of revenging themselves, by their insults, for the shame +which their former belief of his impostures had thrown upon them. Though +the eyes of the nation were generally opened with regard to Perkin’s +real parentage, Henry required of him a confession of his life and +adventures; and he ordered the account of the whole to be dispersed soon +after, for the satisfaction of the public. But as his regard to decency +made him entirely suppress the share which the duchess of Burgundy had +had in contriving and conducting the imposture, the people, who knew +that she had been the chief instrument in the whole affair, were +inclined, on account of the silence on that head, to pay the less credit +to the authenticity of the narrative. + + * Polyd. Virg. p. 606. + +{1499.} But Perkin, though his life was granted him, was still detained +in custody; and keepers were appointed to guard him. Impatient of +confinement, he broke from his keepers, and flying to the sanctuary of +Shyne, put himself into the hands of the prior of that monastery. The +prior had obtained great credit by his character of sanctity; and he +prevailed on the king again to grant a pardon to Perkin. But in order +to reduce him to still greater contempt, he was set in the stocks at +Westminster and Cheapside, and obliged in both places to read aloud to +the people the confession which had formerly been published in his name. +He was then confined to the Tower, where his habits of restless intrigue +and enterprise followed him. He insinuated himself into the intimacy of +four servants of Sir John Digby, lieutenant of the Tower; and by their +means opened a correspondence with the earl of Warwick, who was confined +in the same prison. This unfortunate prince, who had from his earliest +youth been shut up from the commerce of men, and who was ignorant even +of the most common Affairs of life, had fallen into a simplicity which +made him susceptible of any impression. The continued dread also of the +more violent effects of Henry’s tyranny, joined to the natural love of +liberty, engaged him to embrace a project for his escape, by the murder +of the lieutenant; and Perkin offered to conduct the whole enterprise. +The conspiracy escaped not the king’s vigilance: it was even very +generally believed, that the scheme had been laid by himself, in order +to draw Warwick and Perkin into the snare; but the subsequent execution +of two of Digby’s servants for the contrivance seems to clear the king +of that imputation, which was indeed founded more on the general idea +entertained of his character than on any positive evidence. + +Perkin, by this new attempt, after so many enormities, had rendered +himself totally unworthy of mercy; and he was accordingly arraigned, +condemned, and soon after hanged at Tyburn, persisting still in the +confession of his imposture.[*] [1] It happened about that very time +that one Wilford, a cordwainer’s son, encouraged by the surprising +credit given to other impostures, had undertaken to personate the earl +of Warwick; and a priest had even ventured from the pulpit to recommend +his cause to the people, who seemed still to retain a propensity to +adopt it. This incident served Henry as a pretence for his severity +towards that prince. He was brought to trial, and accused, not of +contriving his escape, (for as he was committed for no crime, the desire +of liberty must have been regarded as natural and innocent,) but of +forming designs to disturb the government, and raise an insurrection +among the people. Warwick confessed the indictment was condemned, and +the sentence was executed upon him. + + * See note A, at the end of the volume. + +This violent act of tyranny, the great blemish of Henry’s reign, by +which he destroyed the last remaining male of the line of Plantagenet, +begat great discontent among the people, who saw an unhappy prince, that +had long been denied all the privileges of his high birth, even been +cut off from the common benefits of nature, now at last deprived of life +itself, merely for attempting to shake off that oppression under which +he labored. In vain did Henry endeavor to alleviate the odium of this +guilt, by sharing it with his ally, Ferdinand of Arragon, who, he said, +had scrupled to give his daughter Catharine in marriage to Arthur while +any male descendant of the house of York remained. Men, on the contrary, +felt higher indignation at seeing a young prince sacrificed, not to +law and justice, but to the jealous politics of two subtle and crafty +tyrants. + +But though these discontents festered in the minds of men, they were so +checked by Henry’s watchful policy and steady severity, that they seemed +not to weaken his government; and foreign princes, deeming his +throne now entirely secure, paid him rather the greater deference and +attention. The archduke Philip, in particular, desired an interview with +him; and Henry, who had passed over to Calais, agreed to meet him in +St. Peter’s church, near that city. The archduke, on his approaching the +king, made haste to alight, and offered to hold Henry’s stirrup; a mark +of condescension which that prince would not admit of. He called +the king “father,” “patron,” “protector;” and by his whole behavior +expressed a strong desire of conciliating the friendship of England. The +duke of Orleans had succeeded to the crown of France by the appellation +of Lewis XII.; and having carried his arms into Italy, and subdued the +duchy of Milan, his progress begat jealousy in Maximilian, Philip’s +father, as well as in Ferdinand, his father-in-law. By the counsel, +therefore, of these monarchs, the young prince endeavored by every +art to acquire the amity of Henry, whom they regarded as the chief +counterpoise to the greatness of France. No particular plan, however, of +alliance seems to have been concerted between these two princes in their +interview: all passed in general professions of affection and regard; +at least, in remote projects of a closer union, by the future +intermarriages of their children, who were then in a state of infancy. + +{1500.} The Pope, too, Alexander VI., neglected not the friendship of a +monarch whose reputation was spread over Europe. He sent a nuncio +into England, who exhorted the king to take part in the great alliance +projected for the recovery of the Holy Land, and to lead in person his +forces against the infidels. The general frenzy for crusades was now +entirely exhausted in Europe; but it was still thought a necessary piece +of decency to pretend zeal for those pious enterprises. Henry regretted +to the nuncio the distance of his situation, which rendered it +inconvenient for him to expose his person in defence of the Christian +cause. He promised, however, his utmost assistance by aids and +contributions; and rather than the pope should go alone to the holy +wars, unaccompanied by any monarch, he even promised to overlook all +other considerations, and to attend him in person. He only required, +as a necessary condition, that all differences should previously be +adjusted among Christian princes, and that some seaport towns in Italy +should be consigned to him for his retreat and security. It was easy to +conclude that Henry had determined not to intermeddle in any war against +the Turk; but as a great name, without any real assistance, is sometimes +of service, the knights of Rhodes, who were at that time esteemed the +bulwark of Christendom, chose the king protector of their order. + +But the prince whose alliance Henry valued the most was Ferdinand of +Arragon, whose vigorous and steady policy, always attended with success, +had rendered him in many respects the most considerable monarch in +Europe. There was also a remarkable similarity of character between +these two princes; both were full of craft, intrigue, and design: +and though a resemblance of this nature be a slender foundation for +confidence and amity, where the interests of the parties in the least +interfere, such was the situation of Henry and Ferdinand, that no +jealousy ever on any occasion arose between them. The king had now the +satisfaction of completing a marriage, which had been projected and +negotiated during the course of seven years, between Arthur, prince +of Wales, and the infanta Catharine, fourth daughter of Ferdinand and +Isabella; he near sixteen years of age, she eighteen. But this marriage +proved in the issue unprosperous. The young prince, a few months after, +sickened and died, much regretted by the nation. + +{1502.} Henry, desirous to continue his alliance with Spain, and also +unwilling to restore Catharine’s dowry, which was two hundred thousand +ducats, obliged his second son, Henry, whom he created prince of Wales, +to be contracted to the infanta. The prince made all the opposition +of which a youth of twelve years of age was capable; but as the king +persisted in his resolution, the espousals were at length, by means of +the pope’s dispensation, contracted between the parties; an event which +was afterwards attended with the most important consequences. + +The same year another marriage was celebrated, which was also, in the +next age, productive of great events; the marriage of Margaret, the +king’s eldest daughter, with James, king of Scotland. This alliance +had been negotiated during three years, though interrupted by several +broils; and Henry hoped, from the completion of it, to remove all source +of discord with that neighboring kingdom, by whose animosity England +had so often been infested. When this marriage was deliberated on in +the English council, some objected, that England might, by means of +that alliance, fall under the dominion of Scotland. “No,” replied Henry, +“Scotland, in that event, will only become an accession to England.” + +{1503.} Amidst these prosperous incidents, the king met with a domestic +calamity, which made not such impression on him as it merited: his queen +died in childbed; and the infant did not long survive her. This princess +was deservedly a favorite of the nation; and the general affection for +her increased, on account of the harsh treatment which it was thought +she met with from her consort. + +The situation of the king’s affairs, both at home and abroad, was now in +every respect very fortunate. All the efforts of the European princes, +both in war and negotiation, were turned to the side of Italy; and the +various events which there arose, made Henry’s alliance be courted by +every party, yet interested him so little as never to touch him with +concern or anxiety. His close connections with-Spain and Scotland +insured his tranquillity; and his continued successes over domestic +enemies, owing to the prudence and vigor of his conduct, had reduced the +people to entire submission and obedience. Uncontrolled, therefore, +by apprehension or opposition of any kind, he gave full scope to his +natural propensity; and avarice, which had ever been his ruling passion +being increased by age and encouraged by absolute authority broke all +restraints of shame or justice. He had found two ministers Empson and +Dudley, perfectly qualified to second his rapacious and tyrannical +inclinations, and to prey upon his defenceless people. These instruments +of oppression were both lawyers; the first of mean birth, of brutal +manners, of an unrelenting temper; the second better born, better +educated, and better bred, but equally unjust, severe, and inflexible. +By their knowledge in law, these men were qualified to pervert the +forms of justice to the oppression of the innocent; and the formidable +authority of the king supported them in all their iniquities. + +It was their usual practice, at first, to observe so far the appearance +of law as to give indictments to those whom they intended to oppress; +upon which the persons were committed to prison, but never brought to +trial; and were at length obliged, in order to recover their liberty, +to pay heavy fines and ransoms, which were called mitigations and +compositions. By degrees, the very appearance of law was neglected: the +two ministers sent forth their precepts to attach men, and summon them +before themselves and some others, at their private houses, in a court +of commission, where, in a summary manner, without trial or jury, +arbitrary decrees were issued, both in pleas of the crown and +controversies between private parties. Juries themselves, when summoned, +proved but small security to the subject; being browbeaten by these +oppressors; nay, fined, imprisoned, and punished, if they gave sentence +against the inclination of the ministers The whole system of the feudal +law, which still prevailed, was turned into a scheme of oppression. Even +the king’s wards, after they came of age, were not suffered to enter +into possession of their lands without paying exorbitant fines. Men +were also harassed with informations of intrusion upon scarce colorable +titles. When an outlawry in a personal action was issued against any +man, he was not allowed to purchase his charter of pardon, except on the +payment of a great sum; and if he refused the composition required of +him, the strict law, which in such cases allows forfeiture of goods, was +rigorously insisted on. Nay, without any color of law, the half of men’s +lands and rents were seized during two years, as a penalty in case of +outlawry. But the chief means of oppression employed by these ministers +were the penal statutes, which, without consideration of rank, quality, +or services, were rigidly put in execution against all men: spies, +informers, and inquisitors were rewarded and encouraged in every quarter +of the kingdom: and no difference was made, whether the statute were +beneficial or hurtful, recent or obsolete, possible or impossible to be +executed. The sole end of the king and his ministers was to amass money, +and bring every one under the lash of their authority.[*] + +Through the prevalence of such an arbitrary and iniquitous +administration, the English, it may safely be affirmed, were +considerable losers by their ancient privileges, which secured them +from all taxations, except such as were imposed by their own consent +in parliament. Had the king been empowered to levy general taxes at +pleasure, he would naturally have abstained from these oppressive +expedients, which destroyed all security in private property, and begat +a universal diffidence throughout the nation. In vain did the people +look for protection from the parliament, which was pretty frequently +summoned during this reign. + +{1504.} That assembly was so overawed, that at this very time, during +the greatest rage of Henry’s oppressions, the commons chose Dudley their +speaker, the very man who was the chief instrument of his iniquities. +And though the king was known to be immensely opulent, and had no +pretence of wars or expensive enterprises of any kind, they granted him +the subsidy which he demanded. But so insatiable was his avarice, that +next year he levied a new benevolence, and renewed that arbitrary and +oppressive method of taxation. + +{1505.} By all these arts of accumulation, joined to a rigid frugality +in his expense, he so filled his coffers, that he is said to have +possessed in ready money the sum of one million eight hundred thousand +pounds; a treasure almost incredible, if we consider the scarcity of +money in those times.[**] + + * Bacon, p. 629, 630. Holingshed, p. 504. Polyd. Virg. p. + 613, 615. + + ** Silver was during this reign at thirty-seven shillings + and six pence a pound, which makes Henry’s treasure near + three millions of our present money. Besides, many + commodities have become above thrice as dear by the increase + of gold and silver in Europe. And what is a circumstance of + still greater weight, all other states were then very poor, + in comparison of what they are at present. These + circumstances make Henry’s treasure appear very great, and + may lead us to conceive the oppressions of his government. + +But while Henry was enriching himself by the spoils of his oppressed +people, there happened an event abroad which engaged his attention, +and was even the object of his anxiety and concern: Isabella, queen of +Castile, died about this time and it was foreseen that by this incident +the fortunes of Ferdinand, her husband, would be much affected. The king +was not only attentive to the fate of his ally, and watchful lest the +general system of Europe should be affected by so important an event; +he also considered the similarity of his own situation with that of +Ferdinand, and regarded the issue of these transactions as a precedent +for himself. Joan, the daughter of Ferdinand by Isabella, was married to +the archduke Philip, and being, in right of her mother, heir of Castile, +seemed entitled to dispute with Ferdinand the present possession of that +kingdom. Henry knew that, notwithstanding his own pretensions by the +house of Lancaster, the greater part of the nation was convinced of +the superiority of his wife’s title; and he dreaded lest the prince +of Wales, who was daily advancing towards manhood, might be tempted by +ambition to lay immediate claim to the crown. By his perpetual attention +to depress the partisans of the York family, he had more closely united +them into one party, and increased their desire of shaking off that +yoke under which they had so long labored, and of taking every advantage +which his oppressive government should give his enemies against him. +And as he possessed no independent force like Ferdinand, and governed +a kingdom more turbulent and unruly, which he himself by his narrow +politics had confirmed in factious prejudices, he apprehended that his +situation would prove in the issue still more precarious. + +Nothing at first could turn out more contrary to the king’s wishes than +the transactions in Spain. Ferdinand, as well as Henry, had become very +unpopular, and from a like cause, his former exactions and impositions; +and the states of Castile discovered an evident resolution of preferring +the title of Philip and Joan. + +{1506.} In order, to take advantage of these favorable dispositions, the +archduke, now king of Castile, attended by his consort, embarked for +Spain during the winter season; but meeting with a violent tempest in +the Channel, was obliged to take shelter in the harbor of Weymouth. Sir +John Trenchard, a gentleman of authority in the county of Dorset, +hearing of a fleet upon the coast, had assembled some forces; and being +joined by Sir John Cary, who was also at the head of an armed body, he +came to that town. Finding that Philip, in order to relieve his sickness +and fatigue, was already come ashore, he invited him to his house; and +immediately despatched a messenger to inform the court of this important +incident. The king sent in all haste the earl of Arundel to compliment +Philip on his arrival in England, and to inform him that he intended to +pay him a visit in person, and to give him a suitable reception in his +dominions. Philip knew that he could not now depart without the king’s +consent; and therefore, for the sake of despatch, he resolved to +anticipate his visit, and to have an interview with him at Windsor. +Henry received him with all the magnificence possible, and with all the +seeming cordiality; but he resolved, notwithstanding, to draw some +advantage from this involuntary visit paid him by his royal guest. + +Edmond de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, nephew to Edward IV. and brother to +the earl of Lincoln, slain in the battle of Stoke, had some years before +killed a man in a sudden fit of passion, and had been obliged to apply +to the king for a remission of the crime. The king had granted his +request; but, being little indulgent to all persons connected with the +house of York, he obliged him to appear openly in court and plead his +pardon. Suffolk, more resenting the affront than grateful for the favor, +had fled into Flanders, and taken shelter with his aunt, the duchess +of Burgundy; but being promised forgiveness by the king, he returned to +England, and obtained a new pardon. Actuated, however, by the natural +inquietude of his temper and uneasy from debts which he had contracted +by his great expense at Prince Arthur’s wedding, he again made an +elopement into Flanders. The king, well acquainted with the general +discontent which prevailed against his administration neglected not this +incident, which might become of importance, and he employed his usual +artifices to elude the efforts of his enemies. He directed Sir Robert +Curson, governor of the castle of Hammes, to desert his charge, and to +insinuate himself into the confidence of Suffolk, by making him a tender +of his services. Upon information secretly conveyed by Curson, the +king seized William Courtney, eldest son to the earl of Devonshire, and +married to the lady Catharine, sister of the queen; William de la Pole, +brother to the earl of Suffolk; Sir James Tyrrel, and Sir James Windham, +with some persons of inferior quality; and he committed them to custody. +Lord Abergavenny and Sir Thomas Green were also apprehended; but were +soon after released from their confinement. William de la Pole was long +detained in prison: Courtney was attainted, and, though not executed, he +recovered not his liberty during the king’s lifetime. But Henry’s chief +severity fell upon Sir James Windham and Sir James Tyrrel, who were +brought to their trial, condemned, and executed: the fate of the latter +gave general satisfaction, on account of his participation in the murder +of the young princes, sons of Edward IV. Notwithstanding these +discoveries and executions, Curson was still able to maintain his credit +with the earl of Suffolk: Henry, in order to remove all suspicion, had +ordered him to be excommunicated, together with Suffolk himself, for his +pretended rebellion. But after that traitor had performed all the +services expected from him, he suddenly deserted the earl, and came over +to England, where the king received him with unusual marks of favor and +confidence. Suffolk, astonished at this instance of perfidy, finding +that even the duchess of Burgundy, tired with so many fruitless +attempts, had become indifferent to his cause, fled secretly into +France, thence into Germany, and returned at last into the Low +Countries; where he was protected, though not countenanced, by Philip, +then in close alliance with the king. + +Henry neglected not the present opportunity of complaining to his guest +of the reception which Suffolk had met with in his dominions. “I really +thought,” replied the king of Castile, “that your greatness and felicity +had set you far above apprehensions from any person of so little +consequence: but, to give you satisfaction, I shall banish him my +state.” “I expect that you will carry your complaisance further,” said +the king; “I desire to have Suffolk put into my hands, where alone I can +depend upon his submission and obedience.” “That measure,” said Philip, +“will reflect dishonor upon you as well as myself. You will be thought +to have treated me as a prisoner.” “Then the matter is at an end,” + replied the king; “for I will take that dishonor upon me; and so your +honor is saved.”[*] The king of Castile found himself under a necessity +of complying; but he first exacted Henry’s promise that he would spare +Suffolk’s life. That nobleman was invited over to England by Philip; as +if the king would grant him a pardon, on the intercession of his friend +and ally. Upon his appearance, he was committed to the Tower; and +the king of Castile, having fully satisfied Henry, as well by this +concession as by signing a treaty of commerce between England and +Castile, which was advantageous to the former kingdom,[*] was at last +allowed to depart, after a stay of three months. + + * Bacon, p. 633. + + ** Rymer, vol. xiii. p. 142. + +He landed in Spain, was joyfully received by the Castilians, and pit in +possession of the throne. + +{1507.} He died soon after; and Joan, his widow, falling into deep +melancholy Ferdinand was again enabled to reinstate himself in +authority, and to govern, till the day of his death, the whole Spanish +monarchy. + +The king survived these transactions two years; but nothing memorable +occurs in the remaining part of his reign, except his affiancing his +second daughter, Mary, to the young archduke Charles, son of Philip of +Castile. + +{1508.} He entertained also some intentions of marriage for himself, +first with the queen dowager of Naples, relict of Ferdinand; afterwards +with the duchess dowager of Savoy, daughter of Maximilian, and sister of +Philip. But the decline of his health put an end to all such thoughts; +and he began to cast his eye towards that future existence which the +iniquities and severities of his reign rendered a very dismal prospect +to him. To allay the terrors under which he labored, he endeavored, by +distributing alms and founding religious houses, to make atonement for +his crimes, and to purchase, by the sacrifice of part of his ill-gotten +treasures, a reconciliation with his offended Maker. Remorse even seized +him at intervals for the abuse of his authority by Empson and Dudley; +but not sufficient to make him stop the rapacious hand of those +oppressors. Sir William Capel was again fined two thousand pounds under +some frivolous pretence, and was committed to the Tower for daring +to murmur against the iniquity. Harris, an alderman of London, was +indicted, and died of vexation before his trial came to an issue. +Sir Laurence Ailmer, who had been mayor, and his two sheriffs, were +condemned in heavy fines, and sent to prison till they made payment. +The king gave countenance to all these oppressions; till death, by its +nearer approaches, impressed new terrors upon him; and he then ordered, +by a general clause in his will, that restitution should be made to +all those whom he had injured. + +{1509.} He died of a consumption at his favorite palace of Richmond, +after a reign of twenty-three years and eight months, and in the +fifty-second year of his age.[*] + + * Dagd. Baronage, ii. p. 237. + +The reign of Henry VII. was, in the main, fortunate for his people at +home, and honorable abroad. He put an end to the civil wars with which +the nation had long been harassed, he maintained peace and order in the +state, he depressed the former exorbitant power of the nobility, and, +together with the friendship of some foreign princes, he acquired the +consideration and regard of all. He loved peace without fearing war +though agitated with continual suspicions of his servants and ministers, +he discovered no timidity, either in the conduct of his affairs, or in +the day of battle; and though often severe in his punishments, he was +commonly less actuated by revenge than by maxims of policy. The services +which he rendered the people were derived from his views of private +advantage, rather than the motives of public spirit; and where he +deviated from interested regards, it was unknown to himself, and ever +from the malignant prejudices of faction, or the mean projects of +avarice; not from the sallies of passion, or allurements of pleasure; +still less from the benign motives of friendship and generosity. His +capacity was excellent, but somewhat contracted by the narrowness of his +heart; he possessed insinuation and address, but never employed these +talents, except where some great point of interest was to be gained; and +while he neglected to conciliate the affections of his people, he often +felt the danger of resting his authority on their fear and reverence +alone. He was always extremely attentive to his affairs; but possessed +not the faculty of seeing far into futurity; and was more expert at +providing a remedy for his mistakes than judicious in avoiding them. +Avarice was, on the whole, his ruling passion;[*] and he remains an +instance, almost singular, of a man placed hi a high station, +and possessed of talents for great affairs, in whom that passion +pre-dominated above ambition. Even among private persons, avarice is +commonly nothing but a species of ambition, and is chiefly incited +by the prospect of that regard, distinction, and consideration, which +attend on riches. + + * As a proof of Henry’s attention to the smallest profits, + Bacon tells us, that he had seen a book of accounts kept by + Empson, and subscribed in almost every leaf by the king’s + own hand. Among other articles was the following: “Item. + Received of such a one five marks for a pardon, which if it + do not pass, the money to be repaid, or the party otherwise + satisfied.” Opposite to the memorandum, the king had writ + with his own hand, “Otherwise satisfied.” Bacon, p. 630. + +The power of the kings of England had always been somewhat irregular +or discretionary; but was scarcely ever so absolute during any former +reign, at least after the establishment of the Great Charter, as during +that of Henry Besides the advantages derived from the personal character +of the man, full of vigor, industry, and severity, deliberate in all +projects, steady in every purpose, and attended with caution as well as +good fortune in every enterprise; he came to the throne after long and +bloody civil wars, which had destroyed all the great nobility, who alone +could resist the encroachments of his authority; the people were +tired with discord and intestine convulsions, and willing to submit to +usurpations, and even to injuries, rather than plunge themselves anew +into like miseries: the fruitless efforts made against him served +always, as is usual, to confirm his authority: as he ruled by a faction, +and the lesser faction, all those on whom he conferred offices, sensible +that they owed every thing to his protection, were willing to support +his power, though at the expense of justice and national privileges. +These seem the chief causes which at this time bestowed on the crown so +considerable an addition of prerogative, and rendered the present reign +a kind of epoch in the English constitution. + +This prince, though he exalted his prerogative above law is celebrated +by his historian for many good laws, which he made be enacted for the +government of his subjects. Several considerable regulations, indeed, +are found among the statutes of this reign, both with regard to the +police of the kingdom, and its commerce: but the former are generally +contrived with much better judgment than the latter. The more simple +ideas of order and equity are sufficient to guide a legislator in every +thing that regards the internal administration of justice: but the +principles of commerce are much more complicated, and require long +experience and deep reflection to be well understood in any state. The +real consequence of a law or practice is there often contrary to first +appearances. No wonder that during the reign of Henry VII.[*,] these +matters were frequently mistaken; and it may safely be affirmed, that +even in the age of Lord Bacon, very imperfect and erroneous ideas were +formed on that subject. + +Early in Henry’s reign, the authority of the star chamber, which was +before founded on common law and ancient practice, was in some cases +confirmed by act of parliament: [*] [2] Lord Bacon extols the utility of +this court; but men began even during the age of that historian, to feel +that so arbitrary a jurisdiction was incompatible with liberty; and +in proportion as the spirit of independence still rose higher in the +nation, the aversion to it increased, till it was entirely abolished +by act of parliament in the reign of Charles I., a little before the +commencement of the civil wars. + + * See note B, at the end of the volume. + +Laws were passed in this reign, ordaining the king’s suit for murder to +be carried on within a year and a day.[*] Formerly it did not usually +commence till after; and as the friends of the person murdered often in +the interval compounded matters with the criminal, the crime frequently +passed unpunished. Suits were given to the poor “in forma pauperis,” as +it is called; that is, without paying dues for the writs, or any fees to +the council:[**] a good law at all times, especially in that age, +when the people labored under the oppression of the great; but a law +difficult to be carried into execution. A law was made against carrying +off any woman by force.[***] The benefit of clergy was abridged;[****] +and the criminal, on the first offence, was ordered to be burned in +the hand with a letter denoting his crime; after which he was punished +capitally for any new offence. Sheriffs were no longer allowed to fine +any person, without previously summoning him before their court.[v] It +is strange that such a practice should ever have prevailed. Attaint of +juries was granted in cases which exceeded forty pounds’ value; [v*] a +law which has an appearance of equity, but which was afterwards found +inconvenient. Actions popular were not allowed to be eluded by fraud or +covin. If any servant of the king’s conspired against the life of the +steward, treasurer, or comptroller of the king’s household, this design, +though not followed by any overt act, was made liable to the punishment +of felony.[v**] This statute was enacted for the security of Archbishop +Morton, who found himself exposed to the enmity of great numbers. + +There scarcely passed any session during this reign without some statute +against engaging retainers, and giving them badges or liveries; [v***] +a practice by which they were in a manner enlisted under some great lord +and were kept in readiness to assist him in all wars, insurrections, +riots, violences, and even in bearing evidence for him in courts of +justice.[v****] + + * 3 Henry VII. cap. 1. + + ** 11 Henry VII. cap. 12. + + *** 3 Henry VII. cap. 2. + + **** 4 Henry VII. cap. 13. + + v 11 Henry VII. cap. 15. + + v* 11 Henry VII. cap. 24. + + v** 19 Henry VII. cap. 3. + + v*** 3 Henry VII. cap 13. + + v**** 3 Henry VII. cap 1 and 12. + +This disorder, which had prevailed during many reigns, when the law +could give little protection to the subject, was then deeply rooted +in England; and it required all the vigilance and rigor of Henry to +extirpate it. There is a story of his severity against this abuse; and +it seems to merit praise, though it is commonly cited as an instance of +his avarice and rapacity. The earl of Oxford, his favorite general, in +whom he always placed great and deserved confidence, having splendidly +entertained him at his castle of Heningham, was desirous of making a +parade of his magnificence at the departure of his royal guest, and +ordered all his retainers, with their liveries and badges, to be drawn +up in two lines, that their appearance might be the more gallant +and splendid. “My lord,” said the king, “I have heard much of your +hospitality, but the truth far exceeds the report. These handsome +gentlemen and yeomen, whom I see on both sides of me, are no doubt your +menial servants.” The earl smiled, and confessed that his fortune was +too narrow for such magnificence. “They are most of them,” subjoined +he, “my retainers, who are come to do me service at this time, when +they know I am honored with your majesty’s presence.” The king started +a little, and said, “By my faith, my lord, I thank you for your good +cheer, but I must not allow my laws to be broken in my sight. My +attorney must speak with you.” Oxford is said to have paid no less than +fifteen thousand marks, as a composition for his offence. + +The increase of the arts, more effectually than all the severities of +law, put an end to this pernicious practice. The nobility, instead of +vying with each other in the number and boldness of their retainers, +acquired by degrees a more civilized species of emulation, and +endeavored to excel in the splendor and elegance of their equipage, +houses, and tables. The common people, no longer maintained in vicious +idleness by their superiors, were obliged to learn some calling or +industry, and became useful both to themselves and to others. And it +must be acknowledged, in spite of those who declaim so violently against +refinement in the arts, or what they are pleased to call luxury, that, +as much as an industrious tradesman is both a better man and a better +citizen than one of those idle retainers who formerly depended on the +great families, so much is the life of a modern nobleman more laudable +than that of an ancient baron.[*] + +But the most important law, in its consequences, which was enacted +during the reign of Henry, was that by which the nobility and gentry +acquired a power of breaking the ancient entails, and of alienating +their estates.[*] By means of this law, joined to the beginning luxury +and refinements of the age, the great fortunes of the barons were +gradually dissipated, and the property of the commons increased +in England. It is probable that Henry foresaw and intended this +consequence; because the constant scheme of his policy consisted in +depressing the great, and exalting churchmen, lawyers, and men of new +families, who were more dependent on him. + +This king’s love of money naturally led him to encourage commerce, which +increased his customs; but, if we may judge by most of the laws enacted +during his reign, trade and industry were rather hurt than promoted +by the care and attention given to them. Severe laws were made against +taking interest for money, which was then denominated usury.[*] [3] Even +the profits of exchange were prohibited, as savoring of usury,[**] which +the superstition of the age zealously proscribed. All evasive contracts, +by which profits could be made from the loan of money, were also +carefully guarded against.[***] It is needless to observe how +unreasonable and iniquitous these laws, how impossible to be executed, +and how hurtful to trade, if they could take place. We may observe, +however, to the praise of this king, that sometimes, in order to promote +commerce, he lent to merchants sums of money without interest, when he +knew that their stock was not sufficient for those enterprises which +they had in view.[****] + +Laws were made against the exportation of money, plate, or bullion: +[v] a precaution which serves to no other purpose than to make more be +exported. + + * See note C, at the end of the volume. + + ** 4 Henry VII. cap. 24. The practice of breaking entails by + means of a fine and recovery was introduced in the reign of + Edward IV.: but it was not, properly speaking, law, till the + statute of Henry VII.; which, by correcting some abuses that + attended that practice, gave indirectly a sanction to it. + + *** 3 Henry VII. cap. 5. + + **** 3 Henry VII. cap. 6. + + v 7 Henry VII. cap. 8. + +But so far was the anxiety on this head carried, that merchants alien, +who imported commodities into the kingdom, were obliged to invest in +English commodities all the money acquired by their sales, in order to +prevent their conveying it away in a clandestine manner.[*] + +It was prohibited to export horses; as if that exportation did not +encourage the breed, and render them more plentiful in the kingdom.[**] +In order to promote archery, no bows were to be sold at a higher +price than six shillings and fourpence,[***] reducing money to the +denomination of our time. The only effect of this regulation must be, +either that the people would be supplied with bad bows, or none at all. +Prices were also affixed to woollen cloth,[****] to caps and hats:[v] +and the wages of laborers were regulated by law.[v*] It is evident, +that these matters ought always to be left free, and be intrusted to +the common course of business and commerce. To some it may appear +surprising, that the price of a yard of scarlet cloth should be limited +to six and twenty shillings, money of our age; that of a yard of colored +cloth to eighteen; higher prices than these commodities bear at present; +and that the wages of a tradesman, such as a mason, bricklayer, tiler, +etc., should be regulated at near tenpence a day; which is not much +inferior to the present wages given in some parts of England. Labor and +commodities have certainly risen since the discovery of the West Indies; +but not so much in every particular as is generally imagined. The +greater industry of the present times has increased the number of +tradesmen and laborers, so as to keep wages nearer a par than could be +expected from the great increase of gold and silver. And the additional +art employed in the finer manufactures has even made some of these +commodities fall below their former value. Not to mention, that +merchants and dealers, being contented with less profit than formerly, +afford the goods cheaper to their customers. It appears by a statute of +this reign,[v**] that goods bought for sixteenpence would sometimes be +sold by the merchants for three shillings. + + * 3 Henry VII cap. 8. + + ** 11 Henry VII. cap. 13. + + *** 3 Henry VII. cap. 12. + + **** 4 Henry VII. cap. 8. + + v 4 Henry VII. cap. 9. + + v* 11 Henry VII. cap. 22. + + v** 4 Henry VII. cap. 9. + +The commodities whose price has chiefly risen, are butcher’s meat, fowl, +and fish, (especially the latter,) which cannot be much augmented in +quantity by the increase of art and industry. The profession which then +abounded most, and was sometimes embraced by persons of the lowest rank, +was the church: by a clause of a statute, all clerks or students of +the university were forbidden to beg, without a permission from the +vice-chancellor.[*] + +One great cause of the low state of industry during this period, was the +restraints put upon it; and the parliament, or rather the king, (for +he was the prime mover in every thing,) enlarged a little some of these +limitations; but not to the degree that was requisite. A law had been +enacted during the reign of Henry IV.,[**] that no man could bind his +son or daughter to an apprenticeship, unless he were possessed of +twenty shillings a year in land; and Henry VII., because the decay +of manufactures was complained of in Norwich from the want of hands, +exempted that city from the penalties of the law.[***] Afterwards the +whole county of Norfolk obtained a like exemption with regard to some +branches of the woollen manufacture.[****] These absurd limitations +proceeded from a desire of promoting husbandry, which, however, is never +more effectually encouraged than by the increase of manufactures. For a +like reason, the law enacted against enclosures, and for the keeping up +of farm houses,[v] scarcely deserves the high praises bestowed on it by +Lord Bacon. If husbandmen understand agriculture, and have a ready vent +for their commodities, we need not dread a diminution of the people +employed in the country. All methods of supporting populousness, except +by the interest of the proprietors, are violent and ineffectual. During +a century and a half after this period, there was a frequent renewal of +laws and edicts against depopulation; whence we may infer, that none +of them were ever executed. The natural course of improvement at last +provided a remedy. + + * 11 Henry VII. cap. 22. + + ** 11 Henry VII. cap. 11. + + *** 4 Henry VII. cap. 19. + + **** 4 Henry VII. cap. 17. + + v 12 Henry VII. cap. 1. + +One check to industry in England was the erecting of corporations; +an abuse which is not yet entirely corrected. A law was enacted, that +corporations should not pass any by-laws without the consent of three of +the chief officers of state.[*] They were prohibited from imposing tolls +at their [**] The cities of Glocester and Worcester had even imposed +tolls on the Severn, which were abolished.[***] + +There is a law of this reign,[****] containing a preamble, by which +it appears, that the company of merchant adventurers in London had, by +their own authority, debarred all the other merchants of the kingdom +from trading to the great marts in the Low Countries, unless each trader +previously paid them the sum of near seventy pounds. It is surprising +that such a by-law (if it deserve the name) could ever be carried into +execution, and that the authority of parliament should be requisite to +abrogate it. + +It was during this reign, on the second of August, 1492, a little before +sunset, that Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, set out from Spain on his +memorable voyage for the discovery of the western world; and a few years +after, Vasquez de Gama, a Portuguese, passed the Cape of Good Hope, +and opened a new passage to the East Indies. These great events were +attended with important consequences to all the nations of Europe, even +to such as were not immediately concerned in those naval enterprises. +The enlargement of commerce and navigation increased industry and the +arts every where; the nobles dissipated their fortunes in expensive +pleasures: men of an inferior rank both acquired a share in the landed +property, and created to themselves a considerable property of a new +kind, in stock, commodities, art, credit, and correspondence. In some +nations, the privileges of the commons increased by this increase of +property: in most nations, the kings, finding arms to be dropped by the +barons, who could no longer endure their former rude manner of life, +established standing armies, and subdued the liberties of their +kingdoms: but in all places, the condition of the people, from the +depression of the petty tyrants by whom they had formerly been oppressed +rather than governed, received great improvement, and they acquired, if +not entire liberty, at least the most considerable advantages of it. And +as the general course of events thus tended to depress the nobles and +exalt the people, Henry VII., who also embraced that system of policy, +has acquired more praise than his institutions, strictly speaking, seem +of themselves to deserve on account of any profound wisdom attending +them. + + * 19 Henry VII. cap. 7 gates. + + ** 19 Henry VII. cap. 8. + + *** 10 Henry VII. cap. 18. + + **** 12 Henry VII. cap. 6. + +It was by accident only that the king had not a considerable share in +those great naval discoveries, by which the present age was so much +distinguished. Columbus, after meeting with many repulses from the +courts of Portugal and Spain sent his brother Bartholomew to London, in +order to explain his projects to Henry, and crave his protection for +the execution of them. The king invited him over to England; but +his brother, being taken by pirates, was detained in his voyage; and +Columbus, meanwhile, having obtained the countenance of Isabella, was +supplied with a small fleet, and happily executed his enterprise. Henry +was not discouraged by this disappointment: he fitted out Sebastian +Cabot, a Venetian, settled in Bristol, and sent him westwards in 1498, +in search of new countries. Cabot discovered the main land of America +towards the sixtieth degree of northern latitude: he sailed southwards +along the coast, and discovered Newfoundland and other countries; but +returned to England without making any conquest or settlement. Elliot +and other merchants in Bristol made a like attempt in 1502.[*] The king +expended fourteen thousand pounds in building one ship, called the Great +Harry.[**] She was, properly speaking, the first ship in the English +navy. Before this period, when the prince wanted a fleet, he had no +other expedient than hiring or pressing ships from the merchants. + + * Rymer, vol. xiii. p. 37. + + ** Stowe, p. 484. + +But though this improvement of navigation, and the discovery of both the +Indies, was the most memorable incident that happened during this or +any other period, it was not the only great event by which the age was +distinguished. In 1453, Constantinople was taken by the Turks; and the +Greeks, among whom some remains of learning were still preserved, being +scattered by these barbarians, took shelter in Italy, and imported, +together with their admirable language, a tincture of their science, and +of their refined taste in poetry and eloquence About the same time, the +purity of the Latin tongue was revived, the study of antiquity became +fashionable, and the esteem for literature gradually propagated itself +throughout every nation in Europe. The art of printing, invented about +that time, extremely facilitated the progress of all these improvements: +the invention of gunpowder changed me whole art of war: mighty +innovations were soon after made in religion, such as not only affected +those states that embraced them, but even those that adhered to the +ancient faith and worship; and thus a general revolution was made in +human affairs throughout this part of the world; and men gradually +attained that situation, with regard to commerce, arts, science, +government, police, and cultivation, in which they have ever since +persevered. Here, therefore, commences the useful, as well as the +more agreeable part of modern annals; certainty has place in all the +considerable, and even most of the minute parts of historical narration; +a great variety of events, preserved by printing, give the author the +power of selecting, as well as adorning, the facts which he relates; and +as each incident has a reference to our present manners and situation, +instructive lessons occur every moment during the course of the +narration. Whoever carries his anxious researches into preceding +periods, is moved by a curiosity, liberal indeed and commendable; not by +any necessity for acquiring knowledge of public affairs, or the arts of +civil government. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + + + + +HENRY VIII. + +{1509.} THE death of Henry VII. had been attended with as open and +visible a joy among the people as decency would permit; and the +accession and coronation of his son, Henry VIII., spread universally +a declared and unfeigned satisfaction. Instead of a monarch jealous, +severe, and avaricious, who, in proportion as he advanced in years, +was sinking still deeper in those unpopular vices, a young prince of +eighteen had succeeded to the throne, who, even in the eyes of men of +sense, gave promising hopes of his future conduct, much more in those of +the people, always enchanted with novelty, youth, and royal dignity. +The beauty and vigor of his person, accompanied with dexterity in +every manly exercise, was further adorned with a blooming and ruddy +countenance, with a lively air, with the appearance of spirit and +activity in all his demeanor.[*] His father, in order to remove him from +the knowledge of public business, had hitherto occupied him entirely in +the pursuits of literature; and the proficiency which he made gave +no bad prognostic of his parts and capacity.[**] Even the vices of +vehemence, ardor, and impatience, to which he was subject, and which +afterwards degenerated into tyranny, were considered only as faults +incident to unguarded youth, which would be corrected when time had +brought him to greater moderation and maturity. And as the contending +titles of York and Lancaster were now at last fully united in his +person, men justly expected, from a prince obnoxious to no party, that +impartiality of administration which had long been unknown in England. + + * T. Mori. Lucubr. p. 182. + + ** Father Paul, lib. i. + +These favorable prepossessions of the public were encouraged by the +measures which Henry embraced in the commencement of his reign. His +grandmother, the countess of Richmond and Derby, was still alive; and +as she was a woman much celebrated for prudence and virtue, he wisely +showed great deference to her opinion in the establishment of his +new council. The members were, Warham, archbishop of Canterbury and +chancellor; the earl of Shrewsbury, steward; Lord Herbert, chamberlain; +Sir Thomas Lovel, master of the wards and constable of the Tower; Sir +Edward Poynings, comptroller; Sir Henry Marney, afterwards Lord Marney; +Sir Thomas Darcy, afterwards Lord Darcy; Thomas Ruthal, doctor of laws; +and Sir Henry Wyat.[*] These men had long been accustomed to business +under the late king, and were the least unpopular of all the ministers +employed by that monarch. But the chief competitors for favor and +authority, under the new king, were the earl of Surrey, treasurer, and +Fox, bishop of Winchester, secretary and privy seal. This prelate, who +enjoyed great credit during all the former reign, had acquired such +habits of caution and frugality as he could not easily lay aside; and +he still opposed, by his remonstrances, those schemes of dissipation +and expense, which the youth and passions of Henry rendered agreeable to +him. But Surrey was a more dexterous courtier; and though few had borne +a greater share in the frugal politics of the late king, he knew how +to conform himself to the humor of his new master; and no one was so +forward in promoting that liberality, pleasure, and magnificence, +which began to prevail under the young monarch.[**] By this policy, he +ingratiated himself with Henry; he made advantage, as well as the other +courtiers, of the lavish disposition of his master; and he engaged +him in such a course of play and idleness as rendered him negligent of +affairs, and willing to intrust the government of the state entirely +into the hands of his ministers. The great treasures amassed by the late +king were gradually dissipated in the giddy expenses of Henry. One party +of pleasure succeeded to another: tilts, tournaments, and carousals +were exhibited with all the magnificence of the age; and as the present +tranquillity of the public permitted the court to indulge itself in +every amusement, serious business was but little attended to. Or, if +the king intermitted the course of his festivity, he chiefly employed +himself in an application to music and literature, which were his +favorite pursuits, and which were well adapted to his genius. + + * Herbert, Stowe, p. 486. Holingshed, p. 799. + + ** Lord Herbert. + +He had made such proficiency in the former art, as even to compose +some pieces of church music, which were sung in his chapel.[*] He was +initiated in the elegant learning of the ancients. And though he was so +unfortunate as to be seduced into a study of the barren controversies of +the schools, which were then fashionable, and had chosen Thomas Aquinas +for his favorite author, he still discovered a capacity fitted for more +useful and entertaining knowledge. + +The frank and careless humor of the king, as it led him to dissipate the +treasures amassed by his father, rendered him negligent in protecting +the instruments whom that prince had employed in his extortions. A +proclamation being issued to encourage complaints, the rage of the +people was let loose on all informers, who had so long exercised an +unbounded tyranny over the nation: [**] they were thrown into prison, +condemned to the pillory, and most of them lost their lives by the +violence of the populace. Empson and Dudley, who were most exposed to +public hatred, were immediately summoned before the council, in order to +answer for their conduct, which had rendered them so obnoxious. + + * Lord Herbert. + + ** Herbert, Stowe, p. 486. Holingshed, p. 799. Polyd. Virg. + lib, xxvii. + +Empson made a shrewd apology for himself, as well as for his associate. +He told the council, that so far from his being justly exposed to +censure for his past conduct, his enemies themselves grounded their +clamor on actions which seemed rather to merit reward and approbation: +that a strict execution of law was the crime of which he and Dudley were +accused; though that law had been established by general consent, +and though they had acted in obedience to the king, to whom the +administration of justice was intrusted by the constitution: that it +belonged not to them, who were instruments in the hands of supreme +power, to determine what laws were recent or obsolete, expedient or +hurtful; since they were all alike valid, so long as they remained +unrepealed by the legislature: that it was natural for a licentious +populace to murmur against the restraints of authority; but all wise +states had ever made their glory consist in the just distribution of +rewards and punishments, and had annexed the former to the observance +and enforcement of the laws, the latter to their violation and +infraction; and that a sudden overthrow of all government might be +expected where the judges were committed to the mercy of the criminals, +the rulers to that of the subjects.[*] + +Notwithstanding this defence, Empson and Dudley were sent to the Tower, +and soon after brought to their trial. The strict execution of laws, +however obsolete, could never be imputed to them as a crime in a court +of judicature; and it is likely that, even where they had exercised +arbitrary power, the king, as they had acted by the secret commands of +his father, was not willing that their conduct should undergo too +severe a scrutiny. In order, therefore, to gratify the people with +the punishment of these obnoxious ministers crimes very improbable, +or indeed absolutely impossible, were charged upon them: that they had +entered into a conspiracy against the sovereign, and had intended, on +the death of the late king, to have seized by force the administration +of government. The jury were so far moved by popular prejudices, +joined to court influence, as to give a verdict against them; which was +afterwards confirmed by a bill of attainder in parliament,[**] and, at +the earnest desire of the people, was executed by warrant from the king, +Thus, in those arbitrary times, justice was equally violated, whether +the king sought power and riches, or courted popularity. + + * Herbert, Holingshed, p. 804. + + ** This parliament met on the 21st January, 1510. A law was + there enacted, in order to prevent some abuses which had + prevailed during the late reign. The forfeiture upon the + penal statutes was reduced to the term of three years. Costs + and damages were given against informers upon acquittal of + the accused: more severe punishments were enacted against + perjury: the false inquisitions procured by Empson and + Dudley were declared null and invalid. Traverses were + allowed; and the time of tendering them enlarged. 1 Henry + VIII. c. 8, 10, 11, 12. + +Henry, while he punished the instruments of past tyranny, had yet such a +deference to former engagements as to deliberate, immediately after his +accession, concerning the celebration of his marriage with the infanta +Catharine, to whom he had been affianced during his father’s lifetime. +Her former marriage with his brother, and the inequality of their years +were the chief objections urged; against his espousing her but, on the +other hand, the advantages of her known virtue, modesty, and sweetness +of disposition were insisted on; the affection which she bore to the +king; the large dowry to which she was entitled as princess of Wales; +the interest of cementing a close alliance with Spain; the necessity +of finding some confederate to counterbalance the power of France; the +expediency of fulfilling the engagements of the late king When these +considerations were weighed, they determined the council, though +contrary to the opinion of the primate, to give Henry their advice for +celebrating the marriage. The countess of Richmond, who had concurred +in the same sentiments with the council, died soon after the marriage of +her grandson. + +The popularity of Henry’s government, his undisputed title, his +extensive authority, his large treasures, the tranquillity of his +subjects, were circumstances which rendered his domestic administration +easy and prosperous: the situation of foreign affairs was no less happy +and desirable. Italy continued still, as during the late reign, to be +the centre of all the wars and negotiations of the European princes; and +Henry’s alliance was courted by all parties; at the same time that he +was not engaged by any immediate interest or necessity to take part with +any. Lewis XII. of France, after his conquest of Milan, was the only +great prince that possessed any territory in Italy; and could he have +remained in tranquillity, he was enabled by his situation to prescribe +laws to all the Italian princes and republics, and to hold the balance +among them. But the desire of making a conquest of Naples, to which he +had the same title or pretensions with his predecessor, still engaged +him in new enterprises: and· as he foresaw opposition from Ferdinand, +who was connected both by treaties and affinity with Frederick of +Naples, he endeavored by the offers of interest, to which the ears of +that monarch were ever open, to engage him in an opposite confederacy. +He settled with him a plan for the partition of the kingdom of Naples, +and the expulsion of Frederick; a plan which the politicians of that, +age regarded as the most egregious imprudence in the French monarch, +and the greatest perfidy in the Spanish. Frederick, supported only by +subjects who were either discontented with his government or indifferent +about his fortunes, was unable to resist so powerful a confederacy, and +was deprived of his dominions: but he had the satisfaction to see Naples +immediately prove the source of contention among his enemies. Ferdinand +gave secret orders to his general, Gonsalvo, whom the Spaniards honor +with the appellation of the “great captain,” to attack the armies of +France, and make himself master of all the dominions of Naples. Gonsalvo +prevailed in every enterprise, defeated the French in two pitched +battles, and insured to his prince the entire possession of that +kingdom. Lewis, unable to procure redress by force of arms, was obliged +to enter into a fruitless negotiation with Ferdinand for the recovery of +his share of the partition; and all Italy, during some time, was held in +suspense between these two powerful monarchs. + +There has scarcely been any period when the balance of power was better +secured in Europe, and seemed more able to maintain itself without any +anxious concern or attention of the princes. Several great monarchies +were established; and no one so far surpassed the rest as to give any +foundation or even pretence for jealousy. England was united in domestic +peace, and by its situation happily secured from the invasion of +foreigners. The coalition of the several kingdoms of Spain had +formed one powerful monarchy, which Ferdinand administered with arts, +fraudulent indeed and deceitful, but full of vigor and ability. Lewis +XII., a gallant and generous prince, had, by espousing Anne of Brittany, +widow to his predecessor, preserved the union with that principality, +on which the safety of his kingdom so much depended. Maximilian, the +emperor, besides the hereditary dominions of the Austrian family, +maintained authority in the empire, and, notwithstanding the levity of +his character, was able to unite the German princes in any great plan of +interest, at least of defence. Charles, prince of Castile, grandson to +Maximilian and Ferdinand, had already succeeded to the rich dominions of +the house of Burgundy; and being as yet in early youth, the government +was intrusted to Margaret of Savoy, his aunt, a princess endowed with +signal prudence and virtue. The internal force of these several powerful +states, by balancing each other, might long have maintained general +tranquillity, had not the active and enterprising genius of Julius II., +an ambitious pontiff, first excited the flames of war and discord among +them. By his intrigues, a league had been formed at Cambray,[*] between +himself, Maximilian, Lewis, and Ferdinand; and the object of this great +confederacy was to overwhelm, by their united arms, the commonwealth of +Venice. + + * In 1508. + +Henry, without any motive from interest or passion, allowed his name to +be inserted in the confederacy. This oppressive and iniquitous league +was but too successful against the republic. + +The great force and secure situation of the considerable monarchies +prevented any one from aspiring to any conquest of moment; and though +this consideration could not maintain general peace, or remedy the +natural inquietude of men, it rendered the princes of this age more +disposed to desert engagements, and change their alliances, in which +they were retained by humor and caprice, rather than by any natural or +durable interest. + +{1510.} Julius had no sooner humbled the Venetian republic, than he was +inspired with a nobler ambition, that of expelling all foreigners from +Italy, or, to speak in the style affected by the Italians of that age, +the freeing of that country entirely from the dominion of barbarians.[*] +He was determined to make the tempest fall first upon Lewis; and in +order to pave the way for this great enterprise, he at once sought for +a ground of quarrel with that monarch, and courted the alliance of other +princes. He declared war against the duke of Ferrara, the confederate +of Lewis. He solicited the favor of England, by sending Henry a sacred +rose, perfumed with musk and anointed with chrism.[**] He engaged in his +interests Bambridge, archbishop of York, and Henry’s ambassador at Rome, +whom he soon after created a cardinal. He drew over Ferdinand to +his party, though that monarch at first made no declaration of his +intentions. And what he chiefly valued, he formed a treaty with the +Swiss cantons, who, enraged by some neglects put upon them by Lewis, +accompanied with contumelious expressions, had quitted the alliance of +France, and waited for an opportunity of revenging themselves on that +nation. + + * Guicciard. lib. viii. + + ** Spel. Concil. vol. ii. p. 725. + +{1511.} While the French monarch repelled the attacks of his enemies, he +thought it also requisite to make an attempt on the pope himself, and to +despoil him as much as possible of that sacred character which chiefly +rendered him formidable. He engaged some cardinals, disgusted with +the violence of Julius, to desert him; and by their authority he was +determined, in conjunction with Maximilian, who still adhered to his +alliance, to call a general council, which might reform the church, and +check the exorbitances of the Roman pontiff. A council was summoned +at Pisa, which from the beginning bore a very inauspicious aspect, and +promised little success to had adherents. Except a few French bishops, +who unwillingly obeyed the king’s commands in attending the council, all +the other prelates kept aloof from an assembly which they regarded as +the offspring of faction, intrigue, and worldly politics. Even Pisa, the +place of their residence, showed them signs of contempt; which engaged +them to transfer their session to Milan, a city under the dominion +of the French monarch; Notwithstanding this advantage, they did not +experience much more respectful treatment from the inhabitants of Milan; +and found it necessary to make another remove to Lyons.[*] Lewis himself +fortified these violent prejudices in favor of papal authority, by the +symptoms which he discovered of regard, deference, and submission to +Julius, whom he always spared, even when fortune had thrown into his +hands the most inviting opportunities of humbling him. And as it was +known that his consort, who had great influence over him, was extremely +disquieted in mind on account of his dissensions with the holy father, +all men prognosticated to Julius final success in this unequal contest. + +The enterprising pontiff knew his advantages, and availed himself of +them with the utmost temerity and insolence. So much had he neglected +his sacerdotal character, that he acted in person at the siege of +Mirandola, visited the trenches, saw some of his attendants killed by +his side, and, like a young soldier, cheerfully bore all the rigors of +winter and a severe season, in pursuit of military glory:[**] yet was he +still able to throw, even on his most moderate opponents, the charge of +impiety and profaneness. He summoned, a council at the Lateran: he put +Pisa under an interdict, and all the places which gave shelter to the +schismatical council: he excommunicated the cardinals and prelates who +attended it: he even pointed his spiritual thunder against the princes +who adhered to it: he freed their subjects from all oaths of allegiance, +and gave their dominions to every one who could take possession of them. + + * Guicciard. lib. x. + + ** Guicciard. lib. ix. + +Ferdinand of Arragon, who had acquired the surname of Catholic, regarded +the cause of the pope and of religion only as a cover to his ambition +and selfish politics: Henry, naturally sincere and sanguine in his +temper, and the more èo on account of his youth and inexperience, was +moved with a hearty desire of protecting the pope from the oppression to +which he believed him exposed from the ambitious enterprises of Lewis. + +{1512.} Hopes had been given him by Julius, that the title of “most +Christian king,” which had hitherto been annexed to the crown of France, +and which was regarded as its most precious ornament, should, in reward +of his services, be transferred to that of England.[*] Impatient also +of acquiring that distinction in Europe, to which his power and opulence +entitled him, he could not long remain neuter amidst the noise of arms; +and the natural enmity of the English against France, as well as their +ancient claims upon that kingdom, led Henry to join that alliance which +the pope, Spain, and Venice had formed against the French monarch. +A herald was sent to Paris, to exhort Lewis not to wage impious war +against the sovereign pontiff; and when he returned without success, +another was sent to demand the ancient patrimonial provinces, Anjou, +Maine, Guienne, and Normandy. This message was understood to be a +declaration of war; and a parliament, being summoned, readily granted +supplies for a purpose so much favored by the English nation.[**] + + * Guicciard. lib. xi. P. Daniel, vol ii. p. 1893. Herbert. + Holingshed, p. 831. + + ** Herbert. Holingshed, p. 811. + +Buonaviso, an agent of the pope’s at London, had been corrupted by the +court of France, and had previously revealed to Lewis all the measures +which Henry was concerting against him. But this infidelity did the +king inconsiderable prejudice, in comparison of the treachery which he +experienced from the selfish purposes of the ally on whom he chiefly +relied for assistance. Ferdinand, his father-in-law, had so long +persevered in a course of crooked politics, that he began even to value +himself on his dexterity in fraud and artifice; and he made a boast of +those shameful successes. Being told one day, that Lewis, a prince of a +very different character, had complained of his having once cheated +him: “He lies, the drunkard!” said he; “I have cheated him above twenty +times.” This prince considered his close connections with Henry only as +the means which enabled him the better to take advantage of his want of +experience. He advised him not to invade France by the way of Calais, +where he himself should not have it in his power to assist him: he +exhorted him rather to send forces to Fontarabia, whence he could easily +make a conquest of Guienne, a province in which it was imagined the +English had still some adherents. He promised to assist this conquest +by the junction of a Spanish army. And so forward did he seem to promote +the interests of his son-in-law, that he even sent vessels to England, +in order to transport over the forces which Henry had levied for that +purpose. The marquis of Dorset commanded this armament, which consisted +of ten thousand men, mostly infantry; Lord Howard, son of the earl of +Surrey, Lord Broke, Lord Ferrars, and many others of the young gentry +and nobility, accompanied him in this service. All were on fire to +distinguish themselves by military achievements, and to make a conquest +of importance for their master. The secret purpose of Ferdinand, in this +unexampled generosity, was suspected by nobody. + +The small kingdom of Navarre lies on the frontiers between France and +Spain; and as John d’Albert, the sovereign, was connected by friendship +and alliance with Lewis, the opportunity seemed favorable to Ferdinand, +while the English forces were conjoined with his own, and while +all adherents to the council of Pisa lay under the sentence of +excommunication, to put himself in possession of these dominions. No +sooner, therefore, was Dorset landed in Guipiscoa, than the Spanish +monarch declared his readiness to join him with his forces, to make with +united arms an invasion of France, and to form the siege of Bayonne, +which opened the way into Guienne:[*] but he remarked to the English +general how dangerous it might prove to leave behind them the kingdom of +Navarre, which, being in close alliance with France, could easily give +admittance to the enemy, and cut off all communication between Spain +and the combined armies. To provide against so dangerous an event, he +required that John should stipulate a neutrality in the present war; and +when that prince expressed his willingness to enter into any engagement +for that purpose, he also required that security should be given for the +strict observance of it. + + * Herbert, Holingshed, p. 813. + +John having likewise agreed to this condition, Ferdinand demanded that +he should deliver into his hands six of the most considerable places of +his dominions, together with his eldest son as a hostage. These were not +terms to be proposed to a sovereign; and as the Spanish monarch expected +a refusal, he gave immediate orders to the duke of Alva, his general, to +make an invasion on Navarre, and to reduce that kingdom. + +Alva soon made himself master of all the smaller towns; and being ready +to form the siege of Pampeluna, the capital, he summoned the marquis of +Dorset to join him with the English army, and concert together all their +operations. + +Dorset began to suspect that the interests of his master were very +little regarded in all these transactions; and having no orders to +invade the kingdom of Navarre, or make war any where but in France, he +refused to take any part in the enterprise. He remained therefore in his +quarters at Fontarabia; but so subtle was the contrivance of Ferdinand, +that even while the English army lay in that situation, it was almost +equally serviceable to his purpose, as if it had acted in conjunction +with his own. It kept the French army in awe, and prevented it from +advancing to succor the kingdom of Navarre; so that Alva, having full +leisure to conduct the siege, made himself master of Pampeluna, and +obliged John to seek for shelter in France. The Spanish general applied +again to Dorset, and proposed to conduct with united counsels the +operations of the “holy league,” (so it was called,) against Lewis: but +as he still declined forming the siege of Bayonne, and rather insisted +on the invasion of the principality of Bearne, a part of the king of +Navarre’s dominions which lies on the French side of the Pyrenees, +Dorset, justly suspicious of his sinister intentions, represented that, +without new orders from his master, he could not concur in such an +undertaking. In order to procure these orders, Ferdinand despatched +Martin de Ampios to London; and persuaded Henry that, by the refractory +and scrupulous humor of the English general, the most favorable +opportunities were lost; and that it was necessary he should on all +occasions act in concert with the Spanish commander, who was best +acquainted with the situation of the country, and the reasons of every +operation. But before orders to this purpose reached Spain, Dorset had +become extremely impatient; and observing that his further stay served +not to promote the main undertaking, and that his army was daily +perishing by want and sickness, he demanded shipping from Ferdinand to +transport them back into England. Ferdinand, who was bound by treaty +to furnish him with this supply whenever demanded, was at length, after +many delays, obliged to yield to his importunity; and Dorset, embarking +his troops, prepared himself for the voyage. Meanwhile the messenger +arrived with orders from Henry, that the troops should remain in Spain; +but the soldiers were so discontented with the treatment which they had +met with, that they mutinied, and obliged their commanders to set sail +for England. Henry was much displeased with the ill success of this +enterprise; and it was with difficulty that Dorset, by explaining the +fraudulent conduct of Ferdinand, was at last able to appease him. + +There happened this summer an action at sea, which brought not any more +decisive advantage to the English. Sir Thomas Knevet, master of horse, +was sent to the coast of Brittany with a fleet of forty-five sail; and +he carried with him Sir Charles Brandon, Sir John Carew, and many other +young courtiers, who longed for an opportunity of displaying their +valor. After they had committed some depredations, a French fleet of +thirty-nine sail issued from Brest, under the command of Primauget, and +began an engagement with the English. Fire seized the ship of Primauget; +who, finding his destruction inevitable, bore down upon the vessel of +the English admiral, and grappling with her, resolved to make her share +his fate. Both fleets stood some time in suspense, as spectators of +this dreadful engagement; and all men saw with horror the flames which +consumed both vessels, and heard the cries of fury and despair which +came from the miserable combatants. At last the French vessel blew up; +and at the same time destroyed the English.[*] The rest of the French +fleet made their escape into different harbors. + +The war which England waged against France, though it brought no +advantage to the former kingdom, was of great prejudice to the latter; +and by obliging Lewis to withdraw his forces for the defence of his own +dominions, lost him that superiority which his arms in the beginning of +the campaign had attained in Italy. Gaston de Foix, his nephew, a young +hero, had been intrusted with the command of the French forces; and in +a few months performed such feats of military art and prowess, as were +sufficient to render illustrious the life of the oldest captain.[**] His +career finished with the great battle of Ravenna, which, after the most +obstinate conflict, he gained over the Spanish and papal armies. He +perished the very moment his victory was complete; and with him perished +the fortune of the French arms in Italy. + + * Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. Stowe, p. 490. Lanquet’s Epitome + of Chronicles, fol. 273. + + ** Guicciard. lib. x. + +The Swiss, who had rendered themselves extremely formidable by their +bands of disciplined infantry, invaded the Milanese with a numerous +army, and raised up that inconstant people to a revolt against the +dominion of France. Genoa followed the example of the duchy; and thus +Lewis in a few weeks entirely lost his Italian conquests, except some +garrisons; and Maximilian Sforza, the son of Ludovic, was reinstated in +possession of Milan. + +{1513.} Julius discovered extreme joy on the discomfiture of the French; +and the more so as he had been beholden for it to the Swiss, a people +whose councils he hoped he should always be able to influence and +govern. The pontiff survived this success a very little time; and in his +place was chosen John de Medicis, who took the appellation of Leo X., +and proved one of the most illustrious princes that ever sat on the +papal throne. Humane, beneficent, generous, affable; the patron of every +art, and friend of every virtue;[*] he had a soul no less capable of +forming great designs than his predecessor, but was more gentle, pliant, +and artful in employing means for the execution of them. The sole +defect, indeed, of his character was too great finesse and artifice; a +fault which, both as a priest and an Italian, it was difficult for +him to avoid. By the negotiations of Leo, the emperor Maximilian was +detached from the French interest; and Henry, notwithstanding his +disappointments in the former campaign, was still encouraged to +prosecute his warlike measures against Lewis. + +Henry had summoned a new session of parliament,[**] and obtained a +supply for his enterprise. It was a poll-tax, and imposed different +sums, according to the station and riches of the person. A duke paid ten +marks, an earl five pounds, a baron four pounds, a knight four marks; +every man valued at eight hundred pounds in goods, four marks. An +imposition was also granted of two fifteenths and four tenths.[***] +By these supplies, joined to the treasure which had been left by his +father, and which was not yet entirely dissipated, he was enabled to +levy a great army, and render himself formidable to his enemy. The +English are said to have been much encouraged, in this enterprise, by +the arrival of a vessel in the Thames under the papal banner. It carried +presents of wine and hams to the king and the more eminent courtiers; +and such fond devotion was at that time entertained towards the court +of Rome, that these trivial presents were every where received with the +greatest triumph and exultation. + + * Father Paul, lib. i. + + ** November 4, 1512. + + *** Stowe. + +In order to prevent all disturbances from Scotland while Henry’s arms +should be employed on the continent, Dr. West, dean of Windsor, was +despatched on an embassy to James, the king’s brother-in-law; and +instructions were given him to accommodate all differences between +the kingdoms, as well as to discover the intentions of the court of +Scotland.[*] Some complaints had already been made on both sides. One +Barton, a Scotchman, having suffered injuries from the Portuguese, for +which he could obtain no redress, had procured letters of marque against +that nation; but he had no sooner put to sea than he was guilty of +the grossest abuses, committed depredations upon the English, and +much infested the narrow seas.[**] Lord Howard and Sir Edward Howard, +admirals, and sons of the earl of Surrey, sailing out against him, +fought him in a desperate action, where the pirate was killed; and they +brought his ships into the Thames. As Henry refused all satisfaction for +this act of justice, some of the borderers, who wanted but a pretence +for depredations, entered England under the command of Lord Hume, +warden of the marches, and committed great ravages on that kingdom. +Notwithstanding these mutual grounds of dissatisfaction, matters might +easily have been accommodated, had it not been for Henry’s intended +invasion of France, which roused the jealousy of the Scottish +nation.[***] + + * Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. + + ** Stowe, p. 489. Holingshed, p. 811. + + *** Buchanan, lib. xii. Drummond in the Life of James IV. + +The ancient league which subsisted between France and Scotland was +conceived to be the strongest band of connection; and the Scots +universally believed, that were it not for the countenance which they +received from this foreign alliance, they had never been able so long to +maintain their independence against a people so much superior. James was +further incited to take part in the quarrel by the invitations of Anne, +queen of France, whose knight he had ever in all tournaments professed +himself, and who summoned him, according to the ideas of romantic +gallantry prevalent in that age, to take the field in her defence, and +prove himself her true and valorous champion. The remonstrances of +his consort and of his wisest counsellors were in vain opposed to the +martial ardor of this prince. He first sent a squadron of ships to the +assistance of France; the only fleet which Scotland seems ever to +have possessed. And though he still made professions of maintaining a +neutrality, the English ambassador easily foresaw that a war would +in the end prove inevitable; and he gave warning of the danger to his +master, who sent the earl of Surrey to put the borders in a posture of +defence, and to resist the expected invasion of the enemy. + +Henry, all on fire for military fame, was little discouraged by this +appearance of a diversion from the north; and so much the less, as he +flattered himself with the assistance of all the considerable potentates +of Europe in his invasion of France. The pope still continued to thunder +out his excommunications against Lewis and all the adherents of the +schismatical council: the Swiss cantons made professions of violent +animosity against France: the ambassadors of Ferdinand and Maximilian +had signed with those of Henry a treaty of alliance against that power, +and had stipulated the time and place of their intended invasion: and +though Ferdinand disavowed his ambassador, and even signed a truce for a +twelvemonth with the common enemy, Henry was not yet fully convinced of +his selfish and sinister intentions, and still hoped for his concurrence +after the expiration of that term. He had now got a minister who +complied with all his inclinations, and flattered him in every scheme to +which his sanguine and impetuous temper was inclined. + +Thomas Wolsey, dean of Lincoln, and almoner to the king, surpassed in +favor all his ministers, and was fast advancing towards that unrivalled +grandeur which he afterwards attained. This man was son of a butcher at +Ipswich; but having got a learned education, and being endowed with an +excellent capacity, he was admitted into the marquis of Dorset’s family +as tutor to that nobleman’s children, and soon gained the friendship and +countenance of his patron.[*] He was recommended to be chaplain to Henry +VII.; and being employed by that monarch in a secret negotiation, which +regarded his intended marriage with Margaret of Savoy, Maximilian’s +daughter, he acquitted himself to the king’s satisfaction, and obtained +the praise both of diligence and dexterity in his conduct.[**] + + * Stowe, p. 997. + + ** Cavendish. Fiddes’s Life of Wolsey. Stowe. + +That prince, having given him a commission to Maximilian, who at that +time resided in Brussels, was surprised, in less than three days after, +to see Wolsey present himself before him, and supposing that he had +protracted his departure, he began to reprove him for the dilatory +execution of his orders. Wolsey informed him that he had just returned +from Brussels, and had successfully fulfilled all his majesty’s +commands. “But on second thoughts,” said the king, “I found that +somewhat was omitted in your orders; and have sent a messenger after you +with fuller instructions.” “I met the messenger,” replied Wolsey, “on my +return: but as I had reflected on that omission, I ventured of myself +to execute what I knew must be your majesty’s intentions.” The death of +Henry soon after this incident retarded the advancement of Wolsey, and +prevented his reaping any advantage from the good opinion which that +monarch had entertained of him: but thence forwards he was looked on at +court as a rising man; and Fox, bishop of Winchester, cast his eye upon +him as one who might be serviceable to him in his present situation.[*] +This prelate, observing that the earl of Surrey had totally eclipsed +him in favor, resolved to introduce Wolsey to the young prince’s +familiarity; and hoped that he might rival Surrey in his insinuating +arts, and yet be contented to act in the cabinet a part subordinate to +Fox himself, who had promoted him. + + * Antiq. Brit. Eccles. p. 309. Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. + +In a little time, Wolsey gained so much on the king, that he supplanted +both Surrey in his favor, and Fox in his trust and confidence. Being +admitted to Henry’s parties of pleasure, he took the lead in every +jovial conversation, and promoted all that frolic and entertainment +which he found suitable to the age and inclination of the young monarch. +Neither his own years, which were near forty, nor his character of a +clergyman, were any restraint upon him, or engaged him to check, by any +useless severity, the gayety in which Henry, who had small propension +to debauchery, passed his careless hours. During the intervals of +amusement, he introduced business, and insinuated those maxims of +conduct which he was desirous his master should adopt. He observed to +him that while he intrusted his affairs into the hands of his father’s +counsellors, he had the advantage indeed of employing men of wisdom and +experience, but men who owed not their promotion to his favor, and who +scarcely thought themselves accountable to him for the exercise of their +authority: that by the factions, and cabals, and jealousies which had +long prevailed among them, they more obstructed the advancement of his +affairs, than they promoted it by the knowledge which age and practice +had conferred upon them: that while he thought proper to pass his time +in those pleasures to which his age and royal fortune invited him, and +in those studies which would in time enable him to sway the sceptre with +absolute authority, his best system of government would be, to intrust +his authority into the hands of some one person who was the creature +of his will, and who could entertain no view but that of promoting his +service: and that if this minister had also the same relish for pleasure +with himself, and the same taste for science, he could more easily, +at intervals, account to him for his whole conduct, and introduce +his master gradually into the knowledge of public business; and thus, +without tedious constraint or application, initiate him in the science +of government.[*] + + * Cavendish, p. 12. Stowe, p. 499. + +Henry entered into all the views of Wolsey; and finding no one so +capable of executing this plan of administration as the person who +proposed it, he soon advanced his favorite, from being the companion of +his pleasures, to be a member of his council; and from being a member +of his council, to be his sole and absolute minister. By this rapid +advancement and uncontrolled authority, the character and genius +of Wolsey had full opportunity to display itself. Insatiable in his +acquisitions, but still more magnificent in his expense: of extensive +capacity, but still more unbounded enterprise: ambitious of power, but +still more desirous of glory: insinuating engaging, persuasive; and, by +turns, lofty, elevated, commanding: haughty to his equals, but affable +to his dependants: oppressive to the people, but liberal to his friends; +more generous than grateful; less moved by injuries than by contempt; he +was framed to take the ascendant in every intercourse with others, but +exerted this superiority of nature with such ostentation as exposed him +to envy, and made every one willing to recall the original inferiority, +or rather meanness, of his fortune. + +The branch of administration in which Henry most exerted himself, while +he gave his entire confidence to Wolsey, was the military; which, as it +suited the natural gallantry and bravery of his temper, as well as the +ardor of his youth, was the principal object of his attention. Finding +that Lewis had made great preparations both by sea and land to resist +him, he was no less careful to levy a formidable army and equip a +considerable fleet for the invasion of France. The command of the fleet +was intrusted to Sir Edward Howard; who, after scouring the Channel for +some time, presented himself before Brest, where the French navy +then lay; and he challenged them to a combat. The French admiral, who +expected from the Mediterranean a reënforcement of some galleys under +the command of Prejeant de Bidoux, kept within the harbor, and saw with +patience the English burn and destroy the country in the neighborhood. +At last Prejeant arrived with six galleys, and put into Conquet, a place +within a few leagues of Brest; where he secured himself behind some +batteries, which he had planted on rocks that lay on each side of him. +Howard was, notwithstanding, determined to make an attack upon him; and +as he had but two galleys, he took himself the command of one, and gave +the other to Lord Ferrars. He was followed by some row-barges and some +crayers under the command of Sir Thomas Cheyney, Sir William Sidney, +and other officers of distinction. He immediately fastened on Prejeant’s +ship, and leaped on board of her, attended by one Carroz, a Spanish +cavalier, and seventeen Englishmen. The cable, meanwhile, which fastened +his ship to that of the enemy, being cut, the admiral was thus left in +the hands of the French; and as he still continued the combat with great +gallantry, he was pushed overboard by their pikes.[*] Lord Ferrars, +seeing the admiral’s galley fall off, followed with the other small +vessels; and the whole fleet was so discouraged by the loss of their +commander, that they retired from before Brest.[**] The French navy came +out of harbor, and even ventured to invade the coast of Sussex. They +were repulsed, and Prejeant, their commander, lost an eye by the shot of +an arrow. Lord Howard, brother to the deceased admiral, succeeded to the +command of the English fleet; and little memorable passed at sea during +this summer. + + * It was a maxim of Howard’s, that no admiral was good for + any thing that was not brave even to a degree of madness. As + the sea service requires much less plan and contrivance, and + capacity, than the land, this maxim has great plausibility + and appearance of truth; though the fate of Howard himself + may serve as a proof, that even there courage ought to be + tempered with discretion. + + ** Stowe, p. 491. Herbert. + + *** Holingshed, p. 816. + +Great preparations had been making at land, during the whole winter, +for an invasion on France by the way of Calais; but the summer was well +advanced before every thing was in sufficient readiness for the intended +enterprise. The long peace which the kingdom had enjoyed had somewhat +unfitted the English for military expeditions; and the great change +which had lately been introduced in the art of war, had rendered +it still more difficult to inure them to the use of the weapons now +employed in action. The Swiss, and after them the Spaniards, had shown +the advantage of a stable infantry, who fought with pike and sword, and +were able to repulse even the heavy-armed cavalry, in which the great +force of the armies formerly consisted. The practice of firearms was +become common; though the caliver, which was the weapon now in use, was +so inconvenient, and attended with so many disadvantages, that it had +not entirely discredited the bow, a weapon in which the English excelled +all European nations. A considerable part of the forces which Henry +levied for the invasion of France consisted of archers; and as soon as +affairs were in readiness, the vanguard of the army, amounting to eight +thousand men, under the command of the earl of Shrewsbury, sailed over +to Calais. Shrewsbury was accompanied by the earl of Derby, the lords +Fitzwater, Hastings, Cobham, and Sir Rice ap Thomas, captain of the +light horse. Another body of six thousand men soon after followed under +the command of Lord Herbert the chamberlain, attended by the earls of +Northumberland and Kent, the lords Audley and Delawar, together with +Carew, Curson, and other gentlemen. + +The king himself prepared to follow with the main body and rear of +the army; and he appointed the queen regent of the kingdom during his +absence. That he might secure her administration from all disturbance, +he ordered Edmond de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, to be beheaded in the +Tower, the nobleman who had been attainted and imprisoned during the +late reign. Henry was led to commit this act of violence by the dying +commands, as is imagined, of his father, who told him that he never +would be free from danger while a man of so turbulent a disposition as +Suffolk was alive. And as Richard de la Pole, brother of Suffolk, had +accepted of a command in the French service, and foolishly attempted +to revive the York faction, and to instigate them against the present +government, he probably by that means drew more suddenly the King’s +vengeance on this unhappy nobleman. + +At last, Henry, attended by the duke of Buckingham and many others of +the nobility, arrived at Calais, and entered upon his French expedition, +from which he fondly expected so much success and glory.[*] Of all those +allies on whose assistance he relied, the Swiss alone fully performed +their engagements. Being put in motion by a sum of money sent them by +Henry, and incited by their victories obtained in Italy and by their +animosity against France, they were preparing to enter that kingdom with +an army of twenty-five thousand men; and no equal force could be opposed +to their incursion. Maximilian had received an advance of one hundred +and twenty thousand crowns from Henry, and had promised to reënforce the +Swiss with eight thousand men, but failed in his engagements. That +he might make atonement to the king, he himself appeared in the Low +Countries, and joined the English army with some German and Flemish +soldiers, who were useful in giving an example of discipline to Henry’s +new-levied forces. Observing the disposition of the English monarch +to be more bent on glory than on interest, he enlisted himself in his +service, wore the cross of St. George, and received pay, a hundred +crowns a day, as one of his subjects and captains. But while he +exhibited this extraordinary spectacle, of an emperor of Germany serving +under a king of England, he was treated with the highest respect by +Henry, and really directed all the operations of the English army. + + * Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. Bellarius, lib. xiv. + +Before the arrival of Henry and Maximilian in the camp, the earl of +Shrewsbury and Lord Herbert had formed the siege of Terouane, a town +situated on the frontiers of Picardy; and they began to attack the place +with vigor. Teligni and Crequi commanded in the town, and had a garrison +not exceeding two thousand men; yet made they such stout resistance as +protracted the siege a month; and they at last found themselves more in +danger from want of provisions and ammunition than from the assaults of +the besiegers. Having conveyed intelligence of their situation to Lewis, +who had advanced to Amiens with his army, that prince gave orders to +throw relief into the place. Fontrailles appeared at the head of eight +hundred horsemen, each of whom carried a sack of gunpowder behind him, +and two quarters of bacon. With this small force he made a sudden +and unexpected irruption into the English camp, and, surmounting all +resistance, advanced to the fosse of the town, where each horseman threw +down his burden. They immediately returned at the gallop, and were so +fortunate as again to break through the English and to suffer little or +no loss in this dangerous attempt.[*] + +But the English had, soon after, full revenge for the insult. Henry +had received intelligence of the approach of the French horse, who had +advanced to protect another incursion of Fontrailles; and he ordered +some troops to pass the Lis, in order to oppose them. The cavalry of +France, though they consisted chiefly of gentlemen, who had behaved with +great gallantry in many desperate actions in Italy, were, on sight of +the enemy, seized with so unaccountable a panic, that they immediately +took to flight, and were pursued by the English. The duke of +Longueville, who commanded the French, Bussi d’Amboise, Clermont, +Imbercourt, the chevalier Bayard, and many other officers of distinction +were made prisoners.[**] This action, or rather rout, is sometimes +called the battle of Guinegate, from the place where it was fought; but +more commonly the “battle of spurs,” because the French that day made +more use of their spurs than of their swords or military weapons. + + * Hist. de Chev. Bayard, chap. 57. Mémoires de Bellai. + + ** Mémoires de Bellai, liv. i. Polyd. Virg. liv. xxvii. + Holingshed, p. 822. Herbert. + +After so considerable an advantage, the king, who was at the head of a +complete army of above fifty thousand men, might have made incursions to +the gates of Paris, and spread confusion and desolation every where. It +gave Lewis great joy when he heard that the English, instead of pushing +their victory, and attacking the dismayed troops of France, returned to +the siege of so inconsiderable a place as Terouane. The governors were +obliged soon after to capitulate; and Henry found his acquisition of so +little moment, though gained at the expense of some blood, and what, in +his present circumstances, was more important, of much valuable time, +that he immediately demolished the fortifications. The anxieties of the +French were again revived with regard to the motions of the English. The +Swiss at the same time had entered Burgundy with a formidable army, and +laid siege to Dijon, which was in no condition to resist them. Ferdinand +himself, though he had made a truce with Lewis, seemed disposed to lay +hold of every advantage which fortune should present to him. Scarcely +ever was the French monarchy in greater danger, or less in a condition +to defend itself against those powerful armies which on every side +assailed or threatened it. Even many of the inhabitants of Paris, who +believed themselves exposed to the rapacity and violence of the enemy, +began to dislodge, without knowing what place could afford them greater +security. + +But Lewis was extricated from his present difficulties by the manifold +blunders of his enemies. The Swiss allowed themselves to be seduced into +a negotiation by Tremoille, governor of Burgundy; and without making +inquiry whether that nobleman had any powers to treat, they accepted of +the conditions which he offered them. Tremoille, who knew that he should +be disavowed by his master, stipulated whatever they were pleased to +demand; and thought himself happy, at the expense of some payments and +very large promises, to get rid of so formidable an enemy.[*] + +The measures of Henry showed equal ignorance in the art of war with that +of the Swiss in negotiation. Tournay was a great and rich city, which, +though it lay within the frontiers of Flanders, belonged to France, +and afforded the troops of that kingdom a passage into the heart of the +Netherlands. Maximilian, who was desirous of freeing his grandson from +so troublesome a neighbor, advised Henry to lay siege to the place; and +the English monarch, not considering that such an acquisition nowise +advanced his conquests in France, was so imprudent as to follow this +interested counsel. The city of Tournay, by its ancient charters, +being exempted from the burden of a garrison, the burghers, against the +remonstrance of their sovereign, strenuously insisted on maintaining +this dangerous privilege; and they engaged, by themselves, to make a +vigorous defence against the enemy.[**] Their courage failed them +when matters came to trial; and after a few days’ siege, the place was +surrendered to the English. The bishop of Tournay was lately dead; and +as a new bishop was already elected by the chapter, but not installed +in his office, the king bestowed the administration of the see on his +favorite Wolsey, and put him in immediate possession of the revenues, +which were considerable.[***] + + * Mémoires du Mareschal de Fleuranges. Bellarius, lib. xiv. + + ** Mémoires de Fleuranges. + + *** Strype’s Memorials, vol. i. p. 5, 6. + +Hearing of the retreat of the Swiss, and observing the season to be far +advanced, he thought proper to return to England; and he carried the +greater part of his army with him. Success had attended him in every +enterprise; and his youthful mind was much elated with this seeming +prosperity, but all men of judgment, comparing the advantages of his +situation with his progress, his expense with his acquisitions, were +convinced that this campaign, so much vaunted, was, in reality, both +ruinous and inglorious to him.[*] + + * Guicciardini. + +The success which, during this summer, had attended Henry’s arms in the +north, was much more decisive. The king of Scotland had assembled the +whole force of his kingdom; and having passed the Tweed with a brave, +though a tumultuary army of above fifty thousand men, he ravaged those +parts of Northumberland which lay nearest that river, and he employed +himself in taking the Castles of Norham, Etal, Werke, Ford, and other +places of small importance. Lady Ford, being taken prisoner in her +castle, was presented to James, and so gained on the affections of that +prince, that he wasted in pleasure the critical time which, during the +absence of his enemy, he should have employed in pushing his conquests. +His troops, lying in a barren country, where they soon consumed all the +provisions, began to be pinched with hunger; and as the authority of +the prince was feeble, and military discipline during that age extremely +relaxed, many of them had stolen from the camp, and retired homewards. +Meanwhile, the earl of Surrey, having collected a force of twenty-six +thousand men, of which five thousand had been sent over from the king’s +army in France, marched to the defence of the country, and approached +the Scots, who lay on some high ground near the hills of Cheviot. The +River Till ran between the armies, and prevented an engagement: Surrey +therefore sent a herald to the Scottish camp, challenging the enemy to +descend into the plain of Milfield, which lay towards the south; and +there, appointing a day for the combat, to try their valor on equal +ground. As he received no satisfactory answer, he made a feint of +marching towards Berwick; as if he intended to enter Scotland, to lay +waste the borders, and cut off the provisions of the enemy. The Scottish +army, in order to prevent his purpose, put themselves in motion; and +having set fire to the huts in which they had quartered, they descended +from the hills. Surrey, taking advantage of the smoke, which was blown +towards him, and which concealed his movements, passed the Till with his +artillery and vanguard at the bridge of Twisel, and sent the rest of his +army to seek a ford higher up the river. + +An engagement was now become inevitable, and both sides prepared for it +with tranquillity and order.[*] The English divided their army into +two lines: Lord Howard led the main body of the first line, Sir Edmond +Howard the right wing, Sir Marmaduke Constable the left. The earl of +Surrey himself commanded the main body of the second line, Lord Dacres +the right wing, Sir Edward Stanley the left. The front of the Scots +presented three divisions to the enemy: the middle was led by the king +himself; the right by the earl of Huntley, assisted by Lord Hume; the +left by the earls of Lenox and Argyle. A fourth division under the earl +of Bothwell made a body of reserve. Huntley began the battle, and, after +a sharp conflict, put to flight the left wing of the English, and chased +them off the field: but on returning from the pursuit, he found the +whole Scottish army in great disorder. The division under Lenox and +Argyle, elated with the success of the other wing, had broken their +ranks, and, notwithstanding the remonstrances and entreaties of La +Motte, the French ambassador, had rushed headlong upon the enemy. Not +only Sir Edmond Howard, at the head of his division, received them with +great valor, but Dacres, who commanded in the second line, wheeling +about during the action, fell upon their rear, and put them to the sword +without resistance. The division under James and that under Bothwell, +animated by the valor of their leaders, still made head against the +English, and throwing themselves into a circle, protracted the action, +till night separated the combatants. The victory seemed yet undecided, +and the numbers that fell on each side were nearly equal, amounting to +above five thousand men: but the morning discovered where the advantage +lay. The English had lost only persons of small note; but the flower +of the Scottish nobility had fallen in battle, and their king himself, +after the most diligent inquiry, could nowhere be found. In searching +the field, the English met with a dead body which resembled him, and was +arrayed in a similar habit; and they put it in a leaden coffin, and sent +it to London. During some time it was kept unburied; because James died +under sentence of ex-communication, on account of his confederacy +with France, and his opposition to the holy see:[**] but upon Henry’s +application, who pretended that this prince had, in the instant before +his death, discovered signs of repentance, absolution was given him, and +his body was interred. + + * Buchanan, lib. xiii. Drummond. Herbert. Polyd. Virg. lib. + xxvii. Stowe, p. 493. Paulus Jovius. + + ** Buchanan, lib. xiii. Herbert. + +The Scots, however, still asserted that it was not James’s body which +was found on the field of battle, but that of one Elphinston, who had +been arrayed in arms resembling their king’s, in order to divide the +attention of the English, and share the danger with his master. It was +believed that James had been seen crossing the Tweed at Kelso;* and some +imagined that he had been killed by the vassals of Lord Hume, whom that +nobleman had instigated to commit so enormous a crime. But the populace +entertained the opinion that he was still alive, and having secretly +gone in pilgrimage to the Holy Land, would soon return and take +possession of the throne. This fond conceit was long entertained among +the Scots. + +The king of Scotland and most of his chief nobles being slain in the +field of Flouden, (so this battle was called,) an inviting opportunity +was offered to Henry of gaining advantages over that kingdom, perhaps +of reducing it to subjection. But he discovered on this occasion a mind +truly great and generous. When the queen of Scotland, Margaret, who +was created regent during the infancy of her son, applied for peace, he +readily granted it; and took compassion of the helpless condition of +his sister and nephew. The earl of Surrey, who had gained him so great +a victory, was restored to the title of duke of Norfolk, which had been +forfeited by his father for engaging on the side of Richard III. + +{1514.} Lord Howard was honored with the title of earl of Surrey. +Sir Charles Brandon, the king’s favorite, whom he had before created +Viscount Lisle, was now raised to the dignity of duke of Suffolk. +Wolsey, who was both his favorite and his minister, was created bishop +of Lincoln. Lord Herbert obtained the title of earl of Worcester; Sir +Edward Stanley, that of Lord Monteagle. + +Though peace with Scotland gave Henry security on that side, and enabled +him to prosecute in tranquillity his enterprise against France, some +other incidents had happened, which more than counterbalanced this +fortunate event, and served to open his eyes with regard to the rashness +of an undertaking, into which his youth and high fortune had betrayed +him. + +Lewis, fully sensible of the dangerous situation to which his kingdom +had been reduced during the former campaign, was resolved, by every +expedient, to prevent the return of like perils, and to break the +confederacy of his enemies. The pope was nowise disposed to push the +French to extremity; and provided they did not return to take possession +of Milan, his interests rather led him to preserve the balance among the +contending parties. He accepted, therefore, of Lewis’s offer to renounce +the council of Lyons; and he took off the excommunication which his +predecessor and himself had fulminated against that king and his +kingdom. Ferdinand was now fast declining in years, and as he +entertained no further ambition than that of keeping possession of +Navarre, which he had subdued by his arms and policy, he readily +hearkened to the proposals of Lewis for prolonging the truce another +year; and he even showed an inclination of forming a more intimate +connection with that monarch. Lewis had dropped hints of his intention +to marry his second daughter, Renée, either to Charles, prince of Spain, +or his brother Ferdinand, both of them grandsons of the Spanish monarch; +and he declared his resolution of bestowing on her, as her portion, his +claim to the duchy of Milan. Ferdinand not only embraced these proposals +with joy, but also engaged the emperor Maximilian in the same views, and +procured his accession to a treaty which opened so inviting a prospect +of aggrandizing their common grandchildren. + +When Henry was informed of Ferdinand’s renewal of the truce with +Lewis, he fell into a violent rage, and loudly complained, that his +father-in-law had first, by high promises and professions, engaged him +in enmity with France, and afterwards, without giving him the least +warning, had now again sacrificed his interests to his own selfish +purposes, and had left him exposed alone to all the danger and expense +of the war. In proportion to his easy credulity, and his unsuspecting +reliance on Ferdinand, was the vehemence with which he exclaimed against +the treatment which he met with; and he threatened revenge for this +egregious treachery and breach of faith.[*] But he lost all patience +when informed of the other negotiation, by which Maximilian was also +seduced from his alliance, and in which proposals had been agreed to +for the marriage of the prince of Spain with the daughter of France. +Charles, during the lifetime of the late king, had been affianced to +Mary, Henry’s younger sister; and as the prince now approached the +age of puberty, the king had expected the immediate completion of the +marriage, and the honorable settlement of a sister for whom he had +entertained a tender affection. Such a complication, therefore, of +injuries gave him the highest displeasure, and inspired him with a +desire of expressing his disdain towards those who had imposed on his +youth and inexperience, and had abused his too great facility. + + * Petrus de Angleria, Epist. 545, 646. + +The duke of Longueville, who had been made prisoner at the battle of +Gumegate, and who was still detained in England, was ready to take +advantage of all these dispositions of Henry, in order to procure a +peace, and even an alliance, which he knew to be passionately desired +by his master. He represented to the king, that Anne, queen of France, +being lately dead, a door was thereby opened for an affinity, which +might tend to the advantage of both kingdoms, and which would serve to +terminate honorably all the differences between them: that she had left +Lewis no male children; and as he had ever entertained a strong desire +of having heirs to the crown, no marriage seemed more suitable to him +than that with the princess of England, whose youth and beauty afforded +the most flattering hopes in that particular: that though the marriage +of a princess of sixteen with a king of fifty-three might seem +unsuitable, yet the other advantages attending the alliance were more +than a sufficient compensation for this inequality; and that Henry, in +loosening his connections with Spain, from which he had never reaped +any advantage, would contract a close affinity with Lewis, a prince +who, through his whole life, had invariably maintained the character of +probity and honor. + +As Henry seemed to hearken to this discourse with willing ears, +Longueville informed his master of the probability which he discovered +of bringing the matter to a happy conclusion; and he received full +powers for negotiating the treaty. The articles were easily adjusted +between the monarchs. Louis agreed that Tournay should remain in the +hands of the English; that Richard de la Pole should be banished to +Metz, there to live on a pension assigned him by Lewis; that Henry +should receive payment of a million of crowns, being the arrears due +by treaty to his father and himself; and that the princess Mary should +bring four hundred thousand crowns as her portion, and enjoy as large +a jointure as any queen of France, even the former, who was heiress of +Brittany. The two princes also agreed on the succors with which they +should mutually supply each other, in case either of them was attacked +by an enemy.[*] + +In consequence of this treaty, Mary was sent over to France with a +splendid retinue; and Lewis met her at Abbeville, where the espousals +were celebrated. He was enchanted with the beauty, grace, and numerous +accomplishments of the young princess; and being naturally of an amorous +disposition, which his advanced age had not entirely cooled, he was +seduced into such a course of gayety and pleasure, as proved very +unsuitable to his declining state of health.[**] + + * Du Tillet. + + ** Brantome, Eloge de Louis XII. + +{1515.} He died in less than three months after the marriage, to the +extreme regret of the French nation, who, sensible of his tender concern +for their welfare, gave him with one voice the honorable appellation of +“father of his people.” + +Francis, duke of Angoulême, a youth of one and twenty, who had married +Lewis’s eldest daughter, succeeded him on the throne; and, by his +activity, valor, generosity, and other virtues, gave prognostics of a +happy and glorious reign. This young monarch had been extremely +struck with the charms of the English princess; and even during his +predecessor’s lifetime, had paid her such assiduous court, as made some +of his friends apprehend that he had entertained views of gallantry +towards her. But being warned that, by indulging this passion, he +might probably exclude himself from the throne he forbore all further +addresses; and even watched the young dowager with a very careful eye +during the first months of her widowhood. Charles Brandon, duke of +Suffolk, was at that time in the court of France, the most comely +personage of his time, and the most accomplished in all the exercises +which were then thought to befit a courtier and a soldier. He was +Henry’s chief favorite; and that monarch had even once entertained +thoughts of marrying him to his sister, and had given indulgence to the +mutual passion which took place between them. The queen asked Suffolk, +whether he had now the courage, without further reflection, to espouse +her; and she told him that her brother would more easily forgive him for +not asking his consent, than for acting contrary to his orders. Suffolk +declined not so inviting an offer; and their nuptials were secretly +celebrated at Paris. Francis, who was pleased with this marriage, as +it prevented Henry from forming any powerful alliance by means of +his sister,[*] interposed his good offices in appeasing him: and even +Wolsey, having entertained no jealousy of Suffolk, who was content to +participate in the king’s pleasures, and had no ambition to engage in +public business, was active in reconciling the king to his sister and +brother-in-law; and he obtained them permission to return to England. + + * Petrus de Angleria, Epist. 544. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + +[Illustration: 1-30-henry8.jpg HENRY VIII.] + + + +HENRY VIII. + +{1515.} The numerous enemies whom Wolsey’s sudden elevation, his +aspiring character, and his haughty deportment had raised him, served +only to rivet him faster in Henry’s confidence; who valued himself +on supporting the choice which he had made, and who was incapable of +yielding either to the murmurs of the people or to the discontents +of the great. That artful prelate, likewise, well acquainted with the +king’s imperious temper, concealed from him the absolute ascendant which +he had acquired; and while he secretly directed all public councils, +he ever pretended a blind submission to the will and authority of +his master. By entering into the king’s pleasures, he preserved his +affection; by conducting his business, he gratified his indolence; and +by his unlimited complaisance in both capacities, he prevented all +that jealousy to which his exorbitant acquisitions and his splendid +ostentatious train of life should naturally have given birth. The +archbishopric of York falling vacant by the death of Bambridge, Wolsey +was promoted to that see, and resigned the bishopric of Lincoln. Besides +enjoying the administration of Tournay, he got possession, on easy +leases, of the revenues of Bath, Worcester, and Hereford, bishoprics +filled by Italians, who were allowed to reside abroad, and who were glad +to compound for this indulgence, by yielding a considerable share of +their income. He held “in commendam” the abbey of St. Albans, and many +other church preferments. He was even allowed to unite with the see of +York, first that of Durham, next that of Winchester; and there seemed to +be no end of his acquisitions. His further advancement in ecclesiastical +dignity served him as a pretence for engrossing still more revenues: +the pope, observing his great influence over the king, was desirous of +engaging him in his interests, and created him a cardinal. No churchman, +under color of exacting respect to religion, ever carried to a greater +height the state and dignity of that character. His train consisted of +eight hundred servants, of whom many were knights and gentlemen; some +even of the nobility put their children into his family as a place of +education; and in order to gain them favor with their patron, allowed +them to bear offices as his servants. Whoever was distinguished by any +art or science paid court to the cardinal; and none paid court in vain. +Literature, which was then in its infancy, found in him a generous +patron; and both by his public institutions and private bounty, he gave +encouragement to every branch of erudition.[*] Not content with this +munificence, which gained him the approbation of the wise, he strove +to dazzle the eyes of the populace by the splendor of his equipage and +furniture, the costly embroidery of his liveries, the lustre of his +apparel. He was the first clergyman in England that wore silk and gold, +not only on his habit, but also on his saddles and the trappings of his +horses.[**] He caused his cardinal’s hat to be borne aloft by a person +of rank; and when he came to the king’s chapel, would permit it to be +laid on no place but the altar. A priest, the tallest and most comely +he could find, carried before him a pillar of silver, on whose top was +placed a cross: but not satisfied with this parade, to which he thought +himself entitled as cardinal, he provided another priest of equal +stature and beauty, who marched along, bearing the cross of York, even +in the diocese of Canterbury; contrary to the ancient rule and the +agreement between the prelates of these rival sees.[***] The people made +merry with the cardinal’s ostentation; and said, they were now sensible +that one crucifix alone was not sufficient for the expiation of his sins +and offences. + + * Erasm. Epist. lib. ii. epist. i.; lib. xvi. epist. 3. + + ** Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. Stowe, p, 501. Hollingshed, p. + 847. + + *** Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. + +Warham, chancellor and archbishop of Canterbury, a man of a moderate +temper, averse to all disputes, chose rather to retire from public +employment, than maintain an unequal contest with the haughty cardinal. +He resigned his office of chancellor; and the great seal was immediately +delivered to Wolsey. If this new accumulation of dignity increased his +enemies, it also served to exalt his personal character, and prove the +extent of his capacity. A strict administration of justice took +place during his enjoyment of this high office and no chancellor ever +discovered greater impartiality in his decisions, deeper penetration of +judgment, or more enlarged knowledge of law and equity.[*] + +The duke of Norfolk, finding the king’s money almost entirely exhausted +by projects and pleasures, while his inclination for expense still +continued, was glad to resign his office of treasurer and retire from +court. His rival, Fox, bishop of Winchester reaped no advantage from his +absence; but partly overcome by years and infirmities, partly disgusted +at the ascendant acquired by Wolsey, withdrew himself wholly to the care +of his diocese. The duke of Suffolk had also taken offence, that the +king, by the cardinal’s persuasion, had refused to pay a debt which +he had contracted during his residence in France; and he thenceforth +affected to live in privacy. These incidents left Wolsey to enjoy +without a rival the whole power and favor of the king; and they put +into his hands every kind of authority. In vain did Fox, before his +retirement, warn the king “not to suffer the servant to be greater than +his master.” Henry replied, “that he well knew how to retain all his +subjects in obedience;” but he continued still an unlimited deference in +every thing to the directions and counsels of the cardinal. + +The public tranquillity was so well established in England, the +obedience of the people so entire, the general administration of +justice, by the cardinal’s means,[**] so exact, that no domestic +occurrence happened considerable enough to disturb the repose of the +king and his minister: they might even have dispensed with giving any +strict attention to foreign affairs, were it possible for men to enjoy +any situation in absolute tranquillity, or abstain from projects and +enterprises however fruitless and unnecessary. + +The will of the late king of Scotland, who left his widow regent of the +kingdom, and the vote of the convention of states, which confirmed that +destination, had expressly limited her authority to the condition of her +remaining unmarried;[***] but, notwithstanding this limitation, a few +months after her husband’s death, she espoused the earl of Angus, of the +name of Douglas, a young nobleman of great family and promising hopes. +Some of the nobility now proposed the electing of Angus to the regency, +and recommended this choice as the most likely means of preserving peace +with England; but the jealousy of the great families, and the fear of +exalting the Douglases, begat opposition to this measure. + + * Sir Thomas More. Stowe, p. 504. + + ** Erasm. lib. ii. epist. i. Cavendish. Hall. + + *** Buchanar, lib. xiv. Drummond. Herbert. + +Lord Hume in particular, the most powerful chieftain in the kingdom, +insisted on recalling the duke of Albany, son to a brother of James III. +who had been banished into France, and who, having there married, had +left posterity that were the next heirs to the crown, and the nearest +relations to their young sovereign. Albany, though first prince of the +blood, had never been in Scotland, was totally unacquainted with the +manners of the people, ignorant of their situation, unpractised in their +language; yet such was the favor attending the French alliance, and so +great the authority of Hume, that this prince was invited to accept the +reins of government. Francis, careful not to give offence to the king +of England, detained Albany some time in France; but at length, sensible +how important it was to keep Scotland in his interests, he permitted +him to go over and take possession of the regency: he even renewed +the ancient league with that kingdom, though it implied such a close +connection as might be thought somewhat to intrench on his alliance with +England. + +When the regent arrived in Scotland, he made inquiries concerning the +state of the country, and character of the people; and he discovered a +scene with which he was hitherto but little acquainted. That turbulent +kingdom, he found, was rather to be considered as a Confederacy, and +that not a close one, of petty princes, than a regular system of civil +polity; and even the king, much more a regent, possessed an authority +very uncertain and precarious. Arms, more than laws, prevailed; and +courage, preferably to equity or justice, was the virtue most valued +and respected. The nobility, in whom the whole power resided, were so +connected by hereditary alliances, or so divided by inveterate enmities, +that it was impossible, without employing an armed force, either to +punish the most flagrant guilt, or give security to the most entire +innocence. Rapine and violence, when exercised on a hostile tribe, +instead of making a person odious among his own clan, rather recommended +him to their esteem and approbation; and by rendering him useful to the +chieftain, entitled him to a preference above his fellows. And though +the necessity of mutual support served as a close cement of amity among +those of the same kindred, the spirit of revenge against enemies, and +the desire of prosecuting the deadly feuds, (so they were called,) still +appeared to be passions the most predominant among that uncultivated +people. + +The persons to whom Albany, on his arrival, first Applied for +information with regard to the state of the country, happened to be +inveterate enemies of Hume;[*] and they represented that powerful +nobleman as the chief source of public disorders, and the great obstacle +to the execution of the law; and the administration of justice. Before +the authority of the magistrate could be established, it was necessary, +they said, to make an example of this great offender; and, by the terror +of his punishment, teach all lesser criminals to pay respect to the +power of their sovereign. Albany, moved by these reasons, was induced +to forget Hume’s past services, to which he had in a great measure +been indebted for the regency; and he no longer bore towards him that +favorable countenance with which he was wont to receive him. Hume +perceived the alteration, and was incited, both by regard to his own +safety and from motives of revenge, to take measures in opposition +to the regent. He applied himself to Angus and the queen dowager, and +represented to them the danger to which the infant prince was exposed +from the ambition of Albany, next heir to the crown, to whom the states +had imprudently intrusted the whole authority of government. By his +persuasion Margaret formed the design of carrying off the young king, +and putting him under the protection of her brother; and when that +conspiracy was detected, she herself, attended by Hume and Angus, +withdrew into England, where she was soon after delivered of a daughter. + + * Buchanan, lib. xiv. Drummond. + +Henry, in order to check the authority of Albany and the French party, +gave encouragement to these malecontents, and assured them of his +support. Matters being afterwards in appearance accommodated between +Hume and the regent, that nobleman returned into his own country; but +mutual suspicions and jealousies still prevailed. He was committed to +custody, under the care of the earl of Arran, his brother-in-law; and +was for some time detained prisoner in his castle. But having persuaded +Arran to enter into the conspiracy with him, he was allowed to make his +escape; and he openly levied war upon the regent. A new accommodation +ensued, not more sincere than the foregoing; and Hume was so imprudent +as to intrust himself, together with his brother, into the hands of that +prince. They were immediately seized, committed to custody, brought to +trial, condemned and executed. No legal crime was proved against these +brothers: it was only alleged, that at the battle of Flouder they had +not done their duty in supporting the king; and as this backwardness +could not, from the course of their past life, be ascribed to cowardice, +it was commonly imputed to a more criminal motive. The evidence, +however, of guilt produced against them was far from being valid or +convincing; and the people, who hated them while living, were much +dissatisfied with their execution. + +Such violent remedies often produce for some time a deceitful +tranquillity; but as they destroy mutual confidence, and beget the most +inveterate animosities, their consequences are commonly fatal, both to +the public and to those who have recourse to them. The regent, however, +took advantage of the present calm which prevailed; and being invited +over by the French king, who was at that time willing to gratify Henry +he went into France, and was engaged to remain there for some years. +During the absence of the regent, such confusions prevailed in Scotland, +and such mutual enmity, rapine, and violence among the great families, +that that kingdom was for a long time utterly disabled both from +offending its enemies and assisting its friends. We have carried on the +Scottish history some years beyond the present period; that, as that +country had little connection with the general system of Europe, we +might be the less interrupted in the narration of those more memorable +events which were transacted in the other kingdoms. + +It was foreseen, that a young, active prince, like Francis, and of so +martial a disposition, would soon employ the great preparations which +his predecessor before his death had made for the conquest of Milan. He +had been observed even to weep at the recital of the military exploits +of Gaston de Foix; and these tears of emulation were held to be sure +presages of his future valor. He renewed the treaty which Lewis had made +with Henry; and having left every thing secure behind him, he marched +his armies towards the south of France; pretending that his sole purpose +was to defend his kingdom against the incursions of the Swiss. This +formidable people still retained their animosity against France; and +having taken Maximilian, duke of Milan, under their protection, and in +reality reduced him to absolute dependence,--they were determined, +from views both of honor and of interest, to defend him against the +invader.[*] They fortified themselves in all those valleys of the Alps +through which they thought the French must necessarily pass; and when +Francis, with great secrecy, industry, and perseverance, made his +entrance into Piedmont by another passage, they were not dismayed, but +descended into the plain, though unprovided with cavalry, and opposed +themselves to the progress of the French arms. At Marignan, near Milan, +they fought with Francis one of the most furious and best contested +battles that is to be met with in the history of these later ages; and +it required all the heroic valor of this prince to inspire his troops +with courage sufficient to resist the desperate assault of those +mountaineers. After a bloody action in the evening, night and darkness +parted the combatants; but next morning the Swiss renewed the attack +with unabated ardor; and it was not till they had lost all their bravest +troops that they could be prevailed on to retire. The field was strewed +with twenty thousand slain on both sides; and the mareschal Trivulzio, +who had been present at eighteen pitched battles, declared that every +engagement which he had yet seen was only the play of children; the +action of Marignan was a combat of heroes.[**] After this great victory, +the conquest of the Milanese was easy and open to Francis. + +The success and glory of the French monarch began to excite jealousy in +Henry; and his rapid progress, though in so distant a country, was +not regarded without apprehensions by the English ministry. Italy was, +during that age, the seat of religion, of literature, and of commerce; +and as it possessed alone that lustre which has since been shared out +among other nations, it attracted the attention of all Europe, and every +acquisition which was made there appeared more important than its weight +in the balance of power was, strictly speaking, entitled to. Henry also +thought that he had reason to complain of Francis for sending the duke +of Albany into Scotland, and undermining the power and credit of his +sister the queen dowager.[***] The repairing of the fortifications of +Terouenne was likewise regarded as a breach of treaty. But, above all, +what tended to alienate the court of England, was the disgust which +Wolsey had entertained against the French monarch. + + * Mémoires du Bellai, lib. i. Guicciard. lib. xii. + + ** Histoire de la Ligue de Cambray. + + *** Père Daniel, vol. iii. p. 31. + +Henry, on the conquest of Tournay had refused to admit Lewis Gaillart, +the bishop elect, to the possession of the temporalities, because that +prelate declined taking the oath of allegiance to his new sovereign; and +Wolsey was appointed as above related, administrator of the bishopric. +As the cardinal wished to obtain the free and undisturbed enjoyment +of this revenue, he applied to Francis, and desired him to bestow +on Gaillart some see of equal value in France, and to obtain his +resignation of Tournay. Francis, who still hoped to recover possession +of that city, and who feared that the full establishment of Wolsey +in the bishopric would prove an obstacle to his purpose, had hitherto +neglected to gratify the haughty prelate; and the bishop of Tournay, by +applying to the court of Rome, had obtained a bull for his settlement in +the see. Wolsey, who expected to be indulged in every request, and who +exacted respect from the greatest princes, resented the slight put upon +him by Francis and he pushed his master to seek an occasion of quarrel +with that monarch.[*] + +Maximilian, the emperor, was ready to embrace every overture for a new +enterprise; especially if attended with an offer of money, of which +he was very greedy, very prodigal, and very indigent. Richard Pace, +formerly secretary to Cardinal Bambridge, and now secretary of state, +was despatched to the court of Vienna, and had a commission to propose +some considerable payments to Maximilian:[**] he thence made a journey +into Switzerland; and by like motives engaged some of the cantons +to furnish troops to the emperor. That prince invaded Italy with a +considerable army; but being repulsed from before Milan, he retreated +with his army into Germany, made peace with France and Venice, ceded +Verona to that republic for a sum of money, and thus excluded himself +in some measure from all future access into Italy. And Henry found, that +after expending five or six hundred thousand ducats, in order to gratify +his own and the cardinal’s humor, he had only weakened his alliance with +Francis, without diminishing the power of that prince. + + * Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. + + ** Petrus de Angleria, epist. 568. + +There were many reasons which engaged the king not to proceed further at +present in his enmity against France: he could hope for assistance from +no power in Europe. Ferdinand, his father-in-law, who had often deceived +him, was declining through age and infirmities; and a speedy period +was looked for to the long and prosperous reign of that great monarch. +Charles, prince of Spain, sovereign of the Low Countries, desired +nothing but peace with Francis, who had it so much in his power, if +provoked, to obstruct his peaceable accession to that rich inheritance +which was awaiting him. The pope was overawed by the power of France, +and Venice was engaged in a close alliance with that monarchy.[*] Henry, +therefore, was constrained to remain in tranquillity during some time; +and seemed to give himself no concern with regard to the affairs of +the continent. In vain did Maximilian endeavor to allure him into some +expense, by offering to make a resignation of the imperial crown in +his favor. The artifice was too gross to succeed, even with a prince +so little politic as Henry; and Pace, his envoy, who was perfectly well +acquainted with the emperor’s motives and character, gave him warning +that the sole view of that prince, in making him so liberal an offer, +was to draw money from him. + + * Guicciard. lib. xii. + +{1516.} While a universal peace prevailed in Europe, that event happened +which had so long been looked for, and from which such important +consequences were expected--the death of Ferdinand the Catholic, and the +succession of his grandson Charles to his extensive dominions. The more +Charles advanced in power and authority, the more was Francis sensible +of the necessity he himself lay under of gaining the confidence and +friendship of Henry; and he took at last the only method by which he +could obtain success, the paying of court, by presents and flattery, to +the haughty cardinal. + +{1518.} Bonnivet, admiral of France, was despatched to London, and he +was directed to employ all his insinuation and address, (qualities in +which he excelled,) to procure himself a place in Wolsey’s good +graces. After the ambassador had succeeded in his purpose, he took an +opportunity of expressing his master’s regret that, by mistakes and +misapprehensions, he had been so unfortunate as to lose a friendship +which he so much valued as that of his eminence. Wolsey was not deaf to +these honorable advances from so great a monarch and he was thenceforth +observed to express himself, on all occasions, in favor of the French +alliance. The more to engage him in his interests, Francis entered into +such confidence with him, that he asked his advice even in his most +secret affairs; and had recourse to him in all difficult emergencies, as +to an oracle of wisdom and profound policy. The cardinal made no +secret to the king of this private correspondence; and Henry was so +prepossessed in favor of the great capacity of his minister, that he +said he verily believed he would govern Francis as well as himself.[*] + +When matters seemed sufficiently prepared, Bonnivet opened to the +cardinal his master’s desire of recovering Tournay; and Wolsey +immediately, without hesitation, engaged to effect his purpose. He took +an opportunity of representing to the king and council, that Tournay +lay so remote from Calais, that it would be very difficult, if not +impossible, in case of war, to keep the communication open between these +two places; that as it was situated on the frontiers both of France and +the Netherlands, it was exposed to attacks from both these countries, +and must necessarily, either by force or famine, fall into the hands +of the first assailant; that even in time of peace it could not be +preserved without a large garrison, to restrain the numerous and +mutinous inhabitants, ever discontented with the English government; and +that the possession of Tournay, as it was thus precarious and expensive, +so was it entirely useless, and afforded little or no means of annoying, +on occasion, the dominions either of Charles or of Francis. + +These reasons were of themselves convincing, and were sure of meeting +with no opposition when they came from the mouth of the cardinal. A +treaty therefore was catered into for the ceding of Tournay; and in +order to give to that measure a more graceful appearance, it was agreed, +that the dauphin and the princess Mary, both of them infants, should be +betrothed, and that this city should be considered as the dowry of the +princess. Such kinds of agreement were then common among sovereigns; +though it was very rare that the interests and views of the parties +continued so steady as to render the intended marriages effectual. +But as Henry had been at considerable expense in building a citadel at +Tournay, Francis agreed to pay him six hundred thousand crowns at twelve +annual payments, and to put into his hands eight hostages, all of them +men of quality, for the performance of the article.[**] And lest the +cardinal should think himself neglected in these stipulations, +Francis promised him a yearly pension of twelve thousand livres, as an +equivalent for his administration of the bishopric of Tournay. + + * Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. + + ** Mémoires du Bellal, lib. i. + +The French monarch, having succeeded so well in this negotiation, began +to enlarge his views, and to hope for more considerable advantages by +practising on the vanity and self-conceit of the favorite. He redoubled +his flatteries to the cardinal, consulted him more frequently in every +doubt or difficulty, called him in each letter “father,” “tutor,” + “governor,” and professed the most unbounded deference to his advice and +opinion. All these caresses were preparatives to a negotiation for the +delivery of Calais, in consideration of a sum of money to be paid +for it; and if we may credit Polydore Virgil, who bears a particular +ill-will to Wolsey, on account of his being dispossessed of his +employment and thrown into prison by that minister, so extraordinary a +proposal met with a favorable reception from the cardinal. He ventured +not, however, to lay the matter before the council: he was content to +sound privately the opinion of the other ministers, by dropping hints +in conversation, as if he thought Calais a useless burden to the +kingdom:[*] but when he found that all men were strongly riveted in a +contrary persuasion, he thought it dangerous to proceed any further in +his purpose; and as he fell soon after into new connections with the +king of Spain, the great friendship between Francis and him began +gradually to decline. + + * Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. + +The pride of Wolsey was now further increased by a great accession +of power and dignity. Cardinal Campeggio had been sent as legate into +England, in order to procure a lithe from the clergy, for enabling the +pope to oppose the progress of the Turks; a danger which was become +real, and was formidable to all Christendom, but on which the politics +of the court of Rome had built so many interested projects that it had +lost all influence on the minds of men. The clergy refused to comply +with Leo’s demands: Campeggio was recalled; and the king desired of the +pope that Wolsey, who had been joined in this commission, might alone +be invested with the legatine power, together with the right of visiting +all the clergy and monasteries, and even with suspending all the laws +of the church during a twelvemonth. Wolsey, having obtained this new +dignity, made a new display of that state and parade to which he was so +much addicted. On solemn feast-days, he was not content without saying +mass after the manner of the pope himself: not only he had bishops and +abbots to serve him; he even engaged the first nobility to give him +water and the towel. He affected a rank superior to what had ever been +claimed by any churchman in England. Warham, the primate, having written +him a letter in which he subscribed himself “your loving brother,” + Wolsey complained of his presumption in thus challenging an equality +with him. When Warham was told what offence he had given, he made light +of the matter. “Know ye not,” said he, “that this man is drunk with too +much prosperity?” + +But Wolsey carried the matter much further than vain pomp and +ostentation. He erected an office which he called the legatine court; +and as he was now, by means of the pope’s commission and the king’s +favor, invested with all power, both ecclesiastical and civil, no man +knew what bounds were to be set to the authority of his new tribunal. He +conferred on it a kind of inquisitorial and censorial powers even over +the laity, and directed it to inquire into all matters of conscience; +into all conduct which had given scandal; into all actions which, though +they escaped the law, might appear contrary to good morals. Offence was +taken at this commission, which was really unbounded; and the people +were the more disgusted, when they saw a man who indulged himself in +pomp and pleasure, so severe in repressing the least appearance of +licentiousness in others. But to render his court more obnoxious, Wolsey +made one John Allen judge in it, a person of scandalous life,[*] whom he +himself, as chancellor, had, it is said, condemned for perjury: and as +it is pretended, that this man either extorted fines from every one whom +he was pleased to find guilty, or took bribes to drop prosecutions, men +concluded, and with some appearance of reason, that he shared with the +cardinal those wages of iniquity. + + * Strype’s Memorials, vol. i. p. 125. + +The clergy, and in particular the monks, were exposed to this tyranny; +and as the libertinism of their lives often gave a just handle against +them, they were obliged to purchase an indemnity by paying large sums +of money to the legate or his judge. Not content with this authority, +Wolsey pretended, by virtue of his commission, to assume the +jurisdiction of all the bishops’ courts, particularly that of judging of +wills and testaments; and his decisions in those important points were +deemed not a little arbitrary. As if he himself were pope, and as if +the pope could absolutely dispose of every ecclesiastical preferment, he +presented to whatever priories or benefices he pleased, without regard +to the right of election in the monks, or of patronage in the nobility +and gentry.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. + +No one durst carry to the king any complaint against these usurpations +of Wolsey, till Warham ventured to inform him of the discontents of his +people. Henry professed his ignorance of the whole matter. “A man,” said +he, “is not so blind any where as in his own house: but do you, father,” + added he to the primate, “go to Wolsey, and tell him, if any thing be +amiss, that he amend it.” A reproof of this kind was not likely to be +effectual: it only served to augment Wolsey’s enmity to Warham: but one +London having prosecuted Allen, the legate’s judge, in a court of law, +and having convicted him of malversation and iniquity, the clamor at +last reached the king’s ears; and he expressed such displeasure to +the cardinal, as made him ever after more cautious in exerting his +authority. + +{1519.} While Henry, indulging himself in pleasure and amusement, +intrusted the government of his kingdom to this imperious minister, an +incident happened abroad which excited his attention. Maximilian, the +emperor, died; a man who, of himself, was indeed of little consequence; +but as his death left vacant the first station among Christian princes, +it set the passions of men in agitation, and proved a kind of era in +the general system of Europe. The kings of France and Spain immediately +declared themselves candidates for the imperial crown, and employed +every expedient of money or intrigue, which promised them success in +so great a point of ambition. Henry also was encouraged to advance his +pretensions; but his minister Pace, who was despatched to the electors, +found that he began to solicit too late, and that the votes of all these +princes were already preëngaged either on one side or the other. + +Francis and Charlea made profession from the beginning of carrying on +this rivalship with emulation, but without enmity. + +This whole narrative has been copied by all the historians from +the author here cited: there are many circumstances, however, very +suspicious, both because of the obvious partiality of the historian, and +because the parliament, when they afterwards examined Wolsey’s conduct, +could find no proof of any material offence he had ever committed, and +Francis in particular declared, that his brother Charles and he were, +fairly and openly, suitors to the same mistress; the more fortunate, +added he, will carry her; the other must rest contented.[*] + + * Belcario, lib. xvi. Guicciard. lib. xiii. + +But all men apprehended that this extreme moderation, however +reasonable, would not be of long duration; and that incidents would +certainly occur to sharpen the minds of the candidates against each +other. It was Charles who at length prevailed, to the great disgust of +the French monarch, who still continued to the last in the belief that +the majority of the electoral college was engaged in his favor. And as +he was some years superior in age to his rival, and, after his victory +at Marignan and conquest of the Milanese, much superior in renown, he +could not suppress his indignation at being thus, in the face of the +world, after long and anxious expectation, disappointed in so important +a pretension. From this competition, as much as from opposition of +interests, arose that emulation between those two great monarchs, which, +while it kept their whole age in movement, sets them in so remarkable +a contrast to each other: both of them princes endowed with talents and +abilities; brave, aspiring, active warlike; beloved by their servants +and subjects, dreaded by their enemies, and respected by all the world: +Francis, open, frank, liberal, munificent, carrying these virtues to an +excess which prejudiced his affairs: Charles, political, close, artful, +frugal; better qualified to obtain success in wars and in negotiations, +especially the latter. The one the more amiable man; the other the +greater monarch. The king, from his oversights and indiscretions, +naturally exposed to misfortunes; but qualified, by his spirit and +magnanimity, to extricate himself from them with honor: the emperor, by +his designing, interested character, fitted, in his greatest successes, +to excite jealousy and opposition even among his allies, and to rouse up +a multitude of enemies in the place of one whom he had subdued. And as +the personal qualities of these princes thus counterpoised each other, +so did the advantages and disadvantages of their dominions. Fortune +alone, without the concurrence of prudence or valor, never reared up of +a sudden so great a power as that which centred in the emperor Charles. +He reaped the succession of Castile, of Arragon, of Austria, of the +Netherlands: he inherited the conquest of Naples, of Grenada: election +entitled him to the empire: even the bounds of the globe seemed to +be enlarged a little before his time, that he might possess the whole +treasure, as yet entire and unrifled, of the new world. But though the +concurrence of all these advantages formed an empire greater and more +extensive than any known in Europe since that of the Romans, the kingdom +of France alone, being close, compact, united, rich, populous, and being +interposed between the provinces of the emperor’s dominions, was able +to make a vigorous opposition to his progress, and maintain the contest +against him. + +Henry possessed the felicity of being able, both by the native force +of his kingdom and its situation, to hold the balance between those two +powers; and had he known to improve by policy and prudence this singular +and inestimable advantage, he was really, by means of it, a greater +potentate than either of those mighty monarchs, who seemed to strive for +the dominion of Europe. But this prince was in his character heedless, +inconsiderate, capricious, impolitic; guided by his passions or his +favorite; vain, imperious, haughty; sometimes actuated by friendship for +foreign powers, oftener by resentment, seldom by his true interest. +And thus, though he exulted in that superiority which his situation in +Europe gave him, he never employed it to his own essential and durable +advantage, or to that of his kingdom. + +{1520.} Francis was well acquainted with Henry’s character, and +endeavored to accommodate his conduct to it. He solicited an interview +near Calais; in expectation of being able by familiar conversation to +gain upon his friendship and confidence. Wolsey earnestly seconded this +proposal; and hoped, in the presence of both courts, to make parade of +his riches, his splendor, and his influence over both monarchs.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. lib. xxvii. + +And as Henry himself loved show and magnificence, and had entertained +a curiosity of being personally acquainted with the French king, +he cheerfully adjusted all the preliminaries of this interview. The +nobility of both nations vied with each other in pomp and expense: many +of them involved themselves in great debts, and were not able, by the +penury of their whole lives, to repair the vain splendor of a few days. +The duke of Buckingham, who, though very rich, was somewhat addicted to +frugality, finding his preparations for this festival amount to immense +sums, threw out some expressions of displeasure against the cardinal, +whom he believed the author of that measure;[*] an imprudence which was +not forgotten by this minister. + + * Polyd. Vii·g. lib. xxvii. Herbert. Holingshed, p. 855. + +While Henry was preparing to depart for Calais, he heard that the +emperor was arrived at Dover; and he immediately hastened thither with +the queen, in order to give a suitable reception to his royal guest. +That great prince, politic though young, being informed of the +intended interview between Francis and Henry, was apprehensive of the +consequences; and was resolved to take the opportunity, in his passage +from Spain to the Low Countries, to make the king still a higher +compliment, by paying him a visit in his own dominions. Besides the +marks of regard and attachment which he gave to Henry, he strove by +every testimony of friendship, by flattery, protestations, promises, and +presents, to gain on the vanity, the avarice, and the ambition of the +cardinal. He here instilled into this aspiring prelate the hope of +attaining the papacy; and as that was the sole point of elevation beyond +his present greatness, it was sure to attract his wishes with the same +ardor as if Fortune had never yet favored him with any of her presents. +In confidence of reaching this dignity by the emperor’s assistance, he +secretly devoted himself to that monarch’s interests; and Charles was +perhaps the more liberal of his promises, because Leo was a very young +man; and it was not likely that for many years he should be called upon +to fulfil his engagements. Henry easily observed this courtship paid +to his minister; but instead of taking umbrage at it, he only made it +a subject of vanity; and believed that, as his favor was Wolsey’s sole +support, the obeisance of such mighty monarchs to his servant was, in +reality, a more conspicuous homage to his own grandeur. + +The day of Charles’s departure, Henry went over to Calais with the queen +and his whole court; and thence proceeded to Guisnes, a small town near +the frontiers. Francis, attended in like manner, came to Ardres, a few +miles distant; and the two monarchs met, for the first time, in the +fields, at a place situated between these two towns, but still within +the English pale; for Francis agreed to pay this compliment to Henry, in +consideration of that prince’s passing the sea that he might be +present at the interview. Wolsey, to whom both kings had intrusted the +regulation of the ceremonial, contrived this circumstance, in order to +do honor to his master. The nobility both of France and England here +displayed their magnificence with such emulation and profuse expense, as +procured to the place of interview the name of “the field of the cloth +of gold.” + +The two monarchs, after saluting each other in the most cordial manner, +retired into a tent which had been erected on purpose, and they held a +secret conference together. Henry here proposed to make some amendments +on the articles of their former alliance; and he began to read the +treaty, “I Henry, king:” these were the first words; and he stopped +a moment. He subjoined only the words “of England,” without adding +“France,” the usual style of the English monarchs.[*] Francis remarked +this delicacy, and expressed by a smile his approbation of it. + +He took an opportunity soon after of paying a compliment to Henry of a +more flattering nature. That generous prince, full of honor himself, +and incapable of distrusting others, was shocked at all the precautions +which were observed whenever he had an interview with the English +monarch: the number of their guards and attendants was carefully +reckoned on both sides: every step was scrupulously measured and +adjusted: and if the two kings intended to pay a visit to the queens, +they departed from their respective quarters at the same instant, which +was marked by the firing of a culverin; they passed each other in the +middle point between the places; and the moment that Henry entered +Ardres, Francis put himself into the hands of the English at Guisnes. +In order to break off this tedious ceremonial, which contained so many +dishonorable implications, Francis one day took with him two gentlemen +and a page, and rode directly into Guisnes. The guards were surprised at +the presence of the monarch, who called aloud to them, “You are all my +prisoners: carry me to your master.” Henry was equally astonished at the +appearance of Francis; and taking him in his arms, “My brother,” said +he, “you have here played me the most agreeable trick in the world, +and have showed me the full confidence I may place in you: I surrender +myself your prisoner from this moment.” He took from his neck a collar +of pearls, worth fifteen thousand angels;[**] and putting it about +Francis’s, begged him to wear it for the sake of his prisoner. + + * Mémoires de Fleuranges. + + ** An angel was then estimated at seven shillings,* or near + twelve of our present money. + + +Francis agreed, but on condition that Henry should wear a bracelet +of which he made him a present, and which was double in value to +the collar.[*] The king went next day to Ardres without guards or +attendants; and confidence being now fully established between the +monarchs, they employed the rest of the time entirely in tournaments and +festivals. + +A defiance had been sent by the two kings to each other’s court, and +through all the chief cities in Europe, importing, that Henry and +Francis, with fourteen aids, would be ready, in the plains of Picardy, +to answer all comers that were gentlemen, at tilt, tournament, and +barriers. The monarchs, in order to fulfil this challenge, advanced +into the field on horseback, Francis surrounded with Henry’s guards, and +Henry with those of Francis. They were gorgeously apparelled; and were +both of them the most comely personages of their age, as well as the +most expert in every military exercise. They carried away the prize at +all trials in those rough and dangerous pastimes; and several horses and +riders were overthrown by their vigor and dexterity. The ladies were +the judges in these feats of chivalry, and put an end to the rencounter +whenever they judged it expedient. Henry erected a spacious house of +wood and canvas, which had been framed in London; and he there feasted +the French monarch. He had placed a motto on this fabric, under the +figure of an English archer embroidered on it, “Cui adhæreo præest,” He +prevails whom I favor;[**] expressing his own situation, as holding in +his hands the balance of power among the potentates of Europe. In these +entertainments, more than in any serious business, did the two kings +pass their time, till their departure. + + * Mémoires de Fleuranges. + + ** Mezeray. + +Henry paid then a visit to the emperor and Margaret of Savoy at +Gravelines, and engaged them to go along with him to Calais, and +pass some days in that fortress. The artful and politic Charles here +completed the impression which he had begun to make on Henry and his +favorite, and effaced all the friendship to which the frank and generous +nature of Francis had given birth. As the house of Austria began +sensibly to take the ascendant over the French monarchy, the interests +of England required that some support should be given to the latter, +and, above all, that any important wars should be prevented which might +bestow on either of them a decisive superiority over the other. But the +jealousy of the English against France has usually prevented a cordial +union between those nations; and Charles, sensible of this hereditary +animosity, and desirous further to flatter Henry’s vanity, had made him +an offer, (an offer in which Francis was afterwards obliged to concur,) +that he should be entirely arbiter in any dispute or difference that +might arise between the monarchs. But the masterpiece of Charles’s +politics was the securing of Wolsey in his interests, by very important +services, and still higher promises. He renewed assurances of assisting +him in obtaining the papacy; and he put him in present possession of the +revenues belonging to the sees of Badajoz and Paleneia in Castile. The +acquisitions of Wolsey were now become so exorbitant, that, joined to +the pensions from foreign powers which Henry allowed him to possess, his +revenues were computed nearly to equal those which belonged to the crown +itself; and he spent them with a magnificence; or rather an ostentation, +which gave general offence to the people; and even lessened his master +in the eyes of all foreign nations.[*] + + * Polyd. Virg. Hall. + +The violent personal emulation and political jealousy which had taken +place between the emperor and the French king, soon broke out in +hostilities. But while these ambitious and warlike princes were acting +against each other in almost every part of Europe, they still made +professions of the strongest desire of peace; and both of them +incessantly carried their complaints to Henry, as to the umpire between +them. The king, who pretended to be neutral, engaged them to send their +ambassadors to Calais, there to negotiate a peace under the mediation +of Wolsey and the pope’s nuncio. The emperor was well apprised of the +partiality of these mediators; and his demands in the conference were +so unreasonable as plainly proved him conscious of the advantage. He +required the restitution of Burgundy, a province which many years before +had been ceded to France by treaty, and which, if in his possession, +would have given him entrance into the heart of that kingdom: and he +demanded to be freed from the homage which his ancestors had always done +for Flanders and Artois, and which he himself had by the treaty of Noyon +engaged to renew. + +{1521.} On Francis’s rejecting these terms, the congress of Calais broke +up; and Wolsey soon after took a journey to Bruges, where he met with +the emperor. He was received with the same state, magnificence, +and respect, as if he had been the king of England himself; and he +concluded, in his master’s name, an offensive alliance with the pope +and the emperor against France. He stipulated that England should next +summer invade that kingdom with forty thousand men; and he betrothed +to Charles the princess Mary, the king’s only child, who had now some +prospect of inheriting the crown. This extravagant alliance, which was +prejudicial to the interests, and might have proved fatal to the liberty +and independence, of the kingdom, was the result of the humors and +prejudices of the king, and the private views and expectations of the +cardinal. + +The people saw every day new instances of the uncontrolled authority of +this minister. The duke of Buckingham, constable of England, the first +nobleman both for family and fortune in the kingdom, had imprudently +given disgust to the cardinal; and it was not long before he found +reason to repent of his indiscretion. He seems to have been a man +full of levity and rash projects; and being infatuated with judicial +astrology, he entertained a commerce with one Hopkins, a Carthusian +friar, who encouraged him in the notion of his mounting one day the +throne of England. He was descended by a female from the duke of +Glocester, youngest son of Edward III.; and though his claim to the +crown was thereby very remote, he had been so unguarded as to let fall +some expressions, as if he thought himself best entitled, in case the +king should die without issue, to possess the royal dignity. He had not +even abstained from threats against the king’s life; and had provided +himself with arms, which he intended to employ, in case a favorable +opportunity should offer. He was brought to a trial; and the duke +of Norfolk, whose son, the earl of Surrey, had married Buckingham’s +daughter, was created lord steward, in order to preside at this solemn +procedure. The jury consisted of a duke, a marquis, seven earls, and +twelve barons; and they gave their verdict against Buckingham, which +was soon after carried into execution. There is no reason to think the +sentence unjust;[*] but as Buckingham’s crimes seemed to proceed more +from indiscretion than deliberate malice, the people, who loved him, +expected that the king would grant him a pardon, and imputed their +disappointment to the animosity and revenge of the cardinal. + + * Herbert. Hall. Stowe, p. 513. Holingshed, p. 862. + +The king’s own jealousy, however, of all persons allied to the crown, +was, notwithstanding his undoubted title, very remarkable during the +whole course of his reign; and was alone sufficient to render him +implacable against Buckingham. The office of constable, which this +nobleman inherited from the Bohuns, earls of Hereford, was forfeited, +and was never after revived in England. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + + + + +HENRY VIII. + +{1521.} During some years, many parts of Europe had been agitated with +those religious controversies which produced the reformation, one of the +greatest events in history: but as it was not till this time that the +king of England publicly took part in the quarrel, we had no occasion to +give any account of its rise and progress. It will now be necessary to +explain these theological disputes; or, what is more material, to trace +from their origin those abuses which so generally diffused the opinion, +that a reformation of the church or ecclesiastial order was become +highly expedient, if not absolutely necessary. We shall be better +enabled to comprehend the subject if we take the matter a little higher, +and reflect a moment on the reasons why there must be an ecclesiastical +order and a public establishment of religion in every civilized +community. The importance of the present occasion will, I hope, excuse +this short digression. + +Most of the arts and professions in a state are of such a nature, that, +while they promote the interests of the society, they are also useful or +agreeable to some individuals; and, in that case, the constant rule of +the magistrate, except, perhaps, on the first introduction of any art, +is to leave the profession to itself, and trust its encouragement to +those who reap the benefit of it. The artisans, finding their profits to +rise by the favor of their customers, increase as much as possible their +skill and industry; and as matters are not disturbed by any injudicious +tampering, the commodity is always sure to be at all times nearly +proportioned to the demand. + +But there are also some callings which, though useful and even necessary +in a state, bring no particular advantage or pleasure to any individual; +and the supreme power is obliged to alter its conduct with regard to the +retainers of those professions. It must give them public encouragement +in order to their subsistence; and it must provide against that +negligence to which they will naturally be subject, either by annexing +peculiar honors to the profession, by establishing a long subordination +of ranks and a strict dependence, or by some other expedient. The +persons employed in the finances, armies, fleets, and magistracy, are +instances of this order of men. + +It may naturally be thought, at first sight, that the ecclesiastics +belong to the first class, and that their encouragement, as well as that +of lawyers and physicians, may safely be intrusted to the liberality of +individuals, who are attached to their doctrines, and who find benefit +or consolation from their spiritual ministry and assistance. Their +industry and vigilance will no doubt, be whetted by such an additional +motive; and their skill in their profession, as well as their address +in governing the minds of the people, must receive daily increase from +their increasing practice, study, and attention. + +But if we consider the matter more closely, we shall find, that this +interested diligence of the clergy is what every wise legislator will +study to prevent; because in every religion, except the true, it is +highly pernicious, and it has even a natural tendency to pervert the +true, by infusing into it a strong mixture of superstition, folly, and +delusion. Each ghostly practitioner, in order to render himself more +precious and sacred in the eyes of his retainers, will inspire them +with the most violent abhorrence of all other sects, and continually +endeavor, by some novelty, to excite the languid devotion of his +audience. No regard will be paid to truth, morals, or decency, in the +doctrines inculcated. Every tenet will be adopted that best suits the +disorderly affections of the human frame. Customers will be drawn to +each conventicle by new industry and address, in practising on the +passions and credulity of the populace. And, in the end, the civil +magistrate will find, that he has dearly paid for his pretended +frugality, in saving a fixed establishment for the priests; and that in +reality the most decent and advantageous composition which he can make +with the spiritual guides is to bribe their indolence, by assigning +stated salaries to their profession, and rendering it superfluous +for them to be further active than merely to prevent their flock from +straying in quest of new pastures. And in this manner ecclesiastical +establishments, though commonly they arose at first from religious +views, prove in the end advantageous to the political interests of +society. + +But we may observe, that few ecclesiastical establishments have been +fixed upon a worse foundation than that of the church of Rome, or have +been attended with circumstances more hurtful to the peace and happiness +of mankind. The large revenues, privileges, immunities, and powers of +the clergy, rendered them formidable to the civil magistrate; and armed +with too extensive authority an order of men who always adhere +closely together, and who never want a plausible pretence for their +encroachments and usurpations. The higher dignities of the church +served, indeed, to the support of gentry and nobility; but by the +establishment of monasteries, many of the lowest vulgar were taken +from the useful arts, and maintained in those receptacles of sloth +and ignorance. The supreme head of the church was a foreign potentate, +guided by interests always different from those of the community, +sometimes contrary to them. And as the hierarchy was necessarily +solicitous to preserve a unity of faith, rites, and ceremonies, all +liberty of thought ran a manifest risk of being extinguished; and +violent persecutions, or, what was worse, a stupid and abject credulity, +took place every where. + +To increase these evils, the Church, though she possessed large +revenues, was not contented with her acquisitions, but retained a power +of practising further on the ignorance of mankind. She even bestowed +on each individual priest a power of enriching himself by the voluntary +oblations of the faithful, and left him still an urgent motive for +diligence and industry in his calling. And thus that church, though +an expensive and burdensome establishment, was liable to many of the +inconveniences which belong to an order of priests, trusting entirely to +their own art and invention for obtaining a subsistence. + +The advantages attending the Romish hierarchy were but a small +compensation for its inconveniences. The ecclesiastical privileges, +during barbarous times, had served as a check on the despotism of +kings. The union of all the western churches under the supreme pontiff +facilitated the intercourse of nations, and tended to bind all the parts +of Europe into a close connection with each other. And the pomp and +splendor of worship which belonged to so opulent an establishment, +contributed in some respect to the encouragement of the fine arts, +and began to diffuse a general elegance of taste by uniting it with +religion. + +It will easily be conceived that, though the balance of evil prevailed +in the Romish church, this was not the chief reason which produced the +reformation. A concurrence of incidents must have contributed to forward +that great revolution. + +Leo X., by his generous and enterprising temper, had much exhausted his +treasury, and was obliged to employ every invention which might yield +money, in order to support his projects, pleasures, and liberalities. +The scheme of selling indulgences was suggested to him, as an expedient +which had often served in former times to draw money from the Christian +world, and make devout people willing contributors to the grandeur and +riches of the court of Rome. The church, it was supposed, was possessed +of a great stock of merit, as being entitled to all the good works of +all the saints, beyond what were employed in their own justification; +and even to the merits of Christ himself, which were infinite and +unbounded; and from this unexhausted treasury the pope might retail +particular portions, and by that traffic acquire money to be employed in +pious purposes, in resisting the infidels, or subduing schismatics. When +the money came into his exchequer, the greater part of it was usually +diverted to other purposes.[*] + +It is commonly believed that Leo, from the penetration of his genius, +and his familiarity with ancient literature, was fully acquainted with +the ridicule and falsity of the doctrines which, as supreme pontiff, +he was obliged by his interest to promote: it is the less wonder, +therefore, that he employed for his profit those pious frauds which +his predecessors, the most ignorant and credulous, had always, under +plausible pretences, made use of for their selfish purposes. He +published the sale of a general indulgence; [**] and as his expenses +had not only exhausted his usual revenue, but even anticipated the money +expected from this extraordinary expedient, the several branches of it +were openly given away to particular persons, who were entitled to levy +the imposition. The produce, particularly of Saxony and the countries +bordering on the Baltic, was assigned to his sister Magdalene, married +to Cibo, natural son of Innocent VIII.; and she, in order to enhance her +profit, had farmed out the revenue to one Arcemboldi, a Genoese, once a +merchant, now a bishop, who still retained all the lucrative arts of his +former profession.[***] The Austin friars had usually been employed in +Saxony to preach the indulgences, and from this trust had derived both +profit and consideration: but Arcemboldi, fearing lest practice might +have taught them means to secrete the money,[****] and expecting no +extraordinary success from the ordinary methods of collection, gave this +occupation to the Dominicans. + + * Father Paul and Sleidan. + + ** In 1517. + + *** Father Paul. Sleidan. + + **** Father Paul, lib. 1 + +These monks, in order to prove themselves worthy of the distinction +conferred on them, exaggerated the benefits of indulgences by the most +unbounded panegyrics; and advanced doctrines on that head, which, +though not more ridiculous than those already received, were not as yet +entirely familiar to the ears of the people.[*] [4] To add to the scandal, +the collectors of this revenue are said to have lived very licentious +lives, and to have spent in taverns, gaming-houses, and places still +more infamous, the money which devout persons had saved from their usual +expenses, in order to purchase a remission of their sins.[**] + +All these circumstances might have given offence, but would have been +attended with no event of any importance, had there not arisen a man +qualified to take advantage of the incident. Martin Luther, an Austin +friar, professor in the university of Wittemberg, resenting the affront +put upon his order, began to preach against these abuses in the sale +of indulgences; and being naturally of a fiery temper, and provoked by +opposition, he proceeded even to decry indulgences themselves; and was +thence carried, by the heat of dispute, to question the authority of the +pope, from which his adversaries derived their chief arguments against +him.[***] Still, as he enlarged his reading, in order to support these +tenets, he discovered some new abuse or error in the church of Rome; +and finding his opinions greedily hearkened to, he promulgated them by +writing, discourse, sermon, conference; and daily increased the number +of his disciples. All Saxony, all Germany, all Europe, were in a very +little time filled with the voice of this daring innovator; and men, +roused from that lethargy in which they had so long slept, began to call +in question the most ancient and most received opinions. The elector of +Saxony, favorable to Luther’s doctrine, protected him from the violence +of the papal jurisdiction: the republic of Zurich even reformed their +church according to the new model: many sovereigns of the empire, and +the imperial diet itself, showed a favorable disposition towards it: and +Luther, a man naturally inflexible, vehement, opinionative, was become +incapable, either from promises of advancement or terrors of severity, +to relinquish a sect of which he was himself the founder, and which +brought him a glory superior to all others--the glory of dictating the +religious faith and principles of multitudes. + + * See note D, at the end of the volume. + + ** Father Paul, lib. i. + + *** Father Paul. Sleidan + +The rumor of these innovations soon reached England and as there +still subsisted in that kingdom great remains of the Lollards, whose +principles resembled those of Luther, the new doctrines secretly gained +many partisans among the laity of all ranks and denominations. But Henry +had been educated in a strict attachment to the church of Rome; and he +bore a particular prejudice against Luther, who, in his writings, spoke +with contempt of Thomas Aquinas, the king’s favorite author: he opposed +himself, therefore, to the progress of the Lutheran tenets, by all the +influence which his extensive and almost absolute authority conferred +upon him: he even under took to combat them with weapons not usually +employed by monarchs, especially those in the flower of their age and +force of their passions. He wrote a book in Latin against the principles +of Luther; a performance which, if allowance be made for the subject and +the age, does no discredit to his capacity. He sent a copy of it to Leo, +who received so magnificent a present with great testimony of +regard; and conferred on him the title of “defender of the faith;” an +appellation still retained by the kings of England. Luther, who was in +the heat of controversy, soon published an answer to Henry; and, without +regard to the dignity of his antagonist, treated him with all the +acrimony of style to which, in the course of his polemics, he had +so long been accustomed. The king, by this ill usage, was still more +prejudiced against the new doctrines; but the public, who naturally +favor the weaker party, were inclined to attribute to Luther the victory +in the dispute.[*] And as the controversy became more illustrious by +Henry’s entering the lists, it drew still more the attention of mankind; +and the Lutheran doctrine daily acquired new converts in every part of +Europe. + + * Father Paul, lib. i. + +The quick and surprising progress of this bold sect may justly in part +be ascribed to the late invention of printing, and revival of learning: +not that reason bore any considerable share in opening men’s eyes with +regard to the impostures of the Romish church; for of all branches of +literature, philosophy had, as yet, and till long afterwards, made +the most inconsiderable progress; neither is there any instance, that +argument has ever been able to free the people from that enormous load +of absurdity with which superstition has every where overwhelmed them; +not to mention, that the rapid advance of the Lutheran doctrine and the +violence with which it was embraced, prove sufficiently, that it owed +not its success to reason and reflection. The art of printing and the +revival of learning forwarded its progress in another manner. By means +of that art, the books of Luther and his sectaries full of vehemence, +declamation, and a rude eloquence, were propagated more quickly, and +in greater numbers. The minds of men, somewhat awakened from a profound +sleep of so many centuries, were prepared for every novelty, and +scrupled less to tread in any unusual path which was opened to them. And +as copies of the Scriptures and other ancient monuments of the Christian +faith became more common, men perceived the innovations which were +introduced after the first centuries; and though argument and reasoning +could not give conviction, an historical fact, well supported, was able +to make impression on their understandings. Many of the powers, indeed, +assumed by the church of Rome, were very ancient, and were prior to +almost every political government established in Europe: but as the +ecclesiastics would not agree to possess their privileges as matters +of civil right, which time might render valid, but appealed still to a +divine origin, men were tempted to look into their primitive charter, +and they could, without much difficulty, perceive its defect in truth +and authenticity. + +In order to bestow on this topic the greater influence, Luther and his +followers, not satisfied with opposing the pretended divinity of the +Romish church, and displaying the temporal inconveniences of that +establishment, carried matters much further, and treated the religion of +their ancestors as abominable, detestable, damnable; foretold by +sacred writ itself as the source of all wickedness and pollution. They +denominated the pope Antichrist, called his communion the scarlet whore, +and gave to Rome the appellation of Babylon; expressions which, however +applied, were to be found in Scripture, and which were better calculated +to operate on the multitude than the most solid arguments. Excited by +contest and persecution on the one hand, by success and applause on the +other, many of the reformers carried to the greatest extremities their +opposition to the church of Rome; and in contradiction to the multiplied +superstitions with which that communion was loaded, they adopted an +enthusiastic strain of devotion, which admitted of no observances, +rites, or ceremonies, but placed all merit in a mysterious species of +faith in inward vision, rapture, and ecstasy. The new sectaries seized +with this spirit, were indefatigable in the propagation of their +doctrine, and set at defiance all the anathemas and punishments with +which the Roman pontiff endeavored to overwhelm them. + +That the civil power, however, might afford them protection against the +ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the Lutherans advanced doctrines favorable +in some respect to the temporal authority of sovereigns. They inveighed +against the abuses of the court of Rome, with which men were at that +time generally discontented; and they exhorted princes to reinstate +themselves in those powers, of which the encroaching spirit of the +ecclesiastics, especially of the sovereign pontiff, had so long bereaved +them. They condemned celibacy and monastic vows, and thereby opened the +doors of the convents to those who were either tired of the obedience +and chastity, or disgusted with the license, in which they had hitherto +lived. They blamed the excessive riches, the idleness, the libertinism +of the clergy; and pointed out their treasures and revenues as lawful +spoil to the first invader. And as the ecclesiastics had hitherto +conducted a willing and a stupid audience, and were totally unacquainted +with controversy, much more with every species of true literature, they +were unable to defend themselves against men armed with authorities, +quotations, and popular topics, and qualified to triumph in every +altercation or debate. Such were the advantages with which the reformers +began their attack on the Romish hierarchy; and such were the causes of +their rapid and astonishing success. + +Leo X., whose oversights and too supine trust in the profound ignorance +of the people had given rise to this sect, but whose sound judgment, +moderation, and temper, were well qualified to retard its progress, died +in the flower of his age, a little after he received the king’s book +against Luther, and he was succeeded in the papal chair by Adrian, a +Fleming, who had been tutor to the emperor Charles. This man was fitted +to gain on the reformers by the integrity, candor, and simplicity of +manners which distinguished his character but, so violent were their +prejudices against the church, he rather hurt the cause by his imprudent +exercise of those virtues. He frankly confessed, that many abominable +and detestable practices prevailed in the court of Rome; and by this +sincere avowal, he gave occasion of much triumph to the Lutherans. This +pontiff also, whose penetration was not equal to his good intentions, +was seduced to concur in that league which Charles and Henry had formed +against France;[*] and he thereby augmented the scandal occasioned by +the practice of so many preceding popes, who still made their spiritual +arms subservient to political purposes. + +{1522.} The emperor, who knew that Wolsey had received a disappointment +in his ambitious hopes by the election of Adrian, and who dreaded the +resentment of that haughty minister, was solicitous to repair the breach +made in their friendship by this incident. He paid another visit to +England; and besides flattering the vanity of the king and the cardinal, +he renewed to Wolsey all the promises which he had made him of seconding +his pretensions to the papal throne. Wolsey, sensible that Adrian’s +great age and infirmities promised a speedy vacancy, dissembled his +resentment, and was willing to hope for a more prosperous issue to the +next election. The emperor renewed the treaty made at Bruges, to which +some articles were added; and he agreed to indemnify both the king and +Wolsey for the revenue which they should lose by a breach with France. +The more to ingratiate himself with Henry and the English nation, he +gave to Surrey, admiral of England, a commission for being admiral of +his dominions; and he himself was installed knight of the garter +at London. After a stay of six weeks in England, he embarked at +Southampton, and in ten days arrived in Spain, where he soon pacified +the tumults which had arisen in his absence.[**] + + * Guicciard. lib. xiv. + + ** Petrus de Angleria, epist. 765. + +The king declared war against France; and this measure was founded on so +little reason, that he could allege nothing as a ground of quarrel, but +Francis’s refusal to submit to his arbitration, and his sending Albany +into Scotland. This last step had not been taken by the French king, +till he was quite assured of Henry’s resolution to attack him. Surrey +landed some troops at Cherbourg, in Normandy; and after laying waste the +country, he sailed to Morlaix, a rich town in Brittany, which he took +and plundered. The English merchants had great property in that place, +which was no more spared by the soldiers than the goods of the French. +Surrey then left the charge of the fleet to the vice-admiral; and sailed +to Calais, where he took the command of the English army destined for +the invasion of France. This army, when joined by forces from the Low +Countries, under the command of the count de Buren, amounted in the +whole to eighteen thousand men. + +The French had made it a maxim, in almost all their wars with the +English since the reign of Charles V., never, without great necessity, +to hazard a general engagement; and the duke of Vendôme, who commanded +the French army, now embraced this wise policy. He supplied the towns +most exposed, especially Boulogne, Montreuil, Terouenne, Hedin with +strong garrisons and plenty of provisions: he himself took post at +Abbeville, with some Swiss and French infantry, and a body of cavalry: +the count of Guise encamped under Montreuil with six thousand men. These +two bodies were in a situation to join upon occasion; to throw supply +into any town that was threatened; and to harass the English in every +movement. Surrey, who was not provided with magazines, first divided +his troops for the convenience of subsisting them; but finding that +his quarters were every moment beaten up by the activity of the French +generals, he drew together his forces, and laid siege to Hedin. But +neither did he succeed in this enterprise. The garrison made vigorous +sallies upon his army: the French forces assaulted him from without: +great rains fell: fatigue and bad weather threw the soldiers into +dysenteries: and Surrey was obliged to raise the siege, and put his +troops into winter quarters about the end of October. His rear guard was +attacked at Pas, in Artois, and five or six hundred men were cut off; +nor could all his efforts make him master of one place within the French +frontier. + +The allies were more successful in Italy. Lautrec, who commanded the +French, lost a great battle at Bicocca, near Milan; and was obliged to +retire with the remains of his army. This misfortune, which proceeded +from Francis’s negligence in not supplying Lautrec with money,[*] +was followed by the loss of Genoa. The castle of Cremona was the sole +fortress in Italy which remained in the hands of the French. + + * Guicciard. lib. xiv. + +Europe was now in such a situation, and so connected by different +alliances and interests, that it was almost impossible for war to be +kindled in one part, and not diffuse itself throughout the whole; but +of all the leagues among kingdoms the closest was that which had so long +subsisted between France and Scotland; and the English, while at war +with the former nation, could not hope to remain long unmolested on the +northern frontier. No sooner had Albany arrived in Scotland, than he +took measures for kindling a war with England; and he summoned the whole +force of the kingdom to meet in the fields of Rosline.[*] He thence +conducted the army southwards into Annandale, and prepared to pass the +borders at Solway Frith. But many of the nobility were disgusted with +the regent’s administration; and observing that his connections with +Scotland were feeble in comparison of those which he maintained with +France, they murmured that for the sake of foreign interests, their +peace should so often be disturbed and war, during their king’s +minority, be wantonly entered into with a neighboring nation, so much +superior in force and riches. The Gordons, in particular, refused to +advance any farther; and Albany, observing a general discontent to +prevail was obliged to conclude a truce with Lord Dacres, warden of the +English west marches. Soon after he departed for France; and lest the +opposite faction should gather force in his absence, he sent thither +before him the earl of Angus, husband to the queen dowager. + +{1523.} Next year, Henry, that he might take advantage of the regent’s +absence, marched an army into Scotland under the command of Surrey, who +ravaged the Merse and Teviotdale without opposition, and burned the town +of Jedburgh. The Scots had neither king nor regent to conduct them: +the two Humes had been put to death: Angus was in a manner banished: no +nobleman of vigor or authority remained, who was qualified to assume the +government: and the English monarch, who knew the distressed situation +of the country, determined to push them to extremity, in hopes of +engaging them, by the sense of their present weakness, to make a solemn +renunciation of the French alliance, and to embrace that of England.[*] +He even gave them hopes of contracting a marriage between the lady Mary, +heiress of England, and their young monarch; an expedient which would +forever unite the two kingdoms:[**] and the queen dowager, with her +whole party, recommended every where the advantages of this alliance, +and of a confederacy with Henry. + + * Buchanan, lib. xiv. Drummond. Pitscottie. + + ** Buchanan, lib. xiv. Herbert. + + *** Le Grand, vol. iii. p. 39. + +They said that the interests of Scotland had too long been sacrificed to +those of the French nation, who, whenever they found themselves reduced +to difficulties, called for the assistance of their allies; but were +ready to abandon them as soon as they found their advantage in making +peace with England: that where a small state entered into so close a +confederacy with a greater, it must always expect this treatment, as +a consequence of the unequal alliance; but there were peculiar +circumstances in the situation of the kingdoms, which, in the present +case, rendered it inevitable: that France was so distant, and so divided +from them by sea, that she scarcely could, by any means, and never could +in time, send succors to the Scots, sufficient to protect them against +ravages from the neighboring kingdom: that nature had, in a manner, +formed an alliance between the two British nations; having enclosed them +in the same island; given them the same manners, language, laws, and +form of government; and prepared every thing for an intimate union +between them: and that, if national antipathies were abolished, which +would soon be the effect of peace, these two kingdoms, secured by the +ocean and by their domestic force, could set at defiance all foreign +enemies, and remain forever safe and unmolested. + +The partisans of the French alliance, on the other hand, said, that the +very reasons which were urged in favor of a league with England, the +vicinity of the kingdom and its superior force, were the real causes +why a sincere and durable confederacy could never be formed with that +hostile nation: that among neighboring states occasions of quarrel were +frequent, and the more powerful would be sure to seize every frivolous +pretence for oppressing the weaker, and reducing it to subjection: that +as the near neighborhood of France and England had kindled a war almost +perpetual between them, it was the interest of the Scots, if they wished +to maintain their independence, to preserve their league with the former +kingdom, which balanced the force of the latter: that if they deserted +that old and salutary alliance on which their importance in Europe +chiefly depended, their ancient enemies, stimulated both by interest and +by passion, would soon invade them with superior force, and bereave them +of all their liberties: or if they delayed the attack, the insidious +peace, by making the Scots forget the use of arms, would only prepare +the way for a slavery more certain and more irretrievable.[*] + + * Buchanan, lib. xiv. + +The arguments employed by the French party, being seconded by the +natural prejudices of the people, seemed most prevalent: and when the +regent himself, who had been long detained beyond his appointed time by +the danger from the English fleet, at last appeared among them, he was +able to throw the balance entirely on that side. By authority of the +convention of states, he assembled an army, with a view of avenging the +ravages committed by the English in the beginning of the campaign; and +he led them southwards towards the borders. But when they were passing +the Tweed at the bridge of Melross, the English party raised again such +opposition, that Albany thought proper to make a retreat. He marched +downwards, along the banks of the Tweed, keeping that river on his +right; and fixed his camp opposite to Werkcastle, which Surrey had +lately repaired. He sent over some troops to besiege this fortress, who +made a breach in it, and stormed some of the outworks: but the regent, +hearing of the approach of an English army, and discouraged by the +advanced season, thought proper to disband his forces and retire to +Edinburgh. Soon after, he went over to France, and never again returned +to Scotland. The Scottish nation, agitated by their domestic factions, +were not, during several years, in a condition to give any more +disturbance to England; and Henry had full leisure to prosecute his +designs on the continent. + +The reason why the war against France proceeded so slowly on the part +of England, was the want of money. All the treasures of Henry VII. were +long ago dissipated; the king’s habits of expense still remained; and +his revenues were unequal even to the ordinary charge of government, +much more to his military enterprises. He had last year caused a general +survey to be made of the kingdom; the numbers of men, their years, +profession, stock, revenue;[*] and expressed great satisfaction on +finding the nation so opulent. He then issued privy seals to the most +wealthy, demanding loans of particular sums: this act of power, though +somewhat irregular and tyrannical, had been formerly practised by kings +of England; and the people were now familiarized to it. But Henry, this +year, carried his authority much further. He published an edict for +a general tax upon his subjects, which he still called a loan; and he +levied five shillings in the pound upon the clergy, two shillings upon +the laity. This pretended loan, as being more regular, was really more +dangerous to the liberties of the people, and was a precedent for the +king’s imposing taxes without consent of parliament. + + * Herbert. Stowe, p. 514. + +Henry soon after summoned a parliament, together with a convocation; and +found neither of them in a disposition to complain of the infringement +of their privileges. It was only doubted how far they would carry their +liberality to the king. Wolsey, who had undertaken the management of the +affair, began with the convocation, in hopes that their example would +influence the parliament to grant a large supply. He demanded a moiety +of the ecclesiastical revenues to be levied in five years, or two +shillings in the pound during that time; and though he met with +opposition, he reprimanded the refractory members in such severe terms, +that his request was at last complied with. The cardinal afterwards, +attended by several of the nobility and prelates, came to the house of +commons; and in a long and elaborate speech laid before them the public +necessities, the danger of an invasion from Scotland, the affronts +received from France, the league in which the king was engaged with the +pope and the emperor; and he demanded a grant of eight hundred thousand +pounds, divided into four yearly payments; a sum computed, from the late +survey or valuation, to be equal to four shillings in the pound of one +year’s revenue, or one shilling in the pound yearly, according to the +division proposed.[*] So large a grant was unusual from the commons; +and though the cardinal’s demand was seconded by Sir Thomas More the +speaker, and several other members attached to the court, the house +could not be prevailed with to comply.[**] + + * This survey or valuation is liable to much suspicion, as + fixing the rents a great deal too high; unless the sum + comprehend the revenues of all kinds, industry as well as + land and money. + + ** Herbert. Stowe, p. 518. Parl. Hist. Strype, vol. i. p. + 49, 59. + +[Illustration: 1-371-more.jpg SIR THOMAS MORE] + +They only voted two shillings in the pound on all who enjoyed twenty +pounds a year and upwards; one shilling on all who possessed between +twenty pounds and forty shillings a year; and on the other subjects +above sixteen years of age, a groat a head. This last sum was divided +into two yearly payments; the former into four, and was not therefore at +the utmost above sixpence in the pound. The grant of the commons was +but the moiety of the sum demanded; and the cardinal, therefore, much +mortified with the disappointment, came again to the house, and desired +to reason with such as refused to comply with the king’s request. He +was told that it was a rule of the house never to reason but among +themselves; and his desire was rejected. The commons, however, enlarged +a little their former grant, and voted an imposition of three shillings +in the pound on all possessed of fifty pounds a year and upwards.[*] [5] +The proceedings of this house of commons evidently discover the humor of +the times: they were extremely tenacious of their money, and refused a +demand of the crown which was far from being unreasonable; but they +allowed an encroachment on national privileges to pass uncensured, +though its direct tendency was to subvert entirely the liberties of the +people. The king was so dissatisfied with this saving disposition of the +commons, that, as he had not called a parliament during seven years +before, he allowed seven more to elapse before he summoned another. And +on pretence of necessity, he levied in one year, from all who were worth +forty pounds, what the parliament had granted him payable in four +years;[**] a new invasion of national privileges. These irregularities +were commonly ascribed to the cardinal’s counsels, who, trusting to the +protection afforded him by his ecclesiastical character, was the less +scrupulous in his encroachment on the civil rights of the nation. + + * See note E, at the end of the volume. + + ** Speed. Hall. Herbert. + +That ambitious prelate received this year a new disappointment in his +aspiring views. The pope, Adrian VI., died; and Clement VII., of the +family of Medicis, was elected in his place, by the concurrence of +the imperial party. Wolsey could not perceive the insincerity of the +emperor, and he concluded that that prince would never second his +pretensions to the papal chair. As he highly resented this injury, he +began thenceforth to estrange himself from the imperial court, and +to pave the way for a union between his master and the French king. +Meanwhile he concealed his disgust; and after congratulating the new +pope on his promotion, applied for a continuation of the legatine powers +which the two former popes had conferred upon him. Clement, knowing the +importance of gaining his friendship, granted him a commission for life; +and, by this unusual concession, he in a manner transferred to him the +whole papal authority in England. In some particulars Wolsey made a good +use of this extensive power. He erected two colleges, one at Oxford, +another at Ipswich, the place of his nativity: he sought all over Europe +for learned men to supply the chairs of these colleges; and in order to +bestow endowments on them, he suppressed some smaller monasteries, and +distributed the monks into other convents. The execution of this project +became the less difficult for him, because the Romish church began +to perceive, that she overabounded in monks, and that she wanted some +supply of learning, in order to oppose the inquisitive, or rather +disputative humor of the reformers. + +The confederacy against France seemed more formidable than ever, on +the opening of the campaign.[*] Adrian before his death had renewed the +league with Charles and Henry. The Venetians had been induced to desert +the French alliance, and to form engagements for securing Francis +Sforza, brother to Maximilian, in possession of the Milanese. The +Florentines, the dukes of Ferrara and Mantua, and all the powers of +Italy, combined in the same measure. The emperor in person menaced +France with a powerful invasion on the side of Guienne: the forces of +England and the Netherlands hovered over Picardy: a numerous body of +Germans were preparing to ravage Burgundy: but all these perils from +foreign enemies were less threatening than a domestic conspiracy, which +had been formed, and which was now come to full maturity, against the +French monarch. + + * Guicciard. lib. xiv. + +Charles, duke of Bourbon, constable of France, was a prince of the most +shining merit; and, besides distinguishing himself in many military +enterprises, he was adorned with every accomplishment which became a +person of his high station. His virtues, embellished with the graces of +youth, had made such impression on Louise of Savoy, Francis’s mother, +that, without regard to the inequality of their years, she made him +proposals of marriage; and meeting with a repulse, she formed schemes +of unrelenting vengeance against him. She was a woman false, deceitful, +vindictive, malicious; but, unhappily for France, had, by her capacity, +which was considerable, acquired an absolute ascendant over her son. By +her instigation, Francis put many affronts on the constable, which it +was difficult for a gallant spirit to endure; and at last he permitted +Louise to prosecute a lawsuit against him, by which, on the most +frivolous pretences, he was deprived of his ample possessions; and +inevitable ruin was brought upon him. + +Bourbon, provoked at all these indignities, and thinking that, if +any injuries could justify a man in rebelling against his prince +and country, he must stand acquitted, had entered into a secret +correspondence with the emperor and the king of England.[*] Francis, +pertinacious in his purpose of recovering the Milanese, had intended to +lead his army in person into Italy; and Bourbon, who feigned sickness +in order to have a pretence for staying behind, purposed, as soon as +the king should have passed the Alps, to raise an insurrection among +his numerous vassals, by whom he was extremely beloved, and to introduce +foreign enemies into the heart of the kingdom. Francis got intimation +of his design; but as he was not expeditious enough in securing so +dangerous a foe, the constable made his escape;[**] and entering into +the emperor’s service, employed all the force of his enterprising +spirit, and his great talents for war, to the prejudice of his native +country. + +The king of England, desirous that Francis should undertake his Italian +expedition, did not openly threaten Picardy this year with an invasion; +and it was late before the duke of Suffolk, who commanded the English +forces, passed over to Calais. He was attended by the lords Montacute, +Herbert, Ferrars, Morney, Sandys, Berkeley, Powis, and many other +noblemen and gentlemen.[***] + + * Mémoires du Bellai, liv. ii. + + ** Belcarius, lib. xvii. + + *** Herbert. + +The English army, reënforced by some troops drawn from the garrison +of Calais, amounted to about twelve thousand men; and having joined an +equal number of Flemings under the count de Buren, they prepared for an +invasion of France. The siege of Boulogne was first proposed; but that +enterprise appearing difficult, it was thought more advisable to leave +this town behind them. The frontier of Picardy was very ill provided +with troops; and the only defence of that province was the activity of +the French officers, who infested the allied army in their march, +and threw garrisons, with great expedition, into every town which +was threatened by them. After coasting the Somme, and passing Hedin, +Montreuil, Dourlens, the English and Flemings presented themselves +before Bray, a place of small force, which commanded a bridge over that +river. Here they were resolved to pass, and, if possible, to take up +winter quarters in France; but Crequi threw himself into the town and +seemed resolute to defend it. The allies attacked him with vigor and +success; and when he retreated over the bridge, they pursued him so +hotly, that they allowed him not time to break it down, but passed +it along with him, and totally routed his army. They next advanced to +Montdidier, which they besieged, and took by capitulation. Meeting with +no opposition, they proceeded to the River Oise, within eleven leagues +of Paris, and threw that city into great consternation; till the duke +of Vendôme hastened with some forces to its relief. The confederates, +afraid of being surrounded, and of being reduced to extremities +during so advanced a season, thought proper to retreat. Montdidier was +abandoned; and the English and Flemings, without effecting any thing, +retired into their respective countries. + +France defended herself from the other invasions with equal facility +and equal good fortune. Twelve thousand Lansquenets broke into Burgundy +under the command of the count of Furstenberg. The count of Guise, who +defended that frontier, had nothing to oppose to them but some militia, +and about nine hundred heavy-armed cavalry. He threw the militia into +the garrison towns; and with his cavalry he kept the field, and so +harassed the Germans, that they were glad to make their retreat into +Lorraine. Guise attacked them as they passed the Meuse, put them into +disorder, and cut off the greater part of their rear. + +The emperor made great preparations on the side of Navarre; and though +that frontier was well guarded by nature, it seemed now exposed to +danger from the powerful invasion which threatened it. Charles besieged +Fontarabia, which a few years before had fallen into Francis’s hands; +and when he had drawn thither Lautrec, the French general, he of a +sudden raised the siege, and sat down before Bayonne. Lautrec, aware +of that stratagem, made a sudden march, and threw himself into Bayonne, +which he defended with such vigor and courage, that the Spaniards were +constrained to raise the siege. The emperor would have been totally +unfortunate on this side, had he not turned back upon Fontarabia, and, +contrary to the advice of all his generals, sitten down in the winter +season before that city, well fortified and strongly garrisoned. The +cowardice or misconduct of the governor saved him from the shame of a +new disappointment. The place was surrendered in a few days; and the +emperor, having finished this enterprise, put his troops into winter +quarters. + +So obstinate was Francis in prosecuting his Italian expedition, that, +notwithstanding these numerous invasions with which his kingdom was +menaced on every side, he had determined to lead in person a powerful +army to the conquest of Milan. The intelligence of Bourbon’s conspiracy +and escape stopped him at Lyons; and fearing some insurrection in the +kingdom from the intrigues of a man so powerful and so much beloved, +he thought it prudent to remain in France and to send forward his army +under the command of Admiral Bonnivet. The duchy of Milan had been +purposely left in a condition somewhat defenceless, with a view of +alluring Francis to attack it, and thereby facilitating the enterprises +of Bourbon; and no sooner had Bonnivet passed the Tesin, than the army +of the league, and even Prosper Colonna, who commanded it, a prudent +general, were in the utmost confusion. It is agreed, that if Bonnivet +had immediately advanced to Milan, that great city, on which the whole +duchy depends, would have opened its gates without resistance: but as +he wasted his time in frivolous enterprises, Colonna had opportunity to +reënforce the garrison, and to put the place in a posture of defence. +Bonnivet was now obliged to attempt reducing the city by blockade and +famine; and he took possession of all the posts which commanded the +passages to it. But the army of the league, meanwhile, was not inactive; +and they so straitened and harassed the quarters of the French, that it +seemed more likely the latter should themselves perish by famine, than +reduce the city to that extremity. + +{1524.} Sickness, and fatigue, and want had wasted them to such a +degree, that they were ready to raise the blockade; and their only hopes +consisted in a great body of Swiss, which was levied for the service +of the French king, and whose arrival was every day expected. But these +mountaineers no sooner came within sight of the French camp, than they +stopped, from a sudden caprice and resentment; and instead of joining +Bonnivet, they sent orders to a great body of their countrymen, who then +served under him, immediately to begin their march, and to return home +in their company.[*] After this desertion of the Swiss, Bonnivet had +no other choice but that of making his retreat as fast as possible into +France. + + * Guicciard. lib. xv. Mémoires de Bellai, liv. ii. + +The French being thus expelled Italy, the pope, the Venetians, the +Florentines, were satisfied with the advantage obtained over them, and +were resolved to prosecute their victory no further. All these powers, +especially Clement, had entertained a violent jealousy of the emperor’s +ambition; and their suspicions were extremely augmented when they saw +him refuse the investiture of Milan, a fief of the empire, to Francis +Sforza, whose title he had acknowledged, and whose defence he had +embraced.[*] They all concluded, that he intended to put himself in +possession of that important duchy, and reduce Italy to subjection: +Clement in particular, actuated by this jealousy, proceeded so far in +opposition to the emperor, that he sent orders to his nuncio at London +to mediate a reconciliation between France and England. But affairs were +not yet fully ripe for this change. Wolsey, disgusted with the emperor, +but still more actuated by vain-glory, was determined that he himself +should have the renown of bringing about that great alteration; and he +engaged the king to reject the pope’s mediation. + + * Guicciard. lib. xv. + +A new treaty was even concluded between Henry and Charles for the +invasion of France. Charles stipulated to supply the Duke of Bourbon +with a powerful army, in order to conquer Provence and Dauphiny: Henry +agreed to pay him a hundred thousand crowns for the first month; after +which he might either choose to continue the same monthly payments, +or invade Picardy with a powerful army. Bourbon was to possess these +provinces with the title of king; but to hold them in fee of Henry as +king of France. The duchy of Burgundy was to be given to Charles; the +rest of the kingdom to Henry. This chimerical partition immediately +failed of execution in the article which was most easily performed: +Bourbon refused to acknowledge Henry as king of France. His enterprise, +however, against Provence still took place. A numerous army of +imperialists invaded that country, under his command and that of the +marquis of Pescara. They laid siege to Marseilles, which, being weakly +garrisoned, they expected to reduce in a little time; but the citizens +defended themselves with such valor and obstinacy, that Bourbon and +Pescara, who heard of the French king’s approach with a numerous army, +found themselves under the necessity of raising the siege; and they led +their forces, weakened, baffled, and disheartened, into Italy. + +Francis might now have enjoyed in safety the glory of repulsing all his +enemies, in every attempt which they had hitherto made for invading +his kingdom; but as he received intelligence that the king of England, +discouraged by his former fruitless enterprises, and disgusted with +the emperor, was making no preparations for any attempt on Picardy, his +ancient ardor seized him for the conquest of Milan; and notwithstanding +the advanced season, he was immediately determined, contrary to the +advice of his wisest counsellors, to lead his army into Italy. + +He passed the Alps at Mount Cenis, and no sooner appeared in Piedmont +than he threw the whole Milanese into consternation. The forces of the +emperor and Sforza retired to Lodi; and had Francis been so fortunate +as to pursue them, they had abandoned that place, and had been totally +dispersed;[*] but his ill fate led him to besiege Pavia, a town of +considerable strength, well garrisoned, and defended by Leyva, one of +the bravest officers in the Spanish service. Every attempt which the +French king made to gain this important place proved fruitless. He +battered the walls and made breaches; but, by the vigilance of Leyva, +new retrenchments were instantly thrown up behind the breaches: he +attempted to divert the course of the Tesin, which ran by one side of +the city and defended it; but an inundation of the river destroyed in +one night all the mounds which the soldiers during a long time, and with +infinite labor, had been erecting. + + * Guicciard. lib. xv. Du Bellai, lib. ii. + +{1525.} Fatigue and the bad season (for it was the depth of winter) +had wasted the French army. The imperial generals meanwhile were not +inactive. Pescara, and Lannoy, viceroy of Naples, assembled forces from +all quarters. Bourbon, having pawned his jewels, went into Germany, and +with the money, aided by his personal interest, levied a body of twelve +thousand Lansquenets, with which he joined the imperialists. This whole +army advanced to raise the siege of Pavia; and the danger to the French +became every day more imminent. + +The state of Europe was such during that age, that, partly from the +want of commerce and industry every where, except in Italy and the Low +Countries, partly from the extensive privileges still possessed by the +people in all the great monarchies and their frugal maxims in granting +money, the revenues of the princes were extremely narrow, and even the +small armies which they kept on foot could not be regularly paid by +them*[**missing period] The imperial forces, commanded by Bourbon, +Pescara, and Lannoy, exceeded not twenty thousand men; they were the +only body of troops maintained by the emperor, (for he had not been able +to levy any army for the invasion of France, either on the side of +Spain or Flanders.) Yet so poor was that mighty monarch, that he could +transmit no money for the payment of this army; and it was chiefly the +hopes of sharing the plunder of the French camp which had made them +advance and kept them to their standards. Had Francis raised the siege +before their approach, and retired to Milan, they must immediately have +disbanded; and he had obtained a complete victory without danger or +bloodshed. But it was the character of this monarch to become obstinate +in proportion to the difficulties which he encountered; and having once +said, that he would take Pavia or perish before it, he was resolved +rather to endure the utmost extremities than depart from this +resolution. + +The imperial generals, after cannonading the French camp for several +days, at last made a general assault, and broke into the intrenchments. +Leyva sallied from the town, and increased the confusion among the +besiegers. The Swiss infantry, contrary to their usual practice, behaved +in a dastardly manner, and deserted their post. Francis’s forces were +put to rout; and he himself, surrounded by his enemies, after fighting +with heroic valor, and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last +obliged to surrender himself prisoner. All most the whole army, full +of nobility and brave officers, either perished by the sword or were +drowned in the river. The few who escaped with their lives fell into the +hands of the enemy. + +The emperor received this news by Pennalosa, who passed through +France by means of a safe-conduct granted him by the captive king. The +moderation which he displayed on this occasion, had it been sincere, +would have done him honor. Instead of rejoicing, he expressed sympathy +with Francis’s ill fortune, and discovered his sense of those calamities +to which the greatest monarchs are exposed.[*] He refused the city of +Madrid permission to make any public expressions of triumph; and said +that he reserved all his exultation till he should he able to obtain +some victory over the infidels. He sent orders to his frontier garrisons +to commit no hostilities upon France. + + * Vera. Hist. de Carl. V. + +He spoke of concluding immediately a peace on reasonable terms. But all +this seeming moderation was only hypocrisy, so much the more dangerous +as it was profound. And he was wholly occupied in forming schemes +how, from this great incident, he might draw the utmost advantage, and +gratify that exorbitant ambition by which, in all his actions, he was +ever governed. + +The same Pennalosa, in passing through France, carried also a letter +from Francis to his mother, whom he had left regent, and who then +resided at Lyons. It contained only these few words: “Madam, all is +lost, except our honor.” The princess was struck with the greatness of +the calamity. She saw the kingdom without a sovereign, without an army, +without generals, without money; surrounded on every side by implacable +and victorious enemies; and her chief resource, in her present +distresses, were the hopes which she entertained of peace and even of +assistance from the king of England. + +Had the king entered into the war against France from any concerted +political views, it is evident that the victory of Pavia and the +captivity of Francis were the most fortunate incidents that could have +befallen him, and the only ones that could render his schemes effectual. +While the war was carried on in the former feeble manner, without any +decisive advantage, he might have been able to possess himself of some +frontier town, or perhaps of a small territory, of which he could not. +have kept possession without expending much more than its value. By some +signal calamity alone, which annihilated the power of France, could he +hope to acquire the dominion of considerable provinces, or dismember +that great monarchy, so affectionate to its own government and its own +sovereigns. But as it is probable that Henry had never before carried +his reflections so far, he was startled at this important event, and +became sensible of his own danger, as well as that of all Europe, from +the loss of a proper counterpoise to the power of Charles. Instead of +taking advantage, therefore, of the distressed condition of Francis, he +was determined to lend him assistance in his present calamities; and +as the glory of generosity in raising a fallen enemy concurred with +his political interests, he hesitated the less in embracing these new +measures. + +Some disgusts also had previously taken place between Charles and Henry, +and still more between Charles and Wolsey; and that powerful minister +waited only for a favorable opportunity of revenging the disappointments +which he had met with. The behavior of Charles, immediately after the +victory of Pavia, gave him occasion to revive the king’s jealousy and +suspicions. The emperor so ill supported the appearance of moderation +which he at first assumed, that he had already changed his usual +style to Henry; and instead of writing to him with his own hand, and +subscribing himself “Your affectionate son and cousin,” he dictated +his letters to a secretary, and simply subscribed himself “Charles.”[*] +Wolsey also perceived a diminution in the caresses and professions with +which the emperor’s letters to him were formerly loaded; and this last +imprudence, proceeding from the intoxication of success, was probably +more dangerous to Charles’s interests than the other. + +Henry, though immediately determined to embrace new measures, was +careful to save appearances in the change; and he caused rejoicings to +be every where made on account of the victory of Pavia and the captivity +of Francis. He publicly dismissed a French envoy, whom he had formerly +allowed, notwithstanding the war, to reside at London;[**] but upon the +regent of France’s submissive applications to him, he again opened a +correspondence with her; and besides assuring her of his friendship and +protection, he exacted a promise that she never would consent to the +dismembering of any province from the monarchy for her son’s ransom. +With the emperor, however, he put on the appearance of vigor and +enterprise; and in order to have a pretence for breaking with him, he +despatched Tonstal, bishop of London, to Madrid with proposals for a +powerful invasion of France. He required that Charles should immediately +enter Guienne at the head of a great army, in order to put him in +possession of that province; and he demanded the payments of large sums +of money which that prince had borrowed from him in his last visit +at London. He knew that the emperor was in no condition of fulfilling +either of these demands; and that he had as little inclination to make +him master of such considerable territories upon the frontiers of Spain. + + * Guicciard. lib. xvi. + + ** Du Bellai, liv. iii Stowe, p. 221. Baker, p. 273. + +Tonstal, likewise, after his arrival at Madrid, informed his master that +Charles, on his part, urged several complaints against England; and in +particular was displeased with Henry, because last year he had neither +continued his monthly payments to Bourbon nor invaded Picardy, according +to his stipulations. Tonstal added, that instead of expressing an +intention to espouse Mary when she should be of age, the emperor had +hearkened to proposals for marrying his niece Isabella, princess of +Portugal; and that he had entered into a separate treaty with Francis, +and seemed determined to reap alone all the advantages of the success +with which fortune had crowned his arms. + +The king, influenced by all these motives, concluded at Moore his +alliance with the regent of France, and engaged to procure her son his +liberty on reasonable conditions:[*] the regent also, in another treaty, +acknowledged the kingdom Henry’s debtor for one million eight hundred +thousand crowns to be discharged in half-yearly payments of fifty +thousand crowns; after which Henry was to receive, during life, a yearly +pension of a hundred thousand. A large present of a hundred thousand +crowns was also made to Wolsey for his good offices, but covered under +the pretence of arrears due on the pension granted him for relinquishing +the administration of Tournay. + + * Du Tillet, Recueil des Traités de Leonard, tom. ii. + Herbert. + +Meanwhile Henry, foreseeing that this treaty with France might involve +him in a war with the emperor, was also determined to fill his treasury +by impositions upon his own subjects; and as the parliament had +discovered some reluctance in complying with his demands, he followed, +as is believed, the counsel of Wolsey, and resolved to make use of his +prerogative alone for that purpose. He issued commissions to all the +counties of England, for levying four shillings in the pound upon +the clergy, three shillings and fourpence upon the laity; and so +uncontrollable did he deem his authority, that he took no care to cover, +as formerly, this arbitrary exaction, even under the slender pretence +of a loan. But he soon found that he had presumed too far on the passive +submission of his subjects. The people, displeased with an exaction +beyond what was usually levied in those days, and further disgusted with +the illegal method of imposing it, broke out in murmurs, complaints, +opposition to the commissioners; and their refractory disposition +threatened a general insurrection. Henry had the prudence to stop short +in that dangerous path into which he had entered. He sent letters to all +the counties, declaring that he meant no force by this last imposition, +and that he would take nothing from his subjects but by way of +“benevolence.” He flattered himself, that his condescension in employing +that disguise would satisfy the people, and that no one would dare to +render himself obnoxious to royal authority, by refusing any payment +required of him in this manner. But the spirit of opposition, once +roused, could not so easily be quieted at pleasure. A lawyer in the +city objecting the statute of Richard III., by which benevolences were +forever abolished, it was replied by the court, that Richard being a +usurper, and his parliament a factious assembly, his statutes could not +bind a lawful and absolute monarch, who held his crown by hereditary +right, and needed not to court the favor of a licentious populace.[*] + + * Herbert Hall. + +The judges even went so far as to affirm positively, that the king might +exact by commission any sum he pleased; and the privy council gave +a ready assent to this decree, which annihilated the most valuable +privilege of the people, and rendered all their other privileges +precarious. Armed with such formidable authority of royal prerogative +and a pretence of law, Wolsey sent for the mayor of London, and desired +to know what he was willing to give for the supply of his majesty’s +necessities. The mayor seemed desirous, before he should declare +himself, to consult the common council; but the cardinal required that +he and all the aldermen should separately confer with himself about +the benevolence; and he eluded by that means the danger of a formed +opposition. Matters, however, went not so smoothly in the country. An +insurrection was begun in some places; but as the people were not headed +by any considerable person, it was easy for the duke of Suffolk, and +the earl of Surrey, now duke of Norfolk, by employing persuasion +and authority, to induce the ringleaders to lay down their arms and +surrender themselves prisoners. The king, finding it dangerous to punish +criminals engaged in so popular a cause, was determined, notwithstanding +his violent, imperious temper, to grant them a general pardon; and +he prudently imputed their guilt, not to their want of loyalty or +affection, but to their poverty. The offenders were carried before the +star chamber; where, after a severe charge brought against them by the +king’s council, the cardinal said, “that notwithstanding their grievous, +offence, the king, in, consideration of their necessities, had granted +them his gracious pardon, upon condition that they would find sureties +for their future good behavior.” But they, replying that they had no +sureties, the cardinal first, and after him the duke of Norfolk, said +that they would be bound for them. Upon which they were dismissed.[*] + + * Herbert. Hall. Stowe, p. 525. Holingshed, p. 891. + +These arbitrary impositions being imputed, though on what grounds is +unknown, to the counsels of the cardinal, increased the general odium +under which he labored: and the clemency of the pardon, being ascribed +to the king, was considered as an atonement on his part for the +illegality of the measure. But Wolsey, supported both by royal and +papal authority, proceeded without scruple to violate all ecclesiastical +privileges, which, during that age, were much more sacred than civil; +and having once prevailed in that unusual attempt of suppressing some +monasteries, he kept all the rest in awe, and exercised over them an +arbitrary jurisdiction. By his commission as legate he was empowered to +visit them, and reform them, and chastise their irregularities; and he +employed his usual agent, Allen, in the exercise of this authority. +The religious houses were obliged to compound for their guilt, real or +pretended, by paying large sums to the cardinal or his deputy; and this +oppression was carried so far, that it reached at last the king’s ears, +which were not commonly open to complaints against his favorite. +Wolsey had built a splendid palace at Hampton Court, which he probably +intended, as well as that of York Place, in Westminster, for his +own residence; but fearing the increase of envy on account of this +magnificence, and desirous to appease the king, he made him a present of +the building, and told him that, from the first, he had erected it for +his use. + +The absolute authority possessed by the king rendered his domestic +government, both over his people and his ministers, easy and +expeditious: the conduct of foreign affairs alone required effort and +application; and they were now brought to such a situation, that it +was no longer safe for England to remain entirely neutral. The feigned +moderation of the emperor was of short duration; and it was soon obvious +to all the world, that his great dominions, far from gratifying +his ambition, were only regarded as the means of acquiring an more +extensive. The terms which he demanded of his prisoner were such as must +forever have annihilated the power of France, and destroyed the balance +of Europe. These terms were proposed to Francis soon after the battle +of Pavia, while he was detained in Pizzichitone; and as he had hitherto +trusted somewhat to the emperor’s generosity, the disappointment excited +in his breast the most lively indignation. He said, that he would rather +live and die a prisoner than agree to dismember his kingdom; and that +even were he so base as to submit to such conditions, his subjects would +never permit him to carry them into execution. + +Francis was encouraged to persist in demanding more moderate terms by +the favorable accounts which he heard of Henry’s disposition towards +him, and of the alarm which had seized all the chief powers in Italy +upon his defeat and captivity. He was uneasy, however, to be so far +distant from the emperor, with whom he must treat; and he expressed his +desire (which was complied with) to be removed to Madrid, in hopes that +a personal interview would operate in his favor, and that Charles, if +not influenced by his ministers, might be found possessed of the same +frankness of disposition by which he himself was distinguished. He was +soon convinced of his mistake. Partly from want of exercise, partly +from reflections on his present melancholy situation, he fell into a +languishing illness; which begat apprehensions in Charles, lest the +death of his captive should bereave him of all those advantages which he +purposed to extort from him. He then paid him a visit in the castle +of Madrid; and as he approached the bed in which Francis lay, the sick +monarch called to him, “You come, sir, to visit your prisoner.” “No,” + replied the emperor, “I come to visit my brother and my friend, who +shall soon obtain his liberty.” He soothed his afflictions with many +speeches of a like nature, which had so good an effect that the king +daily recovered;[*] and thenceforth employed himself in concerting with +the ministers of the emperor the terms of his treaty. + + * Herbert. Le Vera. Sandoval. + +{1526.} At last, the emperor, dreading a general combination against +him, was willing to abate somewhat of his rigor: and the treaty of +Madrid was signed, by which, it was hoped an end would be finally put +to the differences between these great monarchs. The principal condition +was the restoring of Francis’s liberty, and the delivery of his two +eldest sons as hostages to the emperor for the cession of Burgundy. If +any difficulty should afterwards occur in the execution of this last +article, from the opposition of the states either of France or of that +province, Francis stipulated, that in six weeks’ time, he should return +to his prison, and remain there till the full performance of the treaty. +There were many other articles in this famous convention, all of them +extremely severe upon the captive monarch; and Charles discovered +evidently his intention of reducing Italy, as well as France, to +subjection and dependence. + +Many of Charles’s ministers foresaw that Francis, how solemn soever the +oaths, promises, and protestations exacted of him, never would execute +a treaty so disadvantageous, or rather ruinous and destructive, to +himself, his posterity, and his country. By putting Burgundy, they +thought, into the emperor’s hands, he gave his powerful enemy an +entrance into the heart of the kingdom: by sacrificing his allies +in Italy, he deprived himself of foreign assistance; and, arming his +oppressor with the whole force and wealth of that opulent country, +rendered him absolutely irresistible. To these great views of interest +were added the motives, no less cogent, of passion and resentment; while +Francis, a prince who piqued himself on generosity, reflected on the +rigor with which he had been treated during his captivity, and the +severe terms which had been exacted of him for the recovery of his +liberty. It was also foreseen, that the emulation and rivalship, which +had so long subsisted between these two monarchs, would make him feel +the strongest reluctance on yielding the superiority to an antagonist +who, by the whole tenor of his conduct, he would be apt to think, had +shown himself so little worthy of that advantage which fortune, and +fortune alone, had put into his hands. His ministers, his friends, his +subjects, his allies, would be sure with one voice to inculcate on him, +that the first object of a prince was the preservation of his people; +and that the laws of honor, which, with a private man, ought to +be absolutely supreme, and superior to all interests, were, with a +sovereign, subordinate to the great duty of insuring the safety of his +country. Nor could it be imagined that Francis would be so romantic in +his principles, as not to hearken to a casuistry which was so plausible +in itself, and which so much flattered all the passions by which, either +as a prince or a man, he was strongly actuated. + +Francis, on entering his own dominions, delivered his two eldest sons +as hostages into the hands of the Spaniards. He mounted a Turkish horse, +and immediately putting him to the gallop, he waved his hand, and cried +aloud several times, “I am yet a king.” He soon reached Bayonne, +where he was joyfully received by the regent and his whole court. He +immediately wrote to Henry; acknowledging that to his good offices alone +he owed his liberty, and protesting that he should be entirely governed +by his counsels in all transactions with the emperor. When the Spanish +envoy demanded his ratification of the treaty of Madrid, now that he had +fully recovered his liberty, he declined the proposal; under color that +it was previously necessary to assemble the states both of France and of +Burgundy, and to obtain their consent. The states of Burgundy soon +met; and declaring against the clause which contained an engagement for +alienating their province, they expressed their resolution of opposing, +even by force of arms, the execution of so ruinous and unjust an +article. The imperial minister then required that Francis, in conformity +to the treaty of Madrid, should now return to his prison; but the French +monarch, instead of complying, made public the treaty which a little +before he had secretly concluded at Cognac, against the ambitious +schemes and usurpations of the emperor.[*] + + * Guicciard. lib. xvii. + +The pope, the Venetians, and other Italian states, who were deeply +interested in these events, had been held in the most anxious suspense +with regard to the resolutions which Francis should take after the +recovery of his liberty; and Clement, in particular, who suspected that +this prince would never execute a treaty so hurtful to his interests, +and even destructive of his independency, had very frankly offered him a +dispensation from all his oaths and engagements. Francis remained not in +suspense; but entered immediately into the confederacy proposed to him. +It was stipulated by that king, the pope, the Venetians, the Swiss, +the Florentines, and the duke of Milan, among other articles, that they +would oblige the emperor to deliver up the two young princes of France +on receiving a reasonable sum of money; and to restore Milan to Sforza, +without further condition or encumbrance. + +The king of England was invited to accede, not only as a contracting +party, but as protector of the “holy league,”--so it was called; and +if Naples should be conquered from the emperor, in prosecution of this +confederacy, it was agreed that Henry should enjoy a principality in +that kingdom of the yearly revenue of thirty thousand ducats; and that +cardinal Wolsey, in consideration of the services which he had rendered +to Christendom, should also, in such an event, be put in possession of a +revenue of ten thousand ducats. + +Francis was desirous that the appearance of this great confederacy +should engage the emperor to relax somewhat in the extreme rigor of the +treaty of Madrid; and while he entertained these hopes, he was the +more remiss in his warlike preparations; nor did he send in due time +reënforcements to his allies in Italy. + +{1527.} The duke of Bourbon had got possession of the whole Milanese, +of which the emperor intended to grant him the investiture; and having +levied a considerable army in Germany, he became formidable to all the +Italian potentates; and not the less so because Charles, destitute, as +usual, of money, had not been able to remit any pay to the forces. The +general was extremely beloved by his troops; and in order to prevent +those mutinies which were ready to break out every moment, and which +their affection alone for him had hitherto restrained, he led them to +Rome, and promised to enrich them by the plunder of that opulent city. +He was himself killed, as he was planting a scaling ladder against the +walls; but his soldiers, rather enraged than discouraged by his death, +mounted to the assault with the utmost valor, and entering the city +sword in hand, exercised all those brutalities which may be expected +from ferocity excited by resistance, and from insolence which takes +place when that resistance is no more. This renowned city, exposed by +her renown alone to so many calamities, never endured, in any age, even +from the barbarians by whom she was often subdued, such indignities as +she was now compelled to suffer. The unrestrained massacre and pillage, +which continued for several days, were the least ills to which the +unhappy Romans were exposed.[*] Whatever was respectable in modesty or +sacred in religion, seemed but the more to provoke the insults of the +soldiery. Virgins suffered violation in the arms of their parents, and +upon those very altars to which they had fled for protection. + + * Guicciard. lib. xviii. Bellai. Stowe, p. 527. + +Aged prelates, after enduring every indignity, and even every torture, +were thrown into dungeons, and menaced with the most cruel death, in +order to make them reveal their secret treasures, or purchase liberty by +exorbitant ransoms. Clement himself, who had trusted for protection to +the sacredness of his character, and neglected to make his escape in +time, was taken captive; and found that his dignity, which procured him +no regard from the Spanish soldiers, did but draw on him the insolent +mockery of the German, who, being generally attached to the Lutheran +principles, were pleased to gratify their animosity by the abasement of +the sovereign pontiff. + +When intelligence of this great event was conveyed to the emperor, +that young prince, habituated to hypocrisy, expressed the most profound +sorrow for the success of his arms: he put himself and all his court in +mourning: he stopped the rejoicings for the birth of his son Philip: and +knowing that every artifice, however gross, is able, when seconded by +authority, to impose upon the people, he ordered prayers during several +months to be put up in the churches for the pope’s liberty; which all +men knew a letter under his hand could in a moment have procured. + +The concern expressed by Henry and Francis for the calamity of their +ally was more sincere. These two monarchs, a few days before the sack +of Rome, had concluded a treaty[*] at Westminster, in which, besides +renewing former alliances, they agreed to send ambassadors to Charles, +requiring him to accept of two millions of crowns as the ransom of the +French princes, and to repay the money borrowed from Henry; and in +case of refusal, the ambassadors, attended by heralds, were ordered to +denounce war against him. + + * 30th April. + +This war it was agreed to prosecute in the Low Countries, with an army +of thirty thousand infantry and fifteen hundred men at arms, two thirds +to be supplied by Francis, the rest by Henry. And in order to strengthen +the alliance between the princes, it was stipulated, that either +Francis, or his son, the duke of Orleans, as should afterwards be agreed +on, should espouse the princess Mary, Henry’s daughter. No sooner did +the monarchs receive intelligence of Bourbon’s enterprise than they +changed, by a new treaty, the scene of the projected war from the +Netherlands to Italy; and hearing of the pope’s captivity, they were +further stimulated to undertake the war with vigor for restoring him to +liberty. Wolsey himself crossed the sea, in order to have an interview +with Francis and to concert measures for that purpose; and he +displayed all that grandeur and magnificence with which he was so +much intoxicated. He was attended by a train of a thousand horse. The +cardinal of Lorraine, and the chancellor Alençon, met him at Boulogne; +Francis himself, besides granting to that haughty prelate the power of +giving, in every place where he came, liberty to all prisoners, made a +journey as far as Amiens to meet him, and even advanced some miles from +the town, the more to honor his reception. It was here stipulated, that +the duke of Orleans should espouse the princess Mary; and as the emperor +seemed to be taking some steps towards assembling a general council, the +two monarchs agreed not to acknowledge it, but, during the interval +of the pope’s captivity, to govern the churches in their respective +dominions by their own authority. Wolsey made some attempts to get his +legatine power extended over France, and even over Germany; but finding +his efforts fruitless, he was obliged, though with great reluctance, to +desist from these ambitious enterprises.[*] + + * Burnet, book iii. coll. 12, 13. + +The more to cement the union between these princes, a new treaty was +some time after concluded at London; in which Henry agreed finally +to renounce all claims to the crown of France; claims which might now +indeed be deemed chimerical, but which often served as a pretence for +exciting the unwary English to wage war upon the French nation. As a +return for this concession, Francis bound himself and his successors to +pay forever fifty thousand crowns a year to Henry and his successors; +and that greater solemnity might be given to this treaty, it was agreed +that the parliaments and great nobility of both kingdoms should give +their assent to it. The mareschal Montmorency, accompanied by many +persons of distinction, and attended by a pompous equipage, was sent +over to ratify the treaty; and was received at London with all the +parade which suited the solemnity of the occasion. The terror of the +emperor’s greatness had extinguished the ancient animosity between the +nations; and Spain, during more than a century, became, though a more +distant power, the chief object of jealousy to the English. + +This cordial union between France and England, though it added influence +to the joint embassy which they sent to the emperor, was not able to +bend that monarch to submit entirely to the conditions insisted on by +the allies. He departed, indeed, from his demand of Burgundy as the +ransom of the French princes; but he required, previously to their +liberty, that Francis should evacuate Genoa, and all the fortresses held +by him in Italy; and he declared his intention of bringing Sforza to a +trial, and confiscating the duchy of Milan, on account of his pretended +treason. The English and French heralds, therefore, according to +agreement, declared war against him, and set him at defiance. Charles +answered the English herald with moderation; but to the French he +reproached his master with breach of faith, reminded him of the private +conversation which had passed between them at Madrid before their +separation, and offered to prove by single combat that he had acted +dishonorably. Francis retaliated this challenge, by giving Charles the +lie; and, after demanding security of the field, he offered to maintain +his cause by single combat. Many messages passed to and fro between +them; but though both princes were undoubtedly brave, the intended duel +never took place. The French and Spaniards, during that age, zealously +disputed which of the monarchs incurred the blame of this failure; but +all men of moderation every where lamented the power of fortune, that +the prince the more candid, generous, and sincere, should, by unhappy +incidents, have been reduced to so cruel a situation, that nothing but +his violation of treaty could preserve his people, and that he must ever +after, without being able to make a proper reply, bear to be reproached +with breach of promise, by a rival inferior to him both in honor and +virtue. + +But though this famous challenge between Charles and Francis had no +immediate consequence with regard to these monarchs themselves, it +produced a considerable alteration on the manners of the age. The +practice of challenges and duels, which had been part of the ancient +barbarous jurisprudence, which was still preserved on very solemn +occasions, and which was sometimes countenanced by the civil magistrate, +began thenceforth to prevail in the most trivial incidents; and men, on +any affront or injury, thought themselves entitled, or even required +in honor, to take revenge on their enemies, by openly vindicating their +right in single combat. These absurd, though generous maxims, shed much +of thee best blood in Christendom, during more than two centuries; and +notwithstanding the severity of law and authority of reason, such is +the prevailing force of custom, they are far from being as yet entirely +exploded. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. + + + + +HENRY VIII + + +{1527.} Notwithstanding the submissive deference paid to papal +authority before the reformation, the marriage of Henry with Catharine +of Arragon, his brother’s widow, had not passed without much scruple and +difficulty. The prejudices of the people were in general bent against a +conjugal union between such near relations; and the late king, though he +had betrothed his son when that prince was but twelve years of age, gave +evident proofs of his intention to take afterwards a proper opportunity +of annulling the contract.[*] He ordered the young prince, as soon as +he came of age, to enter a protestation against the marriage;[**] and on +his death-bed he charged him, as his last injunction, not to finish an +alliance so unusual, and exposed to such insuperable objections. After +the king’s accession, some members of the privy council, particularly +Warham, the primate, openly declared against the resolution of +completing the marriage; and though Henry’s youth and dissipation kept +him, during some time, from entertaining any scruples with regard to the +measure which he had embraced, there happened incidents sufficient +to rouse his attention, and to inform him of the sentiments generally +entertained on that subject. The states of Castile had opposed the +emperor Charles’s espousals with Mary, Henry’s daughter; and among +other objections, had insisted on the illegitimate birth of the young +princess.[***] And when the negotiations were afterwards opened with +France, and mention was made of betrothing her to Francis or the duke +of Orleans, the bishop of Tarbe, the French ambassador, revived the same +objection.[****] But though these events naturally raised some doubts +in Henry’s mind, there concurred other causes, which tended much to +increase his remorse, and render his conscience more scrupulous. + + * Morison’s Apomaxis, p. 13. + + ** Morison’s Apomaxis, p. 13. Heylin’s Queen Mary, p. 2. + + *** Lord Herbert, Fiddes’s Life of Wolsey. + + **** Rymer vol. xiv. p. 192, 203. Heylin, p. 3. + +The queen was older than the king by no less than six years; and the +decay of her beauty, together with particular infirmities and diseases, +had contributed, notwithstanding her blameless character and deportment, +to render her person unacceptable to him. Though she had born him +several children, they all died in early infancy, except one daughter, +and he was the more struck with this misfortune, because the curse of +being childless is the very threatening contained in the Mosaical law +against those who espouse their brother’s widow. The succession, too, of +the crown was a consideration that occurred to every one, whenever +the lawfulness of Henry’s marriage was called in question; and it was +apprehended, that if doubts of Mary’s legitimacy concurred with the +weakness of her sex, the king of Scots, the next heir, would advance his +pretensions, and might throw the kingdom into confusion. The evils, as +yet recent, of civil wars and convulsions arising from a disputed title, +made great impression on the minds of men, and rendered the people +universally desirous of any event which might obviate so irreparable a +calamity. And the king was thus impelled, both by his private passions +and by motives of public interest, to seek the dissolution of his +inauspicious, and, as it was esteemed, unlawful marriage with Catharine. + +Henry afterwards affirmed that his scruples arose entirely from private +reflection; and that on consulting his confessor, the bishop of Lincoln, +he found the prelate possessed with the same doubts and difficulties. +The king himself, being so great a casuist and divine, next proceeded to +examine the question more carefully by his own learning and study; +and having had recourse to Thomas of Aquine, he observed that this +celebrated doctor, whose authority was great in the church, and absolute +with him, had treated of that very case, and had expressly declared +against the lawfulness of such marriages.[*] + + * Burnet. Fiddes. + +The prohibitions, said Thomas, contained in Leviticus, and among the +rest that of marrying a brother’s widow, are moral, eternal, and founded +on a divine sanction; and though the pope may dispense with the rules +of the church, the laws of God cannot be set aside by any authority +less than that which enacted them. The archbishop of Canterbury was +then applied to; and he was required to consult his brethren: all the +prelates of England, except Fisher, bishop of Rochester unanimously +declared, under their hand and seal, that they deemed the king’s +marriage unlawful.[*] Wolsey also fortified the king’s scruples;[**] +partly with a view of promoting a total breach with the emperor, +Catharine’s nephew; partly desirous of connecting the king more closely +with Francis, by marrying him to the duchess of Alençon, sister to that +monarch; and perhaps, too, somewhat disgusted with the queen herself, +who had reproved him for certain freedoms, unbefitting his character and +station,[***] But Henry was carried forward, though perhaps not at first +excited, by a motive more forcible than even the suggestions of that +powerful favorite. + +Anne Boleyn, who lately appeared at court, had been appointed maid of +honor to the queen; and having had frequent opportunities of being +seen by Henry, and of conversing with him, she had acquired an entire +ascendant over his affections. This young lady, whose grandeur and +misfortunes have rendered her so celebrated, was daughter of Sir Thomas +Boleyn, who had been employed by the king in several embassies, and +who was allied to all the principal nobility in the kingdom. His wife, +mother to Anne, was daughter of the duke of Norfolk; his own mother was +daughter of the earl of Ormond; his grandfather, Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, +who had been mayor of London, had espoused one of the daughters and +coheirs of Lord Hastings.[****] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 38. Stowe, p. 548. + + ** Le Grand, vol. iii. p. 48, 166, 168. Saunders. Heylin, p. + 4. + + ***Burnet, vol. i. p. 38. Strype, vol. i. p. 88. + + **** Camden’s Preface to the Life of Elizabeth. Burnet, vol. + i p. 44. + +Anne herself, though then in very early youth, had been carried over +to Paris by the king’s sister, when the princess espoused Lewis XII. +of France; and upon the demise of that monarch, and the return of his +dowager into England, this damsel, whose accomplishments even in her +tender years were always much admired, was retained in the service of +Claude, queen of France, spouse to Francis; and after the death of that +princess, she passed into the family of the duchess of Alençon, a woman +of singular merit. The exact time when she returned to England is not +certainly known; but it was after the king had entertained doubts with +regard to the lawfulness of his marriage with Catharine, if the account +is to be credited which he himself afterwards gave of that transaction. +Henry’s scruples had made him break off all conjugal commerce with +the queen; but as he still supported an intercourse of civility and +friendship with her, he had occasion, in the frequent visits which he +paid her, to observe the beauty, the youth, the charms of Anne Boleyn. +Finding the accomplishments of her mind nowise inferior to her exterior +graces, he even entertained the design of raising her to the throne; and +was the more confirmed in this resolution, when he found that her virtue +and modesty prevented all hopes of gratifying his passion in any other +manner. As every motive, therefore, of inclination and policy seemed +thus to concur in making the king desirous of a divorce from Catharine, +and as his prospect of success was inviting, he resolved to make +application to Clement; and he sent Knight, his secretary, to Rome for +that purpose. + +That he might not shock the haughty claims of the pontiff, he resolved +not to found the application on any general doubts concerning the papal +power to permit marriage in the nearer degrees of consanguinity; but +only to insist on particular grounds of nullity in the bull which Julius +had granted for the marriage of Henry and Catharine. It was a maxim in +the court of Rome, that if the pope be surprised into any concession, or +grant any indulgence upon false suggestions, the bull may afterwards be +annulled; and this pretence had usually been employed wherever one pope +had recalled any deed executed by any of his predecessors. But Julius’s +bull, when examined, afforded abundant matter of this kind; and any +tribunal favorable to Henry needed not want a specious color for +gratifying him in his applications for a divorce. It was said in the +preamble, that the bull had been granted upon his solicitation; though +it was known that, at that time, he was under twelve years of age; it +was also affirmed, as another motive for the bull, that the marriage was +requisite, in order to preserve peace between the two crowns; though it +is certain that there was not then any ground or appearance of quarrel +between them. These false premises in Julius’s bull seemed to afford +Clement a sufficient reason or pretence for annulling it, and granting +Henry a dispensation for a second marriage.[*] + + * Collier, Eccles. Hist. vol. ii p. 25, from the Cott. Lib. + Vitel. p. 9 + +But though the pretext for this indulgence had been less plausible, +the pope was in such a situation that he had the strongest motives to +embrace every opportunity of gratifying the English monarch. He was then +a prisoner in the hands of the emperor; and had no hopes of recovering +his liberty on any reasonable terms, except by the efforts of the league +which Henry had formed with Francis and the Italian powers, in order to +oppose the ambition of Charles. When the English secretary, therefore, +solicited him in private, he received a very favorable answer: and a +dispensation was forthwith promised to be granted to his master.[*] +Soon after, the march of a French army into Italy, under the command of +Lautrec, obliged the imperialists to restore Clement to his liberty; and +he retired to Orvietto, where the secretary, with Sir Gregory Cassali, +the king’s resident at Rome, renewed their applications to him. They +still found him full of high professions of friendship, gratitude, and +attachment to the king; but not so prompt in granting his request +as they expected. The emperor, who had got intelligence of Henry’s +application to Rome, had exacted a promise from the pope, to take +no steps in the affair before he communicated them to the imperial +ministers; and Clement, embarrassed by this promise, and still more +overawed by the emperor’s forces in Italy, seemed willing to postpone +those concessions desired of him by Henry. Importuned, however, by +the English ministers, he at last put into their hands a commission to +Wolsey, as legate, in conjunction with the archbishop of Canterbury, +or any other English prelate, to examine the validity of the king’s +marriage, and of Julius’s dispensation:[**] he also granted them a +provisional dispensation for the king’s marriage with any other person; +and promised to issue a decretal bull, annulling the marriage with +Catharine. But he represented to them the dangerous consequences which +must ensue to him, if these concessions should come to the emperor’s +knowledge; and he conjured them not to publish those papers, or make +any further use of them, till his affairs were in such a situation as to +secure his liberty and independence. And his secret advice was, whenever +they should find the proper time for opening the scene, that they should +prevent all opposition, by proceeding immediately to a conclusion, by +declaring the marriage with Catharine invalid, and by Henry’s instantly +espousing some other person. Nor would it be so difficult, he said +for himself to confirm these proceedings, after they were passed, as +previously to render them valid by his consent and authority.[***] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 47. + + ** Rymer, vol. xiv. p. 237. + + *** Collier, from Cott. Lib. Vitel. b. 10. + +{1528.} When Henry received the commission and dispensation from his +ambassadors, and was informed of the pope’s advice, he laid the +whole before his ministers, and asked their opinion in so delicate a +situation. The English counsellors considered the danger of proceeding +in the manner pointed out to them. Should the pope refuse to ratify a +deed which he might justly call precipitate and irregular, and should +he disavow the advice which he gave in so clandestine a manner, the king +would find his second marriage totally invalidated; the children +which it might bring him declared illegitimate; and his marriage with +Catharine more firmly riveted than ever.[*] And Henry’s apprehensions +of the possibility, or even probability, of such an event, were much +confirmed when he reflected on the character and situation of the +sovereign pontiff. + +Clement was a prince of excellent judgment, whenever his timidity, to +which he was extremely subject, allowed him to make full use of +those talents and that penetration with which he was endowed.[**] The +captivity and other misfortunes which he had undergone by entering into +a league against Charles, had so affected his imagination, that he never +afterwards exerted himself with vigor in any public measure; especially +if the interest or inclinations of that potentate stood in opposition to +him. The imperial forces were at that time powerful in Italy, and might +return to the attack of Rome, which was still defenceless, and exposed +to the same calamities with which it had already been overwhelmed. And +besides these dangers, Clement fancied himself exposed to perils which +threatened still more immediately his person and his dignity. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 51. + + ** Father Paul, lib. i. Guicciard. + +Charles, apprised of the timid disposition of the holy father, threw out +perpetual menaces of summoning a general council; which he represented +as necessary to reform the church, and correct those enormous abuses +which the ambition and avarice of the court of Rome had introduced +into every branch of ecclesiastical administration. The power of the +sovereign pontiff himself, he said, required limitation; his conduct +called aloud for amendment; and even his title to the throne which he +filled might justly be called in question. That pope had always passed +for the natural son of Julian of Medicis, who was of the sovereign +family of Florence; and though Leo X., his kinsman, had declared him +legitimate, upon a pretended promise of marriage between his father and +mother, few believed that declaration to be founded on any just reason +or authority.[*] The canon law, indeed, had been entirely silent with +regard to the promotion of bastards to the papal throne; but, what was +still dangerous, the people had entertained a violent prepossession, +that this stain in the birth of any person was incompatible with so holy +an office. And in another point the canon law was express and positive, +that no man guilty of simony could attain that dignity. A severe bull +of Julius II. had added new sanctions to this law, by declaring that +a simoniacal election could not be rendered valid, even by a posterior +consent of the cardinals. But unfortunately Clement had given to +Cardinal Colonna a billet, containing promises of advancing that +cardinal, in case he himself should attain the papal dignity by his +concurrence; and this billet Colonna, who was in entire dependence on +the emperor, threatened every moment to expose to public view.[**] + +While Charles terrified the pope with these menaces, he also allured him +by hopes, which were no less prevalent over his affections. At the time +when the emperor’s forces sacked Rome, and reduced Clement to captivity, +the Florentines, passionate for their ancient liberty, had taken +advantage of his distresses, and revolting against the family of +Medicis, had entirely abolished their authority in Florence, and +reëstablished the democracy. The better to protect themselves in their +freedom, they had entered into the alliance with France, England, and +Venice, against the emperor; and Clement found that by this interest, +the hands of his confederates were tied from assisting him in the +restoration of his family; the event which, of all others, he most +passionately desired. The emperor alone, he knew, was able to effect +this purpose; and therefore, whatever professions he made of fidelity +to his allies, he was always, on the least glimpse of hope, ready +to embrace every proposal of a cordial reconciliation with that +monarch.[***] + + * Father Paul lib. i. + + ** Father Paul, lib. i. + + *** Father Paul. + +These views and interests of the pope were well known in England; and as +the opposition of the emperor to Henry’s divorce was foreseen, both +on account of the honor and interests of Catharine, his aunt, and the +obvious motive of distressing an enemy, it was esteemed dangerous +to take any measure of consequence, in expectation of the subsequent +concurrence of a man of Clement’s character, whose behavior always +contained so much duplicity, and who was at present so little at his own +disposal. The safest measure seemed to consist in previously engaging +him so far, that he could not afterwards recede, and in making use of +his present ambiguity and uncertainty, to extort the most important +concessions from him. For this purpose, Stephen Gardiner, the cardinal’s +secretary, and Edward Fox, the king’s almoner, were despatched to Rome, +and were ordered to solicit a commission from the pope, of such a +nature as would oblige him to confirm the sentence of the commissioners, +whatever it should be, and disable him on any account to recall the +commission, or evoke the cause to Rome.[*] + +But the same reasons which made the king so desirous of obtaining this +concession, confirmed the pope in the resolution of refusing it: he +was still determined to keep the door open for an agreement with the +emperor; and he made no scruple of sacrificing all other considerations +to a point, which he deemed the most essential and important to his own +security, and to the greatness of his family. He granted, therefore, a +new commission, in which Cardinal Campeggio was joined to Wolsey, for +the trial of the king’s marriage; but he could not be prevailed on to +insert the clause desired of him. And though he put into Gardiner’s hand +a letter, promising not to recall the present commission, this promise +was found, on examination, to be couched in such ambiguous terms, as +left him still the power, whenever he pleased, of departing from it.[**] + + * Lord Herbert. Burnet, vol. i. p. 29, in the Collect. Le + Grand, vol iii. p. 28. Strype, vol. i. p. 93, with App. No. + 23-24, etc. + + ** Lord Herbert, p. 221 Burnet, p. 59. + +Campeggio lay under some obligations to the king; but his dependence on +the pope was so much greater, that he conformed himself entirely to the +views of the latter; and though he received his commission in April, +he delayed his departure under so many pretences, that it was October +before he arrived in England. The first step which he took was to exhort +the king to desist from the prosecution of his divorce; and finding +that this counsel gave offence, he said, that his intention was also to +exhort the queen to take the vows in a convent, and that he thought +it his duty previously to attempt an amicable composure of all +differences.[* ]The more to pacify the king, he showed to him, as also +to the cardinal the decretal bull, annulling the former marriage with +Catharine; but no entreaties could prevail on him to make any other of +the king’s council privy to the secret.[**] In order to atone in some +degree for this obstinacy, he expressed to the king and the cardinal the +pope’s great desire of satisfying them in every reasonable demand; and +in particular, he showed that their request for suppressing some more +monasteries, and converting them into cathedrals and episcopal sees, had +obtained the consent of his holiness.[***] + +These ambiguous circumstances in the behavior of the pope and the +legate, kept the court of England in suspense, and determined the king +to wait with patience the issue of such uncertain councils. + +{1529.} Fortune, meanwhile, seemed to promise him a more sure and +expeditious way of extricating himself from his present difficulties. +Clement was seized with a dangerous illness; and the intrigues, for +electing his successor, began already to take place among the cardinals. +Wolsey, in particular, supported by the interest of England and of +France, entertained hopes of mounting the throne of St. Peter;[****] and +it appears, that if a vacancy had then happened, there was a probability +of his reaching that summit of his ambition. But the pope recovered, +though after several relapses; and he returned to the same train of +false and deceitful politics, by which he had hitherto amused the court +of England. Be still flattered Henry with professions of the most +cordial attachment, and promised him a sudden and favorable issue to his +process: he still continued his secret negotiations with Charles, and +persevered in the resolution of sacrificing all his promises, and all +the interests of the Romish religion, to the elevation of his family. +Campeggio, who was perfectly acquainted with his views and intentions, +protracted the decision by the most artful delays; and gave Clement full +leisure to adjust all the terms of his treaty with the emperor. + + * Herbert, p 225. + + ** Burnet, p. 58. + + *** Rymer, vol xiv. p. 270. Strype, vol.i. p. 110, 111. App. + No 28 + + **** Burnet, vol. i. p. 63. + +The emperor, acquainted with the king’s extreme earnestness in this +affair, was determined that he should obtain success by no other +means than by an application to him and by deserting his alliance with +Francis, which had hitherto supported, against the superior force +of Spain, the tottering state of the French monarchy. He willingly +hearkened, therefore, to the applications of Catharine, his aunt; and +promising her his utmost protection, exhorted her never to yield to the +malice and persecutions of her enemies. The queen herself was naturally +of a firm and resolute temper; and was engaged by every motive to +persevere in protesting against the injustice to which she thought +herself exposed. The imputation of incest, which was thrown upon her +marriage with Henry, struck her with the highest indignation: the +illegitimacy of her daughter, which seemed a necessary consequence, gave +her the most just concern: the reluctance of yielding to a rival, who, +she believed, had supplanted her in the king’s affections, was a very +natural motive. Actuated by all these considerations, she never +ceased soliciting her nephew’s assistance, and earnestly entreating +an evocation of the cause to Rome, where alone, she thought, she could +expect justice. And the emperor, in all his negotiations with the pope, +made the recall of the commission which Campeggio and Wolsey exercised +in England a fundamental article.[*] + + * Herbert, p. 225. Burnet, vol i. p. 69. + +The two legates, meanwhile, opened their court at London, and cited the +king and queen to appear before it. They both presented themselves; and +the king answered to his name, when called: but the queen, instead of +answering to hers rose from her seat, and throwing herself at the king’s +feet, made a very pathetic harangue, which her virtue, her dignity, and +her misfortunes rendered the more affecting. She told him, that she +was a stranger in his dominions, without protection, without council, +without assistance; exposed to all the injustice which her enemies were +pleased to impose upon her: that she had quitted her native country +without other resource than her connections with him and his family, and +had expected that, instead of suffering thence any violence or iniquity, +she was assured in them of a safeguard against every misfortune: that +she had been his wife during twenty years, and would here appeal to +himself, whether her affectionate submission to his will had not merited +better treatment, than to be thus, after so long a time, thrown from +him with so much indignity: that she was conscious--he himself was +assured--that her virgin honor was yet unstained when he received her +into his bed and that her connections with his brother had been carried +no further than the ceremony of marriage: that their parents, the kings +of England and Spain, were esteemed the wisest princes of their time, +and had undoubtedly acted by the best advice, when they formed the +agreement for that marriage, which was now represented as so criminal +and unnatural: and that she acquiesced in their judgment, and would not +submit her cause to be tried by a court, whose dependence on her enemies +was too visible, ever to allow her any hopes of obtaining from them an +equitable or impartial decision.[*] Having spoken these words, she rose, +and making the king a low reverence, she departed from the court, and +never would again appear in it. + +After her departure, the king did her the justice to acknowledge, that +she had ever been a dutiful and affectionate wife, and that the whole +tenor of her behavior had been conformable to the strictest rules of +probity and honor. He only insisted on his own scruples with regard +to the lawfulness of their marriage; and he explained the origin, the +progress, and the foundation of those doubts, by which he had been so +long and so violently agitated. He acquitted Cardinal Wolsey from having +any hand in encouraging his scruples; and he craved a sentence of the +court agreeable to the justice of his cause. + +The legates, after citing the queen anew, declared her contumacious, +notwithstanding her appeal to Rome; and then proceeded to the +examination of the cause. The first point which came before them +was, the proof of Prince Arthur’s consummation of his marriage with +Catharine; and it must be confessed, that no stronger arguments could +reasonably be expected of such a fact after so long an interval. The age +of the prince, who had passed his fifteenth year, the good state of his +health, the long time that he had cohabited with his consort, many of +his expressions to that very purpose; all these circumstances form a +violent presumption in favor of the king’s assertion.[**] Henry himself, +after his brother’s death was not allowed for some time to bear the +title of prince of Wales, in expectation of her pregnancy: the Spanish +ambassador, in order the better to insure possession of her jointure, +had sent over to Spain proofs of the consummation of her marriage:[***] +Julius’s bull itself was founded on the supposition that Arthur had +perhaps had knowledge of the princess: in the very treaty, fixing +Henry’s marriage, the consummation of the former marriage with Prince +Arthur is acknowledged on both sides.[****] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 73. Hall. Stowe, p. 543. + + ** Herbert. + + *** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 85. + + **** Rymer, vol. xiii. p. 81. + +These particulars were all laid before the court; accompanied with many +reasonings concerning the extent of the pope’s authority, and against +his power of granting a dispensation to marry within the prohibited +degrees. Campeggio heard these doctrines with great impatience; and +notwithstanding his resolution to protract the cause, he was often +tempted to interrupt and silence the king’s counsel, when they +insisted on such disagreeable topics. The trial was spun out till the +twenty-third of July; and Campeggio chiefly took on him the part of +conducting it. Wolsey, though the elder cardinal, permitted him to act +as president of the court; because it was thought, that a trial managed +by an Italian cardinal would carry the appearance of greater candor and +impartiality, than if the king’s own minister and favorite had presided +in it. The business now seemed to be drawing near to a period; and the +king was every day in expectation of a sentence in his favor; when, to +his great surprise, Campeggio, on a sudden, without any warning, and +upon very frivolous pretences,[*] prorogued the court till the first of +October. The evocation, which came a few days after from Rome, put +an end to all the hopes of success which the king had so long and so +anxiously cherished.[**] + +During the time that the trial was carried on before the legates at +London, the emperor had by his ministers earnestly solicited Clement to +evoke the cause; and had employed every topic of hope or terror which +could operate either on the ambition or timidity of the pontiff. The +English ambassadors, on the other hand, in conjunction with the French, +had been no less earnest in their applications, that the legates should +be allowed to finish the trial; but though they employed the same +engines of promises and menaces, the motives which they could set before +the pope were not so urgent or immediate as those which were held up to +him by the emperor.[***] The dread of losing England, and of fortifying +the Lutherans by so considerable an accession, made small impression on +Clement’s mind, in comparison of the anxiety for his personal safety, +and the fond desire of restoring the Medici to their dominion in +Florence. As soon, therefore, as he had adjusted all terms with the +emperor he laid hold of the pretence of justice, which required him, +as he asserted, to pay regard to the queen’s appeal; and suspending the +commission of the legates, he adjourned the cause to his own personal +judgment at Rome. Campeggio had beforehand received private orders, +delivered by Campana, to burn the decretal bull with which he was +intrusted. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 76, 77. + + ** Herbert, p. 254. + + **** Burnet, vol. i. p. 75. + +Wolsey had long foreseen this measure as the sure forerunner of his +ruin. Though he had at first desired that the king should rather marry +a French princess than Anne Boleyn, he had employed himself with the +utmost assiduity and earnestness to bring the affair to a happy issue: +[*] he was not, therefore, to be blamed for the unprosperous event which +Clement’s partiality had produced. But he had sufficient experience of +the extreme ardor and impatience of Henry’s temper, who could bear no +contradiction, and was wont, without examination or distinction, to +make his ministers answerable for the success of those transactions +with which they were intrusted. Anne Boleyn also, who was prepossessed +against him, had imputed to him the failure of her hopes; and as she was +newly returned to court, whence she had been removed, from a regard to +decency, during the trial before the legates, she had naturally acquired +an additional influence on Henry, and she served much to fortify his +prejudices against the cardinal.[**] Even the queen and her partisans, +judging of Wolsey by the part which he had openly acted, had expressed +great animosity against him; and the most opposite factions seemed +now to combine in the ruin of this haughty minister. The high opinion +itself, which Henry had entertained of the cardinal’s capacity, tended +to hasten his downfall; while he imputed the bad success of that +minister’s undertakings, not to ill fortune or to mistake, but to the +malignity or infidelity of his intentions. The blow, however, fell not +instantly on his head. The king, who probably could not justify by any +good reason his alienation from his ancient favorite, seems to have +remained some time in suspense; and he received him, if not with all his +former kindness, at least with the appearance of trust and regard. + + * Collier, vol. ii. p. 45. Burnet, vol, i. p. 53. + + ** Cavendish, p. 40. + +But constant experience evinces how rarely a high confidence and +affection receives the least diminution, without sinking into absolute +indifference, or even running into the opposite extreme. The king now +determined to bring on the ruin of the cardinal with a motion almost as +precipitate as he had formerly employed in his elevation. The dukes of +Norfolk and Suffolk were sent to require the great seal from him; and +on his scrupling to deliver it[*] without a more express warrant, Henry +wrote him a letter, upon which it was surrendered; and it was delivered +by the king to Sir Thomas More, a man who, besides the ornaments of +an elegant literature, possessed the highest virtue, integrity, and +capacity. + +Wolsey was ordered to depart from York Place, a palace which he had +built in London, and which, though it really belonged to the see of +York, was seized by Henry, and became afterwards the residence of the +kings of England, by the title of Whitehall. All his furniture and plate +were also seized: their riches and splendor befitted rather a royal than +a private fortune. The walls of his palace were covered with cloth of +gold or cloth of silver: he had a cupboard of plate of massy gold: there +were found a thousand pieces of fine holland belonging to him. The rest +of his riches and furniture was in proportion; and his opulence was +probably no small inducement to this violent persecution against him. + +The cardinal was ordered to retire to Asher, a country seat which he +possessed near Hampton Court. The world, that had paid him such abject +court during his prosperity, now entirely deserted him on this fatal +reverse of all his fortunes. He himself was much dejected with the +change; and from the same turn of mind which had made him be so vainly +elated with his grandeur, he felt the stroke of adversity with double +rigor.[**] The smallest appearance of his return to favor threw him into +transports of joy unbecoming a man. The king had seemed willing, during +some time, to intermit the blows which overwhelmed him. He granted +him his protection, and left him in possession of the sees of York and +Winchester. He even sent him a gracious message, accompanied with a +ring, as a testimony of his affection. Wolsey, who was on horseback when +the messenger met him, immediately alighted; and, throwing himself on +his knees in the mire, received in that humble attitude these marks of +his majesty’s gracious disposition towards him. + + * Cavendish, p. 41. + + ** Strype, vol. i. p. 114, 115. App. No. 31, etc. + + *** Stowe, p. 547. + +But his enemies, who dreaded his return to court, never ceased plying +the king with accounts of his several offences; and Anne Boleyn, in +particular, contributed her endeavors, in conjunction with her uncle, +the duke of Norfolk, to exclude him from all hopes of ever being +reinstated in his former authority. He dismissed, therefore, his +numerous retinue and as he was a kind and beneficent master, the +separation passed not without a plentiful effusion of tears on both +sides. [*] The king’s heart, notwithstanding some gleams of kindness, +seemed now totally hardened against his old favorite. He ordered him +to be indicted in the star chamber, where a sentence was passed against +him. And, not content with this severity, he abandoned him to all the +rigor of the parliament, which now after a long interval, was again +assembled. The house of lords voted a long charge against Wolsey, +consisting of forty-four articles; and accompanied it with an +application to the king for his punishment, and his removal from all +authority. Little opposition was made to this charge in the upper house: +no evidence of any part of it was so much as called for; and as it +chiefly consists of general accusations, it was scarcely susceptible of +any.[**] [6] The articles were sent down to the house of commons; where +Thomas Cromwell, formerly a servant of the cardinal’s, and who had been +raised by him from a very low station, defended his unfortunate patron +with such spirit, generosity, and courage, as acquired him great honor, +and laid the foundation of that favor which he afterwards enjoyed with +the king. + + * Cavendish. Stowe, p. 549. + + ** See note F, at the end of the volume. + +Wolsey’s enemies, finding that either his innocence or his caution +prevented them from having any just ground of accusing him, had recourse +to a very extraordinary expedient. An indictment was laid against him, +that, contrary to a statute of Richard II., commonly called the +statute of provisors, he had procured bulls from Rome, particularly one +investing him with the legatine power, which he had exercised with very +extensive authority. He confessed the indictment, pleaded ignorance +of the statute, and threw himself on the king’s mercy. He was perhaps +within reach of the law but besides that this statute had fallen into +disuse, nothing could be more rigorous and severe than to impute to +him as a crime what he had openly, during the course of so many years, +practised with the consent and approbation of the and the acquiescence +of the parliament and kingdom. Not to mention what he always +asserted,[*] and what we can scarcely doubt of, that he had obtained +the royal license in the most formal manner, which, had he not been +apprehensive of the dangers attending any opposition to Henry’s lawless +will, he might have pleaded in his own defence before the judges. +Sentence, however, was pronounced against him, “That he was out of the +king’s protection; his lands and goods forfeited; and that his person +might be committed to custody.” But this prosecution of Wolsey was +carried no further. Henry even granted him a pardon for all offences; +restored him part of his plate and furniture; and still continued, from +time to time, to drop expressions of favor and compassion towards him. + +The complaints against the usurpations of the ecclesiastics had been +very ancient in England, as well as in most other European kingdoms; and +as this topic was now become popular every where, it had paved the way +for the Lutheran tenets, and reconciled the people, in some measure, to +the frightful idea of heresy and innovation. The commons, finding the +occasion favorable, passed several bills restraining the impositions of +the clergy; one for the regulating of mortuaries; another against the +exactions for the probates of wills; [**] a third against non-residence +and pluralities, and against church-men’s being farmers of land. But +what appeared chiefly dangerous to the ecclesiastical order, were the +severe invectives thrown out, almost without opposition, in the house, +against the dissolute lives of the priests, their ambition, their +avarice, and their endless encroachments on the laity. Lord Herbert +[***] has even preserved the speech of a gentleman of Gray’s Inn, which +is of a singular nature, and contains such topics as we should little +expect to meet with during that period. The member insists upon the vast +variety of theological opinions which prevailed in different nations and +ages; the endless inextricable controversies maintained by the several +sects; the impossibility that any man, much less the people, could ever +know, much less examine, the tenets and principles of every sect; the +necessity of ignorance and a suspense of judgment with regard to all +those objects of dispute: and, upon the whole, he infers, that the only +religion obligatory on mankind is the belief of one Supreme Being, the +author of nature; and the necessity of good morals, in order to +obtain his favor and protection. Such sentiments would be deemed +latitudinarian, even in our time; and would not be advanced, without +some precaution, in a public assembly. + + * Cavendish, p. 72. + + ** These exactions were quite arbitrary, and had risen to a + great height. A member said in the house, that a thousand + marks had been exacted from him on that account. Hall, fol. + 188 Strype, vol. i. p. 73. + + *** Page 293. + +But though the first broaching of religious controversy might encourage +the sceptical turn in a few persons of a studious disposition, the zeal +with which men soon after attached themselves to their several parties, +served effectually to banish for a long time all such obnoxious +liberties. + +The bills for regulating the clergy met with some opposition in the +house of lords. Bishop Fisher, in particular, imputed these measures of +the commons to their want of faith; and to a formed design, derived +from heretical and Lutheran principles, of robbing the church of her +patrimony, and over-turning the national religion. The duke of Norfolk +reproved the prelate in severe, and even somewhat indecent terms. He +told him, that the greatest clerks were not always the wisest men. But +Fisher replied, that he did not remember any fools in his time who had +proved great clerks. The exceptions taken at the bishop of Rochester’s +speech stopped not there. The commons, by the mouth of Sir Thomas +Audley, their speaker, made complaints to the king of the reflections +thrown upon them; and the bishop was obliged to put a more favorable +construction on his words.[*] + +Henry was not displeased that the court of Rome and the clergy should +be sensible that they were entirely dependent on him, and that his +parliament, if he were willing to second their inclinations, was +sufficiently disposed to reduce the power and privileges of the +ecclesiastics. The commons gratified the king in another particular of +moment: they granted him a discharge of all those debts which he had +contracted since the beginning of his reign,[**] and they grounded this +bill, which occasioned many complaints, on a pretence of the king’s +great care of the nation, and of his regularly employing all the money +which he had borrowed in the public service. + + * Parl. Hist. vol. iii. p. 59. + + **Burnet, vol. ii. p. 82. + +Most of the king’s creditors consisted of friends to the cardinal who +had been engaged by their patron to contribute to the supply of Henry’s +necessities; and the present courtiers were well pleased to take the +opportunity of mulcting them.[*] Several also approved of an expedient +which, they hoped, would ever after discredit a method of supply so +irregular and so unparliamentary. + + * Burnet, vol. ii. p. 83. + +The domestic transactions of England were at present so interesting +to the king, that they chiefly engaged his attention; and he regarded +foreign affairs only in subordination to them. He had declared war +against the emperor; but the mutual advantages reaped by the commerce +between England and the Netherlands, had engaged him to stipulate a +neutrality with those provinces; and, except by money contributed to the +Italian wars, he had in effect exercised no hostility against any of +the imperial dominions. A general peace was this summer established +in Europe. Margaret of Austria and Louisa of Savoy met at Cambray, +and settled the terms of pacification between the French king and the +emperor. Charles accepted of two millions of crowns in lieu of Burgundy; +and he delivered up the two princes of France, whom he had retained as +hostages. Henry was, on this occasion, so generous to his friend and +ally Francis, that he sent him an acquittal of near six hundred thousand +crowns, which that prince owed him. Francis’s Italian confederates were +not so well satisfied as the king with the peace of Cambray: they were +almost wholly abandoned to the will of the emperor, and seemed to have +no means of security left but his equity and moderation. Florence, +after a brave resistance, was subdued by the imperial arms, and finally +delivered over to the dominion of the family of Medici. The Venetians +were better treated: they were only obliged to relinquish some +acquisitions which they had made on the coast of Naples. Even Francis +Sforza obtained the investiture of Milan, and was pardoned for all past +offences. The emperor in person passed into Italy with a magnificent +train, and received the imperial crown from the hands of the pope at +Bologna. He was but twenty-nine years of age; and having already, by +his vigor and capacity, succeeded in every enterprise, and reduced to +captivity the two greatest potentates in Europe, the one spiritual, +the other temporal, he attracted the eyes of all men; and many +prognostications were formed of his growing empire. + +But though Charles seemed to be prosperous on every side, and though the +conquest of Mexico and Peru now began to prevent that scarcity of money +under which he had hitherto labored, he found himself threatened with +difficulties in Germany; and his desire of surmounting them was the +chief cause of his granting such moderate conditions to the Italian +powers. Sultan Solyman, the greatest and most accomplished prince that +ever sat on the Ottoman throne, had almost entirely subdued Hungary, +had besieged Vienna, and, though repulsed, still menaced the hereditary +dominions of the house of Austria with conquest and subjection. The +Lutheran princes of the empire, finding that liberty of conscience +was denied them, had combined in a league for their own defence at +Smalcalde, and because they protested against the votes passed in +the imperial diet, they thenceforth received the appellation, of +“protestants.” Charles had undertaken to reduce them to obedience; and +on pretence of securing the purity of religion, he had laid a scheme for +aggrandizing his own family, by extending its dominion over all Germany. + +The friendship of Henry was one material circumstance yet wanting to +Charles, in order to insure success in his ambitious enterprises; and +the king was sufficiently apprised that the concurrence of that prince +would at once remove all the difficulties which lay in the way of his +divorce; that point which had long been the object of his most earnest +wishes. But besides that the interests of his kingdom seemed to require +an alliance with France, his haughty spirit could not submit to a +friendship imposed on him by constraint; and as he had ever been +accustomed to receive courtship, deference, and solicitation from the +greatest potentates, he could ill brook that dependence to which this +unhappy affair seemed to have reduced him. Amidst the anxieties with +which he was agitated, he was often tempted to break off all +connections with the court of Rome; and though he had been educated in +a superstitious reverence to papal authority, it is likely that his +personal experience of the duplicity and selfish politics of Clement +had served much to open his eyes in that particular. He found his +prerogative firmly established at home: lie observed that his people +were in general much disgusted with clerical usurpations, and disposed +to reduce the powers find privileges of the ecclesiastical order: he +knew that they had cordially taken part with him in his prosecution of +the divorce, and highly resented the unworthy treatment which after +so many services and such devoted attachment, he had received from the +court of Rome. Anne Boleyn also could not fail to use all her +efforts, and employ every insinuation, in order to make him proceed to +extremities against the pope; both as it was the readiest way to her +attaining royal dignity, and as her education in the court of the +duchess of Alençon, a princess inclined to the reformers, had already +disposed her to a belief of the new doctrines. But notwithstanding these +inducements, Henry had strong motives still to desire a good agreement +with the sovereign pontiff. He apprehended the danger of such great +innovations: he dreaded the reproach of heresy: he abhorred all +connections with the Lutherans, the chief opponents of the papal power; +and having once exerted himself with such applause, as he imagined, in +defence of the Romish communion, he was ashamed to retract his former +opinions, and betray from passion such a palpable inconsistency. While +he was agitated by these contrary motives, an expedient was proposed, +which, as it promised a solution of all difficulties, was embraced by +him with the greatest joy and satisfaction. + +Dr. Thomas Cranmer, fellow of Jesus College in Cambridge, was a man +remarkable in that university for his learning, and still more for +the candor and disinterestedness of his temper. He fell one evening by +accident into company with Gardiner, now secretary of state, and Fox, +the king’s almoner; and as the business of the divorce became the +subject of conversation, he observed that the readiest way either to +quiet Henry’s conscience, or extort the pope’s consent, would be to +consult all the universities of Europe with regard to this controverted +point: if they agreed to approve of the king’s marriage with Catharine, +his remorses would naturally cease; if they condemned it, the pope would +find it difficult to resist the solicitations of so great a monarch, +seconded by the opinion of all the learned men in Christendom.[*] When +the king was informed of the proposal, he was delighted with it; and +swore, with more alacrity than delicacy that Cranmer had got the right +sow by the ear: he sent for that divine; entered into conversation with +him; conceived a high opinion of his virtue and understanding; engaged +him to write in defence of the divorce; and immediately, in prosecution +of the scheme proposed, employed his agents to collect the judgments of +all the universities in Europe. + + * Fox, p. 1860 2d edit. Burnet, vol. i. p. 79. Speed, p. + 769. Heylin, p. 5 + +Had the question of Henry’s marriage with Catharine been examined by the +principles of sound philosophy, exempt from superstition, it seemed not +liable to much difficulty. The natural reason why marriage in certain +degrees is prohibited by the civil laws, and condemned by the moral +sentiments of all nations, is derived from men’s care to preserve +purity of manners; while they reflect, that if a commerce of love +were authorized between near relations, the frequent opportunities of +intimate conversation, especially during early youth, would introduce a +universal dissoluteness and corruption. But as the customs of countries +vary considerably, and open an intercourse, more or less restrained, +between different families, or between the several members of the same +family, we find that the moral precept, varying with its cause, is +susceptible, without any inconvenience, of very different latitude in +the several ages and nations of the world. The extreme delicacy of the +Greeks permitted no communication between persons of different sexes, +except where they lived under the same roof; and even the apartments +of a step-mother and her daughters were almost as much shut up against +visits from the husband’s sons, as against those from any stranger or +more distant relation: hence, in that nation, it was lawful for a man to +marry not only his niece, but his half-sister by the father; a liberty +unknown to the Romans, and other nations, where a more open intercourse +was authorized between the sexes. Reasoning from this principle, it +would appear, that the ordinary commerce of life among great princes +is so obstructed by ceremony and numerous attendants, that no ill +consequence would result among them from marrying a brother’s widow; +especially if the dispensation of the supreme priest be previously +required, in order to justify what may in common cases be condemned, and +to hinder the precedent from becoming too common and familiar. And +as strong motives of public interest and tranquillity may frequently +require such alliances between the foreign families, there is the less +reason for extending towards them the full rigor of the rule which has +place among individuals.[*] [7] + + * See note G, at the end of the volume. + +But in opposition to these reasons, and many more which might be +collected, Henry had custom and precedent on his side, the principle by +which men are almost wholly governed in their actions and opinions. The +marrying of a brother’s widow was so unusual, that no other instance of +it could be found in any history or record of any Christian nation; +and though the popes were accustomed to dispense with more essential +precepts of morality, and even permitted marriages within other +prohibited degrees, such as those of uncle and niece, the imaginations +of men were not yet reconciled to this particular exercise of his +authority. + +{1530.} Several universities of Europe, therefore, without hesitation, +as well as without interest or reward,[*] gave verdict in the king’s +favor; not only those of France, Paris, Orleans, Bourges, Toulouse, +Angiers, which might be supposed to lie under the influence of their +prince, ally to Henry; but also those of Italy, Venice, Ferrara, Padua; +even Bologna itself, though under the immediate jurisdiction of Clement. +Oxford alone[**] and Cambridge* made some difficulty; because these +universities, alarmed at the progress of Lutheranism, and dreading a +defection from the holy see, scrupled to give their sanction to +measures whose consequences they feared would prove fatal to the ancient +religion. Their opinion, however, conformable to that of the other +universities of Europe, was at last obtained; and the king, in order to +give more weight to all these authorities, engaged his nobility to write +a letter to the pope, recommending his cause to the holy father, and +threatening him with the most dangerous consequences in case of a denial +of justice.[***] The convocations, too, both of Canterbury and York, +pronounced the king’s marriage invalid, irregular, and contrary to the +law of God, with which no human power had authority to dispense.[****] + + * Herbert. Burnet. + + ** Wood, Hist. and Ant. Ox. lib. i. p. 225. + + *** Burnet, vol. i, p. 6. + + **** Rymer, vol. xiv. p. 405. Burnet, vol. i. p. 95. + +But Clement, lying still under the influence of the emperor, continued +to summon the king to appear, either by himself or proxy, before his +tribunal at Rome; and the king, who knew that he could expect no fair +trial there, refused to submit to such a condition, and would not +even admit of any citation, which he regarded as a high insult, and a +violation of his royal prerogative. The father of Anne Boleyn, created +earl of Wiltshire, carried to the pope the king’s reasons for not +appearing by proxy; and, as the first instance of disrespect from +England, refused to kiss his holiness’s foot which he very graciously +held out to him for that purpose.[*] + +The extremities to which Henry was pushed, both against the pope and the +ecclesiastical order, were naturally disagreeable to Cardinal Wolsey; +and as Henry foresaw his opposition, it is the most probable reason that +can be assigned for his renewing the prosecution against his ancient +favorite. After Wolsey had remained some time at Asher, he was allowed +to remove to Richmond, a palace which he had received as a present from +Henry, in return for Hampton Court; but the courtiers, dreading still +his vicinity to the king, procured an order for him to remove to his +see of York. The cardinal knew it was in vain to resist: he took up his +residence at Cawood, in Yorkshire, where he rendered himself extremely +popular in the neighborhood by his affability and hospitality;[**] but +he was not allowed to remain long unmolested in this retreat. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 94. + + ** Cavendish. Stowe, p. 551. + +The earl of Northumberland received, orders, without regard to Wolsey’s +ecclesiastical character, to arrest him for high treason, and to conduct +him to London, in order to his trial. The cardinal, partly from the +fatigues of his journey, partly from the agitation of his anxious mind, +was seized with a disorder which turned into a dysentery; and he was +able, with some difficulty, to reach Leicester Abbey. When the abbot and +the monks advanced to receive him with much respect and reverence, +he told them that he was come to lay his bones among them; and he +immediately took to his bed, whence he never rose more. A little before +he expired, he addressed himself in the following words to Sir William +Kingston, constable of the Tower, who had him in custody. “I pray you +have me heartily recommended unto his royal majesty, and beseech him +on my behalf to call to his remembrance all matters that have passed +between us from the beginning, especially with regard to his business +with the queen; and then will he know in his conscience whether I have +offended him. + +“He is a prince of a most royal carriage, and hath a princely heart; and +rather than he will miss or want any part of his will, he will endanger +the one half of his kingdom. + +“I do assure you, that I have often kneeled before him, sometimes three +hours together, to persuade him from his will and appetite; but could +not prevail: had I but served God as diligently as I have served the +king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs. But this is the +just reward that I must receive for my indulgent pains and study, not +regarding my service to God, but only to my prince. Therefore, let me +advise you, if you be one of the privy council, as by your wisdom you +are fit, take care what you put into the king’s head; for you can never +put it out again.”[*] + + * Cavendish. + +[Illustration: 1-376-tower.jpg THE TOWER OF LONDON] + +Thus died this famous cardinal, whose character seems to have contained +as singular a variety as the fortune to which he was exposed. The +obstinacy and violence of the king’s temper may alleviate much of the +blame which some of his favorite’s measures have undergone; and when +we consider, that the subsequent part of Henry’s reign was much more +criminal than that which had been directed by Wolsey’s counsels, we +shall be inclined to suspect those historians of partiality, who +have endeavored to load the memory of this minister with such violent +reproaches. If, in foreign politics, he sometimes employed his influence +over the king for his private purposes, rather than his master’s +service, which, he boasted, he had solely at heart, we must remember, +that he had in view the papal throne; a dignity which, had he attained +it, would have enabled him to make Henry a suitable return for all his +favors. The cardinal of Amboise, whose memory is respected in France, +always made this apology for his own conduct, which was, in some +respect, similar to Wolsey’s; and we have reason to think, that Henry +was well acquainted with the views by which his minister was influenced, +and took a pride in promoting them. He much regretted his death, when +informed of it, and always spoke favorably of his memory; a proof that +humor, more than reason, or any discovery of treachery, had occasioned +the last persecutions against him. + +{1531.} A new session of parliament was held, together with a +convocation; and the king here gave strong proofs of his extensive +authority, as well as of his intention to turn it to the depression +of the clergy. As an ancient statute, now almost obsolete, had been +employed to ruin Wolsey, and render his exercise of the legatine power +criminal, notwithstanding the king’s permission, the same law was now +turned against the ecclesiastics. It was pretended, that every one who +had submitted to the legatine court, that is, the whole church, had +violated the statute of provisors; and the attorney-general accordingly +brought an indictment against them.[*] The convocation knew, that it +would be in vain to oppose reason or equity to the king’s arbitrary +will, or plead that their ruin would have been the certain consequence +of not submitting to Wolsey’s commission, which was procured by Henry’s +consent, and supported by his authority. They chose, therefore, to throw +themselves on the mercy of their sovereign; and they agreed to pay +a hundred and eighteen thousand eight hundred and forty pounds for a +pardon.[**] A confession was likewise extorted from them, that the +king was the protector and the supreme head of the church and clergy of +England; though some of them had the dexterity to get a clause inserted, +which invalidated the whole submission, and which ran in these terms: +“in so far as is permitted by the law of Christ.” + +The commons, finding that a pardon was granted the clergy, began to +be apprehensive for themselves, lest either they should afterwards be +brought into trouble on account of their submission to the legatine +court, or a supply, in like manner, be extorted from them, in return for +their pardon. They therefore petitioned the king to grant a remission to +his lay subjects; but they met with a repulse. He told them, that if he +ever chose to forgive their offence, it would be from his own goodness, +not from their application, lest he should seem to be compelled to it. +Some time after, when they despaired of obtaining this concession, he +was pleased to issue a pardon to the laity; and the commons expressed +great gratitude for that act of clemency.[***] + +{1532.} By this strict execution of the statute of provisors, a great +part of the profit, and still more of the power of the court of Rome +was cut off; and the connections between the pope and the English clergy +were in some measure dissolved. The next session found both king and +parliament in the same dispositions. An act was passed against levying +the annates or first-fruits,[****] being a year’s rent of all the +bishoprics that fell vacant; a tax which was imposed by the court of Rome +for granting bulls to the new prelates, and which was found to amount to +considerable sums. + + * Antiq. Brit. Eccles. p. 325. Burnet, vol. i. p. 106. + + ** Holingshed, p. 923. + + *** Hall’s Chronicle. Holingshed, p. 923. Baker, p. 208. + + **** Burnet, vol. i. Collect. No. 41. Strype, vol. i. p. + 144. + +Since the second of Henry VII., no less than one hundred and sixty +thousand pounds had been transmitted to Rome on account of this claim; +which the parliament, therefore, reduced to five per cent. on all the +episcopal benefices. The better to keep the pope in awe, the king was +intrusted with a power of regulating these payments, and of confirming +or infringing this act at his pleasure; and it was voted, that any +censures which should be passed by the court of Rome on account of that +law, should be entirely disregarded, and that mass should be said, and +the sacraments administered, as if no such censures had been issued. + +This session, the commons preferred to the king a long complaint against +the abuses and oppressions of the ecclesiastical courts; and they were +proceeding to enact laws for remedying them, when a difference arose, +which put an end to the session before the parliament had finished all +their business. It was become a custom for men to make such settlements, +or trust deeds, of their lands by will, that they defrauded not only the +king, but all other lords, of their wards, marriages, and reliefs; and +by the same artifice the king was deprived of his premier seizin, and +the profits of the livery, which were no inconsiderable branches of his +revenue. Henry made a bill be drawn to moderate, not remedy altogether, +this abuse; he was contented, that every man should have the liberty +of disposing in this manner of the half of his land; and he told the +parliament in plain terms, “if they would not take a reasonable thing +when it was offered, he would search out the extremity of the law; and +then would not offer them so much again.” The lords came willingly into +his terms; but the commons rejected the bill; a singular instance, where +Henry might see that his power and authority, though extensive, had yet +some boundaries. The commons, however, found reason to repent of their +victory. The king made good his threats: he called together the judges +and ablest lawyers, who argued the question in chancery; and it was +decided that a man could not by law bequeath any part of his lands in +prejudice of his heir.[*] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 116. Hall. Parl. Hist. + +The parliament being again assembled after a short prorogation, the king +caused the two oaths to be read to them, that which the bishops took +to the pope, and that to the king, on their installation; and as a +contradiction might be suspected between them, while the prelates seemed +to swear allegiance to two sovereigns;[*] the parliament showed their +intention of abolishing the oath to the pope, when their proceedings +were suddenly stopped by the breaking out of the plague at Westminster, +which occasioned a prorogation. It is remarkable, that one Temse +ventured this session to move, that the house should address the king, +to take back the queen, and stop the prosecution of his divorce. This +motion made the king send for Audley, the speaker, and explain to him +the scruples with which his conscience had long been burdened; scruples, +he said, which had proceeded from no wanton appetite, which had arisen +after the fervors of youth were past, and which were confirmed by the +concurring sentiments of all the learned societies in Europe. Except in +Spain and Portugal, he added, it was never heard of, that any man had +espoused two sisters; but he himself had the misfortune, he believed, +to be the first Christian man that had ever married his brother’s +widow.[**] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 123, 124. + + ** Herbert. Hall, fol. 205. + +After the prorogation, Sir Thomas More, the chancellor, foreseeing that +all the measures of the king and parliament led to a breach with +the church of Rome, and to an alteration of religion, with which his +principles would not permit him to concur, desired leave to resign the +great seal; and he descended from his high station with more joy and +alacrity than he had mounted up to it. The austerity of this man’s +virtue, and the sanctity of his manners, had nowise encroached on the +gentleness of his temper, or even diminished that frolic and gayety to +which he was naturally inclined. He sported with all the varieties +of fortune into which he was thrown; and neither the pride naturally +attending a high station, nor the melancholy incident to poverty and +retreat, could ever lay hold of his serene and equal spirit. While his +family discovered symptoms of sorrow on laying down the grandeur and +magnificence to which they had been accustomed, he drew a subject of +mirth from their distresses; and made them ashamed of losing even a +moment’s cheerfulness on account of such trivial misfortunes. The +king, who had entertained a high opinion of his virtue, received his +resignation with some difficulty; and he delivered the great seal soon +after to Sir Thomas Audley. + +During these transactions in England, and these invasions of the +papal and ecclesiastical authority, the court of Rome was not without +solicitude; and she entertained just apprehensions of losing entirely +her authority in England; the kingdom which, of all others, had long +been the most devoted to the holy see and which had yielded it the most +ample revenue. While the imperial cardinals pushed Clement to proceed +to extremities against the king, his more moderate and impartial +counsellors represented to him the indignity of his proceedings; that +a great monarch, who had signalized himself, both by his pen and his +sword, in the cause of the pope, should be denied a favor which he +demanded on such just grounds, and which had scarcely ever before been +refused to any person of his rank and station. Notwithstanding these +remonstrances, the queen’s appeal was received at Rome; the king was +cited to appear; and several consistories were held, to examine the +validity of their marriage. Henry was determined not to send any proxy +to plead his cause before this court: he only despatched Sir Edward +Karne and Dr. Bonner, in quality of excusators, (so they were called,) +to carry his apology, for not paying that deference to the papal +authority. The prerogatives of his crown, he said, must be sacrificed, +if he allowed appeals from his own kingdom; and as the question regarded +conscience, not power or interest, no proxy could supply his place, or +convey that satisfaction which the dictates of his own mind alone could +confer. In order to support himself in this measure, and add greater +security to his intended defection from Rome, he procured an interview +with Francis it Boulogne and Calais, where he renewed his personal +friendship as well as public alliance with that monarch, and concerted +all measures for their mutual defence. He even employed arguments, by +which he believed he had persuaded Francis to imitate his example in +withdrawing his obedience from the bishop of Rome, and administering +ecclesiastical affairs without having further recourse to that see. And +being now fully determined in his own mind, as well as resolute to stand +all consequences, he privately celebrated his marriage with Anne Boleyn, +whom he had previously created marchioness of Pembroke. Rouland Lee, +soon after raised to the bishopric of Coventry, officiated at the +marriage. The duke of Norfolk, uncle to the new queen, her father, +mother, and brother, together with Dr. Cranmer, were present at the +ceremony.[*] + + * Herbert, p. 340, 341. + +Anne became pregnant soon after her marriage, and this event both gave +great satisfaction to the king, and was regarded by the people as a +strong proof of the queen’s former modesty and virtue. + +{1533.} The parliament was again assembled; and Henry, in conjunction +with the great council of the nation, proceeded still in those gradual +and secure steps, by which they loosened their connections with the see +of Rome, and repressed the usurpations of the Roman pontiff. An act +was made against all appeals to Rome in causes of matrimony, divorces, +wills, and other suits cognizable in ecclesiastical courts; appeals +esteemed dishonorable to the kingdom, by subjecting it to a foreign +jurisdiction; and found to be very vexatious by the expense and the +delay of justice which necessarily attended them.[*] The more to show +his disregard to the pope, Henry, finding the new queen’s pregnancy to +advance, publicly owned his marriage; and in order to remove all doubts +with regard to its lawfulness, he prepared measures for declaring, by +a formal sentence, the invalidity of his marriage with Catharine; +a sentence which ought naturally to have preceded his espousing of +Anne.[**] + +The king, even amidst his scruples and remorses on account of his first +marriage, had always treated Catharine with respect and distinction; and +he endeavored, by every soft and persuasive art, to engage her to depart +from her appeal to Rome, and her opposition to his divorce. Finding +her obstinate in maintaining the justice of her cause, he had totally +forborne all visits and intercourse with her; and had desired her to +make choice of any one of his palaces, in which she should please +to reside. She had fixed her abode for some time at Amphill, near +Dunstable; and it was in this latter town that Cranmer, now created +archbishop of Canterbury, on the death of Warham,[**] [8] was appointed +to open his court for examining the validity of her marriage. The near +neighborhood of the place was chosen, in order to deprive her of all +plea of ignorance; and as she made no answer to the citation, either +by herself or proxy, she was declared “contumacious;” and the primate +proceeded to the examination of the cause. + + * 24 Henry VIII. c. 12. + + ** Collier, vol. ii. p. 31, and Records, No. 8. + + *** See note H, at the end of the volume. + +The evidences of Arthur’s consummation of his marriage were anew +produced; the opinions of the universities were read, together with +the judgment pronounced two years before by the convocations both +of Canterbury and York, and after these preliminary steps, Cranmer +proceeded to a sentence, and annulled the king’s marriage with Catharine +as unlawful and invalid. By a subsequent sentence, he ratified the +marriage with Anne Boleyn, who soon after was publicly crowned queen, +with all the pomp and dignity suited to that ceremony.[*] To complete +the king’s satisfaction on the conclusion of this intricate and +vexatious affair, she was safely delivered of a daughter, who received +the name of Elizabeth, and who afterwards swayed the sceptre with such +renown and felicity. Henry was so much delighted with the birth of this +child, that soon after he conferred on her the title of princess of +Wales,[**] a step somewhat irregular, as she could only be presumptive, +not apparent heir of the crown. But he had, during his former marriage, +thought proper to honor his daughter Mary with that title; and he was +determined to bestow on the offspring of his present marriage the same +mark of distinction, as well as to exclude the elder princess from all +hopes of the succession. His regard for the new queen seemed rather to +increase than diminish by his marriage; and all men expected to see the +entire ascendant of one who had mounted a throne from which her birth +had set her at so great a distance, and who, by a proper mixture of +severity and indulgence, had long managed so intractable a spirit as +that of Henry. In order to efface as much as possible all marks of his +first marriage, Lord Mountjoy was sent to the unfortunate and divorced +queen, to inform her, that she was thenceforth to be treated only as +princess dowager of Wales; and all means were employed to make her +acquiesce in that determination. But she continued obstinate in +maintaining the validity of her marriage; and she would admit no person +to her presence who did not approach her with the accustomed ceremonial. +Henry, forgetting his wonted generosity towards her, employed menaces +against such of her servants as complied with her commands in this +particular; but was never able to make her relinquish her title and +pretensions.[***] + + * Heylin, p. 6. + + ** Burnet, vol. i, p. 134. + + *** Herbert, p. 326. Burnet, vol. i. p. 132. + +When intelligence was conveyed to Rome of these transactions, so +injurious to the authority and reputation of the holy see, the conclave +was in a rage, and all the cardinals of the imperial faction urged the +pope to proceed to a definitive sentence, and to dart his spiritual +thunders against Henry. But Clement proceeded no further than to declare +the nullity of Cranmer’s sentence, as well as that of Henry’s second +marriage; threatening him with excommunication, if before the first +of November ensuing he did not replace every thing in the condition in +which it formerly stood.[*] An event had happened from which the +pontiff expected a more amicable conclusion of the difference, and which +hindered him from carrying matters to extremity against the king. + +The pope had claims upon the duchy of Ferrara for the sovereignty of +Reggio and Modena;[**] and having submitted his pretensions to the +arbitration of the emperor, he was surprised to find a sentence +pronounced against him. Enraged at this disappointment, he hearkened to +proposals of amity from Francis; and when that monarch made overtures of +marrying the duke of Orleans, his second son, to Catharine of Medicis, +niece of the pope, Clement gladly embraced an alliance by which his +family was so much honored. An interview was even appointed between the +pope and French king at Marseilles; and Francis, as a common friend, +there employed his good offices in mediating an accommodation between +his new ally and the king of England. + + * Le Grand, vol. iii. p. 566. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 133. Guicciard. + +Had this connection of France with the court of Rome taken place a few +years sooner, there had been little difficulty in adjusting the quarrel +with Henry. The king’s request was an ordinary one; and the same plenary +power of the pope which had granted a dispensation for his espousing of +Catharine, could easily have annulled the marriage. But, in the progress +of the quarrel, the state of affairs was much changed on both sides. +Henry had shaken off much of that reverence which he had early imbibed +for the apostolic see; and finding that his subjects of all ranks +had taken part with him, and willingly complied with his measures for +breaking off foreign dependence, he had begun to relish his spiritual +authority, and would scarcely, it was apprehended, be induced to renew +his submissions to the Roman pontiff. The pope, on the other hand, now +ran a manifest risk of infringing his authority by a compliance with +the king; and as a sentence of divorce could no longer be rested on +nullities in Julius’s bull, but would be construed as an acknowledgment +of papal usurpations, it was foreseen that the Lutherans would thence +take occasion of triumph, and would persevere more obstinately in their +present principles. But notwithstanding these obstacles, Francis did not +despair of mediating an agreement. He observed that the king had still +some remains of prejudice in favor of the Catholic church, and was +apprehensive of the consequences which might ensue from too violent +innovations. He saw the interest that Clement had in preserving the +obedience of England, which was one of the richest jewels in the papal +crown. And he hoped that these motives on both sides would facilitate a +mutual agreement, and would forward the effects of his good offices. + +{1534.} Francis first prevailed on the pope to promise, that if the king +would send a proxy to Rome, and thereby submit his cause to the holy +see, he should appoint commissioners to meet at Cambray, and form the +process; and he should immediately afterwards pronounce the sentence of +divorce required of him. Bellay, bishop of Paris, was next despatched +to London, and obtained a promise from the king that he would submit his +cause to the Roman consistory, provided the cardinals of the imperial +faction were excluded from it. The prelate carried this verbal promise +to Rome; and the pope agreed that, if the king would sign a written +agreement to the same purpose, his demands should be fully complied +with. A day was appointed for the return of the messengers; and all +Europe regarded this affair, which had threatened a violent rupture +between England and the Romish church, as drawing towards an amicable +conclusion.[*] But the greatest affairs often depend on the most +frivolous incidents. The courier who carried the king’s written promise +was detained beyond the day appointed: news was brought to Rome that +a libel had been published in England against the court of Rome, and a +farce acted before the king in derision of the pope and cardinals.[**] + + * Father Paul, lib. i. + + ** Father Paul, lib, i. + +The pope and cardinals entered into the consistory inflamed with anger; +and by a precipitate sentence the marriage of Henry and Catharine was +pronounced valid, and Henry declared to be excommunicated if he refused +to adhere to it. Two days after, the courier arrived; and Clement, who +had been hurried from his usual prudence, found that though he heartily +repented of this hasty measure, it would be difficult for him to retract +it, or replace affairs on the same footing as before. + +It is not probable that the pope, had he conducted himself with ever so +great moderation and temper, could hope, during the lifetime of Henry, +to have regained much authority or influence in England. That monarch +was of a temper both impetuous and obstinate; and having proceeded +so far in throwing off the papal yoke, he never could again have been +brought tamely to bend his neck to it. Even at the time when he was +negotiating a reconciliation with Rome, he either entertained so little +hopes of success, or was so indifferent about the event, that he had +assembled a parliament, and continued to enact laws totally destructive +of the papal authority. The people had been prepared by degrees for this +great innovation. Each preceding session had retrenched somewhat from +the power and profits of the pontiff. Care had been taken, during some +years, to teach the nation that a general council was much superior to +a pope. But now a bishop preached every Sunday at Paul’s Cross, in order +to inculcate the doctrine that the pope was entitled to no authority +at all beyond the bounds of his own diocese.[*] The proceedings of the +parliament showed that they had entirely adopted this opinion; and there +is reason to believe that the king, after having procured a favorable +sentence from Rome, which would have removed all doubts with regard to +his second marriage and the succession, might indeed have lived on terms +of civility with the Roman pontiff, but never would have surrendered to +him any considerable share of his assumed prerogative. The importance +of the laws passed this session, even before intelligence arrived of +the violent resolutions taken at Rome, is sufficient to justify this +opinion. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 144. + +All payments made to the apostolic chamber, all provisions, bulls, +dispensations, were abolished: monasteries were subjected to the +visitation and government of the king alone: the law for punishing +heretics was moderated: the ordinary was prohibited from imprisoning +or trying any person upon suspicion alone, without presentment by two +lawful witnesses; and it was declared, that to speak against the pope’s +authority was no heresy: bishops were to be appointed, by a congé +d’élire from the crown, or, in case of the dean and chapter’s refusal, +by letters patent; and no recourse was to be had to Rome for pails, +bulls, or provisions; Campeggio and Ghinucci, two Italians, were +deprived of the bishoprics of Salisbury and Worcester, which they had +hitherto enjoyed:[*] the law which had been formerly made against paying +annates or first-fruits, but which had been left in the king’s power to +suspend or enforce, was finally established: and a submission which was +exacted two years before from the clergy, and which had been +obtained with great difficulty, received this session the sanction +of parliament.[**] In this submission, the clergy acknowledged that +convocations ought to be assembled by the king’s authority only; they +promised to enact no new canons without his consent; and they agreed +that he should appoint thirty-two commissioners, in order to examine +the old canons, and abrogate such as should be found prejudicial to his +royal prerogative.[***] An appeal was also allowed from the bishop’s +court to the king in chancery. + + * Le Neve’s Fasti Eccles. Angl. + + ** 25 Henry VIII. cap, 19. + + *** Collier, vol. ii. p. 69, 70. + +But the most important law passed this session was that which regulated +the succession to the crown: the marriage of the king with Catharine +was declared unlawful, void, and of no effect: the primate’s sentence +annulling it was ratified: and the marriage with Queen Anne was +established and confirmed. The crown was appointed to descend to the +issue of this marriage, and failing them, to the king’s heirs forever. +An oath likewise was enjoined to be taken in favor of this order +of succession, under the penalty of imprisonment during the king’s +pleasure, and forfeiture of goods and chattels. And all slander against +the king, queen, or their issue, was subjected to the penalty of +misprision of treason. After these compliances, the parliament was +prorogued; and those acts, so contemptuous towards the pope, and so +destructive of his authority, were passed at the very time that Clement +pronounced his hasty sentence against the king. Henry’s resentment +against Queen Catharine, on account of her obstinacy, was the reason +why he excluded her daughter from all hopes of succeeding to the crown; +contrary to his first intentions, when he began the process of divorce, +and of dispensation for a second marriage. + +The king found his ecclesiastical subjects as compliant as the laity. +The convocation ordered that the act against appeals to Rome, together +with the king’s appeal from the pope to a general council should be +affixed to the doors of all the churches in the kingdom: and they voted +that the bishop of Rome had, by the law of God, no more jurisdiction in +England than any other foreign bishop; and that the authority which he +and his predecessors had there exercised, was only by usurpation, and by +the sufferance of English princes. Four persons alone opposed this vote +in the lower house, and one doubted. It passed unanimously in the upper. +The bishops went so far in their complaisance, that they took out new +commissions from the crown, in which all their spiritual and episcopal +authority was expressly affirmed to be derived ultimately from the civil +magistrate, and to be entirely dependent on his good pleasure.[*] + +The oath regarding the succession was generally taken throughout the +kingdom. Fisher, bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, were the only +persons of note that entertained scruples with regard to its legality. +Fisher was obnoxious on account of some practices into which his +credulity, rather than any bad intentions, seems to have betrayed him. +But More was the person of greatest reputation in the kingdom for virtue +and integrity; and as it was believed that his authority would have +influence on the sentiments of others, great pains were taken to +convince him of the lawfulness of the oath. He declared that he had no +scruple with regard to the succession, and thought that the parliament +had full power to settle it: he offered to draw an oath himself which +would insure his allegiance to the heir appointed; but he refused the +oath prescribed by law; because the preamble of that oath asserted the +legality of the king’s marriage with Anne, and thereby implied that his +former marriage with Catharine was unlawful and invalid. Cramner, the +primate, and Cromwell, now secretary of state, who highly loved and +esteemed More, entreated him to lay aside his scruples; and their +friendly importunity seemed to weigh more with him than all the +penalties attending his refusal.[**] He persisted, however, in a mild +though firm manner, to maintain his resolution; and the king, irritated +against him as well as Fisher, ordered both to be indicted upon the +statute, and committed prisoners to the Tower. + + * Collier’s Eccles. Hist. vol. ii. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 156. + +The parliament, being again assembled, conferred on the king the title +of the only supreme “head” on earth of the church of England; as they +had already invested him with all the real power belonging to it. +In this memorable act, the parliament granted him power, or rather +acknowledged his inherent power, “to visit, and repress, redress, +reform, order, correct, restrain, or amend all errors, heresies, abuses, +offences, contempts, and enormities, which fell under any spiritual +authority or jurisdiction.”[*] They also declared it treason to attempt, +imagine, or speak evil against the king, queen, or his heirs; or to +endeavor depriving them of their dignities or titles. They gave him a +right to all the annates and tithes of benefices which had formerly been +paid to the court of Rome. They granted him a subsidy and a fifteenth. +They attainted More and Fisher for misprision of treason. And they +completed the union of England and Wales, by giving to that principality +all the benefit of the English laws. + + * 26 Henry VIII. cap. 1. + +Thus the authority of the popes, like all exorbitant power, was ruined +by the excess of its acquisitions, and by stretching its pretensions +beyond what it was possible for any human principles or prepossessions +to sustain. Indulgences had in former ages tended extremely to enrich +the holy see; but being openly abused, they served to excite the first +commotions and opposition in Germany. The prerogative of granting +dispensations had also contributed much to attach all the sovereign +princes and great families in Europe to the papal authority; but meeting +with an unlucky concurrence of circumstances, was now the cause why +England separated herself from the Romish communion. The acknowledgment +of the king’s supremacy introduced there a greater simplicity in +the government, by uniting the spiritual with the civil power, +and preventing disputes about limits, which never could be exactly +determined between the contending jurisdictions. A way was also prepared +for checking the exorbitances of superstition, and breaking those +shackles by which all human reason, policy, and industry had so long +been encumbered. The prince, it may be supposed, being head of the +religion, as well as of the temporal jurisdiction of the kingdom, though +he might sometimes employ the former as an engine of government, had no +interest, like the Roman pontiff, in nourishing its excessive growth; +and, except when blinded by his own ignorance or bigotry, would be sure +to retain it within tolerable limits, and prevent its abuses. And on the +whole, there followed from this revolution many beneficial consequences; +though perhaps neither foreseen nor intended by the persons who had the +chief hand in conducting it. + +While Henry proceeded with so much order and tranquillity in changing +the national religion, and while his authority seemed entirely secure +in England, he was held in some inquietude by the state of affairs in +Ireland and in Scotland. + +The earl of Kildare was deputy of Ireland, under the duke of Richmond, +the king’s natural son, who bore the title of lieutenant; and as +Kildare was accused of some violences against the family of Ossory, his +hereditary enemies, he was summoned to answer for his conduct. He left +his authority in the hands of his son, who, hearing that his father was +thrown into prison, and was in danger of his life, immediately took up +arms, and joining himself to Oneale, Ocarrol, and other Irish nobility, +committed many ravages, murdered Allen, archbishop of Dublin, and laid +siege to that city. Kildare meanwhile died in prison; and his son, +persevering in his revolt, made applications to the emperor, who +promised him assistance. The king was obliged to send over some forces +to Ireland, which so harassed the rebels, that this young nobleman, +finding the emperor backward in fulfilling his promises, was reduced to +the necessity of surrendering himself prisoner to Lord Leonard Gray, +the new deputy, brother to the marquis of Dorset. He was carried over to +England, together with his five uncles; and after trial and conviction, +they were all brought to public justice; though two of the uncles, in +order to save the family, had pretended to join the king’s party. + +The earl of Angus had acquired the entire ascendant in Scotland; and +having gotten possession of the king’s person then in early youth, he +was able, by means of that advantage, and by employing the power of +his own family, to retain the reins of government. The queen dowager, +however, his consort, bred him great disturbance. For having separated +herself from him on account of some jealousies and disgusts, and having +procured a divorce, she had married another man of quality, of the name +of Stuart; and she joined all the discontented nobility who opposed +Angus’s authority. James himself was dissatisfied with the slavery to +which he was reduced, and by secret correspondence he incited first +Walter Scot, then the earl of Lenox, to attempt by force of arms the +freeing him from the hands of Angus. Both enterprises failed of success: +but James, impatient of restraint, found means at last of escape *ing +to Stirling, where his mother then resided; and having summoned all the +nobility to attend him, he overturned the authority of the Douglases, +and obliged Angus and his brother to fly into England, where they were +protected by Henry. The king of Scotland, being now arrived at years of +majority, took the government into his own hands; and employed him self +with great spirit and valor in repressing those feuds, ravages, and +disorders, which, though they disturbed the course of public justice, +served to support the martial spirit of the Scots, and contributed +by that means to maintain national independency. He was desirous of +renewing the ancient league with the French nation; but finding Francis +in close union with England, and on that account somewhat cold in +hearkening to his proposals, he received the more favorably the +advances of the emperor, who hoped, by means of such an ally, to breed +disturbance to England, He offered the Scottish king the choice of three +princesses, his own near relations, and all of the name of Mary; his +sister, the dowager of Hungary; his niece, a daughter of Portugal; +or his cousin, the daughter of Henry, whom he pretended to dispose of +unknown to her father. James was more inclined to the latter proposal, +had it not, upon reflection, been found impracticable; and his natural +propensity to France at last prevailed over all other considerations. +The alliance with Francis necessarily engaged James to maintain peace +with England. But though invited by his uncle Henry to confer with +him at Newcastle, and concert common measures for repressing the +ecclesiastics in both kingdoms, and shaking off the yoke of Rome, he +could not be prevailed on, by entering England, to put himself in the +king’s power. In order to have a pretext for refusing the conference, he +applied to the pope, and obtained a brief, forbidding him to engage +in any personal negotiations with an enemy of the holy see. From these +measures Henry easily concluded that he could very little depend on the +friendship of his nephew. But those events took not place till some time +after our present period. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. + + + + +HENRY VIII. + +{1534.} The ancient and almost uninterrupted opposition of interests +between the laity and clergy in England, and between the English clergy +and the court of Rome, had sufficiently prepared the nation for a breach +with the sovereign pontiff; and men had penetration enough to discover +abuses which were plainly calculated for the temporal advantages of the +hierarchy, and which they found destructive of their own. These subjects +seemed proportioned to human understanding; and even the people, who +felt the power of interest in their own breasts, could perceive the +purpose of those numerous inventions which the interested spirit of +the Roman pontiff had introduced into religion. But when the reformers +proceeded thence to dispute concerning the nature of the sacraments, the +operations of grace, the terms of acceptance with the Deity, men were +thrown into amazement, and were, during some time, at a loss how to +choose their party. The profound ignorance in which both the clergy and +laity formerly lived, and their freedom from theological altercations, +had produced a sincere but indolent acquiescence in received opinions; +and the multitude were neither attached to them by topics of reasoning, +nor by those prejudices and antipathies against opponents, which +have ever a more natural and powerful influence over them. As soon, +therefore, as a new opinion was advanced, supported by such an authority +as to call up their attention, they felt their capacity totally unfitted +for such disquisitions; and they perpetually fluctuated between the +contending parties. Hence the quick and violent movements by which the +people were agitated, even in the most opposite directions: hence their +seeming prostitution, in sacrificing to present power the most sacred +principles: and hence the rapid progress during some time, and the +sudden as well as entire check soon after, of the new doctrines. When +men were once settled in their particular sects, and had fortified +themselves in an habitual detestation of those who were denominated +heretics, they adhered with more obstinacy to the principles of their +education; and the limits of the two religions thenceforth remained +fixed and unchangeable. + +Nothing more forwarded the first progress of the reformers, than the +offer which they made of submitting all religious doctrines to private +judgment, and the summons given every one to examine the principles +formerly imposed upon him. Though the multitude were totally unqualified +for this undertaking, they yet were highly pleased with it. They fancied +that they were exercising their judgment, while they opposed to the +prejudices of ancient authority more powerful prejudices of another +kind. The novelty itself of the doctrines; the pleasure of an imaginary +triumph in dispute; the fervent zeal of the reformed preachers; their +patience, and even alacrity, in suffering persecution, death, +and torments; a disgust at the restraints of the old religion; +an indignation against the tyranny and interested spirit of the +ecclesiastics; these motives were prevalent with the people, and by such +considerations were men so generally induced, during that age, to throw +off the religion of their ancestors. + +But in proportion as the practice of submitting religion to private +judgment was acceptable to the people, it appeared in some respects +dangerous to the rights of sovereigns, and seemed to destroy that +implicit obedience on which the authority of the civil magistrate +is chiefly founded. The very precedent of shaking so ancient and +deep-founded an establishment as that of the Romish hierarchy, might, it +was apprehended, prepare the way for other innovations. The republican +spirit which naturally took place among the reformers, increased this +jealousy. The furious insurrections of the populace, excited by Muncer +and other Anabaptists in Germany,[*] furnished a new pretence for +decrying the reformation. Nor ought we to conclude, because Protestants +in our time prove as dutiful subjects as those of any other communion, +that therefore such apprehensions were altogether without any shadow of +plausibility. Though the liberty of private judgment be tendered to the +disciples of the reformation, it is not in reality accepted of; and men +are generally contented to acquiesce implicitly in those establishments, +however new, into which their early education has thrown them. + + * Sleidan, lib. iv. and v. + +No prince in Europe was possessed of such absolute authority as Henry, +not even the pope himself, in his own capital, where he united both the +civil and ecclesiastical powers; [*] [9] and there was small likelihood, +that any doctrine which lay under the imputation of encouraging sedition +could ever pretend to his favor and countenance. + + * See note I, at the end of the volume. + +But besides this political jealousy, there was another reason which +inspired this imperious monarch with an aversion to the reformers. He +had early declared his sentiments against Luther; and having entered the +lists in those scholastic quarrels, he had received from his courtiers +and theologians infinite applause for his performance. Elated by this +imaginary success, and blinded by a natural arrogance and obstinacy of +temper, he had entertained the most lofty opinion of his own erudition; +and he received with impatience, mixed with contempt, any contradiction +to his sentiments. Luther also had been so imprudent as to treat in a +very indecent manner his royal antagonist; and though he afterwards made +the most humble submissions to Henry, and apologized for the vehemence +of his former expressions, he never could efface the hatred which the +king had conceived against him and his doctrines. The idea of heresy +still appeared detestable as well as formidable to that prince; +and whilst his resentment against the see of Rome had corrected one +considerable part of his early prejudices, he had made it a point of +honor never to relinquish the remainder. Separate as he stood from the +Catholic church, and from the Roman pontiff, the head of it, he still +valued himself on maintaining the Catholic doctrine, and or guarding, by +fire and sword, the imagined purity of his speculative principles. + +Henry’s ministers and courtiers were of as motley a character as his +conduct; and seemed to waver, during this whole reign, between the +ancient and the new religion. The queen, engaged by interest as well +as inclination, favored the cause of the reformers: Cromwell, who was +created secretary of state, and who was daily advancing in the king’s +confidence, had embraced the same views; and as he was a man of prudence +and abilities, he was able, very effectually, though in a covert manner, +to promote the late innovations: Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, +had secretly adopted the Protestant tenets; and he had gained Henry’s +friendship by his candor and sincerity; virtues which he possessed in +as eminent a degree as those times, equally distracted with faction and +oppressed by tyranny, could easily permit. On the other hand, the duke +of Norfolk adhered to the ancient faith, and by his high rank, as well +as by his talents, both for peace and war, he had great authority in +the king’s council: Gardiner, lately created bishop of Winchester, had +enlisted himself in the same party; and the suppleness of his character, +and dexterity of his conduct, had rendered him extremely useful to it. + +All these ministers, while they stood in the most irreconcilable +opposition of principles to each other, were obliged to disguise +their particular opinions, and to pretend an entire agreement with +the sentiments of their master. Cromwell and Cranmer still carried the +appearance of a conformity to the ancient speculative tenets; but they +artfully made use of Henry’s resentment to widen the breach with the see +of Rome. Norfolk and Gardiner feigned an assent to the king’s supremacy, +and to his renunciation of the sovereign pontiff; but they encouraged +his passion for the Catholic faith, and instigated him to punish those +daring heretics who had presumed to reject his theological principles. +Both sides hoped, by their unlimited compliance, to bring him over +to their party: the king, meanwhile, who held the balance between the +factions, was enabled, by the courtship paid him both by Protestants +and Catholics, to assume an unbounded authority: and though in all +his measures he was really driven by his ungoverned humor, he casually +steered a course which led more certainly to arbitrary power, than any +which the most profound politics could have traced out to him. Artifice, +refinement, and hypocrisy, in his situation, would have put both parties +on their guard against him, and would have taught them reserve in +complying with a monarch whom they could never hope thoroughly to have +gained;* but while the frankness, sincerity, and openness of Henry’s +temper were generally known, as well as the dominion of his furious +passions, each side dreaded to lose him by the smallest opposition, and +flattered themselves that a blind compliance with his will would throw +him cordially and fully into their interests. + +The ambiguity of the king’s conduct, though it kept the courtiers in +awe, served, in the main, to encourage the Protestant doctrine among his +subjects, and promoted that spirit of innovation with which the age was +generally seized, and which nothing but an entire uniformity, as will as +a steady severity in the administration, could be able to repress. +There were some Englishmen, Tindal, Joye, Constantine, and others, who, +dreading the exertion of the king’s authority had fled to Antwerp;[*] +where the great privileges possessed by the Low Country provinces +served, during some time, to give them protection. These men employed +themselves in writing English books against the corruptions of the +church of Rome; against images, relics, pilgrimages; and they excited +the curiosity of men with regard to that question, the most important in +theology, the terms of acceptance with the Supreme Being, In conformity +to the Lutherans and other Protestants, they asserted that salvation +was obtained by faith alone; and that the most infallible road to +perdition[**] was a reliance on “good works;” by which terms they +understood as well the moral duties as the ceremonial and monastic +observances. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 159. + + ** Sacrilegium est et impietas velle placere Deo per opera + et non per solam fidem. Luther adversus regem. Ita vides + quam dives sit homo Christianus sive baptizatus, qui etiam + volens non protest perdere salutem suam quantiscunque + peccatis. Nulla enim peccata possunt eum damnare nisi + incredulitas. Id. de Captivitate Bábyloniea. + +The defenders of the ancient religion, on the other hand, maintained +the efficacy of good works; but though they did not exclude from this +appellation the social virtues, it was still the superstitions gainful +to the church which they chiefly extolled and recommended. The books +composed by these fugitives, having stolen over to England, began to +make converts every where; but it was a translation of the Scriptures +by Tindal that was esteemed the most dangerous to the established faith. +The first edition of this work, composed with little accuracy, was found +liable to considerable objections; and Tindal, who was poor, and could +not afford to lose a great part of the impression, was longing for +an opportunity of correcting his errors, of which he had been made +sensible. Tonstal, then bishop of London, soon after of Durham, a man of +great moderation, being desirous to discourage, in the gentlest manner, +these innovations, gave private orders for buying up all the copies that +could be found at Antwerp; and he burned them publicly in Cheapside. By +this measure he supplied Tindal with money, enabled him to print a new +and correct edition of his work, and gave great scandal to the people, +in thus committing to the flames the word of God.[*] + +The disciples of the reformation met with little severity during the +ministry of Wolsey, who, though himself a clergyman, bore too small a +regard to the ecclesiastical order to serve as an instrument of their +tyranny: it was even an article of impeachment against him,[**] that by +his connivance he had encouraged the growth of heresy, and that he had +protected and acquitted some notorious offenders. Sir Thomas More, +who succeeded Wolsey as chancellor, is at once an object deserving our +compassion, and an instance of the usual progress of men’s sentiments +during that age. This man, whose elegant genius and familiar +acquaintance with the noble spirit of antiquity had given him very +enlarged sentiments, and who had in his early years advanced principles +which even at present would be deemed somewhat too free, had, in the +course of events, been so irritated by polemics, and thrown into such a +superstitious attachment to the ancient faith, that few inquisitors have +been guilty of greater violence in their prosecution of heresy. Though +adorned with the gentlest manners, as well as the purest integrity, +he carried to the utmost height his aversion to heterodoxy; and James +Bainham, in particular, a gentleman of the Temple, experienced from him +the greatest severity. Bainham, accused of favoring the new opinions, +was carried to More’s house; and having refused to discover his +accomplices, the chancellor ordered him to be whipped in his presence, +and afterwards sent him to the Tower, where he himself saw him put to +the torture. The unhappy gentleman, overcome by all these severities, +abjured his opinions; but feeling afterwards the deepest compunction for +his apostasy, he openly returned to his former tenets, and even courted +the crown of martyrdom. He was condemned as an obstinate and relapsed +heretic, and was burned in Smithfîeld.[***] + + * Hall. fol. 186. Fox, vol. i. p. 138. Burnet, vol. i p. + 159. + + ** Articles of impeachment in Herbert. Burnet. + + *** Fox. Burnet, vol i. p. 165. + +Many were brought into the bishops’ courts for offences which appear +trivial, but which were regarded as symbols of the party: some for +teaching their children the Lord’s prayer in English; others for reading +the New Testament in that language, or for speaking against pilgrimages. +To harbor the persecuted preachers, to neglect the fasts of the church, +to declaim against the vices of the clergy, were capital offences. One +Thomas Bilney, a priest, who had embraced the new doctrine, had been +terrified into an abjuration; but was so haunted by remorse, that his +friends dreaded some fatal effects of his despair. At last, his mind +seemed to be more relieved; but this appearing calm proceeded only from +the resolution which he had taken of expiating his past offence by +an open confession of the truth, and by dying a martyr to it. He went +through Norfolk, teaching the people to beware of idolatry, and of +trusting for their salvation either to pilgrimages, or to the cowl of +St. Francis, to the prayers of the saints, or to images. He was soon +seized, tried in the bishop’s court, and condemned as a relapsed +heretic; and the writ was sent down to burn him. When brought to the +stake, he discovered such patience, fortitude, and devotion, that the +spectators were much affected with the horrors of his punishment; and +some mendicant friars who were present, fearing that his martyrdom would +be imputed to them, and make them lose those alms which they received +from the charity of the people, desired him publicly to acquit them[*] +of having any hand in his death. He willingly complied; and by this +meekness gained the more on the sympathy of the people. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 164. + +Another person, still more heroic, being brought to the stake for +denying the real presence, seemed almost in a transport of joy; and he +tenderly embraced the fagots which were to be the instruments of his +punishment, as the means of procuring him eternal rest. In short, the +tide turning towards the new doctrine, those severe executions, which, +in another disposition of men’s minds, would have sufficed to suppress +it, now served only to diffuse it the more among the people, and to +inspire them with horror against the unrelenting persecutors. + +But though Henry neglected not to punish the Protestant doctrine, which +he deemed heresy, his most formidable enemies, he knew, were the zealous +adherents to the ancient religion, chiefly the monks, who, having their +immediate dependence on the Roman pontiff, apprehended their own ruin +to be the certain consequence of abolishing his authority in England. +Peyto, a friar, preaching before the king, had the assurance to tell +him, “that many lying prophets had deceived him; but he, as a true +Micajah, warned him, that the dogs would lick his blood, as they had +done Ahab’s.”[*] The king took no notice of the insult; but allowed +the preacher to depart in peace. Next Sunday he employed Dr. Corren to +preach before him; who justified the king’s proceedings, and gave Peyto +the appellations of a rebel, a slanderer, a dog, and a traitor. Elston, +another friar of the same house, interrupted the preacher, and told +him that he was one of the lying prophets, who sought to establish by +adultery the succession of the crown; but that he himself would justify +all that Peyto had said. Henry silenced the petulant friar; but showed +no other mark of resentment than ordering Peyto and him to be summoned +before the council, and to be rebuked for their offence.[**] He even +here bore patiently some new instances of their obstinacy and arrogance: +when the earl of Essex, a privy councillor, told them that they deserved +for their offence to be thrown into the Thames, Elston replied that the +road to heaven lay as near by water as by land.[***] + + * Strype, vol. i. p. 167. + + ** Collier, vol. ii. p. 86. Burnet, vol. i. p. 151. + + *** Stowe, p. 562 + +But several monks were detected in a conspiracy, which, as it might have +proved more dangerous to the king, was on its discovery attended with +more fatal consequences to themselves. Elizabeth Barton, of Aldington, +in Kent, commonly called the “holy maid of Kent,” had been subject to +hysterical fits, which threw her body into unusual convulsions; and +having produced an equal disorder in her mind, made her utter strange +sayings, which, as she was scarcely conscious of them during the time, +had soon after entirely escaped her memory. The silly people in the +neighborhood were struck with these appearances, which they imagined to +be supernatural; and Richard Masters, vicar of the parish, a designing +fellow, founded on them a project, from which he hoped to acquire both +profit and consideration. He went to Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, +then alive; and having given him an account of Elizabeth’s revelations, +he so far wrought on that prudent but superstitious prelate, as to +receive orders from him to watch her in her trances, and carefully to +note down all her future sayings. The regard paid her by a person of so +high a rank, soon rendered her still more the object of attention to the +neighborhood; and it was easy for Masters to persuade them, as well as +the maid herself, that her ravings were inspirations of the Holy Ghost. +Knavery, as is usual, soon after succeeding to delusion, she learned to +counterfeit trances and she then uttered, in an extraordinary tone, +such speeches as were dictated to her by her spiritual director. Masters +associated with him Dr. Bocking, a canon of Canterbury; and their design +was to raise the credit of an image of the Virgin which stood in a +chapel belonging to Masters, and to draw to it such pilgrimages as +usually frequented the more famous images and relics. In prosecution of +this design, Elizabeth pretended revelations which directed her to have +recourse to that image for a cure; and being brought before it, in the +presence of a great multitude, she fell anew into convulsions: and +after distorting her limbs and countenance during a competent time, she +affected to have obtained a perfect recovery by the intercession of the +Virgin.[*] This miracle was soon bruited abroad; and the two priests, +finding the imposture to succeed beyond their own expectations, began +to extend their views, and to lay the foundation of more important +enterprises. They taught their penitent to declaim against the new +doctrines, which she denominated heresy; against innovations in +ecclesiastical government; and against the king’s intended divorce from +Catharine. She went so far as to assert, that if he prosecuted that +design, and married another, he should not be a king a month longer, and +should not an hour longer enjoy the favor of the Almighty, but should +die the death of a villain. Many monks throughout England, either from +folly or roguery, or from faction, which is often a complication of +both, entered into the delusion; and one Deering, a friar, wrote a book +of the revelations and prophecies of Elizabeth.[**] Miracles were daily +added to increase the wonder; and the pulpit every where resounded +with accounts of the sanctity and inspirations of the new prophetess. +Messages were carried from her to Queen Catharine, by which that +princess was exhorted to persist in her opposition to the divorce; the +pope’s ambassadors gave encouragement to the popular credulity; and even +Fisher, bishop of Rochester, though a man of sense and learning, was +carried away by an opinion so favorable to the party which he had +espoused.[***] + + * Stowe, p. 570. Blanquet’s Epitome of Chronicler. + + ** Strype, vol. i. p. 181. + + *** Collier, vol. ii. p. 87 + +The king at last began to think the matter worthy of his attention; and +having ordered Elizabeth and her accomplices to be arrested, he brought +them before the star chamber, where they freely, without being put +to the torture made confession of their guilt. The parliament, in the +session held the beginning of this year, passed an act of attainder +against some who were engaged in this treasonable imposture,[*] and +Elizabeth herself, Masters, Bocking, Deering, Rich, Risby, Gold, +suffered for their crime. The bishop of Rochester, Abel, Addison, +Lawrence, and others were condemned for misprision of treason; because +they had not discovered some criminal speeches which they heard from +Elizabeth;[**] and they were thrown into prison. The better to undeceive +the multitude, the forgery of many of the prophetess’s miracles was +detected; and even the scandalous prostitution of her manners was +laid open to the public. Those passions which so naturally insinuate +themselves amidst the warm intimacies maintained by the devotees of +different sexes, had taken place between Elizabeth and her confederates; +and it was found that a door to her dormitory, which was said to have +been miraculously opened, in order to give her access to the chapel, for +the sake of frequent converse with Heaven, had been contrived by Bocking +and Masters for less refined purposes. + + * 25 Henry VIII. cap. 12. Burnet, vol. i. p. 149. Hall, fol. + 220. + + ** Godwin’s Annals, p. 53. + +{1535.} The detection of this imposture, attended with so many odious +circumstances, both hurt the credit of the ecclesiastics, particularly +the monks, and instigated the king to take vengeance on them. He +suppressed three monasteries of the Observantine friars; and finding +that little clamor was excited by this act of power, he was the more +encouraged to lay his rapacious hands on the remainder. Meanwhile he +exercised punishment on individuals who were obnoxious to him. The +parliament had made it treason to endeavor depriving the king of his +dignity or titles: they had lately added to his other titles, that of +supreme head of the church: it was inferred, that to deny his supremacy +was treason; and many priors and ecclesiastics lost their lives for this +new species of guilt. It was certainly a high instance of tyranny to +punish the mere delivery of a political opinion, especially one that +nowise affected the king’s temporal right, as a capital offence, though +attended with no overt act; and the parliament, in passing this law, +had overlooked all the principles by which a civilized, much more a free +people, should be governed: but the violence of changing so suddenly the +whole system of government, and making it treason to deny what during +many ages it had been heresy to assert, is an event which may appear +somewhat extraordinary. Even the stern, unrelenting mind of Henry was at +first shocked with these sanguinary measures; and he went so far as to +change his garb and dress; pretending sorrow for the necessity by which +he was pushed to such extremities. Still impelled, however, by his +violent temper, and desirous of striking a terror into the whole nation, +he proceeded, by making examples of Fisher and More, to consummate his +lawless tyranny. + +John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, was a prelate eminent for learning and +morals, still more than for his ecclesiastical dignities, and for the +high favor which he had long enjoyed with the king; When he was thrown +into prison, on account of his refusing the oath which regarded the +succession, and his concealment of Elizabeth Barton’s treasonable +speeches, he had not only been deprived of all his revenues, but +stripped of his very clothes, and, without consideration of his extreme +age, he was allowed nothing but rags, which scarcely sufficed to +cover his nakedness.[*] In this condition he lay in prison above a +twelvemonth; when the pope, willing to recompense the sufferings of +so faithful an adherent, created him a cardinal though Fisher was so +indifferent about that dignity, that, even if the purple were lying at +his feet, he declared that he would not stoop to take it. This promotion +of a man merely for his opposition to royal authority, roused the +indignation of the king; and he resolved to make the innocent person +feel the effects of his resentment. Fisher was indicted for denying the +king’s supremacy, was tried, condemned, and beheaded. + + * Fuller’s Church Hist. book v. p. 203. + +The execution of this prelate was intended as a warning to More, whose +compliance, on account of his great authority both abroad and at home, +and his high reputation for learning and virtue, was anxiously desired +by the king. That prince also bore as great personal affection and +regard to More, as his imperious mind, the sport of passions, was +susceptible of towards a man who in any particular opposed his violent +inclinations. But More could never be prevailed on to acknowledge any +opinion so contrary to his principles as that of the king’s supremacy; +and though Henry exacted that compliance from the whole nation, there +was as yet no law obliging any one to take an oath to that purpose. +Rich, the solicitor-general, was sent to confer with More, then a +prisoner, who kept a cautious silence with regard to the supremacy: +he was only inveigled to say, that any question with regard to the law +which established that prerogative was a two-edged sword; if a person +answer one way, it will confound his soul; if another, it will destroy +his body. No more was wanted to found an indictment of high treason +against the prisoner. His silence was called malicious, and made a part +of his crime; and these words, which had casually dropped from him, +were interpreted as a denial of the supremacy.[*] Trials were mere +formalities during this reign: the jury gave sentence against More, who +had long expected this fate, and who needed no preparation to fortify +him against the terrors of death. Not only his constancy, but even his +cheerfulness, nay, his usual facetiousness, never forsook him; and +he made a sacrifice of his life to his integrity, with the same +indifference that he maintained in any ordinary occurrence. When he was +mounting the scaffold, he said to one, “Friend, help me up; and when I +come down again, let me shift for myself.” The executioner asking him +forgiveness, he granted the request, but told him, “You will never get +credit by beheading me, my neck is so short.” Then laying his head on +the block, he bade the executioner stay till he put aside his beard: +“For,” said he, “it never committed treason.” Nothing was wanting to the +glory of this end, except a better cause, more free from weakness and +superstition. But as the man followed his principles and sense of duty, +however misguided, his constancy and integrity are not the less objects +of our admiration. He was beheaded in the fifty-third year of his age. + + * More’s Life of Sir Thomas More. Herbert, p. 393 + +When the execution of Fisher and More was reported at Rome, especially +that of the former, who was invested with the dignity of cardinal, every +one discovered the most violent rage against the king; and numerous +libels were published by the wits and orators of Italy, comparing him +to Caligula, Nero, Domitian, and all the most unrelenting tyrants of +antiquity. Clement VII. had died about six months after he pronounced +sentence against the king; and Paul III., of the name of Farnese, had +succeeded to the papal throne. This pontiff, who while cardinal, had +always favored Henry’s cause, had hoped that personal animosities +being buried with his predecessor, might not be impossible to form +an agreement with England: and the king himself was so desirous of +accommodating matters, that in a negotiation which he entered into with +Francis a little before this time, he required that that monarch should +conciliate a friendship between him and the court of Rome. But Henry +was accustomed to prescribe, not to receive terms; and even while he was +negotiating for peace, his usual violence often carried him to commit +offences which rendered the quarrel totally incurable. The execution of +Fisher was regarded by Paul as so capital an injury, that he immediately +passed censures against the king, citing him and all his adherents to +appear in Rome within ninety days, in order to answer for their crimes: +if they failed, he excommunicated them; deprived the king of his crown; +laid the kingdom under an interdict; declared his issue by Anne Boleyn +illegitimate; dissolved all leagues which any Catholic princes had made +with him; gave his kingdom to any invader; commanded the nobility to +take arms against him; freed his subjects from all oaths of allegiance; +cut off their commerce with foreign states; and declared it lawful for +any one to seize them, to make slaves of their persons, and to convert +their effects to his own use.[*] But though these censures were passed, +they were not at that time openly denounced; the pope delayed the +publication till he should find an agreement with England entirely +desperate; and till the emperor, who was at that time hard pressed +by the Turks and the Protestant princes in Germany, should be in a +condition to carry the sentence into execution. + +The king knew that he might expect any injury which it should be in +Charles’s power to inflict; and he therefore made it the chief object +of his policy to incapacitate that monarch from wreaking his resentment +upon him.[**] + + * Sanders, p. 148. + + ** Herbert, p. 350, 351. + +He renewed his friendship with Francis, and opened negotiations for +marrying his infant daughter, Elizabeth, with the duke of Angoulême, +third son of Francis. These two monarchs also made advances to the +princes of the Protestant league in Germany, ever jealous of the +emperor’s ambition; and Henry, besides remitting them some money, sent +Fox, bishop of Hereford, as Francis did Bellay, lord of Langley, to +treat with them. But during the first fervors of the reformation, +an agreement in theological tenets was held, as well as a union of +interests, to be essential to a good correspondence among states; and +though both Francis and Henry flattered the German princes with hopes of +their embracing the confession of Augsbourg, it was looked upon as a +bad symptom of their sincerity, that they exercised such extreme +rigor against all preachers of the reformation in their respective +dominions.[*] Henry carried the feint so far, that, while he thought +himself the first theologian in the world, he yet invited over +Melaricthon, Bucer, Sturmius, Draco, and other German divines, that +they might confer with him, and instruct him in the foundation of their +tenets. These theologians were now of great importance in the world; and +no poet or philosopher, even in ancient Greece, where they were treated +with most respect, had ever reached equal applause and admiration with +those wretched composers of metaphysical polemics. The German princes +told the king, that they could not spare their divines; and as Henry +had no hopes of agreement with such zealous disputants, and knew that in +Germany the followers of Luther would not associate with the disciples +of Zuinglius, because, though they agreed in every thing else, they +differed in some minute particulars with regard to the eucharist, he was +the more indifferent on account of this refusal. He could also foresee, +that even while the league of Smalcalde did not act in concert with him, +they would always be carried by their interests to oppose the emperor: +and the hatred between Francis and that monarch was so inveterate, +that he deemed himself sure of a sincere ally in one or other of these +potentates. + + * Sleidan, lib. 10. + +{1536.} During these negotiations, an incident happened in England, +which promised a more amicable conclusion of those disputes, and seemed +even to open the way for a reconciliation between Henry and Charles. +Queen Catharine was seized with a lingering illness, which at last +brought her to her grave; she died at Kimbolton, in the county of +Huntingdon, in the fiftieth year of her age. A little before she +expired, she wrote a very tender letter to the king, in which she gave +him the appellation of “her most dear lord, king, and husband.” She told +him that as the hour of her death was now approaching, she laid hold +of this last opportunity to inculcate on him the importance of his +religious duty, and the comparative emptiness of all human grandeur and +enjoyment; that though his fondness towards these perishable advantages +had thrown her into many calamities, as well as created to himself +much trouble, she yet forgave him all past injuries, and hoped that his +pardon would be ratified in Heaven; and that she had no other request +to make, than to recommend to him his daughter, the sole pledge of +their loves; and to crave his protection for her maids and servants. She +concluded with these words: “I make this vow, that mine eyes desire +you above all things.”[*] The king was touched, even to the shedding +of tears, by this last tender proof of Catharine’s affection; but Queen +Anne is said to have expressed her joy for the death of a rival beyond +what decency or humanity could permit.[**] + +The emperor thought that, as the demise of his aunt had removed all +foundation of personal animosity between him and Henry, it might not now +be impossible to detach him from the alliance of France, and to renew +his own confederacy with England, from which he had formerly reaped so +much advantage. He sent Henry proposals for a return to ancient amity, +upon these conditions:[***] that he should be reconciled to the see of +Rome, that he should assist him in his war with the Turk, and that he +should take part with him against Francis, who now threatened the duchy +of Milan. The king replied, that he was willing to be on good terms +with the emperor, provided that prince would acknowledge that the former +breach of friendship came entirely from himself: as to the conditions +proposed, the proceedings against the bishop of Rome were so just, and +so fully ratified by the parliament of England, that they could not +now be revoked; when Christian princes should have settled peace among +themselves, he would not fail to exert that vigor which became him, +against the enemies of the faith; and after amity with the emperor +was once fully restored, he should then be in a situation, as a common +friend both to him and Francis, either to mediate an agreement between +them, or to assist the injured party. + + * Herbert, p. 403. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 192 + + *** Du Bellai, liv. v. Herbert. Burnet, vol. iii. in Coll. + No· 60. + +What rendered Henry more indifferent to the advances made by the emperor +was, both his experience of the usual duplicity and insincerity of +that monarch, and the intelligence which he received of the present +transactions in Europe. Francis Sforza, duke of Milan, had died without +issue; and the emperor maintained that the duchy, being a fief of the +empire, was devolved to him, as head of the Germanic body: not to give +umbrage, however, to the states of Italy, he professed his intention of +bestowing that principality on some prince who should be obnoxious to no +party, and he even made offer of it to the duke of Angoulême, third +son of Francis. The French monarch, who pretended that his own right to +Milan was now revived upon Sforza’s death, was content to substitute his +second son, the duke of Orleans, in his place; and the emperor pretended +to close with this proposal. But his sole intention in that liberal +concession was to gain time till he should put himself in a warlike +posture, and be able to carry an invasion into Francis’s dominions. The +ancient enmity between these, princes broke out anew in bravadoes, and +in personal insults on each other, ill becoming persons of their rank, +and still less suitable to men of such unquestioned bravery. Charles +soon after invaded Provence in person, with an army of fifty thousand +men; but met with no success. His army perished with sickness, fatigue, +famine, and other disasters; and he was obliged to raise the siege of +Marseilles, and retire into Italy with the broken remains of his forces. +An army of imperialists, near thirty thousand strong, which invaded +France on the side of the Netherlands, and laid siege to Peronne, made +no greater progress, but retired upon the approach of a French army. And +Henry had thus the satisfaction to find, both that his ally Francis was +likely to support himself without foreign assistance, and that his own +tranquillity was fully insured by these violent wars and animosities on +the continent. + +If any inquietude remained with the English court, it was solely +occasioned by the state of affairs in Scotland. James, hearing of the +dangerous situation of his ally Francis, generously levied some forces; +and embarking them on board vessels which he had hired for that purpose, +landed them safely in France. He even went over in person; and making +haste to join the camp of the French king, which then lay in Provence, +and to partake of his danger, he met that prince at Lyons, who, having +repulsed the emperor, was now returning to his capital. Recommended by +so agreeable and seasonable an instance of friendship, the king of Scots +paid his addresses to Magdalen, daughter of the French monarch; and +this prince had no other objection to the match than what arose from the +infirm state of his daughter’s health, which seemed to threaten her +with an approaching end. But James having gained the affections of the +princess, and obtained her consent, the father would no longer oppose +the united desires of his daughter and his friend: they were accordingly +married, and soon after set sail for Scotland, where the young queen, as +was foreseen, died in a little time after her arrival. Francis, however, +was afraid lest his ally Henry, whom he likewise looked on as his +friend, and who lived with him on a more cordial footing than is usual +among great princes, should be displeased that this close confederacy +between France and Scotland was concluded without his participation. He +therefore despatched Pommeraye to London, in order to apologize for this +measure; but Henry, with his usual openness and freedom, expressed such +displeasure, that he refused even to confer with the ambassador; and +Francis was apprehensive of a rupture with a prince who regulated +his measures more by humor and passion than by the rules of political +prudence. But the king was so fettered by the opposition in which he +was engaged against the pope and the emperor, that he pursued no further +this disgust against Francis; and in the end, every thing remained in +tranquillity both on the side of France and of Scotland. + +The domestic peace of England seemed to be exposed to more hazard by the +violent innovations in religion; and it may be affirmed that, in this +dangerous conjuncture, nothing insured public tranquillity so much as +the decisive authority acquired by the king, and his great ascendant +over all his subjects. Not only the devotion paid to the crown was +profound during that age: the personal respect inspired by Henry was +considerable; and even the terrors with which he overawed every one, +were not attended with any considerable degree of hatred. His frankness, +his sincerity, his magnificence, his generosity, were virtues which +counterbalanced his violence, cruelty, and impetuosity. And the +important rank which his vigor, more than his address, acquired him in +all foreign negotiations, flattered the vanity of Englishmen, and made +them the more willingly endure those domestic hardships to which they +were exposed. The king, conscious of his advantages, was now proceeding +to the most dangerous exercise of his authority; and after paving the +way for that measure by several preparatory expedients, he was at last +determined to suppress the monasteries, and to put himself in possession +of their ample revenues. + +The great increase of monasteries, if matters be considered merely in +a political light, will appear the radical inconvenience of the +Catholic religion; and every other disadvantage attending that +communion seems to have an inseparable connection with these religious +institutions. Papal usurpations, the tyranny of the inquisition, the +multiplicity of holidays; all these fetters on liberty and industry were +ultimately derived from the authority and insinuation of monks, whose +habitations, being established every where, proved so many seminaries +of superstition and of folly. This order of men was extremely enraged +against Henry, and regarded the abolition of the papal authority in +England as the removal of the sole protection which they enjoyed against +the rapacity of the crown and of the courtiers. They were now subjected +to the king’s visitation; the supposed sacredness of their bulls from +Rome was rejected; the progress of the reformation abroad, which had +every where been attended with the abolition of the monastic orders, +gave them reason to apprehend like consequences in England; and though +the king still maintained the doctrine of purgatory, to which most of +the convents owed their origin and support, it was foreseen, that, in +the progress of the contest, he would every day be led to depart +wider from ancient institutions, and be drawn nearer the tenets of the +reformers, with whom his political interests naturally induced him to +unite. Moved by these considerations, the friars employed all their +influence to inflame the people against the king’s government; and +Henry, finding their safety irreconcilable with his own, was determined +to seize the present opportunity, and utterly destroy his declared +enemies. + +Cromwell, secretary of state, had been appointed vicar-general, or +vicegerent, a new office, by which the king’s supremacy, or the absolute +uncontrollable power assumed over the church, was delegated to him. He +employed Layton, London, Price, Gage, Petre, Bellasis, and others, as +commissioners who carried on every where a rigorous inquiry with +regard to the conduct and deportment of all the friars. During times of +faction, especially of the religious kind, no equity is to be expected +from adversaries; and as it was known, that the king’s intention in this +visitation was to find a pretence for abolishing monasteries, we may +naturally conclude, that the reports of the commissioners are very +little to be relied on. Friars were encouraged to bring in informations +against their brethren; the slightest evidence was credited; and even +the calumnies spread abroad by the friends of the reformation, were +regarded as grounds of proof. Monstrous disorders are therefore said to +have been found in many of the religious houses; whole convents of women +abandoned to lewdness; signs of abortions procured, of infants murdered, +of unnatural lusts between persons of the same sex. It is indeed +probable, that the blind submission of the people, during those ages, +would render the friars and nuns more unguarded and more dissolute +than they are in any Roman Catholic country at present; but still the +reproaches, which it is safest to credit, are such as point at vices +naturally connected with the very institution of convents, and with +the monastic life. The cruel and inveterate factions and quarrels, +therefore, which the commissioners mentioned, are very credible among +men, who, being confined together within the same walls, never can +forget their mutual animosities, and who, being cut off from all the +most endearing connections of nature, are commonly cursed with hearts +more selfish, and tempers more unrelenting, than fall to the share +of other men. The pious frauds practised to increase the devotion +and liberality of the people, may be regarded as certain, in an order +founded on illusions, lies, and superstition. The supine idleness also, +and its attendant, profound ignorance, with which the convents were +reproached, admit of no question; and though monks were the true +preservers, as well as inventors, of the dreaming and captious +philosophy of the schools, no manly or elegant knowledge could be +expected among men, whose lives, condemned to a tedious uniformity, +and deprived of all emulation, afforded nothing to raise the mind or +cultivate the genius. + +Some few monasteries, terrified with this rigorous inquisition carried +on by Cromwell and his commissioners, surrendered their revenues into +the king’s hands; and the monks received small pensions as the reward of +their obsequiousness. Orders were given to dismiss such nuns and +friars as were below four and twenty, whose vows were, on that account, +supposed not to be binding. The doors of the convents were opened, even +to such as were above that age; and every one recovered his liberty who +desired it. But as all these expedients did not fully answer the +king’s purpose, he had recourse to his usual instrument of power, the +parliament; and in order to prepare men for the innovations projected, +the report of the visitors was published, and a general horror was +endeavored to be excited n the nation against institutions, which, to +their ancestors had been the objects of the most profound veneration. + +The king, though determined utterly to abolish the monastic order, +resolved to proceed gradually in this great work; and he gave directions +to the parliament to go no further, at present, than to suppress the +lesser monasteries, which possessed revenues below two hundred pounds a +year.[*] These were found to be the most corrupted, as lying less under +the restraint of shame, and being exposed to less scrutiny;[**] and it +was deemed safest to begin with them, and thereby prepare the way +for the greater innovations projected. By this act three hundred and +seventy-six monasteries were suppressed, and their revenues, amounting +to thirty-two thousand pounds a year, were granted to the king; besides +their goods, chattels, and plate, computed at a hundred thousand pounds +more.[***] It does not appear that any opposition was made to this +important law: so absolute was Henry’s authority[****] A court, called +the court of augmentation of the king’s revenue, was erected for the +management of these funds. The people naturally concluded from this +circumstance, that Henry intended to proceed in despoiling the church of +her patrimony.[v] + +The act formerly passed, empowering the king to name thirty-two +commissioners for framing a body of canon law, was renewed; but the +project was never carried into execution. Henry thought, that the +present perplexity of that law increased his authority, and kept the +clergy in still greater dependence. + +Further progress was made in completing the union of Wales with England: +the separate jurisdictions of several great lords, or marchers, as +they were called, which obstructed the course of justice in Wales, and +encouraged robbery and pillaging, were abolished; and the authority of +the king’s courts was extended every where. Some jurisdictions of a like +nature in England were also abolished this session. + + + * 27 Henry VIII. c. 28. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 193. + + *** It is pretended, (see Holingshed, p. 939,) that ten + thousand monks wore turned out on the dissolution of the + lesser monasteries. If so, most of them must have been + mendicants; for the revenue could not have supported near + that number. The mendicants, no doubt, still continued their + former profession. + + **** 27 Henry VIII. c. 27. + + v 27 Henry VIII. c. 4 + + +The commons, sensible that they had gained nothing by opposing the +king’s will when he formerly endeavored to secure the profits of +wardships and liveries, were now contented to frame a law,[*] such as he +dictated to them. It was enacted, that the possession of land shall be +adjudged to be in those who have the use of it, not in those to whom it +is transferred in trust. + + * 27 Henry VIII. c. 10. + +After all these laws were passed, the king dissolved the parliament; a +parliament memorable, not only for the great and important innovations +which it introduced, but also for the long time it had sitten, and the +frequent prorogations which it had undergone. Henry had found it so +obsequious to his will, that he did not choose, during those religious +ferments, to hazard a new election; and he continued the same parliament +above six years: a practice at that time unusual in England. + +The convocation which sat during this session was engaged in a very +important work, the deliberating on the new translation which was +projected of the Scriptures. The translation given by Tindal, though +corrected by himself in a new edition, was still complained of by the +clergy as inaccurate and unfaithful; and it was now proposed to them, +that they should themselves publish a translation which would not be +liable to those objections. + +The friends of the reformation asserted, that nothing could be more +absurd than to conceal, in an unknown tongue, the word of God itself, +and thus to counteract the will of Heaven, which, for the purpose +of universal salvation, had published that salutary doctrine to all +nations: that if this practice were not very absurd, the artifice at +least was very gross, and proved a consciousness, that the glosses and +traditions of the clergy stood in direct opposition to the original +text, dictated by supreme intelligence: that it was now necessary for +the people, so long abused by interested pretensions, to see with their +own eyes, and to examine whether the claims of the ecclesiastics were +founded on that charter which was on all hands acknowledged to be +derived from Heaven: and that, as a spirit of research and curiosity +was happily revived, and men were now obliged to make a choice among +the contending doctrines of different sects, the proper materials for +decision, and above all, the Holy Scriptures, should be set before them; +and the revealed will of God, which the change of language had somewhat +obscured, be again, by their means, revealed to mankind. + +The favorers of the ancient religion maintained, on the other hand, that +the pretence of making the people see with their own eyes was a mere +cheat, and was itself a very gross artifice, by which the new preachers +hoped to obtain the guidance of them, and to seduce them from those +pastors whom the laws, whom ancient establishments, whom Heaven itself, +had appointed for their spiritual direction: that the people were by +their ignorance, their stupidity, their necessary avocations, totally +unqualified to choose their own principles; and it was a mockery to set +materials before them, of which they could not possibly make any proper +use: that even in the affairs of common life, and in their temporal +concerns, which lay more within the compass of human reason, the laws +had in a great measure deprived them of the right of private judgment, +and had, happily for their own and the public interest, regulated their +conduct and behavior: that theological questions were placed far beyond +the sphere of vulgar comprehension; and ecclesiastics themselves, though +assisted by all the advantages of education, erudition, and an assiduous +study of the science, could not be fully assured of a just decision, +except by the promise made them in Scripture, that God would be ever +present with his church, and that the gates of hell should not prevail +against her: that the gross errors adopted by the wisest heathens, +proved how unfit men were to grope their own way through this profound +darkness; nor would the Scriptures, if trusted to every man’s judgment, +be able to remedy; on the contrary, they would much augment, those fatal +illusions: that sacred writ itself was involved in so much obscurity, +gave rise to so many difficulties, contained so many appearing +contradictions, that it was the most dangerous weapon that could be +intrusted into the hands of the ignorant and giddy multitude: that the +poetical style in which a great part of it was composed, at the same +time that it occasioned uncertainty in the sense, by its multiplied +tropes and figures, was sufficient to kindle the zeal of fanaticism, +and thereby throw civil society into the most furious combustion: that a +thousand sects must arise, which would pretend, each of them, to derive +its tenets from the Scripture; and would be able, by specious arguments, +or even without specious arguments, to seduce silly women and ignorant +mechanics into a belief of the most monstrous principles: and that if +ever this disorder, dangerous to the magistrate himself, received a +remedy, it must be from the tacit acquiescence of the people in some +new authority; and it was evidently better, without further contest or +inquiry, to adhere peaceably to ancient, and therefore the more secure +establishments. + +These latter arguments, being more agreeable to ecclesiastical +governments, would probably have prevailed in the convocation, had it +not been for the authority of Cranmer, Latimer, and some other bishops, +who were supposed to speak the king’s sense of the matter. A vote was +passed for publishing a new translation of the Scriptures; and in three +years’ time the work was finished, and printed at Paris. This was deemed +a great point gained by the reformers, and a considerable advancement +of their cause. Further progress was soon expected, after such important +successes. + +But while the retainers to the new religion were exulting in their +prosperity, they met with a mortification which seemed to blast all +their hopes: their patroness, Anne Boleyn, possessed no longer the +king’s favor; and soon after lost her life by the rage of that furious +monarch. Henry had persevered in his love to this lady during six years +that his prosecution of the divorce lasted; and the more obstacles he +met with to the gratification of his passion, the more determined +zeal did he exert in pursuing his purpose. But the affection which had +subsisted, and still increased under difficulties, had not long attained +secure possession of its object, when it languished from satiety; and +the king’s heart was apparently estranged from his consort. Anne’s +enemies soon perceived the fatal change; and they were forward to widen +the breach, when they found that they incurred no danger by interposing +in those delicate concerns. She had been delivered of a dead son; and +Henry’s extreme fondness for male issue being thus for the present +disappointed, his temper, equally violent and superstitious, was +disposed to make the innocent mother answerable for the misfortune.[*] +But the chief means which Anne’s enemies employed to inflame the king +against her, was his jealousy. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 196. + +Anne, though she appears to have been entirely innocent, and even +virtuous in her conduct, had a certain gayety, if not levity of +character which threw her off her guard, and made her less circumspect +than her situation required. Her education in France rendered her the +more prone to those freedoms; and it was with difficulty she conformed +herself to that strict ceremonial practised in the court of England. +More vain than haughty, she was pleased to see the influence of +her beauty on all around her; and she indulged herself in an easy +familiarity with persons who were formerly her equals, and who might +then have pretended to her friendship and good graces. Henry’s dignity +was offended with these popular manners; and though the lover had been +entirely blind, the husband possessed but too quick discernment +and penetration. III instruments interposed, and put a malignant +interpretation on the harmless liberties of the queen: the viscountess +of Rocheford, in particular, who was married to the queen’s brother, but +who lived on bad terms with her sister-in-law, insinuated the most cruel +suspicions into the king’s mind; and as she was a woman of a profligate +character, she paid no regard either to truth or humanity in those +calumnies which she suggested. She pretended that her own husband was +engaged in a criminal correspondence with his sister; and not content +with this imputation, she poisoned every action of the queen’s, and +represented each instance of favor, which she conferred on any one, as +a token of affection. Henry Norris, groom of the stole, Weston and +Brereton, gentlemen of the king’s chamber, together with Mark Smeton, +groom of the chamber, were observed to possess much of the queen’s +friendship; and they served her with a zeal and attachment, which, +though chiefly derived from gratitude, might not improbably be seasoned +with some mixture of tenderness for so amiable a princess. The king’s +jealousy laid hold of the slightest circumstance; and finding no +particular object on which it could fasten, it vented itself equally on +every one that came within the verge of its fury. + +Had Henry’s jealousy been derived from love, though it might on a sudden +have proceeded to the most violent extremities, it would have been +subject to many remorses and contrarieties; and might at last have +served only to augment that affection on which it was founded. But it +was a more stern jealousy, fostered entirely by pride: his love was +transferred to another object. Jane, daughter of Sir John Seymour, and +maid of honor to the queen, a young lady of singular beauty and merit, +had obtained an entire ascendant over him; and he was determined to +sacrifice every thing to the gratification of this new appetite. Unlike +to most monarchs, who judge lightly of the crime of gallantry, and who +deem the young damsels of their court rather honored than disgraced by +their passion, he seldom thought of any other attachment than that +of marriage; and in order to attain this end, he underwent more +difficulties, and committed greater crimes, than those which he sought +to avoid by forming that legal connection And having thus entertained +the design of raising his new mistress to his bed and throne, he more +willingly hearkened to every suggestion which threw any imputation of +guilt on the unfortunate Anne Boleyn. + +The king’s jealousy first appeared openly in a tilting at Greenwich, +where the queen happened to drop her handkerchief, an incident probably +casual, but interpreted by him as an instance of gallantry to some of +her paramours.[*] He immediately retired from the place; sent orders +to confine her to her chamber; arrested Norris, Brereton, Weston, and +Smeton, together with her brother Rocheford; and threw them into prison. +The queen, astonished at these instances of his fury, thought that he +meant only to try her; but finding him in earnest, she reflected on +his obstinate, unrelenting spirit, and she prepared herself for that +melancholy doom which was awaiting her. Next day, she was sent to +the Tower; and on her way thither, she was informed of her supposed +offences, of which she had hitherto been ignorant: she made earnest +protestations of her innocence; and when she entered the prison, she +fell on her knees, and prayed God so to help her, as she was not guilty +of the crime imputed to her. Her surprise and confusion threw her into +hysterical disorders; and in that situation she thought that the +best proof of her innocence was to make an entire confession; and she +revealed some indiscretions and levities, which her simplicity had +equally betrayed her to commit and to avow. She owned that she had once +rallied Norris on his delaying his marriage, and had told him that +he probably expected her when she should be a widow: she had reproved +Weston, she said, for his affection to a kinswoman of hers, and his +indifference towards his wife; but he told her that she had mistaken +the object of his affection, for it was herself; upon which she defied +him.[*] She affirmed that Smeton had never been in her chamber but +twice, when he played on the harpsichord; but she acknowledged that +he had once had the boldness to tell her that a look sufficed him. The +king, instead of being satisfied with the candor and sincerity of her +confession, regarded these indiscretions only as preludes to greater and +more criminal intimacies. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 198. + + ** Strype, vol. i. p. 281. + +Of all those multitudes whom the beneficence of the queen’s tamper had +obliged during her prosperous fortune, no one durst interpose between +her and the king’s fury; and the person whose advancement every breath +had favored, and every countenance had smiled upon, was now left +neglected and abandoned. Even her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, preferring +the connections of party to the ties of blood, was become her most +dangerous enemy; and all the retainers to the Catholic religion hoped +that her death would terminate the king’s quarrel with Rome, and leave +him again to his natural and early bent, which had inclined him to +maintain the most intimate union with the apostolic see. Cranmer alone, +of all the queen’s adherents, still retained his friendship for her; +and, as far as the king’s impetuosity permitted him, he endeavored to +moderate the violent prejudices entertained against her. + +The queen herself wrote Henry a letter from the Tower, full of the most +tender expostulations and of the warmest protestations of innocence.[*] +[10] This letter had no influence on the unrelenting mind of Henry, who +was determined to pave the way for his new marriage by the death of Anne +Boleyn. Morris, Weston, Brereton, and Smeton, were tried; but no legal +evidence was produced against them. The chief proof of their guilt +consisted in a hearsay from one Lady Wingfield, who was dead. Smeton was +prevailed on, by the vain hopes of life, to confess a criminal +correspondence with the queen;[**] but even her enemies expected little +advantage from this confession; for they never dared to confront him +with her; and he was immediately executed; as were also Brereton and +Weston. Norris had been much in the king’s favor, and an offer of life +was made him, if he would confess his crime and accuse the queen; but he +generously rejected the proposal, and said that in his conscience he +believed her entirely guiltless: but for his part, he could accuse her +of nothing, and he would rather die a thousand deaths than calumniate an +innocent person. + + * See note K, at the end of the volume. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 202. + +The queen and her brother were tried by a jury of peers consisting of +the duke of Suffolk, the marquis of Exeter, the earl of Arundel, and +twenty-three more: their uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided as high +steward. Upon what proof or pretence the crime of incest was imputed to +them, is unknown: the chief evidence, it is said, amounted to no +more than that Rocheford had been seen to lean on her bed before some +company. Part of the charge against her was that she had affirmed to her +minions, that the king never had her heart; and had said to each of them +apart, that she loved him better than any person whatsoever; “which was +to the slander of the issue begotten between the king and her.” By this +strained interpretation, her guilt was brought under the statute of the +twenty-fifth of this reign; in which it was declared criminal to +throw any slander upon the king, queen, or their issue. Such palpable +absurdities were at that time admitted; and they were regarded by the +peers of England as a sufficient reason for sacrificing an innocent +queen to the cruelty of their tyrant. Though unassisted by counsel, she +defended herself with presence of mind; and the spectators could not +forbear pronouncing her entirely innocent. Judgment, however, was given +by the court, both against the queen and Lord Rocheford; and her verdict +contained, that she should be burned or beheaded at the king’s pleasure. +When this dreadful sentence was pronounced, she was not terrified, but +lifting up her hands to heaven, said, “O Father! O Creator! thou who art +the way, the truth, and the life, thou knowest that I have not deserved +this fate;” and then turning to the judges, made the most pathetic +declarations of her innocence. + +Henry, not satisfied with this cruel vengeance, was resolved entirely +to annul his marriage with Anne Boleyn, and to declare her issue +illegitimate: he recalled to his memory, that a little after her +appearance in the English court, some attachment had been acknowledged +between her and the earl of Northumberland, then Lord Piercy; and he +now questioned that nobleman with regard to these engagements. +Northumberland took an oath before the two archbishops, that no contract +or promise of marriage had ever passed between them: he received the +sacrament upon it, before the duke of Norfolk and others of the privy +council; and this solemn act he accompanied with the most solemn +protestations of veracity.[*] The queen, however, was shaken by menaces +of executing the sentence against her in its greatest rigor, and was +prevailed on to confess in court some lawful impediment to her marriage +with the king.[**] The afflicted primate, who sat as judge, thought +himself obliged by this confession to pronounce the marriage null and +invalid. Henry, in the transports of his fury, did not perceive that +his proceedings were totally inconsistent, and that if her marriage +were from the beginning invalid, she could not possibly be guilty of +adultery. + + * Herbert, p. 384*[**missing period] + + ** Heylin, p. 94. + +The queen now prepared for suffering the death to which she was +sentenced. She sent her last message to the king, and acknowledged +the obligations which she owed him, in thus uniformly continuing his +endeavors for her advancement: from a private gentlewoman, she said, he +had first made her a marchioness, then a queen, and now, since he could +raise her no higher in this world, he was sending her to be a saint +in heaven. She then renewed the protestations of her innocence, and +recommended her daughter to his care. Before the lieutenant of the +Tower, and all who approached her, she made the like declarations; +and continued to behave herself with her usual serenity, and even with +cheerfulness. “The executioner,” she said to the lieutenant, “is, I +hear, very expert; and my neck is very slender:” upon which she grasped +it in her hand, and smiled. When brought, however, to the scaffold, +she softened her tone a little with regard to her protestations +of innocence. She probably reflected, that the obstinacy of Queen +Catharine, and her opposition to the king’s will, had much alienated him +from the lady Mary: her own maternal concern, therefore, for Elizabeth +prevailed in these last moments over that indignation which the unjust +sentence by which she suffered naturally excited in her. She said that +she was come to die, as she was sentenced, by the law: she would accuse +none, nor say any thing of the ground upon which she was judged. She +prayed heartily for the king; called him a most merciful and gentle +prince; and acknowledged that he had always been to her a good and +gracious sovereign; and if any one should think proper to canvass her +cause, she desired him to judge the best.[*] She was beheaded by the +executioner of Calais, who was sent for as more expert than any +in England. Her body was negligently thrown into a common chest of +elm-tree, made to hold arrows, and was buried in the Tower. + + * Burnet. vol. i. p. 205. + +The innocence of this unfortunate queen cannot reasonably be called in +question. Henry himself, in the violence of his rage, knew not whom to +accuse as her lover; and though he imputed guilt to her brother, and +four persons more, he was able to bring proof against none of them. The +whole tenor of her conduct forbids us to ascribe to her an abandoned +character, such as is implied in the king’s accusation: had she been so +lost to all prudence and sense of shame, she must have exposed herself +to detection, and afforded her enemies some evidence against her. But +the king made the most effectual apology for her, by marrying Jane +Seymour the very day after her execution.[*] His impatience to gratify +this new passion caused him to forgot all regard to decency; and his +cruel heart was not softened a moment by the bloody catastrophe of a +person who had so long been the object of his most tender affections. + +The lady Mary thought the death of her step-mother a proper opportunity +for reconciling herself to the king, who, besides other causes of +disgust, had been offended with her on account of the part which she had +taken in her mother’s quarrel. Her advances were not at first received; +and Henry exacted from her some further proofs of submission and +obedience: he required this young princess, then about twenty years of +age, to adopt his theological tenets; to acknowledge his supremacy; to +renounce the pope; and to own her mother’s marriage to be unlawful and +incestuous. These points were of hard digestion with the princess; but +after some delays, and even refusals, she was at last prevailed on to +write a letter to her father,[**] containing her assent to the +articles required of her; upon which she was received into favor. But +notwithstanding the return of the king’s affection to the issue of his +first marriage, he divested not himself of kindness towards the lady +Elizabeth; and the new queen, who was blessed with a singular sweetness +of disposition, discovered strong proofs of attachment towards her. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 297. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 207. Strype, vol. i. p. 285. + +The trial and conviction of Queen Anne, and the subsequent events, made +it necessary for the king to summon a new parliament; and he here, +in his speech, made a merit to his people, that, notwithstanding the +misfortunes attending his two former marriages, he had been induced for +their good to venture on a third. The speaker received this profession +with suitable gratitude; and he took thence occasion to praise the +king for his wonderful gifts of grace and nature: he compared him, for +justice and prudence, to Solomon; for strength and fortitude, to Samson; +and for beauty and comeliness, to Absalom. The king very humbly replied, +by the mouth cf the chancellor, that he disavowed these praises; since, +if he were really possessed of such endowments, they were the gift +of Almighty God only. Henry found that the parliament was no less +submissive in deeds than complaisant in their expressions, and that +they would go the same lengths as the former in gratifying even his most +lawless passions. His divorce from Anne Boleyn was ratified;[*] that +queen and all her accomplices were attainted; the issue of both his +former marriages were declared illegitimate, and it was even made +treason to assert the legitimacy of either of them; to throw any slander +upon the present king, queen, or their issue, was subjected to the same +penalty; the crown was settled on the king’s issue by Jane Seymour, or +any subsequent wife; and in case he should die without children, he was +empowered, by his will or letters patent, to dispose of the crown; an +enormous authority, especially when intrusted to a prince so violent and +capricious in his humor. Whoever, being required, refused to answer upon +oath to any article of this act of settlement, was declared to be guilty +of treason; and by this clause a species of political inquisition +was established in the kingdom, as well as the accusations of treason +multiplied to an unreasonable degree. The king was also empowered to +confer on any one, by his will or letters patent, any castles, honors, +liberties, or franchises; words which might have been extended to the +dismembering of the kingdom, by the erection of principalities and +independent jurisdictions. It was also, by another act, made treason +to marry, without the king’s consent, any princess related in the first +degree to the crown. This act was occasioned by the discovery of a +design formed by Thomas Howard, brother of the duke of Norfolk, to +espouse the lady Margaret Douglas, niece to the king, by his sister the +queen of Scots and the earl of Angus. Howard, as well as the young lady, +was committed to the Tower. She recovered her liberty soon after; but he +died in confinement. An act of attainder passed against him this session +of parliament. + + * The parliament, in annulling the king’s marriage with Anne + Boleyn, gives this as a reason, “For that his highness had + chosen to wife the excellent and virtuous Lady Jane, who, + for her convenient years, excellent beauty, and pureness of + flesh and blood, would be apt, God willing, to conceive + issue by his highness.” + +Another accession was likewise gained to the authority of the crown; +the king or any of his successors was empowered to repeal or annul, by +letters patent, whatever act of parliament had been passed before he was +four and twenty years of age. Whoever maintained the authority of the +bishop of Rome by word or writ, or endeavored in any manner to restore +it in England, was subjected to the penalty of a premunire that is, his +goods were forfeited, and he was put out of the protection of law. +And any person who possessed any office, ecclesiastical or civil, +or received any grant or charter from the crown, and yet refused to +renounce the pope by oath, was declared to be guilty of treason. The +renunciation prescribed runs in the style of, “So help me God, all +saints, and the holy evangelists.”[*] The pope, hearing of Anne +Boleyn’s disgrace and death, had hoped that the door was opened to a +reconciliation, and had been making some advances to Henry: but this was +the reception he met with. Henry was now become indifferent with regard +to papal censures; and finding a great increase of authority, as well as +of revenue, to accrue from his quarrel with Rome, he was determined to +persevere in his present measures. This parliament also, even more than +any foregoing, convinced him how much he commanded the respect of +his subjects, and what confidence he might repose in them. Though +the elections had been made on a sudden, without any preparation or +intrigue, the members discovered an unlimited attachment to his person +and government.[**] + + * 28 Henry VIII. c. 10. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 213. + +The extreme complaisance of the convocation, which sat at the same +time with the parliament, encouraged him in his resolution of breaking +entirely with the court of Rome. There was secretly a great division +of sentiments in the minds of this assembly; and as the zeal of the +reformers had been augmented by some late successes, the resentment of +the Catholics was no less excited by their fears and losses: but the +authority of the king kept every one submissive and silent; and the new +assumed prerogative, the supremacy, with whose limits no one was fully +acquainted, restrained even the most furious movements of theological +rancor. Cromwell presided as vicar-general; and though the Catholic +party expected, that on the fall of Queen Anne, his authority would +receive a great shock, they were surprised to find him still maintain +the same credit as before. With the vicar-general concurred Cranmer the +primate, Latimer, bishop of Worcester, Shaxton of Salisbury, Hilsey of +Rochester, Fox of Hereford, Barlow of St. David’s. The opposite faction +was headed by Lee, archbishop of York, Stokesley, bishop of London, +Tonstal of Durham, Gardner of Winchester, Longland of Lincoln, Sherborne +of Chichester, Nix of Norwich, and Kite of Carlisle. The former party, +by their opposition to the pope, seconded the king’s ambition and love +of power: the latter party, by maintaining the ancient theological +tenets, were more conformable to his speculative principles: and both of +them had alternately the advantage of gaining on his humor, by which he +was more governed than by either of these motives. + +The church in general was averse to the reformation; and the lower house +of convocation framed a list of opinions, in the whole sixty-seven, +which they pronounced erroneous, and which was a collection of +principles, some held by the ancient Lollards, others by the modern +Protestants, or Gospellers, as they were sometimes called. These +opinions they sent to the upper house to be censured; but in the +preamble of their representation, they discovered the servile spirit by +which they were governed. They said, “that they intended not to do +or speak any thing which might be unpleasant to the king, whom they +acknowledged their supreme head, and whose commands they were resolved +to obey; renouncing the pope’s usurped authority, with all his laws and +inventions, now extinguished and abolished; and addicting themselves to +Almighty God and his laws, and unto the king and the laws made within +this kingdom.”[*] + + * Collier, vol. ii. p. 119. + +The convocation came at last, after some debate, to decide articles of +faith; and their tenets were of as motley a kind as the assembly itself, +or rather as the king’s system of theology, by which they were resolved +entirely to square their principles. They determined the standard of +faith to consist in the Scriptures and the three creeds, the Apostolic, +Nicene, and Athanasian; and this article was a signal victory to the +reformers: auricular confession and penance were admitted, a doctrine +agreeable to the Catholics: no mention was made of marriage, extreme +unction, confirmation, or holy orders, as sacraments; and in this +omission the influence of the Protestants appeared: the real presence +was asserted conformably to the ancient doctrine: the terms of +acceptance were established to be the merits of Christ, and the mercy +and good pleasure of God, suitably to the new principles. + +So far the two sects seem to have made a fair partition by alternately +sharing the several clauses. In framing the subsequent articles, each of +them seems to have thrown in its ingredient. The Catholics prevailed +in asserting, that the use of images was warranted by Scripture; the +Protestants, in warning the people against idolatry, and the abuse +of these sensible representations. The ancient faith was adopted in +maintaining the expedience of praying to saints; the late innovations in +rejecting the peculiar patronage of saints to any trade, profession, or +course of action. The former rites of worship, the use of holy water, +and the ceremonies practised on Ash Wednesday, Palm Sunday, Good Friday, +and other festivals, were still maintained; but the new refinements, +which made light of these institutions, were also adopted, by the +convocation’s denying that they had any immediate power of remitting +sin, and by its asserting that their sole merit consisted in promoting +pious and devout dispositions in the mind. + +But the article with regard to purgatory contains the most curious +jargon, ambiguity, and hesitation, arising from the mixture of opposite +tenets. It was to this purpose: “Since, according to due order of +charity, and the book of Maccabees, and divers ancient authors, it is a +very good and charitable deed to pray for souls departed, and since such +a practice has been maintained in the church from the beginning, all +bishops and teachers should instruct the people not to be grieved for +the continuance of the same. But since the place where departed souls +are retained before they reach paradise, as well as the nature of their +pains, is left uncertain by Scripture, all such questions are to be +submitted to God, to whose mercy it is meet and convenient to commend +the deceased, trusting that he accepteth our prayers for them.”[*] + + * Collier, vol. ii. p. 122, et seq. Fuller. Burnet, vol. i. + p. 215. + +These articles, when framed by the convocation, and corrected by the +king, were subscribed by every member of that assembly; while, perhaps, +neither there nor throughout the whole kingdom, could one man be found, +except Henry himself, who had adopted precisely these very doctrines and +opinions. For though there be not any contradiction in the tenets +above mentioned, it had happened in England, as in all countries where +factious divisions have place; a certain creed was embraced by each +party; few neuters were to be found; and these consisted only of +speculative or whimsical people, of whom two persons could scarcely +be brought to an agreement in the same dogmas. The Protestants, all of +them, carried their opposition to Rome further than those articles; none +of the Catholics went so far: and the king, by being able to retain +the nation in such a delicate medium, displayed the utmost power of an +imperious despotism of which any history furnishes an example. To change +the religion of a country, even when seconded by a party, is one of the +most perilous enterprises which any sovereign can attempt, and often +proves the most destructive to royal authority. But Henry was able to +set the political machine in that furious movement, and yet regulate and +even stop its career: he could say to it, Thus far shalt thou go, and +no farther: and he made every vote of his parliament and convocation +subservient, not only to his interests and passions, but even to +his greatest caprices; nay, to his most refined and most scholastic +subtilties. + +The concurrence of these two national assemblies served, no doubt, to +increase the king’s power over the people, and raised him to an +authority more absolute than any prince in a simple monarchy, even by +means of military force, is ever able to attain. But there are certain +bounds, beyond which the most slavish submission cannot be extended. All +the late innovations, particularly the dissolution of the smaller +monasteries, and the imminent danger to which all the rest were +exposed,[*] [11] had bred discontent among the people, and had disposed +them to revolt. The expelled monks, wandering about the country, excited +both the piety and compassion of men; and as the ancient religion took +hold of the populace by powerful motives, suited to vulgar capacity, it +was able, now that it was brought into apparent hazard, to raise the +strongest zeal in its favor.[**] Discontents had even reached some of +the nobility and gentry, whose ancestors had founded the monasteries, +and who placed a vanity in those institutions, as well as reaped some +benefit from them, by the provisions which they afforded them for their +younger children. + + * See note L, at the end of the volume. + + ** Strype, vol. i. p. 249. + +The more superstitious were interested for the souls of their +fore-fathers, which, they believed, must now lie during many ages in +the torments of purgatory, for want of masses to relieve them. It seemed +unjust to abolish pious institutions for the faults, real or pretended, +of individuals. Even the most moderate and reasonable deemed it somewhat +iniquitous, that men who had been invited into a course of life by all +the laws, human and divine, which prevailed in their country, should be +turned out of their possessions, and so little care be taken of their +future subsistence. And when it was observed, that the rapacity and +bribery of the commissioners and others, employed in visiting the +monasteries, intercepted much of the profits resulting from these +confiscations, it tended much to increase the general discontent.[*] + +But the people did not break into open sedition till the complaints of +the secular clergy concurred with those of the regular. As Cromwell’s +person was little acceptable to the ecclesiastics, the authority which +he exercised, being so new, so absolute, so unlimited, inspired them +with disgust and terror. He published, in the king’s name, without the +consent either of parliament or convocation, an ordinance by which +he retrenched many of the ancient holy days; prohibited several +superstitions gainful to the clergy, such as pilgrimages, images, +relics; and even ordered the incumbents in the parishes to set apart a +considerable portion of their revenue for repairs and for the support of +exhibitioners and the poor of their parish. The secular priests, finding +themselves thus reduced to a grievous servitude, instilled into the +people those discontents which they had long harbored in their own +bosoms. + +The first rising was in Lincolnshire. It was headed by Dr. Mackrel, +prior of Barlings, who was disguised like a mean mechanic, and who +bore the name of Captain Cobler. This tumultuary army amounted to above +twenty thousand men;[**] but notwithstanding their number, they showed +little disposition of proceeding to extremities against the king, and +seemed still overawed by his authority. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 223. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 227. Herbert. + +They acknowledged him to be supreme head of the church of England; but +they complained of suppressing the monasteries, of evil counsellors, of +persons meanly born raised to dignity, of the danger to which the jewels +and plate of their parochial churches were exposed; and they prayed +the king to consult the nobility of the realm concerning the redress +of these grievances.[*] Henry was little disposed to entertain +apprehensions of danger, especially from a low multitude whom he +despised. He sent forces against the rebels, under the command of the +duke of Suffolk; and he returned them a very sharp answer to their +petition. There were some gentry whom the populace had constrained to +take part with them, and who kept a secret correspondence with Suffolk. +They informed him, that resentment against the king’s reply was the +chief cause which retained the malecontents in arms, and that a milder +answer would probably suppress the rebellion. Henry had levied a great +force at London, with which he was preparing to march against the +rebels; and being so well supported by power, he thought that, without +losing his dignity, he might now show them some greater condescension. +He sent a new proclamation, requiring them to return to their obedience, +with secret assurances of pardon. This expedient had its effect: the +populace was dispersed: Mackrel and some of their leaders fell into +the king’s hands, and were executed: the greater part of the multitude +retired peaceably to their usual occupations: a few of the more +obstinate fled to the north, where they joined the insurrection that was +raised in those parts. + +The northern rebels, as they were more numerous, were also on other +accounts more formidable than those of Lincolnshire; because the people +were there more accustomed to arms, and because of their vicinity to +the Scots, who might make advantage of these disorders. One Aske, a +gentleman, had taken the command of them, and he possessed the art of +governing the populace. Their enterprise they called the “pilgrimage +of grace:” some priests marched before in the habits of their order, +carrying crosses in their hands: in their banners was woven a crucifix, +with the representation of a chalice, and of the five wounds of +Christ:[**] they wore on their sleeve an emblem of the five wounds, with +the name of Jesus wrought in the middle: they all took an oath, that +they had entered into the pilgrimage of grace from no other motive than +their love to God, their care of the king’s person and issue, their +desire of purifying the nobility, of driving base-born persons from +about the king, of restoring the church, and of suppressing heresy. +Allured by these fair pretences, about forty thousand men from the +counties of York, Durham, Lancaster, and those northern provinces, +flocked to their standard; and their zeal, no less than their numbers, +inspired the court with apprehensions. + + * Herbert, p. 410. + + ** Fox, vol. ii. p. 992. + +The earl of Shrewsbury, moved by his regard for the king’s service, +raised forces, though at first without any commission, in order to +oppose the rebels. The earl of Cumberland repulsed them from his castle +of Skipton: Sir Ralph Evers defended Scarborough Castle against them:[*] +Courtney, marquis of Exeter, the king’s cousin-german, obeyed orders +from court, and levied troops. The earls of Huntingdon, Derby, and +Rutland imitated his example. The rebels, however, prevailed in taking +both Hull and York: they had laid siege to Pomfret Castle, into which +the archbishop of York and Lord Darsy had thrown themselves. It was soon +surrendered to them; and the prelate and nobleman, who secretly wished +success to the insurrection, seemed to yield to the force imposed on +them, and joined the rebels. + + * Stowe, p. 574. Baker, p. 258. + +The duke of Norfolk was appointed general of the king’s forces against +the northern rebels; and as he headed the party at court which supported +the ancient religion, he was also suspected of bearing some favor to the +cause which he was sent to oppose. His prudent conduct, however, seems +to acquit him of this imputation. He encamped near Doncaster, together +with the earl of Shrewsbury; and as his army was small, scarcely +exceeding five thousand men, he made choice of a post where he had a +river in front, the ford of which he purposed to defend against the +rebels. They had intended to attack him in the morning; but during +the night there fell such violent rains as rendered the river utterly +unpassable; and Norfolk wisely laid hold of the opportunity to enter +into treaty with them. In order to open the door for negotiation, +he sent them a herald; whom Aske, their leader, received with great +ceremony; he himself sitting in a chair of state, with the archbishop +of York on one hand, and Lord Darcy on the other. It was agreed that +two gentlemen should be despatched to the king with proposals from the +rebels; and Henry purposely delayed giving an answer, and allured them +with hopes of entire satisfaction, in expectation that necessity +would soon oblige them to disperse themselves. Being informed that his +artifice had in a great measure succeeded, he required them instantly +to lay down their arms, and submit to mercy; promising a pardon to all, +except six whom he named, and four whom he reserved to himself the power +of naming. But though the greater part of the rebels had gone home for +want of subs stence, they had entered into the most solemn engagements +to return to their standards in case the king’s answer should not +prove satisfactory. Norfolk, therefore, soon found himself in the same +difficulty as before; and he opened again a negotiation with the leaders +of the multitude. He engaged them to send three hundred persons to +Doncaster with proposals for an accommodation; and he hoped, by intrigue +and separate interests, to throw dissension among so great a number. +Aske himself had intended to be one of the deputies, and he required a +hostage for his security: but the king, when consulted, replied, that he +knew no gentleman, or other, whom he esteemed so little as to put him in +pledge for such a villain. The demands of the rebels were so exorbitant, +that Norfolk rejected them; and they prepared again to decide the +contest by arms. They were as formidable as ever, both by their numbers +and spirit; and notwithstanding the small river which lay between them +and the royal army, Norfolk had great reason to dread the effects of +their fury. But while they were preparing to pass the ford, rain fell +a second time in such abundance, as made it impracticable for them to +execute their design; and the populace, partly reduced to necessity by +want of provisions, partly struck with superstition at being thus again +disappointed by the same accident, suddenly dispersed themselves. The +duke of Norfolk, who had received powers for that end, forwarded the +dispersion by the promise of a general amnesty; and the king ratified +this act of clemency. He published, however, a manifesto against the +rebels, and an answer to their complaints; in which he employed a very +lofty style, suited to so haughty a monarch. He told them, that they +ought no more to pretend giving a judgment with regard to government, +that a blind man with regard to colors. “And we,” he added, “with our +whole council, think it right strange that ye, who be but brutes and +inexpert folk, do take upon you to appoint us who be meet or not for our +council.” + +{1537.} As this pacification was not likely to be of long continuance, +Norfolk was ordered to keep his army together, and to march into the +northern parts, in order to exact a general submission. Lord Darcy, as +well as Aske, was sent for to court; and the former, upon his refusal +or delay to appear, was thrown into prison. Every place was full +of jealousy and complaints. A new insurrection broke out, headed by +Musgrave and Tilby; and the rebels besieged Carlisle with thousand men. +Being repulsed by that city, they were encountered in their retreat by +Norfolk, who put them to flight; and having made prisoners of all their +officers, except Musgrave, who escaped, he instantly put them to death +by martial law, to the number of seventy persons. An attempt made by Sir +Francis Bigot and Halam to surprise Hull, met with no better success; +and several other risings were suppressed by the vigilance of Norfolk. +The king, enraged by these multiplied revolts, was determined not to +adhere to the general pardon which he had granted; and from a movement +of his usual violence he made the innocent suffer for the guilty. +Norfolk, by command from his master, spread the royal banner, and, +wherever he thought proper, executed martial law in the punishment of +offenders. Besides Aske, leader of the first insurrection, Sir Robert +Constable, Sir John Bulmer, Sir Thomas Piercy, Sir Stephen Hamilton, +Nicholas Tempest, William Lumley, and many others, were thrown into +prison; and most of them were condemned and executed. Lord Hussey was +found guilty, as an accomplice in the insurrection of Lincolnshire, and +was executed at Lincoln. Lord Darcy, though he pleaded compulsion, and +appealed for his justification to a long life spent in the service of +the crown, was beheaded on Tower Hill. Before his execution, he accused +Norfolk of having secretly encouraged the rebels; but Henry, either +sensible of that nobleman’s services, and convinced of his fidelity +or afraid to offend one of such extensive power and great capacity, +rejected the information. Being now satiated with punishing the rebels, +he published anew a general pardon, to which he faithfully adhered; +[*] and he erected, by patent, a court of justice at York, for deciding +lawsuits in the northern counties; a demand which had been made by the +rebels. + +Soon after this prosperous success, an event happened which crowned +Henry’s joy--the birth of a son, who was baptized by the name of +Edward. Yet was not his happiness without alloy: the queen died two days +after.** + + * Herbert, p. 428. + + ** Strype, vol. ii. p. 6. + +But a son had so long been ardently wished for by Henry, and was now +become so necessary, in order to prevent disputes with regard to the +succession, after the acts declaring the two princesses illegitimate, +that the king’s affliction was drowned in his joy, and he expressed +great satisfaction on the occasion. The prince, not six days old, was +created prince of Wales, duke of Cornwall, and earl of Chester. Sir +Edward Seymour, the queen’s brother, formerly made Lord Beauchamp, was +raised to the dignity of earl of Hertford. Sir William Fitz-Williams, +high admiral, was created earl of Southampton; Sir William Paulet, Lord +St. John; Sir John Russel, Lord Russel. + +{1538.} The suppression of the rebellion and the birth of a son, as they +confirmed Henry’s authority at home, increased his consideration among +foreign princes, and made his alliance be courted by all parties. He +maintained, however, a neutrality in the wars which were carried on with +various success, and without any decisive event, between Charles and +Francis; and though inclined more to favor the latter, he determined not +to incur, without necessity, either hazard or expense on his account. A +truce concluded about this time between these potentates, and afterwards +prolonged for ten years, freed him from all anxiety on account of his +ally, and reestablished the tranquillity of Europe. + +Henry continued desirous of cementing a union with the German +Protestants; and for that purpose he sent Christopher Mount to a +congress which they held at Brunswick; but that minister made no great +progress in his negotiation. The princes wished to know what were the +articles in their confession which Henry disliked; and they sent new +ambassadors to him, who had orders both to negotiate and to dispute. +They endeavored to convince the king, that he was guilty of a mistake +in administering the eucharist in one kind only, in allowing private +masses, and in requiring the celibacy of the clergy.[*] + + * Collier, vol. ii. p. 145, from the Cott. Lib. Cleopatra, + E. 5, fol 173. + +Henry would by no means acknowledge any error in these particulars; and +was displeased that they should pretend to prescribe rules to so great +a monarch and theologian. He found arguments and syllogisms enough to +defend his cause; and he dismissed the ambassadors without coming to +any conclusion. Jealous, also, lest his own subjects should become +such theologians as to question his tenets, he used great precaution +in publishing that translation of the Scripture which was finished this +year. He would only allow a copy of it to be deposited in some parish +churches, where it was fixed by a chain: and he took care to inform the +people by proclamation, “that this indulgence was not the effect of +his duty, but of his goodness and his liberality to them: who therefore +should use it moderately, for the increase of virtue, not of strife: and +he ordered that no man should read the Bible aloud, so as to disturb +the priest while he sang mass, nor presume to expound doubtful places +without advice from the learned.” In this measure, as in the rest, he +still halted half way between the Catholics and the Protestants. + +There was only one particular in which Henry was quite decisive; because +he was there impelled by his avarice, or, more properly-speaking, his +rapacity, the consequence of his profusion: this measure was the entire +destruction of the monasteries. The present opportunity seemed favorable +for that great enterprise, while the suppression of the late rebellion +fortified and increased the royal authority; and as some of the +abbots were suspected of having encouraged the insurrection, and of +corresponding with the rebels, the king’s resentment was further incited +by that motive. Anew visitation was appointed of all the monasteries in +England; and a pretence only being wanted for their suppression, it was +easy for a prince, possessed of such unlimited power, and seconding the +present humor of a great part of the nation, to find or feign one. The +abbots and monks knew the danger to which they were exposed; and having +learned by the example of the lesser monasteries that nothing +could withstand the king’s will, they were most of them induced, in +expectation of better treatment, to make a voluntary resignation of +their houses. Where promises failed of effect, menaces and even extreme +violence were employed; and as several of the abbots, since the breach +with Rome, had been named by the court with a view to this event, the +king’s intentions were the more easily effected. Some, also, having +secretly embraced the doctrine of the reformation, were glad to be freed +from their vows; and on the whole, the design was conducted with such +success, than in less than two years the king had got possession of all +the monastic revenues. + +In several places, particularly the county of Oxford, great interest was +made to preserve some convents of women, who, as they lived in the most +irreproachable manner, justly merited, it was thought, that their houses +should be saved from the general destruction.[*] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 328. + +There appeared, also, great difference between the case of nuns and that +of friars; and the one institution might be laudable, while the other +was exposed to much blame. The males of all ranks, if endowed with +industry might be of service to the public; and none of them could want +employment suited to his station and capacity. But a woman of family who +failed of a settlement in the married state,--an accident to which such +persons were more liable than women of lower station,--had really +no rank which she properly filled; and a convent was a retreat both +honorable and agreeable, from the inutility, and often want, which +attended her situation. But the king was determined to abolish +monasteries of every denomination; and probably thought that these +ancient establishments would be the sooner forgotten, if no remains of +them of any kind were allowed to subsist in the kingdom. + +The better to reconcile the people to this great innovation, stories +were propagated of the detestable lives of the friars in many of the +convents; and great care was taken to defame those whom the court had +determined to ruin. The relics also and other superstitions, which had +so long been the object of the people’s veneration, were exposed to +their ridicule; and the religious spirit, now less bent on exterior +observances and sensible objects, was encouraged in this new direction. +It is needless to be prolix in an enumeration of particulars: Protestant +historians mention on this occasion, with great triumph, the sacred +repositories of convents; the parings of St. Edmond’s toes; some of +the coals that roasted St. Laurence; the girdle of the Virgin shown in +eleven several places; two or three heads of St. Ursula; the felt of St +Thomas of Lancaster, an infallible cure for the headache; part of St. +Thomas of Canterbury’s shirt, much reverenced by big-bellied women; some +relics, an excellent preventive against rain; others, a remedy to weeds +in corn. But such fooleries, as they are to be found in all ages +and nations, and even took place during the most refined periods of +antiquity, form no particular or violent reproach to the Catholic +religion. + +There were also discovered, or said to be discovered, in the monasteries +some impostures of a more artificial nature. At Hales, in the county +of Glocester, there had been shown, during several ages, the blood of +Christ, brought from Jerusalem; and it is easy to imagine the veneration +with which such a relic was regarded. A miraculous circumstance also +attended this miraculous relic; the sacred blood was not visible to any +one in mortal sin, even when set before him; and till he had performed +good works sufficient for his absolution, it would not deign to +discover itself to him. At the dissolution of the monastery, the whole +contrivance was detected. Two of the monks, who were let into the +secret, had taken the blood of a duck, which they renewed every +week: they put it in a phial, one side of which consisted of thin +and transparent crystal, the other of thick and opaque. When any rich +pilgrim arrived, they were sure to show him the dark side of the phial, +till masses and offerings had expiated his offences and then, finding +his money, or patience, or faith, nearly exhausted, they made him happy +by turning the phial.[*] + +A miraculous crucifix had been kept at Boxley, in Kent, and bore the +appellation of the “rood of grace.” The lips, and eyes, and head of +the image moved on the approach of its votaries. Hilsey, bishop of +Rochester, broke the crucifix at St. Paul’s Cross, and showed to the +whole people the springs and wheels by which it had been secretly moved. +A great wooden idol, revered in Wales, called Darvel Gatherin, was +also brought to London, and cut in pieces; and by a cruel refinement +in vengeance, it was employed as fuel to burn friar Forest,[**] who was +punished for denying the supremacy, and for some pretended heresies. +A finger of St. Andrew, covered with a thin plate of silver, had been +pawned by a convent for a debt of forty pounds; but as the king’s +commissioners refused to pay the debt, people made themselves merry with +the poor creditor on account of his pledge. + + * Herbert, p. 431, 432. Stowe, p. 575. + + ** Goodwin’s Annals. Stowe, p. 575. Herbert. Baker, p. 286. + +But of all the instruments of ancient superstition, no one was so +zealously destroyed as the shrine of Thomas à Becket, commonly called +St. Thomas of Canterbury. This saint owed his canonization to the +zealous defence which he had made for clerical privileges; and on +that account also the monks had extremely encouraged the devotion of +pilgrimages towards his tomb, and numberless were the miracles which +they pretended his relics wrought in favor of his devout votaries. They +raised his body once a year; and the day on which this ceremony was +performed, which was called the day of his translation, was a general +holiday: every fiftieth year there was celebrated a jubilee to his +honor, which lasted fifteen days: plenary indulgences were then granted +to all that visited his tomb; and a hundred thousand pilgrims have been +registered at a time in Canterbury. The devotion towards him had quite +effaced in that place the adoration of the Deity; nay, even that of the +Virgin. At God’s altar, for instance, there were offered in one year +three pounds two shillings and sixpence; at the Virgin’s, sixty-three +pounds five shillings and sixpence; at St. Thomas’s, eight hundred and +thirty-two pounds twelve shillings and threepence. But next year the +disproportion was still greater; there was not a penny offered at God’s +altar; the Virgin’s gained only four pounds one shilling and eight +pence; but St. Thomas had got for his share nine hundred and fifty-four +pounds six shillings and threepence.[*] Lewis VII. of France had made +a pilgrimage to this miraculous tomb, and had bestowed on the shrine a +jewel, esteemed the richest in Christendom. It is evident how obnoxious +to Henry a saint of this character must appear, and how contrary to all +his projects for degrading the authority of the court of Rome. He not +only pillaged the rich shrine dedicated to St. Thomas; he made the saint +himself be cited to appear in court, and be tried and condemned as +a traitor: he ordered his name to be struck out of the calendar; the +office for his festival to be expunged from all breviaries; his bones to +be burned, and the ashes to be thrown in the air. + +On the whole, the king at different times suppressed six hundred and +forty-five monasteries; of which twenty-eight had abbots that enjoyed a +seat in parliament. Ninety colleges were demolished in several counties; +two thousand three hundred and seventy-four chantries and free chapels; +a hundred and ten hospitals. The whole revenue of these establishments +amounted to one hundred and sixty-one thousand one hundred pounds.[**] +It is worthy of observation, that all the lands and possessions and +revenue of England had, a little before this period, been rated at four +millions a year; so that the revenues of the monks, even comprehending +the lesser monasteries, did not exceed the twentieth part of the +national income; a sum vastly inferior to what is commonly apprehended. +The lands belonging to the convents were usually let at very low rent; +and the farmers, who regarded themselves as a species of proprietors, +took always care to renew their leases before they expired.[***] [13] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 244. + + ** Lord Herbert. Camden. Speed. + + *** See note M, at the end of the volume. + +Great murmurs were every where excited on account of these violences; +and men much questioned whether priors and monks, who were only trustees +or tenants for life, could, by any deed, however voluntary, transfer to +the king the entire property of their estates, In order to reconcile the +people to such mighty innovations, they were told that the king would +never thenceforth have occasion to levy taxes, but would be able, from +the abbey lands alone, to bear, during war as well as peace, the whole +charges of government.[*] While such topics were employed to appease the +populace, Henry took an effectual method of interesting the nobility and +gentry in the success of his measures:[**] he either made a gift of the +revenues of convents to his favorites and courtiers, or sold them at low +prices, or exchanged them for other lands on very disadvantageous terms. +He was so profuse in these liberalities, that he is said to have given +a woman the whole revenue of a convent, as a reward for making a pudding +which happened to gratify his palate.[***] He also settled pensions on +the abbots and priors, proportioned to their former revenues or to their +merits; and gave each monk a yearly pension of eight marks: he erected +six new bishoprics, Westminster, Oxford, Peterborough, Bristol, Chester, +and Glocester; of which five subsist at this day: and by all these means +of expense and dissipation, the profit which the king reaped by the +seizure of church lands fell much short of vulgar opinion. As the ruin +of convents had been foreseen some years before it happened, the monks +had taken care to secrete most of their stock, furniture, and plate; so +that the spoils of the great monasteries bore not, in these respects, +any proportion to those of the lesser. + + * Coke’s 4th Inst. fol. 44. + + ** Dugdale’s Warwickshire, p. 800. + + *** Fuller. + +Besides the lands possessed by the monasteries, the regular clergy +enjoyed a considerable part of the benefices of England, and of the +tithes annexed to them; and these were also at this time transferred to +the crown, and by that means passed into the hands of laymen; an abuse +which many zealous churchmen regarded as the most criminal sacrilege. +The monks were formerly much at their ease in England, and enjoyed +revenues which exceeded the regular and stated expense of the house. We +read of the abbey of Chertsey, in Surrey, which possessed seven hundred +and forty-four pounds a year, though it contained only fourteen monks: +that of Furnese, in the county of Lincoln, was valued at nine hundred +and sixty pounds a year, and contained but thirty.[*] In order to +dissipate their revenues, and support popularity, the monks lived in a +hospitable manner; and besides the poor maintained from their offals, +there were many decayed gentlemen who passed their lives in travelling +from convent to convent, and were entirely subsisted at the tables of +the friars. By this hospitality, as much as by their own inactivity, +did the convents prove nurseries of idleness; but the king, not to give +offence by too sudden an innovation, bound the new proprietors of +abbey lands to support the ancient hospitality. But this engagement was +fulfilled in very few places, and for a very short time. + + * Burnet, vol. i p. 237. + +It is easy to imagine the indignation with which the intelligence of +all these acts of violence was received at Rome; and how much the +ecclesiastics of that court, who had so long kept the world in +subjection by high-sounding epithets and by holy execrations, would now +vent their rhetoric against the character and conduct of Henry. The pope +was at last incited to publish the bull which had been passed against +that monarch; and in a public manner he delivered over his soul to the +devil, and his dominions to the first invader. Libels were dispersed, in +which he was anew compared to the most furious persecutors in antiquity; +and the preference was now given to their side: he had declared war with +the dead, whom the pagans themselves respected; was at open hostility +with Heaven; and had engaged in professed enmity with the whole host +of saints and angels. Above all, he was often reproached with his +resemblance to the emperor Julian, whom, it was said, he imitated in +his apostasy and learning, though he fell short of him in morals. Henry +could distinguish in some of these libels the style and animosity of +his kinsman Pole; and he was thence incited to vent his rage, by every +possible expedient, on that famous cardinal. + +Reginald de la Pole, or Reginald Pole, was descended from the royal +family, being fourth son of the countess of Salisbury, daughter of the +duke of Clarence. He gave in early youth indications of that fine genius +and generous disposition by which, during his whole life, he was so +much distinguished and Henry, having conceived great friendship for him, +intended to raise him to the highest ecclesiastical dignities; and, as +a pledge of future favors, he conferred on him the deanery of Exeter,[*] +the better to support him in his education. Pole was carrying on his +studies in the university of Paris at the time when the king solicited +the suffrages of that learned body in favor of his divorce; but though +applied to by the English agent, he declined taking any part in the +affair. Henry bore this neglect with more temper than was natural +to him; and he appeared unwilling, on that account, to renounce all +friendship with a person whose virtues and talents, he hoped, would +prove useful as well as ornamental to his court and kingdom. He allowed +him still to possess his deanery, and gave him permission to finish his +studies at Padua: he even paid him some court, in order to bring him +into his measures; and wrote to him, while in that university, desiring +him to give his opinion freely with regard to the late measures taken in +England for abolishing the papal authority. Pole had now contracted an +intimate friendship with all persons eminent for dignity or merit in +Italy--Sadolet, Bembo, and other revivers of true taste and learning; +and he was moved by these connections, as well as by religious zeal, to +forget, in some respect, the duty which he owed to Henry, his benefactor +and his sovereign. He replied by writing a treatise of the Unity of the +Church, in which he inveighed against the king’s supremacy, his divorce, +his second marriage; and he even exhorted the emperor to revenge on him +the injury done to the imperial family and to the Catholic cause. +Henry, though provoked beyond measure at this outrage, dissembled his +resentment; and he sent a message to Pole, desiring him to return to +England, in order to explain certain passages in his book which he +found somewhat obscure and difficult. Pole was on his guard against this +insidious invitation; and was determined to remain in Italy, where he +was universally beloved. + +The pope and emperor thought themselves obliged to provide for a man +of Pole’s eminence and dignity, who, in support of their cause, had +sacrificed all his pretensions to fortune in his own country. He was +created a cardinal; and though he took not higher orders than those of a +deacon, he was sent legate into Flanders about the year 1536.[**] + + * Goodwin’s Annals + + ** Herbert. + +Henry was sensible that Pole’s chief intention in choosing that +employment, was to foment the mutinous disposition of the English +Catholics; and he therefore remonstrated in so vigorous a manner with +the queen of Hungary, regent of the Low Countries, that she dismissed +the legate, without allowing him to exercise his functions. The enmity +which he bore to Pole was now as open as it was violent; and the +cardinal, on his part, kept no further measures in his intrigues against +Henry. He is even suspected of having aspired to the crown, by means of +a marriage with the lady Mary; and the king was every day more alarmed +by informations which he received of the correspondence maintained in +England by that fugitive. Courtney, marquis of Exeter, had entered +into a conspiracy with him; Sir Edward Nevil, brother to the lord +Abergavenny; Sir Nicholas Carew, master of horse, and knight of the +garter; Henry de la Pole, Lord Montacute, and Sir Geoffrey de la Pole, +brothers to the cardinal. These persons were indicted, and tried, +and convicted, before Lord Audley, who presided in the trial as high +steward; they were all executed, except Sir Geoffrey de la Pole, who was +pardoned; and he owed this grace to his having first carried to the king +secret intelligence of the conspiracy. We know little concerning the +justice or iniquity of the sentence pronounced against these men: +we only know, that the condemnation of a man who was at that time +prosecuted by the court, forms no presumption of his guilt; though, +as no historian of credit mentions in the present case any complaint +occasioned by these trials, we may presume that sufficient evidence was +produced against the marquis of Exeter and his associates.[*] + + * Herbert in Kennet, p. 216. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. + + + + +HENRY VIII. + +{1538.} THE rough hand of Henry seemed well adapted for rending asunder +those bands by which the ancient superstition had fastened itself on +the kingdom; and though, after renouncing the pope’s supremacy and +suppressing monasteries, most of the political ends of reformation +were already attained, few people expected that he would stop at those +innovations. The spirit of opposition, it was thought, would carry him +to the utmost extremities against the church of Rome; and lead him +to declare war against the whole doctrine and worship, as well as +discipline, of that mighty hierarchy. He had formerly appealed from +the pope to a general council; but now, when a general council was +summoned to meet at Mantua, he previously renounced all submission to +it, as summoned by the pope, and lying entirely under subjection to that +spiritual usurper. He engaged his clergy to make a declaration to the +like purpose; and he had prescribed to them many other deviations +from ancient tenets and practices. Cranmner took advantage of every +opportunity to carry him on in this course; and while Queen Jane lived, +who favored the reformers, he had, by means of her insinuation and +address, been successful in his endeavors. After her death, Gardiner, +who was returned from his embassy to France, kept the king more in +suspense; and by feigning an unlimited submission to his will, was +frequently able to guide him to his own purposes. Fox, bishop of +Hereford, had supported Cranmer in his schemes for a more thorough +reformation; but his death had made way for the promotion of Bonner, +who, though he had hitherto seemed a furious enemy to the court of Rome, +was determined to sacrifice every thing to present interest, and +had joined the confederacy of Gardiner and the partisans of the old +religion. Gardiner himself, it was believed, had secretly entered into +measures with the pope, and even with the emperor; and in concert +with these powers, he endeavored to preserve, as much as possible, the +ancient faith and worship. + +Henry was so much governed by passion, that nothing could have retarded +his animosity and opposition against Rome, but some other passion, which +stopped his career, and raised him new objects of animosity. Though he +had gradually, since the commencement of his scruples with regard to his +first marriage, been changing the tenets of that theological system in +which he had been educated, he was no less positive and dogmatical in +the few articles which remained to him, than if the whole fabric had +continued entire and unshaken. And though he stood alone in his opinion, +the flattery of courtiers had so inflamed his tyrannical arrogance, that +he thought himself entitled to regulate, by his own particular standard, +the religious faith of the whole nation. The point on which he chiefly +rested his orthodoxy happened to be the real presence; that very +doctrine, in which, among the numberless victories of superstition +over common sense, her triumph is the most signal and egregious. All +departure from this principle he held to be heretical and detestable; +and nothing, he thought, would be more honorable for him, than, while he +broke off all connections with the Roman pontiff, to maintain, in this +essential article, the purity of the Catholic faith. + +There was one Lambert,[*] a schoolmaster in London, who had been +questioned and confined for unsound opinions by Archbishop Warham; but +upon the death of that prelate, and the change of counsels at court, he +had been released. Not terrified with the danger which he had incurred, +he still continued to promulgate his tenets; and having heard Dr. Taylor +afterwards bishop of Lincoln, defend in a sermon the corporal presence, +he could not forbear expressing to Taylor his dissent from that +doctrine; and he drew up his objections under ten several heads. Taylor +communicated the paper to Dr. Barnes, who happened to be a Lutheran, and +who maintained that though the substance of bread and wine remained, in +the sacrament, yet the real body and blood of Christ were there also, +and were, in a certain mysterious manner, incorporated with the material +elements. + + * Fox, vol. ii. p. 396. + +By the present laws and practice Barnes was no less exposed to the stake +than Lambert; yet such was the persecuting rage which prevailed, that +he determined to bring this man to condign punishment; because of their +common departure from the ancient faith, he had dared to go one step +farther than himself. He engaged Taylor to accuse Lambert before Cranmer +and Latimer, who, whatever their private opinion might be on these +points, were obliged to conform themselves to the standard of orthodoxy +established by Henry. When Lambert was cited before these prelates, they +endeavored to bend him to a recantation; and they were surprised when, +instead of complying, he ventured to appeal to the king. + +The king, not displeased with an opportunity where he could at once +exert his supremacy and display his learning, accepted the appeal; +and resolved to mix, in a very unfair manner, the magistrate with the +disputant. Public notice was given that he intended to enter the lists +with the schoolmaster: scaffolds were erected in Westminster Hall, +for the accommodation of the audience: Henry appeared on his throne +accompanied with all the ensigns of majesty: the prelates were placed +on his right hand: the temporal peers on his left. The judges and +most eminent lawyers had a place assigned them behind the bishops; the +courtiers of greatest distinction behind the peers; and in the midst +of this splendid assembly was produced the unhappy Lambert, who was +required to defend his opinions against his royal antagonist.[*] + +The bishop of Chichester opened the conference, by saying, that Lambert, +being charged with heretical pravity, had appealed from his bishop to +the king; as if he expected more favor from this application, and as +if the king could ever be induced to protect a heretic: that though +his majesty had thrown off the usurpations of the see of Rome; had +disincorporated some idle monks, who lived like drones in a beehive, had +abolished the idolatrous worship of images; had published the Bible +in English, for the instruction of all his subjects; and had made +some lesser alterations, which every one must approve of; yet was he +determined to maintain the purity of the Catholic faith, and to punish +with the utmost severity all departure from it; and that he had taken +the present opportunity, before so learned and grave an audience, of +convincing Lambert of his errors; but if he still continued obstinate in +them, he must expect the most condign punishment,[**] + + * Fox, vol. ii. p. 426 + + ** Goodwin’s Annals + +After this preamble, which was not very encouraging, the king asked +Lambert, with a stern countenance, what his opinion was of Christ’s +corporal presence in the sacrament of the altar; and when Lambert began +his reply with some compliment to his majesty, he rejected the praise +with disdain and indignation. He afterwards pressed Lambert with +arguments drawn from Scripture and the schoolmen: the audience applauded +the force of his reasoning, and the extent of his erudition: Cranmer +seconded his proofs by some new topics. Gardiner entered the lists as +a support to Cranmner: Tonstal took up the argument after Gardiner: +Stokesley brought fresh aid to Tonstal; six bishops more appeared +successively in the field after Stokesley. And the disputation, if it +deserve the name, was prolonged for five hours; till Lambert, fatigued, +confounded, browbeaten, and abashed, was at last reduced to silence. The +king, then returning to the charge, asked him whether he were convinced; +and he proposed, as a concluding argument, this interesting question: +Whether he were resolved to live or to die? Lambert, who possessed +that courage which consists in obstinacy, replied, that he cast himself +wholly on his majesty’s clemency: the king told him that he would be no +protector of heretics; and, therefore, if that were his final answer, +he must expect to be committed to the flames Cromwell, as vicegerent, +pronounced the sentence against him.[*] [14] + +Lambert, whose vanity had probably incited him the more to persevere on +account of the greatness of this public appearance, was not daunted +by the terrors of the punishment to which he was condemned. His +executioners took care to make the sufferings of a man who had +personally opposed the king as cruel as possible: he was burned at a +slow fire; his legs and thighs were consumed to the stumps; and when +there appeared no end of his torments, some of the guards, more merciful +than the rest, lifted him on their halberts and threw him into the +flames, where he was consumed. While they were employed in this friendly +office, he cried aloud several times, “None but Christ, none but +Christ!” and these words were in his mouth when he expired.[**] + +Some few days before this execution, four Dutch Anabaptists, three men +and a woman, had fagots tied to their backs at Paul’s Cross, and were +burned in that manner. Andaman and a woman of the same sect and country +were burned in Smithfield.[***] + + * See note N, at the end of the volume. + + ** Fox’s Acts and Monuments, p. 427. Burnet. + + *** Stow, p. 556. + +{1539.} It was the unhappy fate of the English during this age, that, +when they labored under any grievance, they had not the satisfaction of +expecting redress from parliament on the contrary, they had reason to +dread each meeting of that assembly, and were then sure of having +tyranny converted into law, and aggravated, perhaps, with some +circumstance which the arbitrary prince and his ministers had not +hitherto devised, or did not think proper of themselves to carry into +execution. This abject servility never appeared more conspicuously than +in a new parliament which the king now assembled, and which, if he had +been so pleased, might have been the last that ever sat in England. But +he found them too useful instruments of dominion ever to entertain +thoughts of giving them a total exclusion. + +The chancellor opened the parliament by informing the house of lords, +that it was his majesty’s earnest desire to extirpate from his kingdom +all diversity of opinion in matters of religion; and as this undertaking +was, he owned, important and arduous, he desired them to choose a +committee from among themselves, who might draw up certain articles +of faith; and communicate them afterwards to the parliament. The lords +named the vicar-general, Cromwell, now created peer, the archbishops of +Canterbury and York, the bishops of Durham, Carlisle, Worcester, Bath +and Wells, Bangor, and Ely. The house might have seen what a hopeful +task they had undertaken: this small committee itself was agitated with +such diversity of opinion, that it could come to no conclusion. The duke +of Norfolk then moved in the house, that, since there were no hopes of +having a report from the committee, the articles of faith intended to be +established should be reduced to six; and a new committee be appointed +to draw an act with regard to them. As this peer was understood to speak +the sense of the king, his motion was immediately complied with; and, +after a short prorogation, the bill of the “six articles,” or the bloody +bill, as the Protestants justly termed it, was introduced, and having +passed the two houses, received the royal assent. + +In this law the doctrine of the real presence was established, the +communion in one kind, the perpetual obligation of vows of chastity, the +utility of private masses, the celibacy of the clergy, and the necessity +of auricular confession. The denial of the first article, with regard +to the real presence, subjected the person to death by fire, and to the +same forfeiture as in cases of treason; and admitted not the privilege +of abjuring: an unheard-of severity, and unknown to the inquisition +itself The denial of any of the other five articles, even though +recanted, was punishable by the forfeiture of goods and chattels, and +imprisonment during the king’s pleasure: an obstinate adherence to +error, or a relapse, was adjudged to be felony, and punishable with +death. The marriage of priests was subjected to the same punishment. +Their commerce with women was, on the first offence, forfeiture and +imprisonment; on the second, death. The abstaining from confession, +and from receiving the eucharist at the accustomed times, subjected the +person to fine, and to imprisonment during the king’s pleasure; and if +the criminal persevered after conviction, he was punishable by death and +forfeiture, as in cases of felony.[*] Commissioners were to be appointed +by the king for inquiring into these heresies and irregular practices; +and the criminals were to be tried by a jury. + +The king in framing this law laid his oppressive hand on both parties; +and even the Catholics had reason to complain, that the friars and nuns, +though dismissed their convent, should be capriciously restrained to +the practice of celibacy:[**] [15] but as the Protestants were chiefly +exposed to the severity of the statute, the misery of adversaries, +according to the usual maxims of party, was regarded by the adherents +to the ancient religion as their own prosperity and triumph. Cranmer +had the courage to oppose this bill in the house; and though the king +desired him to absent himself, he could not be prevailed on to give this +proof of compliance.[***] Henry was accustomed to Cranmer’s freedom +and sincerity; and being convinced of the general rectitude of his +intentions, gave him an unusual indulgence in this particular, and +never allowed even a whisper against him. That prelate, however, was now +obliged, in obedience to the statute, to dismiss his wife, the niece of +Osiander, a famous divine of Nuremburg,[****] and Henry, satisfied with +this proof of submission, showed him his former countenance and favor. +Latimer and Shaxton threw up their bishoprics on account of the law, and +were committed to prison. + + * 31 Henry VIII. c. 14. Herbert in Kenuet, p. 219. + + ** See note O, at the 3 end of the volume. + + *** Burnet, vol. i. p. 249, 270. Fox, vol. ii. p. 1037. + + **** Herbert in Kennet, p. 219. + +The parliament, having thus resigned all their religious liberties, +proceeded to an entire surrender of their civil; and without scruple or +deliberation they made, by one act, a total subversion of the English +constitution. They gave to the king’s proclamation the same force as +to a statute enacted by parliament; and to render the matter worse, if +possible, they framed this law, as if it were only declaratory, and were +intended to explain the natural extent of royal authority. The preamble +contains, that the king had formerly set forth several proclamations +which froward persons had wilfully contemned, not considering what a +king, by his royal power, may do; that this license might encourage +offenders not only to disobey the laws of Almighty God, but also to +dishonor the king’s most royal majesty, “who may full ill bear it;” + that sudden emergencies often occur, which require speedy remedies, and +cannot await the slow assembling and deliberations of parliament; and +that, though the king was empowered by his authority, derived from God, +to consult the public good on these occasions, yet the opposition of +refractory subjects might push him to extremity and violence: for these +reasons the parliament, that they might remove all occasion of doubt, +ascertained by a statute this prerogative of the crown and enabled his +majesty, with the advice of his council, to set forth proclamations +enjoining obedience under whatever pains and penalties he should think +proper; and these proclamations were to have the force of perpetual +laws.[*] + + * 31 Henry VIII. c. 8. + +What proves either a stupid or a wilful blindness in the parliament, +is, that they pretended, even after this statute, to maintain some +limitations in the government; and they enacted, that no proclamation +should deprive any person of his lawful possessions, liberties, +inheritances, privileges, franchises; nor yet infringe any common law +or laudable custom of the realm. They did not consider, that no penalty +could be inflicted on the disobeying of proclamations, without invading +some liberty or property of the subject; and that the power of enacting +new laws, joined to the dispensing power then exercised by the crown, +amounted to a full legislative authority. It is true, the kings of +England had always been accustomed from their own authority to issue +proclamations, and to exact obedience to them; and this prerogative was, +no doubt, a strong symptom of absolute government: but still there was +a difference between a power which was exercised on a particular +emergence, and which must be justified by the present expedience or +necessity, and an authority conferred by a positive statute, which could +no longer admit of control or limitation. + +Could any act be more opposite to the spirit of liberty than this law, +it would have been another of the same parliament. They passed an act of +attainder, not only against the marquis of Exeter, the lords Montacute, +Darcy, Hussey, and others, who had been legally tried and condemned, +but also against some persons of the highest quality, who had never been +accused, or examined, or convicted. The violent hatred which Henry bore +to Cardinal Pole had extended itself to all his friends and relations; +and his mother in particular, the countess of Salisbury, had on that +account become extremely obnoxious to him. She was also accused of +having employed her authority with her tenants, to hinder them from +reading the new translation of the Bible; of having procured bulls from +Rome, which, it is said, had been seen at Coudray, her country seat; and +of having kept a correspondence with her son, the cardinal; but Henry +found, either that these offences could not be proved, or that they +would not by law be subjected to such severe punishments as he desired +to inflict upon her. He resolved, therefore, to proceed in a more +summary and more tyrannical manner; and for that purpose he sent +Cromwell, who was but too obsequious to his will, to ask the judges, +whether the parliament could attaint a person who was forthcoming, +without giving him any trial, or citing him to appear before them?[*] +The judges replied, that it was a dangerous question; and that the high +court of parliament ought to give the example to inferior courts, of +proceeding according to justice; no inferior court could act in that +arbitrary manner, and they thought that the parliament never would. +Being pressed to give a more explicit answer, they replied, that if +a person were attainted in that manner, the attainder could never +afterwards be brought in question, but must remain good in law. Henry +learned by this decision, that such a method of proceeding, though +directly contrary to all the principles of equity, was yet practicable; +and this being all he was anxious to know, he resolved to employ it +against the countess of Salisbury. + + * Coke’s 4th Inst. p. 37, 38. + +Cromwell showed to the house of peers a banner, on which were +embroidered the five wounds of Christ, the symbol chosen by the northern +rebels; and this banner he affirmed, was found in the countess’s +house.[*] No other proof seems to have been produced in order to +ascertain her guilt: the parliament, without further inquiry, passed +a bill of attainder against her; and they involved in the same bill, +without any better proof, as far as appears, Gertrude marchioness +of Exeter, Sir Adrian Fortescue, and Sir Thomas Dingley. These two +gentlemen were executed; the marchioness was pardoned and survived the +king; the countess received a reprieve. + +The only beneficial act passed this session, was that by which the +parliament confirmed the surrender of the monasteries; yet even this act +contains much falsehood, much tyranny, and, were it not that all private +rights must submit to public interest, much injustice and iniquity. The +scheme of engaging the abbots to surrender their monasteries had been +conducted, as may easily be imagined, with many invidious circumstances: +arts of all kinds had been employed; every motive that could work on the +frailty of human nature had been set before them; and it was with great +difficulty that these dignified conventuals were brought to make +a concession, which most of them regarded as destructive of their +interests, as well as sacrilegious and criminal in itself.[**] Three +abbots had shown more constancy than the rest, the abbots of Colchester, +Reading, and Glastenbury; and in order to punish them for their +opposition, and make them an example to others, means had been found +to convict them of treason, they had perished by the hands of the +executioner, and the revenue of the convents had been forfeited.[***] +Besides, though none of these violences had taken place, the king knew +that a surrender made by men who were only tenants for life, would not +bear examination; and he was therefore resolved to make all sure by his +usual expedient, an act of parliament. In the preamble to this act, the +parliament asserts, that all the surrenders made by the abbots had been +“without constraint, of their own accord, and according to due course of +common law.” And in consequence, the two houses confirm the surrenders, +and secure the property of the abbey lands to the king and his +successors forever.[****] It is remarkable, that all the mitred abbots +still sat in the house of peers, and that none of them made any protests +against this injurious statute. + + * Rymer, vol. xiv. p. 652. + + ** Collier, vol. ii. p. 158 et see + + *** 31 Henry VIII. c. 10. + + **** 31 Henry VIII. c. 13. + +In this session, the rank of all the great officers of state was fixed: +Cromwell, as vicegerent, had the precedency assigned him above all of +them. It was thought singular, that a blacksmith’s son, for he was no +other, should have place next the royal family; and that a man possessed +of no manner of literature should be set at the head of the church. + +As soon as the act of the six articles had passed, the Catholics were +extremely vigilant in informing against offenders; and no less than five +hundred persons were in a little time thrown into prison. But Cromwell, +who had not had interest enough to prevent that act, was able for the +present to elude its execution. Seconded by the duke of Suffolk and +Chancellor Audley, as well as by Cranmer, he remonstrated against the +cruelty of punishing so many delinquents; and he obtained permission to +set them at liberty. The uncertainty of the king’s humor gave each party +an opportunity of triumphing in its turn. No sooner had Henry passed +this law, which seemed to inflict so deep a wound on the reformers, +than he granted a general permission for every one to have the new +translation of the Bible in his family; a concession regarded by that +party as an important victory. + +But as Henry was observed to be much governed by his wives while he +retained his fondness for them, the final prevalence of either party +seemed much to depend on the choice of the future queen. Immediately +after the death of Jane Seymour, the most beloved of all his wives, +he began to think of a new marriage. He first cast his eye towards the +duchess dowager of Milan, niece to the emperor; and he made proposals +for that alliance. But meeting with difficulties, he was carried by his +friendship for Francis rather to think of a French princess. He demanded +the duchess dowager of Longueville, daughter of the duke of Guise, a +prince of the house of Lorraine; but Francis told him, that the lady was +already betrothed to the king of Scotland. The king, however, would +not take a refusal: he had set his heart extremely on the match: the +information which he had received of the duchess’s accomplishments and +beauty, had prepossessed him in her favor; and having privately sent +over Meautys to examine her person, and get certain intelligence of her +conduct, the accounts which that agent brought him served further to +inflame his desires. He learned that she was big made; and he thought +her on that account the more proper match for him who was now become +somewhat corpulent. The pleasure, too, of mortifying his nephew, whom he +did not love, was a further incitement to his prosecution of this match; +and he insisted that Francis should give him the preference to the king +of Scots. But Francis, though sensible that the alliance of England +was of much greater importance to his interests, would not affront his +friend and ally; and to prevent further solicitation, he immediately +sent the princess to Scotland. Not to shock, however, Henry’s humor, +Francis made him an offer of Mary of Bourbon, daughter of the duke of +Vendôme; but as the king was informed that James had formerly rejected +this princess he would not hear any further of such a proposal. The +French monarch then offered him the choice of the two younger sisters of +the queen of Scots; and he assured him, that they were nowise inferior +either in merit or size to their elder sister, and that one of them was +even superior in beauty. The king was as scrupulous with regard to the +person of his wives, as if his heart had been really susceptible of a +delicate passion; and he was unwilling to trust any relations, or even +pictures, with regard to this important particular. He proposed to +Francis, that they should have a conference at Calais on pretence of +business; and that this monarch should bring along with him the two +princesses of Guise, together with the finest ladies of quality in +France, that he might make a choice among them. But the gallant spirit +of Francis was shocked with the proposal: he was impressed with too much +regard, he said, for the fair sex, to carry ladies of the first quality +like geldings to a market, there to be chosen or rejected by the humor +of the purchaser.[*] Henry would hearken to none of these niceties, +but still insisted on his proposal; which, however, notwithstanding +Francis’s earnest desire of obliging him, was finally rejected. + + * Le Grand, vol. iii. p. 638 + +The king then began to turn his thoughts towards a German alliance; and +as the princes of the Smalcaldic league were extremely disgusted with +the emperor on account of his persecuting their religion, he hoped, by +matching himself into one of their families, to renew a connection which +he regarded as so advantageous to him. Cromwell joyfully seconded this +intention; and proposed to him Anne of Cleves, whose father, the duke +of that name, had great interest among the Lutheran princes, and whose +sister, Sibylla, was married to the elector of Saxony, the head of the +Protestant league. A flattering picture of the princess, by Hans Holben, +determined Henry to apply to her father; and after some negotiation, the +marriage, notwithstanding the opposition of the elector of Saxony was at +last concluded; and Anne was sent over to England. The king, impatient +to be satisfied with regard to the person of his bride, came privately +to Rochester and got a sight of her. He found her big, indeed, and tall +as he could wish; but utterly destitute both of beauty and grace; very +unlike the pictures and representations which he had received: he swore +she was a great Flanders mare; and declared that he never could possibly +bear her any affection. The matter was worse when he found that she +could speak no language but Dutch, of which he was entirely ignorant; +and that the charms of her conversation were not likely to compensate +for the homeliness of her person. He returned to Greenwich very +melancholy; and he much lamented his hard fate to Cromwell, as well +as to Lord Russel, Sir Anthony Brown, and Sir Anthony Denny. This last +gentleman, in order to give him comfort, told him, that his misfortune +was common to him with all kings, who could not, like private persons, +choose for themselves, but must receive their wives from the judgment +and fancy of others. + +It was the subject of debate among the king’s counsellors, whether the +marriage could not yet be dissolved, and the princess be sent back to +her own country. Henry’s situation seemed at that time very critical. +After the ten years’ truce concluded between the emperor and the king +of France, a good understanding was thought to have taken place between +these rival monarchs; and such marks of union appeared, as gave great +jealousy to the court of England. The emperor, who knew the generous +nature of Francis, even put a confidence in him which is rare to that +degree among great princes. An insurrection had been raised in the Low +Countries by the inhabitants of Ghent, and seemed to threaten the most +dangerous consequences. Charles, who resided at that time in Spain, +resolved to go in person to Flanders, in order to appease those +disorders; but he found great difficulties in choosing the manner of his +passing thither. The road by Italy and Germany was tedious: the voyage +through the channel dangerous, by reason of the English naval power: +he asked Francis’s permission to pass through his dominions; and he +entrusted himself into the hands of a rival, whom he had so mortally +offended. The French monarch received him at Paris with great +magnificence and courtesy; and though prompted both by revenge and +interest, as well as by the advice of his mistress and favorites, to +make advantage of the present opportunity, he conducted the emperor +safely out of his dominions and would not so much as speak to him of +business during his abode in France, lest his demands should bear the +air of violence upon his royal guest. + +Henry, who was informed of all these particulars, believed that an +entire and cordial union had taken place between these princes; and that +their religious zeal might prompt them to fall with combined arms upon +England.[*] An alliance with the German princes seemed now more than +ever requisite for his interest and safety; and he knew that if he sent +back the princess of Cleves, such an affront would be highly resented by +her friends and family. + + * Stowe, p. 579. + +{1540.} He was therefore resolved, notwithstanding his aversion to her, +to complete the marriage; and he told Cromwell, that, since matters had +gone so far, he must put his neck into the yoke. Cromwell, who knew how +much his own interests were concerned in this affair, was very anxious +to learn from the king, next morning after the marriage, whether he now +liked his spouse any better. The king told him, that he hated her worse +than ever; and that her person was more disgusting on a near approach; +he was resolved never to meddle with her: and even suspected her not to +be a true maid: a point about which he entertained an extreme delicacy. +He continued, however, to be civil to Anne; he even seemed to repose his +usual confidence in Cromwell; but though he exerted this command over +himself, a discontent lay lurking in his breast, and was ready to burst +out on the first opportunity. + +A session of parliament was held; and none of the abbots were now +allowed a place in the house of peers. The king, by the mouth of the +chancellor, complained to the parliament of the great diversity of +religions which still prevailed among his subjects; a grievance, he +affirmed, which ought the less to be endured, because the Scriptures +were now published in English, and ought universally to be the standard +of belief to all mankind. But he had appointed, he said, some bishops +and divines to draw up a list of tenets to which his people were to +assent; and he was determined, that Christ, the doctrine of Christ, and +the truth, should have the victory. The king seems to have expected more +effect in ascertaining truth from this new book of his doctors, than +had ensued from the publication of the Scriptures. Cromwell, as +vicar-general, made also in the king’s name a speech to the upper +house; and the peers, in return, bestowed great flattery on him, and in +particular said, that he was worthy, by his desert, to be vicar-general +of the universe. That minister seemed to be no less in his master’s good +graces: he received, soon after the sitting of the parliament, the title +of earl of Essex, and was installed knight of the garter. + +There remained only one religious order in England; the knights of St. +John of Jerusalem, or the knights of Malta, as they are commonly called. +This order, partly ecclesiastical, partly military, had by their valor +done great service to Christendom; and had very much retarded, at +Jerusalem, Rhodes, and Malta, the rapid progress of the barbarians. +During the general surrender of the religious houses in England, they +had exerted their spirit, and had obstinately refused to yield up +their revenues to the king; and Henry, who would endure no society +that professed obedience to the pope, was obliged to have recourse to +parliament for the dissolution of this order. Their revenues were large; +and formed an addition nowise contemptible to the many acquisitions +which the king had already made. But he had very ill husbanded the great +revenue acquired by the plunder of the church: his profuse generosity +dissipated faster than his rapacity could supply; and the parliament was +surprised this session to find a demand made upon them of four tenths, +and a subsidy of one shilling in the pound during two years: so ill +were the public expectations answered, that the crown was never more to +require any supply from the people. The commons, though lavish of their +liberty, and of the blood of their fellow-subjects, were extremely +frugal of their money; and it was not without difficulty so small +a grant could be obtained by this absolute and dreaded monarch. The +convocation gave the king four shillings in the pound to be levied in +two years. The pretext for these grants was, the great expense which +Henry had undergone for the defence of the realm, in building forts +along the seacoast, and in equipping a navy. As he had at present no +ally on the continent in whom he reposed much confidence, he relied only +on his domestic strength, and was on that account obliged to be more +expensive in his preparations against the danger of an invasion. + +The king’s favor to Cromwell and his acquiescence in the marriage with +Anne of Cleves, were both of them deceitful appearances: his aversion +to the queen secretly increased every day; and having at last broken all +restraint, it prompted him at once to seek the dissolution of a marriage +so odious to him, and to involve his minister in ruin, who had been +the innocent author of it. The fall of Cromwell was hastened by other +causes. All the nobility hated a man who, being of such low extraction, +had not only mounted above them by his station of vicar-general, but had +engrossed many of the other considerable offices of the crown: besides +enjoying that commission, which gave him a high and almost absolute +authority over the clergy, and even over the laity, he was privy seal, +chamberlain, and master of the wards: he had also obtained the order +of the garter, a dignity which had ever been conferred only on men +of illustrious families, and which seemed to be profaned by its being +communicated to so mean a person. The people were averse to him, as the +supposed author of the violence on the monasteries; establishments which +were still revered and beloved by the commonalty. The Catholics regarded +him as the concealed enemy of their religion: the Protestants, observing +his exterior concurrence with all the persecutions exercised against +them, were inclined to bear him as little favor; and reproached him with +the timidity, if not treachery, of his conduct. And the king, who found +that great clamors had on all hands arisen against the administration, +was not displeased to throw on Cromwell the load of public hatred; and +he hoped, by making so easy a sacrifice, to regain the affections of his +subjects. + +But there was another cause which suddenly set all these motives in +action, and brought about an unexpected revolution in the ministry. The +king had fixed his affection on Catharine Howard, niece to the duke of +Norfolk; and being determined to gratify this new passion, he could find +no expedient, but by procuring a divorce from his present consort, +to raise Catharine to his bed and throne. The duke, who had long been +engaged in enmity with Cromwell, made the same use of her insinuations +to ruin this minister, that he had formerly done of Anne Boleyn’s +against Wolsey; and when all engines were prepared, he obtained a +commission from the king to arrest Cromwell at the council table, on an +accusation of high treason, and to commit him to the Tower. Immediately +after a bill of attainder was framed against him; and the house of peers +thought proper, without trial, examination, or evidence, to condemn +to death a man, whom a few days before they had declared worthy to be +vicar-general of the universe. The house of commons passed the bill, +though not without some opposition. Cromwell was accused of heresy +and treason: but the proofs of his treasonable practices are utterly +improbable, and even absolutely ridiculous.[*] The only circumstance of +his conduct by which he seems to have merited this fate, was his being +the instrument of the king’s tyranny in conducting like iniquitous +bills, in the preceding session, against the countess of Salisbury and +others. + +Cromwell endeavored to soften the king by the most humble supplications; +but all to no purpose: it was not the practice of that prince to ruin +his ministers and favorites by halves; and though the unhappy prisoner +once wrote to him in so moving a strain as even to draw tears from his +eyes, he hardened himself against all movements of pity, and refused his +pardon. The conclusion of Cromwell’s letter ran in these words: “I, a +most woful prisoner, am ready to submit to death when it shall please +God and your majesty; and yet the frail flesh incites me to call to your +grace for mercy and pardon of mine offences. Written at the Tower, with +the heavy heart and trembling hand of your highness’s most miserable +prisoner and poor slave, Thomas Cromwell.” And a little below, “Most +gracious prince, I cry for mercy, mercy, mercy.”[**] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 278. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 281, 282. + +When brought to the place of execution, he avoided all earnest +protestations of his innocence, and all complaints against the sentence +pronounced upon him. He knew that Henry would resent on his son those +symptoms of opposition to his will, and that his death alone would not +terminate that monarch’s vengeance. He was a man of prudence, industry, +and abilities; worthy of a better master and of a better fate. Though +raised to the summit of power from a low origin, he betrayed no +insolence or contempt towards his inferiors; and was careful to remember +all the obligations which, during his more humble fortune, he had owed +to any one. He had served as a private sentinel in the Italian wars; +when he received some good offices from a Lucquese merchant, who had +entirely forgotten his person, as well as the service which he had +rendered him. Cromwell, in his grandeur, happened at London to cast +his eye on his benefactor, now reduced to poverty by misfortunes. He +immediately sent for him, reminded him of their ancient friendship, and +by his grateful assistance reinstated him in his former prosperity and +opulence.[*] + +The measures for divorcing Henry from Anne of Cleves were carried on at +the same time with the bill of attainder against Cromwell. The house of +peers, in conjunction with the commons, applied to the king by petition, +desiring that he would allow his marriage to be examined; and orders +were immediately given to lay the matter before the convocation. Anne +had formerly been contracted by her father to the duke of Lorraine, but +she, as well as the duke, were at that time under age, and the contract +had been afterwards annulled by consent of both parties. + +The king, however, pleaded this precontract as a ground of divorce; and +he added two reasons more, which may seem a little extraordinary; that, +when he espoused Anne he had not inwardly given his consent, and that he +had not thought proper to consummate the marriage. The convocation was +satisfied with these reasons, and solemnly annulled the marriage +between the king and queen: the parliament ratified the decision of the +clergy;[**] [16] and the sentence was soon after notified to the +princess. + +Anne was blest with a happy insensibility of temper, ever in the points +which the most nearly affect her sex; and the king’s aversion towards +her, as well as his prosecution of the divorce, had never given her the +least uneasiness. She willingly hearkened to terms of accommodation with +him; and when he offered to adopt her as his sister, to give her place +next the queen and his own daughter, and to make a settlement of three +thousand pounds a year upon her; she accepted of the conditions, and +gave her consent to the divorce.[***] She even wrote to her brother, +(for her father was now dead,) that she had been very well used in +England, and desired him to live on good terms with the king. The only +instance of pride which she betrayed was, that she refused to return to +her own country after the affront which she had received; and she lived +and died in England. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 172. + + ** See note P, at the end of the volume. + + *** Herbert, p. 458 459. + +Notwithstanding Anne’s moderation, this incident produced a great +coldness between the king and the German princes; but as the situation +of Europe was now much altered, Henry was the more indifferent about +their resentment. The close intimacy which had taken place between +Francis and Charles had subsisted during a very short time: the +dissimilarity of their characters soon renewed, with greater violence +than ever, their former jealousy and hatred. While Charles remained at +Paris, Francis had been imprudently engaged, by his open temper, and +by that satisfaction which a noble mind naturally feels in performing +generous actions, to make in confidence some dangerous discoveries to +that interested monarch; and having now lost all suspicion of his rival, +he hoped that the emperor and he, supporting each other, might neglect +every other alliance. He not only communicated to his guest the state +of his negotiations with Sultan Solyman and the Venetians; he also laid +open the solicitations which he had received from the court of England +to enter into a confederacy against him.[*] Charles had no sooner +reached his own dominions, than he showed himself unworthy of the +friendly reception which he had met with. He absolutely refused to +fulfil his promise, and put the duke of Orleans in possession of the +Milanese; he informed Solyman and the senate of Venice of the treatment +which they had received from their ally; and he took care that Henry +should not be ignorant how readily Francis had abandoned his ancient +friend, to whom he owed such important obligations, and had sacrificed +him to a new confederate: he even poisoned and misrepresented many +things which the unsuspecting heart of the French monarch had disclosed +to him. Had Henry possessed true judgment and generosity, this incident +alone had been sufficient to guide him in the choice of his ally. But +his domineering pride carried him immediately to renounce the friendship +of Francis, who had so unexpectedly given the preference to the emperor; +and as Charles invited him to a renewal of ancient amity, he willingly +accepted of the offer; and thinking himself secure in this alliance, he +neglected the friendship both of France and of the German princes. + + * Père Daniel. Du Tillet. + +The new turn which Henry had taken with regard to foreign affairs was +extremely agreeable to his Catholic subjects; and as it had perhaps +contributed, among other reasons, to the ruin of Cromwell, it made +them entertain hopes of a final prevalence over their antagonists. The +marriage of the king with Catharine Howard, which followed soon after +his divorce from Anne of Cleves, was also regarded as a favorable +incident to their party; and the subsequent events corresponded to their +expectations. The king’s councils being now directed by Norfolk and +Gardiner, a furious persecution commenced against the Protestants; and +the law of the six articles was executed with rigor. Dr. Barnes, who had +been the cause of Lambert’s execution, felt, in his turn, the severity +of the persecuting spirit; and, by a bill which passed in parliament, +he was, without trial, condemned to the flames, together with Jerome and +Gerrard. He discussed theological questions even at the stake; and as +the dispute between him and the sheriff turned upon the invocation of +saints, he said, that he doubted whether the saints could pray for +us; but if they could, he hoped in half an hour to be praying for the +sheriff and all the spectators. He next entreated the sheriff to carry +to the king his dying request, which he fondly imagined would have +authority with that monarch who had sent him to the stake. The purport +of his request was, that Henry, besides repressing superstitious +ceremonies, should be extremely vigilant in preventing fornication and +common swearing.[*] + +While Henry was exerting this violence against the Protestants, he +spared not the Catholics who denied his supremacy; and a foreigner, at +that time in England, had reason to say, that those who were against the +pope were burned, and those who were for him were hanged.[**] The king +even displayed in an ostentatious manner this tyrannical impartiality, +which reduced both parties to subjection, and infused terror into every +breast. Barnes, Gerrard, and Jerome had been carried to the place of +execution on three hurdles; and along with them there was placed on +each hurdle a Catholic, who was also executed for his religion. These +Catholics were Abel, Fetherstone, and Powel, who declared, that the +most grievous part of their punishment was the being coupled to such +heretical miscreants as suffered with them.[***] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 298. Fox. + + ** Fox, vol. ii, p. 529. + + *** Saunders, de Schism. Angl. + +Though the spirit of the English seemed to be totally sunk under the +despotic power of Henry, there appeared some symptoms of discontent. +An inconsiderable rebellion broke out in Yorkshire, headed by Sir John +Nevil; but it was soon suppressed, and Nevil, with other ringleaders, +was executed. + +The rebels were supposed to have been instigated by the intrigues +of Cardinal Pole; and the king was instantly determined to make the +countess of Salisbury, who already lay under sentence of death, suffer +for her son’s offences. He ordered her to be carried to execution; +and this venerable matron maintained still, in these distressful +circumstances, the spirit of that long race of monarchs from whom she +was descended.[*] She refused to lay her head on the block, or submit +to a sentence where she had received no trial. She told the executioner, +that if he would have her head, he must win it the best way he could: +and thus, shaking her venerable gray locks, she ran about the scaffold: +and the executioner followed with his axe, aiming many fruitless blows +at her neck, before he was able to give the fatal stroke. Thus perished +the last of the line of Plantagenet, which, with great glory, but still +greater crimes and misfortunes, had governed England for the space of +three hundred years. Lord Leonard Grey, a man who had formerly rendered +service to the crown, was also beheaded for treason, soon after the +countess of Salisbury. We know little concerning the grounds of his +prosecution. + + * Hertert, p. 468. + +{1541.} The insurrection in the north engaged Henry to make a progress +thither, in order to quiet the minds of his people, to reconcile them to +his government, and to abolish the ancient superstitions, to which those +parts were much addicted. He had also another motive for this journey: +he purposed to have a conference at York with his nephew the king of +Scotland, and, if possible, to cement a close and indissoluble union +with that kingdom. + +The same spirit of religious innovation which had seized other parts +of Europe had made its way into Scotland, and had begun, before this +period, to excite the same jealousies fears, and persecutions. About the +year 1527, Patrick Hamilton, a young man of a noble family, having been +created abbot of Fene, was sent abroad for his education, but had fallen +into company with some reformers; and he returned into his own country +very ill disposed towards that church, on which his birth and his merit +entitled him to attain the highest dignities, The fervor of youth +and his zeal for novelty made it impossible for him to conceal his +sentiments and Campbell, prior of the Dominicans, who, under color of +friendship, and a sympathy in opinion, had insinuated himself into +his confidence, accused him before Beaton, archbishop of St. Andrews. +Hamilton was invited to St. Andrews, in order to maintain with some of +the clergy a dispute concerning the controverted points; and after much +reasoning with regard to justification, free will, original sin, and +other topics of that nature, the conference ended with their condemning +Hamilton to be burned for his errors. The young man, who had been deaf +to the insinuations of ambition, was less likely to be shaken with the +fears of death; while he proposed to himself, both the glory of +bearing testimony to the truth, and the immediate reward attending his +martyrdom. The people, who compassionated his youth, his virtue, and +his noble birth, were much moved at the constancy of his end; and +an incident which soon followed still more confirmed them in their +favorable sentiments towards him. He had cited Campbell, who still +insulted him at the stake, to answer before the judgment seat of Christ; +and as that persecutor, either astonished with these events, or overcome +with remorse, or perhaps seized casually with a distemper, soon after +lost his senses, and fell into a fever, of which he died; the people +regarded Hamilton as a prophet as well as a martyr.[*] + +Among the disciples converted by Hamilton, was one friar Forrest, who +became a zealous preacher; and who, though he did not openly discover +his sentiments, was suspected to lean towards the new opinions. His +diocesan, the bishop of Dunkel, enjoined him, when he met with a good +epistle or good gospel, which favored the liberties of holy church, to +preach on it, and let the rest alone. Forrest replied, that he had read +both Old and New Testament, and had not found an ill epistle or ill +gospel in any part of them. The extreme attachment to the Scriptures was +regarded, in those days, as a sure characteristic of heresy; and Forrest +was soon after brought to trial, and condemned to the flames. While the +priests were deliberating on the place of his execution, a bystander +advised them to burn him in a cellar; for that the smoke of Mr. Patrick +Hamilton had infected all those on whom it blew.[**] + + * Spotswood’s Hist. of the Church of Scotland, p. 62. + + ** Spotswood’s Hist. of the Church of Scotland, p. 65. + +The clergy were at that time reduced to great difficulties, not only +in Scotland, but all over Europe. As the reformers aimed at a total +subversion of ancient establishments, which they represented as +idolatrous, impious, detestable; the priests, who found both their +honors and properties at stake, thought that they had a right to resist, +by every expedient, these dangerous invaders, and that the same simple +principles of equity which justified a man in killing a pirate or +a robber, would acquit them for the execution of such heretics. A +toleration, though it is never acceptable to ecclesiastics, might, +they said, be admitted in other cases; but seemed an absurdity where +fundamentals were shaken, and where the possessions and even the +existence of the established clergy were brought in danger. But though +the church was thus carried by policy, as well as inclination, to kindle +the fires of persecution, they found the success of this remedy very +precarious; and observed, that the enthusiastic zeal of the reformers, +inflamed by punishment, was apt to prove contagious on the compassionate +minds of the spectators. The new doctrine, amidst all the dangers to +which it was exposed, secretly spread itself every where; and the minds +of men were gradually disposed to a revolution in religion. + +But the most dangerous symptom for the clergy in Scotland was, that the +nobility, from the example of England, had cast a wishful eye on the +church revenues, and hoped, if a reformation took place, to enrich +themselves by the plunder of the ecclesiastics. James himself, who was +very poor, and was somewhat inclined to magnificence, particularly in +building, had been swayed by like motives; and began to threaten the +clergy with the same fate that had attended them in the neighboring +country. Henry also never ceased exhorting his nephew to imitate his +example; and being moved, both by the pride of making proselytes, and +the prospect of security, should Scotland embrace a close union with +him, he solicited the king of Scots to meet him at York; and he obtained +a promise to that purpose. + +The ecclesiastics were alarmed at this resolution of James, and they +employed every expedient in order to prevent the execution of it. They +represented the danger of innovation; the pernicious consequences of +aggrandizing the nobility, already too powerful; the hazard of putting +himself into the hands of the English, his hereditary enemies; the +dependence on them which must ensue upon his losing the friendship of +France, and of all foreign powers. To those considerations they added +the prospect of immediate interest, by which they found the king to be +much governed: they offered him a present gratuity of fifty thousand +pounds: they promised him that the church should always be ready to +contribute to his supply: and they pointed out to him the confiscation +of heretics, as the means of filling his exchequer, and of adding +a hundred thousand pounds a year to the crown revenues.[*] The +insinuations of his new queen, to whom youth, beauty, and address had +given a powerful influence over him, seconded all these reasons; and +James was at last engaged, first to delay his journey, then to send +excuses to the king of England, who had already come to York in order to +be present at the interview.[**] + + * Buchanan, lib. xiv. Drummond in Ja. V. Pitscotie, ibid. + Knox. + + ** Henry had sent some books, richly ornamented, to his + nephew, who, as soon as he saw by the titles, that they had + a tendency to defend the new doctrines, threw them into the + fire, in the presence of the person who brought them; + adding, it was better he should destroy them, than they him. + See Epist. Reginald Pole, part i. p. 172. + +Henry, vexed with the disappointment, and enraged at the affront, vowed +vengeance against his nephew; and he began, by permitting piracies at +sea and incursions at land, to put his threats in execution. But he +received soon after, in his own family, an affront to which he was much +more sensible, and which touched him in a point where he always showed +an extreme delicacy. He had thought himself very happy in his new +marriage: the agreeable person and disposition of Catharine had +entirely captivated his affections; and he made no secret of his devoted +attachment to her. He had even publicly, in his chapel, returned solemn +thanks to Heaven for the felicity which the conjugal state afforded him; +and he directed the bishop of Lincoln to compose a form of prayer +for that purpose. But the queen’s conduct very little merited this +tenderness: one Lascelles brought intelligence of her dissolute life to +Cranmer; and told him that his sister, formerly a servant in the family +of the old duchess of Norfolk, with whom Catharine was educated, had +given him a particular account of her licentious manners. Derham and +Mannoc, both of them servants to the duchess, had been admitted to her +bed; and she had even taken little care to conceal her shame from +the other servants of the family. The primate, struck with this +intelligence, which it was equally dangerous to conceal or to discover, +communicated the matter to the earl of Hertford and to the chancellor. +They agreed, that the matter should by no means be buried in silence; +and the archbishop himself seemed the most proper person to disclose it +to the king. Cranmer, unwilling to speak on so delicate a subject, wrote +a narrative of the whole, and conveyed it to Henry, who was infinitely +astonished at the intelligence. So confident was he of the fidelity of +his consort, that at first he gave no credit to the information; and he +said to the privy-seal, to Lord Russel, high admiral, Sir Anthony Brown, +and Wriothesley, that he regarded the whole as a falsehood. Cranmer was +now in a very perilous situation; and had not full proof been found, +certain and inevitable destruction hung over him. The king’s impatience, +however, and jealousy prompted him to search the matter to the bottom; +the privy-seal was ordered to examine Lascelles, who persisted in the +information he had given; and still appealed to his sister’s testimony. +That nobleman next made a journey, under pretence of hunting, and went +to Sussex, where the woman at that time resided: he found her both +constant in her former intelligence, and particular as to the facts; and +the whole bore but too much the face of probability. Mannoc and Derham, +who were arrested at the same time, and examined by the chancellor, made +the queen’s guilt entirely certain by their confession; and discovered +other particulars, which redounded still more to her dishonor. Three +maids of the family were admitted into her secrets; and some of them +had even passed the night in bed with her and her lovers. All the +examinations were laid before the king, who was so deeply affected, that +he remained a long time speechless, and at last burst into tears. He +found to his surprise, that his great skill in distinguishing a true +maid, of which he boasted in the case of Anne of Cleves, had failed him +in that of his present consort. The queen, being next questioned, +denied her guilt; but when informed that a full discovery was made, she +confessed that she had been criminal before marriage; and only insisted +that she had never been false to the king’s bed. But as there was +evidence that one Colepepper had passed the night with her alone since +her marriage; and as it appeared that she had taken Derham, her old +paramour, into her service, she seemed to deserve little credit in this +asseveration; and the king, besides, was not of a humor to make any +difference between these degrees of guilt. + +{1542.} Henry found that he could not by any means so fully or +expeditiously satiate his vengeance on all these criminals as by +assembling a parliament, the usual instrument of his tyranny. The two +houses, having received the queen’s confession, made an address to the +king. They entreated him not to be vexed with this untoward accident, to +which all men were subject; but to consider the frailty of human nature, +and the mutability of human affairs; and from these views to derive a +subject of consolation. They desired leave to pass a bill of attainder +against the queen and her accomplices; and they begged him to give his +assent to this bill, not in person, which would renew his vexation, +and might endanger his health, but by commissioners appointed for that +purpose. And as there was a law in force making it treason to speak ill +of the queen as well as of the king, they craved his royal pardon if any +of them should, on the present occasion, have transgressed any part of +the statute. + +Having obtained a gracious answer to these requests, the parliament +proceeded to vote a bill of attainder for treason against the queen, and +the viscountess of Rocheford, who had conducted her secret amours; and +in this bill Colepepper and Derham were also comprehended. At the same +time they passed a bill of attainder for misprision of treason against +the old duchess of Norfolk, Catharine’s grandmother; her uncle, Lord +William Howard, and his lady, together with the countess of Bridgewater, +and nine persons more; because they knew the queen’s vicious course of +life before her marriage, and had concealed it. This was an effect of +Henry’s usual extravagance, to expect that parents should so far forget +the ties of natural affection, and the sentiments of shame and decency, +as to reveal to him the most secret disorders of their family. He +himself seems to have been sensible of the cruelty of this proceeding; +for he pardoned the duchess of Norfolk and most of the others condemned +for misprision of treason. + +However, to secure himself for the future, as well as his successors, +from this fatal accident, he engaged the parliament to pass a law +somewhat extraordinary. It was enacted, that any one who knew, or +vehemently suspected, any guilt in the queen, might, within twenty days, +disclose it to the king or council, without incurring the penalty of any +former law against defaming the queen; but prohibiting every one at +the same time, from spreading the matter abroad, or even privately +whispering it to others. It was also enacted, that if the king married +any woman who had been incontinent, taking her for a true maid, she +should be guilty of treason, if she did not previously reveal her guilt +to him. The people made merry with this singular clause, and said that +the king must henceforth look out for a widow; for no reputed maid would +ever be persuaded to incur the penalty of the statute.[*] After all +these laws were passed, the queen was beheaded on Tower Hill, together +with Lady Rocheford. They behaved in a manner suitable to their +dissolute life; and as Lady Rocheford was known to be the chief +instrument in bringing Anne Boleyn to her end, she died unpitied; and +men were further confirmed, by the discovery of this woman’s guilt, in +the favorable sentiments which they had entertained of that unfortunate +queen. + +The king made no demand of any subsidy from this parliament; but he +found means of enriching his exchequer from another quarter: he took +further steps towards the dissolution of colleges, hospitals, and other +foundations of that nature. The courtiers had been practising on the +presidents and governors to make a surrender of their revenues to the +king, and they had been successful with eight of them. But there was an +obstacle to their further progress: it had been provided by the local +statutes of most of these foundations, that no president, or any number +of fellows, could consent to such a deed without the unanimous vote +of all the fellows; and this vote was not easily obtained. All such +statutes were annulled by parliament; and the revenues of these houses +were now exposed to the rapacity of the king and his favorites.[**] [17] +The Church had been so long their prey, that nobody was surprised at any +new inroads made upon her. From the regular, Henry now proceeded to make +devastations on the secular clergy. He extorted from many of the bishops +a surrender of chapter lands; and by this device he pillaged the sees +of Canterbury, York, and London, and enriched his greedy parasites and +flatterers with their spoils. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 314. + + ** See note Q, at the end of the volume. + +The clergy have been commonly so fortunate as to make a concern for +their temporal interests go hand in hand with a jealousy for orthodoxy; +and both these passions be regarded by the people, ignorant and +superstitious, as proofs of zeal for religion: but the violent and +headstrong character of Henry now disjoined these objects. His rapacity +was gratified by plundering the church, his bigotry and arrogance by +persecuting heretics. Though he engaged the parliament to mitigate +the penalties of the six articles, so far as regards the marriage +of priests, which was now only subjected to a forfeiture of goods, +chattels, and lands during life, he was still equally bent on +maintaining a rigid purity in speculative principles. He had appointed +a commission, consisting of the two archbishops and several bishops +of both provinces, together with a considerable number of doctors of +divinity; and by virtue of his ecclesiastical supremacy, he had +given them in charge to choose a religion for his people. Before the +commissioners had made any progress in this arduous undertaking, the +parliament, in 1541, had passed a law by which they ratified all the +tenets which these divines should thereafter establish with the king’s +consent: and they were not ashamed of thus expressly declaring that they +took their religion upon trust, and had no other rule, in spiritual +as well as temporal concerns, than the arbitrary will of their master. +There is only one clause of the statute which may seem at first sight +to savor somewhat of the spirit of liberty: it was enacted, that the +ecclesiastical commissioners should establish nothing repugnant to the +laws and statutes of the realm. But in reality this proviso was inserted +by the king to serve his own purposes. By introducing a confusion and +contradiction into the laws, he became more master of every one’s life +and property. And as the ancient independence of the church still gave +him jealousy, he was well pleased, undercover of such a clause, to +introduce appeals from the spiritual to the civil courts. It was for a +like reason that he would never promulgate a body of canon law; and he +encouraged the judges on all occasions to interpose in ecclesiastical +causes, wherever they thought the law of royal prerogative concerned; a +happy innovation, though at first invented for arbitrary purposes. + +The king, armed by the authority of parliament, or rather by their +acknowledgment of that spiritual supremacy which he believed inherent +in him, employed his commissioners to select a system of tenets for +the assent and belief of the nation. A small volume was soon after +published, called the Institution of a Christian Man, which was received +by the convocation, and voted to be the standard of orthodoxy. All the +delicate points of justification, faith, free will, good works, and +grace, are there defined, with a leaning towards the opinion of the +reformers: the sacraments, which a few years before were only allowed to +be three, were now increased to the number of seven, conformable to +the sentiments of the Catholics. The king’s caprice is discernible +throughout the whole; and the book is in reality to be regarded as his +composition. For Henry while he made his opinion a rule for the nation, +would tie his own hands by no canon or authority, not even by any which +he himself had formerly established. + +The people had occasion soon after to see a further instance of the +king’s inconstancy. He was not long satisfied with his Institution of +a Christian Man: he ordered a new book to be composed, called the +Erudition of a Christian Man; and without asking the assent of the +convocation, he published, by his own authority and that of the +parliament, this new model of orthodoxy. It differs from the +Institution;[*] but the king was no less positive in his new creed than +he had been in the old; and he required the belief of the nation to veer +about at his signal. In both these compositions, he was particularly +careful to inculcate the doctrine of passive obedience; and he was +equally careful to retain the nation in the practice. + +While the king was spreading his own books among the people, he seems to +have been extremely perplexed, as were also the clergy, what course to +take with the Scriptures. A review had been made by the synod of the +new translation of the Bible; and Gardiner had proposed that, instead +of employing English expressions throughout, several Latin words should +still be preserved; because they contained, as he pretended, such +peculiar energy and significance, that they had no correspondent terms +in the vulgar tongue.[**] Among these were “ecclesia, poenitentia, +pontifex, contritus, holocausta, sacramentum, elementa, ceremonia, +mysterium, presbyter, sacrificium, humilitas, satisfactio, peccatum, +gratia, hostia, charitos,” etc. But as this mixture would have appeared +extremely barbarous, and was plainly calculated for no other purpose +than to retain the people in their ancient ignorance, the proposal +was rejected. The knowledge of the people, however, at least their +disputative turn, seemed to be an inconvenience still more dangerous; +and the king and parliament,[***] soon after the publication of the +Scriptures retracted the concession which they had formerly made; and +prohibited all but gentlemen and merchants from perusing them[****]. + + * Collier, vol. ii. p. 190. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 315. + + *** Which met on the 22d of January, 1543. + + **** 33 Henry VIII. c 1. The reading of the Bible, however, + could not at that time have much effect in England, where so + few persons had learned to read. There were but five hundred + copies printed of this first authorized edition of the + Bible; a book of which there are now several millions of + copies in the kingdom. + +Even that liberty was not granted without an apparent hesitation, and a +dread of the consequences: these persons were allowed to read, “so it +be done quietly and with good order.” And the preamble to the act sets +forth “that many seditious and ignorant persons had abused the liberty +granted them of reading the Bible, and that great diversity of opinion, +animosities, tumults, and schisms had been occasioned by perverting +the sense of the Scriptures.” It seemed very difficult to reconcile the +king’s model for uniformity with the permission of free inquiry. + +The mass book also passed under the king’s revisal; and little +alteration was as yet made in it: some doubtful or fictious saints +only were struck out; and the name of the pope was erased. This latter +precaution was likewise used with regard to every new book that was +printed, or even old book that was sold. The word “pope” was carefully +omitted or blotted out;[*] as if that precaution could abolish the term +from the language, or as if such a persecution of it did not rather +imprint it more strongly in the memory of the people. + +The king took care about this time to clear the churches from another +abuse which had crept into them. Plays, interludes, and farces were +there often acted in derision of the former superstitions; and the +reverence of the multitude for ancient principles and modes of worship +was thereby gradually effaced.[**] We do not hear that the Catholics +attempted to retaliate by employing this powerful engine against their +adversaries, or endeavored by like arts to expose that fanatical spirit +by which it appears the reformers were frequently actuated. Perhaps +the people were not disposed to relish a jest on that side: perhaps +the greater simplicity and the more spiritual abstract worship of the +Protestants gave less hold to ridicule, which is commonly founded on +sensible representations. It was, therefore, a very agreeable concession +which the king made to the Catholic party, to suppress entirely these +religious comedies. + + * Parl. Hist. vol. iii. p. 113. + + ** Burnet, vol. i p. 318. + +Thus Henry labored incessantly by arguments, creeds, and penal statutes, +to bring his subjects to a uniformity in their religious sentiments: +but as he entered himself with the greatest earnestness into all those +scholastic disputes, he encouraged the people by his example to apply +themselves to the study of theology; and it was in vain afterwards to +expect, however present fear might restrain their tongues or pens, that +they would cordially agree in any set of tenets or opinions prescribed +to them. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. + + + + +HENRY VIII. + +{1542.} Henry, being determined to avenge himself on the king of Scots +for slighting the advances which he had made him, would gladly +have obtained a supply from parliament, in order to prosecute that +enterprise; but as he did not think it prudent to discover his +intentions, that assembly, conformably to their frugal maxims, would +understand no hints; and the king was disappointed in his expectations. +He continued, however, to make preparations for war; and as soon as +he thought himself in a condition to invade Scotland, he published a +manifesto, by which he endeavored to justify hostilities. He complained +of James’s breach of word in declining the promised interview, which was +the real ground of the quarrel;[*] but in order to give a more specious +coloring to the enterprise, he mentioned other injuries; namely, that +his nephew had granted protection to some English rebels and fugitives, +and had detained some territory which, Henry pretended, belonged to +England. He even revived the old claim to the vassalage of Scotland, and +he summoned James to do homage to him as his liege lord and superior. He +employed the duke of Norfolk, whom he called the scourge of the Scots, +to command in the war: and though James sent the bishop of Aberdeen, and +Sir James Learmont of Darsay, to appease his uncle, he would hearken to +no terms of accommodation. + + * Buchanan lib xiv. Drummond in Ja. V. + +While Norfolk was assembling his army at Newcastle, Sir Robert Bowes, +attended by Sir Ralph Sadler, Sir Ralph Evers, Sir Brian Latoun, and +others, made an incursion into Scotland, and advanced towards Jedburgh, +with an intention of pillaging and destroying that town. The earl of +Angus, and George Douglas, his brother, who had been many years banished +their country, and had subsisted by Henry’s bounty, joined the English +army in this incursion, and the forces commanded by Bowes exceeded +four thousand men. James had not been negligent in his preparations for +defence, and had posted a considerable body, under the command of the +earl of Huntley, for the protection of the borders. Lord Hume, at the +head of his vassals, was hastening to join Huntley, when he met with the +English army; and an action immediately ensued. During the engagement, +the forces under Huntley began to appear; and the English, afraid of +being surrounded and overpowered, took to flight, and were pursued by +the enemy. Evers, Latoun, and some other persons of distinction, were +taken prisoners. A few only of small note fell in the skirmish.[*] + +The duke of Norfolk, meanwhile, began to move from his camp at +Newcastle; and being attended by the earls of Shrewsbury, Derby, +Cumberland, Surrey, Hertford, Rutland, with many others of the nobility, +he advanced to the borders. His forces amounted to above twenty thousand +men; and it required the utmost efforts of Scotland to resist such a +formidable armament. James had assembled his whole military force at +Fala and Sautrey, and was ready to advance as soon as he should be +informed of Norfolk’s invading his kingdom. The English passed the Tweed +at Berwick, and marched along the banks of the river as far as Kelso; +but hearing that James had collected near thirty thousand men, they +repassed the river at that village, and retreated into their own +country.[**] The king of Scots, inflamed with a desire of military +glory, and of revenge on his invaders, gave the signal for pursuing +them, and carrying the war into England. He was surprised to find +that his nobility, who were in general disaffected on account of the +preference which he had given to the clergy, opposed this resolution, +and refused to attend him in his projected enterprise. Enraged at this +mutiny, he reproached them with cowardice, and threatened vengeance; +but still resolved, with the forces which adhered to him, to make +an impression on the enemy. He sent ten thousand men to the western +borders, who entered England at Solway Frith; and he himself followed +them at a small distance, ready to join them upon occasion. Disgusted, +however, at the refractory disposition of his nobles, he sent a message +to the army depriving Lord Maxwel, their general, of his commission, and +conferring the command on Oliver Sinclair, a private gentleman, who was +his favorite. The army was extremely disgusted with this alteration, +and was ready to disband, when a small body of English appeared, not +exceeding five hundred men, under the command of Dacres and Musgrave. A +panic seized the Scots, who immediately took to flight, and were pursued +by the enemy. Few were killed in this rout; for it was no action; but +a great many were taken prisoners, and some of the principal nobility: +among these, the earls of Cassilis and Glencairn, the lords Maxwel, +Fleming, Somerville, Oliphant, Grey, who were all sent to London, and +given in custody to different noblemen. + + * Buchanan, lib. xiv. + + ** Buchanan, lib. xiv. + +The king of Scots, hearing of this disaster, was astonished; and being +naturally of a melancholic disposition, as well as endowed with a high +spirit, he lost all command of his temper on this dismal occasion. Rage +against his nobility, who, he believed, had betrayed him; shame for a +defeat by such unequal numbers; regret for the past, fear of the future; +all these passions so wrought upon him, that he would admit of no +consolation, but abandoned himself wholly to despair. His body was +wasted by sympathy with his anxious mind; and even his life began to be +thought in danger. He had no issue living; and hearing that his queen +was safely delivered, he asked whether she had brought him a male or a +female child. Being told the latter, he turned himself in his bed: +“The crown came with a woman,” said he, “and it will go with one: many +miseries await this poor kingdom: Henry will make it his own either +by force of arms or by marriage.” A few days after, he expired, in the +flower of his age: a prince of considerable virtues and talents; well +fitted, by his vigilance and personal courage, for repressing those +disorders to which his kingdom, during that age, was so much exposed. +He executed justice with impartiality and rigor; but as he supported the +commonalty and the church against the rapine of the nobility, he escaped +not the hatred of that order. The Protestants also, whom he opposed, +have endeavored to throw many stains on his memory; but have not been +able to fix any considerable imputation upon him.[*] + +{1543.} Henry was no sooner informed of his victory and of the death +of his nephew, than he projected, as James had foreseen, the scheme of +uniting Scotland to his own dominions by marrying his son Edward to the +heiress of that kingdom.[**] [18] + + * See note R, at the end of the volume. + + ** Stowe, p. 584. Herbert. Burnet. Buchanan. + +He called together the Scottish nobles who were his prisoners and after +reproaching them, in severe terms, for their pretended breach of treaty, +he began to soften his tone, and proposed to them this expedient, by +which, he hoped, those disorders so prejudicial to both states, would +for the future be prevented. He offered to bestow on them their liberty +without ransom; and only required of them engagements to favor the +marriage of the prince of Wales with their young mistress. They were +easily prevailed on to give their assent to a proposal which seemed so +natural and so advantageous to both kingdoms; and being conducted to +Newcastle, they delivered to the duke of Norfolk hostages for their +return, in case the intended nuptials were not completed; and they +thence proceeded to Scotland, where they found affairs in some +confusion. + +The pope, observing his authority in Scotland to be in danger from the +spreading of the new opinions, had bestowed on Beaton, the primate, the +dignity of cardinal, in order to confer more influence upon him; and +that prelate had long been regarded as prime minister to James, and +as the head of that party which defended the ancient privileges and +property of the ecclesiastics. Upon the death of his master, this man, +apprehensive of the consequences both to his party and to himself, +endeavored to keep possession of power; and for that purpose he is +accused of executing a deed which required a high degree of temerity. +He forged, it is said, a will for the king, appointing himself and three +noblemen more regents of the kingdom during the minority of the infant +princess:[*] at least,--for historians are not well agreed in the +circumstances of the fact,--he had read to James a paper of that import, +to which that monarch, during the delirium which preceded his death, had +given an imperfect assent and approbation.[**] By virtue of this will, +Beaton had put himself in possession of the government; and having +united his interests with those of the queen dowager, he obtained the +consent of the convention of states, and excluded the pretensions of the +earl of Arran. + + * Sadler’s Letters, p. 161. Spotswood, p. 71. Buchanan, lib. + xv. + + ** John Knox, Hist. of the Reformation. + +James, earl of Arran, of the name of Hamilton, was next heir to the +crown by his grandmother, daughter of James III.; and on that account +seemed best entitled to possess that high office into which the cardinal +had intruded himself. The prospect also of his succession after a +princess who was in such tender infancy, procured him many partisans; +and though his character indicated little spirit, activity, or ambition, +a propensity which he had discovered for the new opinions had attached +to him all the zealous promoters of those innovations. By means of these +adherents, joined to the vassals of his own family, he had been able to +make opposition to the cardinal’s administration; and the suspicion +of Beaton’s forgery, with the accession of the noblemen who had been +prisoners in England, assisted too by some money sent from London, +was able to turn the balance in his favor. The earl of Angus and his +brother, having taken the present opportunity of returning into their +native country, opposed the cardinal with all the credit of that +powerful family; and the majority of the convention had now embraced +opposite interests to those which formerly prevailed. Arran was declared +governor; the cardinal was committed to custody under the care of +Lord Seton; and a negotiation was commenced with Sir Ralph Sadler, the +English ambassador, for the marriage of the infant queen with the prince +of Wales. The following conditions were quickly agreed on: that the +queen should remain in Scotland till she should be ten years of age; +that she should then be sent to England to be educated; that six +Scottish noblemen should immediately be delivered as hostages to Henry; +and that the kingdom, notwithstanding its union with England, should +still retain its laws and privileges.[*] By means of these equitable +conditions, the war between the nations, which had threatened Scotland +with such dismal calamities, seemed to be fully composed, and to be +changed into perpetual concord and amity. + +But the cardinal primate, having prevailed on Seton to restore him to +his liberty, was able, by his intrigues, to confound all these measures, +which appeared so well concerted. He assembled the most considerable +ecclesiastics; and having represented to them the imminent danger to +which their revenues and privileges were exposed, he persuaded them to +collect privately from the clergy a large sum of money, by which, if +intrusted to his management, he engaged to overturn the schemes of +their enemies.[**] Besides the partisans whom he acquired by pecuniary +motives, he roused up the zeal of those who were attached to the +Catholic worship; and he represented the union with England as the sure +forerunner of ruin to the church and to the ancient religion. + + * Sir Ralph Sadler’s Letters. + + ** Buchanan, lib. xv. + +The nations antipathy of the Scots to their southern neighbors was also +an infallible engine by which the cardinal wrought upon the people; +and though the terror of Henry’s arms, and their own inability to make +resistance, had procured a temporary assent to the alliance and marriage +proposed, the settled habits of the nation produced an extreme aversion +to those measures. The English ambassador and his retinue received many +insults from persons whom the cardinal had instigated to commit those +violences, in hopes of bringing on a rupture; but Sadler prudently +dissembled the matter, and waited patiently till the day appointed +for the delivery of the hostages. He then demanded of the regent the +performance of that important article; but received for answer, that his +authority was very precarious, that the nation had now taken a different +impression, and that it was not in his power to compel any of the +nobility to deliver themselves as hostages to the English. Sadler, +foreseeing the consequence of this refusal, sent a summons to all those +who had been prisoners in England, and required them to fulfil the +promise which they had given of returning into custody. None of them +showed so much sentiment of honor as to fulfil their engagements, except +Gilbert Kennedy, earl of Cassilis. Henry was so well pleased with the +behavior of this nobleman, that he not only received him graciously, but +honored him with presents, gave him his liberty, and sent him back to +Scotland, with his two brothers, whom he had left as hostages.[*] + + * Buchanan, lib. xv. + +This behavior of the Scottish nobles, though it reflected dishonor on +the nation, was not disagreeable to the cardinal, who foresaw that all +these persons would now be deeply interested to maintain their enmity +and opposition to England. And as a war was soon expected with that +kingdom, he found it necessary immediately to apply to France, and to +crave the assistance of that ancient ally, during the present distresses +of the Scottish nation. Though the French king was fully sensible of +his interest in supporting Scotland, a demand of aid could not have +been made on him at a more unseasonable juncture. His pretensions on the +Milanese, and his resentment against Charles, had engaged him in a war +with that potentate; and having made great, though fruitless efforts +during the preceding campaign, he was the more disabled at present from +defending his own dominions, much more from granting any succor to +the Scots. Matthew Stewart, earl of Lenox, a young nobleman of a +great family, was at that time in the French court; and Francis, being +informed that he was engaged in ancient and hereditary enmity with the +Hamiltons, who had murdered his father, sent him over to his native +country, as a support to the cardinal and the queen mother: and he +promised that a supply of money, and, if necessary, even military +succors, should soon be despatched after him. Arran, the governor, +seeing all these preparations against him, assembled his friends, and +made an attempt to get the person of the infant queen into his custody; +but being repulsed, he was obliged to come to an accommodation with his +enemies, and to intrust that precious charge to four neutral persons, +the heads of potent families, the Grahams, Areskines, Lindseys, and +Levingstones. The arrival of Lenox, in the midst of these transactions, +served to render the victory of the French party over the English still +more undisputable.[*] + +The opposition which Henry met with in Scotland from the French +intrigues, excited his resentment, and further confirmed the resolution +which he had already taken of breaking with France, and of uniting +his arms with those of the emperor. He had other grounds of complaint +against the French king; which, though not of great importance, yet +being recent, were able to overbalance those great injuries which he had +formerly received from Charles. He pretended that Francis had engaged to +imitate his example in separating himself entirely from the see of +Rome, and that he had broken his promise in that particular. He was +dissatisfied that James, his nephew, had been allowed to marry, first +Magdalene of France, then a princess of the house of Guise; and +he considered these alliances as pledges which Francis gave of his +intentions to support the Scots against the power of England.[**] He had +been informed of some railleries which the French king had thrown out +against his conduct with regard to his wives. He was disgusted that +Francis, after so many obligations which he owed him, had sacrificed +him to the emperor; and, in the confidence of friendship, had rashly +revealed his secrets to that subtle and interested monarch. And he +complained that regular payments were never made of the sums due to him +by France, and of the pension which had been stipulated. Impelled by +all these motives, he alienated himself from his ancient friend and +confederate, and formed a league with the emperor, who earnestly courted +his alliance. + + * Buchanan, lib. xv. Drummond. + + ** Pere Daniel. + +This league, besides stipulations for mutual defence, contained a plan +for invading France; and the two monarchs agreed to enter Francis’s +dominions with an army, each of twenty-five thousand men; and to require +that prince to pay Henry all the sums which he owed him, and to consign +Boulogne, Montreuil, Terouenne, and Ardres, as a security for the +regular payment of his pension for the future: in case these conditions +were rejected, the confederate princes agreed to challenge, for Henry, +the crown of France, or, in default of it, the duchies of Normandy, +Aquitaine, and Guienne; for Charles the duchy of Burgundy, and some +other territories.[*] That they might have a pretence for enforcing +these claims, they sent a message to Francis, requiring him to renounce +his alliance with Sultan Solyman, and to make reparation for all +the prejudice which Christendom had sustained from that unnatural +confederacy. Upon the French king’s refusal, war was declared against +him by the allies. It may be proper to remark, that the partisans +of France objected to Charles’s alliance with the heretical king of +England, as no less obnoxious than that which Francis had contracted +with Solyman: and they observed, that this league was a breach of the +solemn promise which he had given to Clement VII., never to make peace +or alliance with England. + +While the treaty with the emperor was negotiating, the king summoned a +new session of parliament, in order to obtain supplies for his projected +war with France. The parliament granted him a subsidy, to be paid in +three years; it was levied in a peculiar manner; but exceeded not three +shillings in the pound upon any individual.[**] + + * Rymer, vol. xiv. p. 768; vol. xv. p. 2. + + ** They who were worth, in goods, twenty shillings and + upwards to five pounds, paid fourpence of every pound; from + five pounds to ten pounds, eightpence; from ten pounds to + twenty pounds, sixteen pence; from twenty and upwards, two + shillings. Lands, fees, and annuities, from twenty shillings + to five pounds, paid eightpence in the pound; from five + pounds to ten pounds, sixteen pence; from ten pounds to + twenty pounds, two shillings; from twenty pounds and + upwards, three shillings. + +The convocation gave the king six shillings in the pound, to be levied +in three years. Greater sums were always, even during the establishment +of the Catholic religion, exacted from the clergy than from the +laity; which made the emperor Charles say, when Henry dissolved the +monasteries, and sold their revenues, or bestowed them on his nobility +and courtiers, that he had killed the hen which brought him the golden +eggs.[*] + +The parliament also facilitated the execution of the former law by which +the king’s proclamations were made equal to statutes: they appointed +that any nine counsellors should form a legal court for punishing all +disobedience to proclamations. The total abolition of juries in criminal +causes, as well as on all parliaments, seemed, if the king had so +pleased, the necessary consequence of this enormous law. He might +issue a proclamation enjoining the execution of any penal statute, and +afterwards try the criminals, not for breach of the statute, but for +disobedience to his proclamation. It is remarkable, that Lord Mountjoy +entered a protest against this law; and it is equally remarkable that +that protest is the only one entered against any public bill during this +whole reign.[**] + +It was enacted[***] this session, that any spiritual person who preached +or taught contrary to the doctrine contained in the king’s book, the +Erudition of a Christian Man, or contrary to any doctrine which he +should thereafter promulgate, was to be admitted on the first conviction +to renounce his error; on the second, he was required to carry a fagot; +which if he refused to do, or fell into a third offence, he was to be +burnt. But the laity, for the third offence, were only to forfeit their +goods and chattels, and be liable to perpetual imprisonment. Indictments +must be laid within a year after the offence, and the prisoner was +allowed to bring witnesses for his exculpation. These penalties were +lighter than those which were formerly imposed on a denial of the real +presence: it was, however, subjoined in this statute, that the act of +the six articles was still in force. But in order to make the king more +entirely master of his people, it was enacted, that he might hereafter, +at his pleasure, change this act, or any provision in it. By this +clause, both parties were retained in subjection: so far as regarded +religion, the king was invested, in the fullest manner, with the sole +legislative authority in his kingdom; and all his subjects were, under +the severest penalties, expressly bound to receive implicitly whatever +doctrine he should please to recommend to them. + + * Collier, vol. ii. p. 176. + + ** Burnet, vol. i. p. 322. + + *** 34 and 35 Henry VIII. c. 1. + +The reformers began to entertain hopes that this great power of the +crown might still be employed in their favor. The king married Catharine +Par, widow of Nevil, Lord Latimer; a woman of virtue, and somewhat +inclined to the new doctrine. By this marriage Henry confirmed what had +formerly been foretold in jest, that he would be obliged to espouse a +widow. The king’s league with the emperor seemed a circumstance no less +favorable to the Catholic party; and thus matters remained still nearly +balanced between the factions. + +The advantages gained by this powerful confederacy between Henry and +Charles, were inconsiderable during the present year. The campaign was +opened with a victory gained by the duke of Cleves, Francis’s ally, over +the forces of the emperor:[*] Francis, in person, took the field early; +and made himself master, without resistance, of the whole duchy of +Luxembourg: he afterwards took Landrecy, and added some fortifications +to it. Charles, having at last assembled a powerful army, appeared in +the Low Countries; and after taking almost every fortress in the duchy +of Cleves, he reduced the duke to accept of the terms which he was +pleased to prescribe to him. Being then joined by a body of six thousand +English, he sat down before Landrecy, and covered the siege with an army +of above forty thousand men. Francis advanced at the head of an army not +much inferior; as if he intended to give the emperor battle, or oblige +him to raise the siege: but while these two rival monarchs were facing +each other, and all men were in expectation of some great event, the +French king found means of throwing succor into Landrecy; and having +thus effected his purpose, he skilfully made a retreat. Charles, finding +the season far advanced, despaired of success in his enterprise, and +found it necessary to go into winter quarters. + + * Mém. du Bellai, lib. x. + +The vanity of Henry was flattered by the figure which he made in the +great transactions on the continent; but the interests of his kingdom +were more deeply concerned in the event of affairs in Scotland. Arran, +the governor, was of so indolent and unambitious a character, that, +had he not been stimulated by his friends and dependants, he never had +aspired to any share in the administration; and when he found himself +overpowered by the party of the queen dowager, the cardinal, and the +earl of Lenox, he was glad to accept of any terms of accommodation, +however dishonorable. He even gave them a sure pledge of his sincerity, +by renouncing the principles of the reformers, and reconciling himself +to the Romish communion in the Franciscan church at Stirling. By this +weakness and levity, he lost his credit with the whole nation, and +rendered the Protestants, who were hitherto the chief support of his +power, his mortal enemies. The cardinal acquired an entire ascendant in +the kingdom: the queen dowager placed implicit confidence in him: the +governor was obliged to yield to him in every pretension: Lenox +alone was become an obstacle to his measures, and reduced him to some +difficulty. + +The inveterate enmity which had taken place between the families of +Lenox and Arran, made the interests of these two noblemen entirely +incompatible; and as the cardinal and the French party, in order to +engage Lenox the more in their cause, had flattered him with the hopes +of succeeding to the crown after their infant sovereign, this rivalship +had tended still further to rouse the animosity of the Hamiltons. Lenox, +too, had been encouraged to aspire to the marriage of the queen dowager, +which would have given him some pretensions to the regency; and as he +was become assuming, on account of the services which he had rendered +the party, the cardinal found that, since he must choose between the +friendship of Lenox and that of Arran, the latter nobleman, who was more +easily governed, and who was invested with present authority, was in +every respect preferable. Lenox, finding that he was not likely to +succeed in his pretensions to the queen dowager, and that Arran, favored +by the cardinal, had acquired the ascendant, retired to Dunbarton, the +governor of which was entirely at his devotion; he entered into a secret +correspondence with the English court; and he summoned his vassals and +partisans to attend him. All those who were inclined to the Protestant +religion, or were on any account discontented with the cardinal’s +administration, now regarded Lenox as the head of their party, and they +readily made him a tender of their services. In a little time he had +collected an army of ten thousand men, and he threatened his enemies +with immediate destruction. The cardinal had no equal force to oppose to +him; but as he was a prudent man, he foresaw that Lenox could not long +subsist so great an army, and he endeavored to gain time by opening a +negotiation with him. He seduced his followers by various artifices; he +prevailed on the Douglases to change party; he represented to the whole +nation the danger of civil wars and commotions; and Lenox, observing the +unequal contest in which he was engaged, was at last obliged to lay down +his arms, and to accept of an accommodation with the governor and the +cardinal. Present peace was restored; but no confidence took place +between the parties. Lenox, fortifying his castles, and putting himself +in a posture of defence, waited the arrival of English succors, from +whose assistance alone he expected to obtain the superiority over his +enemies. + +{1544.} While the winter season restrained Henry from military +operations, he summoned a new parliament, in which a law was passed, +such as he was pleased to dictate, with regard to the succession of the +crown. After declaring that the prince of Wales, or any of the king’s +male issue, were first and immediate heirs to the crown, the parliament +restored the two princesses, Mary and Elizabeth, to their right of +succession. This seemed a reasonable piece of justice, and corrected +what the king’s former violence had thrown into confusion; but it was +impossible for Henry to do any thing, how laudable soever, without +betraying, in some circumstance, his usual extravagance and caprice: +though he opened the way for these two princesses to mount the throne, +he would not allow the acts to be reversed which had declared them +illegitimate; he made the parliament confer on him a power of still +excluding them, if they refused to submit to any conditions which he +should be pleased to impose; and he required them to enact, that, in +default of his own issue, he might dispose of the crown as he pleased, +by will or letters-patent. He did not probably foresee that, in +proportion as he degraded the parliament, by rendering it the passive +instrument of his variable and violent inclinations, he taught the +people to regard all its acts as invalid, and thereby defeated even the +purposes which he was so bent to attain. + +An act passed, declaring that the king’s usual style should be “king of +England, France, and Ireland, defender of the faith, and on earth the +supreme head of the church of England and Ireland.” It seemed a palpable +inconsistency to retain the title of defender of the faith, which the +court of Rome had conferred on him for maintaining its cause against +Luther; and yet subjoin his ecclesiastical supremacy, in opposition to +the claims of that court. + +An act also passed for the remission of the debt which the king had +lately contracted by a general loan levied upon the people. It will +easily be believed, that after the former act of this kind, the loan +was not entirely voluntary.[*] But there was a peculiar circumstance +attending the present statute, which none but Henry would have thought +of; namely, that those who had already gotten payment, either in whole +or in part, should refund the money to the exchequer. + +The oaths which Henry imposed for the security of his ecclesiastical +model, were not more reasonable than his other measures. All his +subjects of any distinction had already been obliged to renounce the +pope’s supremacy; but as the clauses to which they swore had not been +deemed entirely satisfactory, another oath was imposed; and it +was added, that all those who had taken the former oaths should be +understood to have taken the new one;[**] a strange supposition to +represent men as bound by an oath which they had never taken. + + * 35 Henry VII. c. 12. + + ** 35 Henry VII c. 1. + +The most commendable law to which the parliament gave their sanction, +was that by which they mitigated the law of the six articles, and +enacted, that no person should be put to his trial upon an accusation +concerning any of the offences comprised in that sanguinary statute, +except on the oath of twelve persons before commissioners authorized for +the purpose; and that no person should be arrested or committed to ward +for any such offence before he was indicted. Any preacher accused of +speaking in his sermon contrary to these articles, must be indicted +within forty days. + +The king always experienced the limits of his authority whenever +he demanded subsidies, however moderate, from the parliament; and +therefore, not to hazard a refusal, he made no mention this session of +a supply: but as his wars both in France and Scotland, as well as his +usual prodigality, had involved him in great expense, he had resource +to other methods of filling his exchequer. Notwithstanding the former +abolition of his debts, he yet required new loans from his subjects; and +he enhanced gold from forty-five shillings to forty-eight an ounce, +and silver from three shillings and nine-pence to four shillings. +His pretence for this innovation was, to prevent the money from being +exported; as if that expedient could anywise serve the purpose. He even +coined some base money, and ordered it to be current by proclamation. +He named commissioners for levying a benevolence, and he extorted about +seventy thousand pounds by this expedient. Read, alderman of London,[*] +a man somewhat advanced in years, having refused to contribute, or not +coming up to the expectation of the commissioners, was enrolled as a +foot soldier in the Scottish wars, and was there taken prisoner. Roach, +who had been equally refractory, was thrown into prison, and obtained +not his liberty but by paying a large composition.[**] These powers +of the prerogative, (which at that time passed unquestioned,) the +compelling of any man to serve in any office, and the imprisoning of +any man during pleasure, not to mention the practice of extorting loans, +rendered the sovereign in a manner absolute master of the person and +property of every individual. + +Early this year the king sent a fleet and army to invade Scotland. The +fleet consisted of near two hundred vessels, and carried on board ten +thousand men. Dudley, Lord Lisle, commanded the sea forces; the earl +of Hertford the land. The troops were disembarked near Leith; and after +dispersing a small body which opposed them, they took that town without +resistance, and then marched to Edinburgh. The gates were soon beaten +down, (for little or no resistance was made,) and the English first +pillaged, and then set fire to the city. The regent and cardinal were +not prepared to oppose so great a force, and they fled to Stirling. +Hertford marched eastward; and being joined by a new body under Evers, +warden of the east marches, he laid waste the whole country, burned and +destroyed Haddington and Dunbar, then retreated into England; having +lost only forty men in the whole expedition. The earl of Arran collected +some forces; but finding that the English were already departed, he +turned them against Lenox, who was justly suspected of a correspondence +with the enemy. That nobleman, after making some resistance, was obliged +to fly into England, where Henry settled a pension on him, and even +gave him his niece, lady Margaret Douglas, in marriage. In return, Lenox +stipulated conditions, by which, had he been able to execute them, he +must have reduced his country to total servitude.[***] + + * Herbert. Stowe, p. 588. Baker, p. 292. + + ** Goodwin’s Annals. Stowe, p. 588. + + *** Rymer, vol. xv. p. 28, 29. + +Henry’s policy was blamed in this sudden and violent incursion, by which +he inflamed the passions of the Scots, without subduing their spirit; +and it was commonly said, that he did too much, if he intended to +solicit an alliance, and too little, if he meant a conquest.[*] But the +reason of his recalling the troops so soon, was his eagerness to carry +on a projected enterprise against France, in which he intended to +employ the whole force of his kingdom. He had concerted a plan with the +emperor, which threatened the total ruin of that monarchy, and must, as +a necessary consequence, have involved the ruin of England. These two +princes had agreed to invade France with forces amounting to above a +hundred thousand men: Henry engaged to set out from Calais; Charles from +the Low Countries: they were to enter on no siege; but leaving all the +frontier towns behind them, to march directly to Paris, where they were +to join their forces, and thence to proceed to the entire conquest of +the kingdom. Francis could not oppose to these formidable preparations +much above forty thousand men. + + * Herbert. Burnet. + +Henry, having appointed the queen regent during his absence, passed over +to Calais with thirty thousand men, accompanied by the dukes of Norfolk +and Suffolk, Fitzalan earl of Arundel, Vere earl of Oxford, the earl of +Surrey, Paulet Lord St. John, Lord Ferrers of Chartley, Lord Mountjoy, +Lord Grey of Wilton, Sir Anthony Brown, Sir Francis Bryan, and the most +flourishing nobility and gentry of his kingdom. The English army +was soon joined by the count de Buren, admiral of Flanders, with ten +thousand foot and four thousand horse; and the whole composed an army +which nothing on that frontier was able to resist. The chief force of +the French armies was drawn to the side of Champagne, in order to oppose +the imperialists. + +The emperor, with an army of near sixty thousand men, had taken the +field much earlier than Henry; and not to lose time while he waited for +the arrival of his confederate, he sat down before Luxembourg, which was +surrendered to him: he thence proceeded to Commercy, on the Meuse, which +he took: Ligny met with the same fate: he next laid siege to St. Disier, +on the Marne, which, though a weak place, made a brave resistance under +the count of Sancerre, the governor, and the siege was protracted beyond +expectation. + +The emperor was employed before this town at the time the English forces +were assembled in Picardy. Henry either tempted by the defenceless +condition of the French frontier, or thinking that the emperor had first +broken his engagement by forming sieges, or, perhaps, foreseeing at +last the dangerous consequences of entirely subduing the French power, +instead of marching forward to Paris, sat down before Montreuil and +Boulogne. The duke of Norfolk commanded the army before Montreuil; the +king himself that before Boulogne. Vervin was governor of the latter +place, and under him Philip Corse, a brave old soldier, who encouraged +the garrison to defend themselves to the last extremity against the +English. He was killed during the course of the siege, and the town was +immediately surrendered to Henry by the cowardice of Vervin, who was +afterwards beheaded for this dishonorable capitulation. + +During the course of this siege, Charles had taken St. Disier; and +finding the season much advanced, he began to hearken to a treaty of +peace with France, since all his schemes for subduing that kingdom were +likely to prove abortive. In order to have a pretence for deserting +his ally, he sent a messenger to the English camp, requiring Henry +immediately to fulfil his engagements, and to meet him with his army +before Paris. Henry replied, that he was too far engaged in the siege of +Boulogne to raise it with honor, and that the emperor himself had first +broken the concert by besieging St. Disier. This answer served Charles +as a sufficient reason for concluding a peace with Francis at Crepy, +where no mention was made of England. He stipulated to give Flanders as +a dowry to his daughter, whom he agreed to marry to the duke of Orleans, +Francis’s second son; and Francis, in return, withdrew his troops from +Piedmont and Savoy, and renounced all claim to Milan, Naples, and +other territories in Italy. This peace, so advantageous to Francis, was +procured partly by the decisive victory obtained in the beginning of the +campaign by the count of Anguyen over the imperialists at Cerisolles in +Piedmont, partly by the emperor’s great desire to turn his arms against +the Protestant princes in Germany. Charles ordered his troops to +separate from the English in Picardy; and Henry, finding himself obliged +to raise the siege of Montreuil, returned into England. This campaign +served to the populace as matter of great triumph; but all men of sense +concluded, that the king had, as in all his former military enterprises, +made, at a great expense, an acquisition which was of no importance. + +The war with Scotland, meanwhile, was conducted feebly and with various +success. Sir Ralph Evers, now Lord Evers and Sir Bryan Latoun, made +an inroad into that kingdom; and having laid waste the counties of +Tiviotdale and the Merse, they proceeded to the abbey of Coldingham, +which they took possession of, and fortified. The governor assembled an +army of eight thousand men, in order to dislodge them from this post; +but he had no sooner opened his batteries before the place, than a +sudden panic seized him; he left the army, and fled to Dunbar. He +complained of the mutiny of his troops, and pretended apprehensions +lest they should deliver him into the hands of the English; but his own +unwarlike spirit was generally believed to have been the motive of this +dishonorable flight. The Scottish army, upon the departure of their +general, fell into confusion; and had not Angus, with a few of his +retainers, brought off the cannon, and protected their rear, the English +might have gained great advantages over them. Evers, elated with this +success, boasted to Henry, that he had conquered all Scotland to the +Forth; and he claimed a reward for this important service. The duke +of Norfolk, who knew with what difficulty such acquisitions would be +maintained against a warlike enemy, advised the king to grant him, as +his reward, the conquests of which he boasted so highly. The next inroad +made by the English showed the vanity of Evers’s hopes. + +{1545.} This general led about five thousand men into Tiviotdale, and +was employed in ravaging that country; when intelligence was brought him +that some Scottish forces appeared near the abbey of Melross. Angus had +roused the governor to more activity; and a proclamation being issued +for assembling the troops of the neighboring counties, a considerable +body had repaired thither to oppose the enemy. Norman Lesly, son of the +earl of Rothes, had also joined the army with some volunteers from Fife; +and he inspired courage into the whole, as well by this accession of +force, as by his personal bravery and intrepidity. In order to bring +their troops to the necessity of a steady defence, the Scottish leaders +ordered all their cavalry to dismount, and they resolved to wait, on +some high grounds near Ancram, the assault of the English. The English, +whose past successes had taught them too much to despise the enemy, +thought, when they saw the Scottish horses led off the field, that the +whole army was retiring; and they hastened to attack them. The Scots +received them in good order; and being favored by the advantage of the +ground, as well as by the surprise of the English, who expected no +resistance, they soon put them to flight, and pursued them with +considerable slaughter. Evers and Latoun were both killed, and above a +thousand men were made prisoners. In order to support the Scots in this +war, Francis some time after sent over a body of auxiliaries, to the +number of three thousand five hundred men, under the command of +Montgomery, lord of Lorges.[*] Reënforced by these succors, the governor +assembled an army of fifteen thousand men at Haddington, and marched +thence to ravage the east borders of England. He laid all waste wherever +he came; and having met with no considerable resistance, he retired into +his own country, and disbanded his army. The earl of Hertford, in +revenge, committed ravages on the middle and west marches; and the war +on both sides was signalized rather by the ills inflicted on the enemy, +than by any considerable advantage gained by either party. + +The war likewise between France and England was not distinguished this +year by any memorable event. Francis had equipped a fleet of above two +hundred sail, besides galleys; and having embarked some land forces on +board, he sent them to make a descent in England.[**] They sailed to the +Isle of Wight, where they found the English fleet lying at anchor in +St. Helen’s. It consisted not of above a hundred sail; and the admiral +thought it most advisable to remain in that road, in hopes of drawing +the French into the narrow channels and the rocks, which were unknown to +them. The two fleets cannonaded each other for two days; and except the +sinking of the Mary Rose, one of the largest ships of the English fleet, +the damage on both sides was inconsiderable. + + * Buchanan, lib. xv. Drummond. + + ** Beleair. Mém. du Bellai. + +Francis’s chief intention in equipping so great a fleet, was to prevent +the English from throwing succors into Boulogne, which he resolved to +besiege; and for that purpose he ordered a fort to be built, by which he +intended to block up the harbor. After a considerable loss of time and +money, the fort was found so ill constructed, that he was obliged to +abandon it; and though he had assembled on that frontier an army of +near forty thousand men, he was not able to effect any considerable +enterprise. Henry, in order to defend his possessions in France, had +levied fourteen thousand Germans who, having marched to Fleurines, in +the bishopric of Liege, found that they could advance no farther. The +emperor would not allow them a passage through his dominions: they +received intelligence of a superior army on the side of France ready +to intercept them: want of occupation and of pay soon produced a mutiny +among them; and having seized the English commissaries as a security for +arrears, they retreated into their own country. There seems to have been +some want of foresight in this expensive armament. + +The great expense of these two wars maintained by Henry, obliged him to +summon a new parliament. The commons granted him a subsidy, payable in +two years, of two shillings a pound on land.[*] The spirituality voted +him six shillings a pound. But the parliament, apprehensive lest more +demands should be made upon them, endeavored to save themselves by a +very extraordinary liberality of other people’s property; by one vote +they bestowed on the king all the revenues of the universities, as well +as of the chauntries, free chapels,[**] and hospitals. Henry was pleased +with this concession, as it increased his power; but he had no intention +to rob learning of all her endowments; and he soon took care to inform +the universities that he meant not to touch their revenues. Thus +these ancient and celebrated establishments owe their existence to +the generosity of the king, not to the protection of this servile and +prostitute parliament. + +The prostitute spirit of the parliament further appeared in the preamble +of a statute;[***] in which they recognize the king to have always +been, by the word of God, supreme head of the church of England; and +acknowledge that archbishops, bishops, and other ecclesiastical persons, +have no manner of jurisdiction but by his royal mandate; to him alone, +say they, and such persons as he shall appoint, full power and +authority is given from above to hear and determine all manner of causes +ecclesiastical, and to correct all manner of heresies, errors, vices, +and sins whatsoever. No mention is here made of the concurrence of a +convocation, or even of a parliament. His proclamations are in effect +acknowledged to have not only the force of law, but the authority of +revelation; and by his royal power he might regulate the actions of +men, control their words, and even direct their inward sentiments and +opinions. + + * Those who possessed goods or money above five pounds, and + below ten, were to pay eightpence a pound; those above ten + pounds, a shilling. + + ** A chauntry was a little church, chapel, or particular + altar in some cathedral church, etc., endowed with lands or + other revenues for the maintenance of one or more priests + daily to say mass or perform divine service, for the use of + the founders, or such others as they appointed: free chapels + were independent on any church, and endowed for much the + same purpose as the former. Jacob’s Law Dict. + + *** 37 Henry VIII. c. 17. + +The king made in person a speech to the parliament on proroguing them; +in which, after thanking them for their loving attachment to him, which, +he said, equalled what was ever paid by their ancestors to any king of +England, he complained of their dissensions, disputes, and animosities +in religion. He told them, that the several pulpits were become a kind +of batteries against each other; and that one preacher called another +heretic and Anabaptist, which was retaliated by the opprobrious +appellations of Papist and hypocrite: that he had permitted his people +the use of the Scriptures, not in order to furnish them with materials +for disputing and railing, but that he might enable them to inform their +consciences and instruct their children and families: that it grieved +his heart to find how that precious jewel was prostituted, by being +introduced into the conversation of every alehouse and tavern, and +employed as a pretence for decrying the spiritual and legal pastors: +and that he was sorry to observe, that the word of God, while it was +the object of so much anxious speculation, had very little influence +on their practice; and that, though an imaginary knowledge so much +abounded, charity was daily going to decay.[*] The king gave good +advice; but his own example, by encouraging speculation and dispute, +was ill fitted to promote that peaceable submission of opinion which he +recommended. + + * Hall, fol. 261. Herbert, p. 534. + +{1546.} Henry employed in military preparations the money granted by +parliament; and he sent over the earl of Hertford and Lord Lisle, the +admiral, to Calais, with a body of nine thousand men, two thirds of +which consisted of foreigners. Some skirmishes of small moment ensued +with the French; and no hopes of any considerable progress could be +entertained by either party. Henry, whose animosity against Francis was +not violent, had given sufficient vent to his humor by this short war; +and finding that, from his great increase in corpulence and decay in +strength, he could not hope for much longer life, he was desirous of +ending a quarrel which might prove dangerous to his kingdom during a +minority. Francis likewise, on his part, was not averse to peace with +England; because, having lately lost his son, the duke of Orleans, he +revived his ancient claim upon Milan, and foresaw that hostilities +must soon, on that account, break out between him and the emperor. +Commissioners, therefore, having met at Campe, a small place between +Ardres and Guisnes, the articles were soon agreed on, and the peace +signed by them. The chief conditions were, that Henry should retain +Boulogne during eight years, or till the former debt due by Francis +should be paid. This debt was settled at two millions of livres, besides +a claim of five hundred thousand livres, which was afterwards to be +adjusted. Francis took care to comprehend Scotland in the treaty. Thus +all that Henry obtained by a war which cost him above one million +three hundred and forty thousand pounds sterling,[*] was a bad and a +chargeable security for a debt, which was not a third of the value. + + * Herbert. Stowe. + +The king, now freed from all foreign wars, had leisure to give his +attention to domestic affairs; particularly to the establishment of +uniformity in opinion, on which he was so intent. Though he allowed an +English translation of the Bible, he had hitherto been very careful to +keep the mass in Latin; but he was at last prevailed on to permit that +the litany, a considerable part of the service, should be celebrated in +the vulgar tongue; and by this innovation he excited anew the hopes of +the reformers, who had been somewhat discouraged by the severe law of +the six articles. One petition of the new litany was a prayer to save +us “from the tyranny of the bishop of Rome, and from all his detestable +enormities.” Cranmer employed his credit to draw Henry into further +innovations; and he took advantage of Gardiner’s absence, who was sent +on an embassy to the emperor: but Gardiner having written to the king, +that, if he carried his opposition against the Catholic religion to +greater extremities, Charles threatened to break off all commerce with +him, the success of Cranmer’s projects was for some time retarded. +Cranmer lost this year the most sincere and powerful friend that he +possessed at court, Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk; the queen dowager +of France, consort to Suffolk, had died some years before. This nobleman +is one instance that Henry was not altogether incapable of a cordial and +steady friendship; and Suffolk seems to have been worthy of the favor +which, from his earliest youth, he had enjoyed with his master. The king +was sitting in council when informed of Suffolk’s death; and he took +the opportunity both to express his own sorrow for the loss, and to +celebrate the merits of the deceased. He declared, that during the +whole course of their friendship, his brother-in-law had never made one +attempt to injure an adversary, and had never whispered a word to the +disadvantage of any person. “Is there any of you, my lords, who can say +as much?” When the king subjoined these words, he looked round in all +their faces, and saw that confusion which the consciousness of secret +guilt naturally threw upon them.[*] + + * Coke’s Inst. cap. 99. + +Cranmer himself, when bereaved of this support, was the more exposed +to those cabals of the courtiers, which the opposition in party and +religion, joined to the usual motives of interest, rendered so frequent +among Henry’s ministers and counsellors. The Catholics took hold of the +king by his passion for orthodoxy; and they represented to him, that, if +his laudable zeal for enforcing the truth met with no better success, +it was altogether owing to the primate, whose example and encouragement +were, in reality, the secret supports of heresy. Henry, seeing the point +at which they aimed, feigned a compliance, and desired the council to +make inquiry into Cranmer’s conduct; promising that, if he were found +guilty, he should be committed to prison, and brought to condign +punishment. Every body now considered the primate as lost; and his +old friends, from interested views, as well as the opposite party from +animosity, began to show him marks of neglect and disregard. He was +obliged to stand several hours among the lackeys at the door of the +council chamber before he could be admitted; and when he was at last +called in, he was told that they had determined to send him to the +Tower. Cranmer said, that he appealed to the king himself; and finding +his appeal disregarded, he produced a ring, which Henry had given him as +a pledge of favor and protection. The council were confounded; and when +they came before the king, he reproved them in the severest terms; and +told them, that he was well acquainted with Cranmer’s merit, as well as +with their malignity and envy; but he was determined to crush all their +cabals, and to teach them by the severest discipline, since gentle +methods were ineffectual, a more dutiful concurrence in promoting his +service. Norfolk, who was Cranmer’s capital enemy, apologized for their +conduct and said, that their only intention was to set the primate’s +innocence in a full light, by bringing him to an open trial, and +Henry obliged them all to embrace him, as a sign of their cordial +reconciliation. The mild temper of Cranmer rendered this agreement more +sincere on his part than is usual in such forced compliances.[*] + +But though Henry’s favor for Cranmer rendered fruitless all accusations +against him, his pride and peevishness, irritated by his declining state +of health, impelled him to punish with fresh severity all others who +presumed to entertain a different opinion from himself, particularly +in the capital point of the real presence. Anne Ascue, a young woman of +merit as well as beauty,[**] who had great connections with the chief +ladies at court, and with the queen herself, was accused of dogmatizing +on that delicate article; and Henry, instead of showing indulgence to +the weakness of her sex and age, was but the more provoked, that a woman +should dare to oppose his theological sentiments. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 342, 344. Antiq. Brit. in vita Cranm. + + ** Bale. Speed, p. 780. + +She was prevailed on by Bonner’s menaces to make a seeming recantation; +but she qualified it with some reserves, which did not satisfy that +zealous prelate. She was thrown into prison, and she there employed +herself in composing prayers and discourses, by which she fortified her +resolution to endure the utmost extremity rather than relinquish her +religious principles. She even wrote to the king, and told him, that as +to the Lord’s supper, she believed as much as Christ himself had said +of it, and as much of his divine doctrine as the Catholic church had +required: but while she could not be brought to acknowledge an assent to +the king’s explications, this declaration availed her nothing, and was +rather regarded as a fresh insult. The chancellor, Wriothesely, who had +succeeded Audley, and who was much attached to the Catholic party, was +sent to examine her with regard to her patrons at court, and the +great ladies who were in correspondence with her: but she maintained a +laudable fidelity to her friends, and would confess nothing. She was +put to the torture in the most barbarous manner, and continued still +resolute in preserving secrecy. Some authors[*] add an extraordinary +circumstance; that the chancellor, who stood by, ordered the lieutenant +of the Tower to stretch the rack still farther; but that officer refused +compliance the chancellor menaced him, but met with a new refusal; +upon which that magistrate, who was otherwise a person of merit, but +intoxicated with religious zeal, put his own hand to the rack, and drew +it so violently that he almost tore her body asunder. Her constancy +still surpassed the barbarity of her persecutors, and they found all +their efforts to be baffled. She was then condemned to be burned alive; +and being so dislocated by the rack that she could not stand, she +was carried to the stake in a chair. Together with her were conducted +Nicholas Belenian, a priest, John Lassels, of the king’s household, and +John Adams, a tailor, who had been condemned for the same crime to the +same punishment. They were all tied to the stake; and in that dreadful +situation the chancellor sent to inform them, that their pardon was +ready drawn and signed, and should instantly be given them if they +would merit it by a recantation. They only regarded this offer as a new +ornament to their crown of martyrdom; and they saw with tranquillity the +executioner kindle the flames which consumed them. Wriothesely did not +consider, that this public and noted situation interested their honor +the more to maintain a steady perseverance. + + * Fox, ii. p. 578. Speed, p. 780. Baker, p. 299. + But Burnet questions the truth of this circumstance; Fox, + however, transcribes her own papers, where she relates it. I + must add, in justice to the king, that he disapproved of + Wriothesely’s conduct, and commended the lieutenant. + +Though the secrecy and fidelity of Anne Ascue saved the queen from this +peril, that princess soon after fell into a new danger, from which she +narrowly escaped. An ulcer had broken out in the king’s leg, which, +added to his extreme corpulency and his bad habit of body, began both to +threaten his life and to render him even more than usually peevish and +passionate. The queen attended him with the most tender and dutiful +care, and endeavored, by every soothing art and compliance, to allay +those gusts of humor to which he was become so subject. His favorite +topic of conversation was theology; and Catharine, whose good sense +enabled her to discourse on any subject, was frequently engaged in +the argument, and being secretly inclined to the principles of +the reformers, she unwarily betrayed too much of her mind on these +occasions. Henry, highly provoked that she should presume to differ from +him, complained of her obstinacy to Gardiner, who gladly laid hold of +the opportunity to inflame the quarrel. He praised the king’s anxious +concern for preserving the orthodoxy of his subjects; and represented, +that the more elevated the person was who was chastised, and the more +near to his person, the greater terror would the example strike +into every one, and the more glorious would the sacrifice appear to +posterity. The chancellor, being consulted, was engaged by religious +zeal to second these topics; and Henry, hurried on by his own impetuous +temper, and encouraged by his counsellors, went so far as to order +articles of impeachment to be drawn up against his consort. Wriothesely +executed his commands; and soon after brought the paper to him to be +signed; for, as it was high treason to throw slander upon the queen, +he might otherwise have been questioned for his temerity. By some means +this important paper fell into the hands of one of the queen’s friends, +who immediately carried the intelligence to her. She was sensible of the +extreme danger to which she was exposed; but did not despair of being +able, by her prudence and address, still to elude the efforts of her +enemies. She paid her usual visit to the king, and found him in a more +serene disposition than she had reason to expect. He entered on the +subject which was so familiar to him; and he seemed to challenge her +to an argument in divinity. She gently declined the conversation, and +remarked, that such profound speculations were ill suited to the natural +imbecility of her sex. Women, she said, by their first creation, were +made subject to men: the male was created after the image of God, the +female after the image of the male: it belonged to the husband to choose +principles for his wife; the wife’s duty was, in all cases, to adopt +implicitly the sentiments of her husband: and as to herself, it was +doubly her duty, being blest with a husband who was qualified by his +judgment and learning not only to choose principles for his own family, +but for the most wise and knowing of every nation. “Not so! by St. +Mary,” replied the king; “you are now become a doctor, Kate, and better +fitted to give than receive instruction.” She meekly replied, that she +was sensible how little she was entitled to these praises; that though +she usually declined not any conversation, however sublime, when +proposed by his majesty, she well knew that her conceptions could serve +to no other purpose than to give him a little momentary amusement, that +she found the conversation apt to languish when not revived by some +opposition, and she had ventured sometimes to feign a contrariety of +sentiments, in order to give him the pleasure of refuting her; and that +she also purposed, by this innocent artifice, to engage him into topics, +whence she had observed, by frequent experience, that she reaped profit +and instruction. “And is it so, sweetheart?” replied the king, “then +are we perfect friends again.” He embraced her with great affection, +and sent her away with assurances of his protection and kindness. Her +enemies, who knew nothing of this sudden change, prepared next day +to convey her to the Tower, pursuant to the king’s warrant. Henry and +Catharine were conversing amicably in the garden, when the chancellor +appeared with forty of the pursuivants. The king spoke to him at some +distance from her; and seemed to expostulate with him in the severest +manner: she even overheard the appellations of “knave,” “fool,” and +“beast,” which he liberally bestowed upon that magistrate; and then +ordered him to depart his presence. She afterwards interposed to +mitigate his anger: he said to her, “Poor soul! you know not how ill +entitled this man is to your good offices.” Thenceforth the queen, +having narrowly escaped so great a danger, was careful not to offend +Henry’s humor by any contradiction; and Gardiner, whose malice had +endeavored to widen the breach, could never afterwards regain his favor +and good opinion.[*] + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 344. Herbert, p. 560. Speed p. 780. + Fox’s Acts and Monuments, vol. ii. p. 58. + +But Henry’s tyrannical disposition, soured by ill health, burst out soon +after to the destruction of a man who possessed a much superior rank to +that of Gardiner. The duke of Norfolk and his father, during this +whole reign, and even a part of the foregoing, had been regarded as the +greatest subjects in the kingdom, and had rendered considerable service +to the crown. The duke himself had in his youth acquired reputation by +naval enterprises: he had much contributed to the victory gained over +the Scots at Flouden: he had suppressed a dangerous rebellion in the +north; and he had always done his part with honor in all the expeditions +against France. Fortune seemed to conspire with his own industry in +raising him to the greatest elevation. From the favors heaped on him by +the crown he had acquired an immense estate: the king had successively +been married to two of his nieces; and the king’s natural son, the duke +of Richmond, had married his daughter; besides his descent, from the +ancient family of the Moubrays, by which he was allied to the throne, +he had espoused a daughter of the duke of Buckingham, who was descended +by a female from Edward III.; and as he was believed still to adhere +secretly to the ancient religion, he was regarded, both abroad and at +home, as the head of the Catholic party. But all these circumstances, in +proportion as they exalted the duke, provoked the jealousy of Henry; +and he foresaw danger, during his son’s minority, both to the public +tranquillity, and to the new ecclesiastical system, from the attempts +of so potent a subject. But nothing tended more to expose Norfolk to +the king’s displeasure, than the prejudices which Henry had entertained +against the earl of Surrey, son of that nobleman. + +Surrey was a young man of the most promising hopes, and had +distinguished himself by every accomplishment which became a scholar, a +courtier, and a soldier. He excelled in all the military exercises which +were then in request: he encouraged the fine arts by his patronage +and example: he had made some successful attempts in poetry; and being +smitten with the romantic gallantry of the age, he celebrated the +praises of his mistress by his pen and his lance, in every masque and +tournament. His spirit and ambition were equal to his talents and his +quality; and he did not always regulate his conduct by the caution +and reserve which his situation required. He had been left governor +of Boulogne when that town was taken by Henry; but though his +personal bravery was unquestioned, he had been unfortunate in some +rencounters[**misspelling] with the French. The king, somewhat +displeased with his conduct, had sent over Hertford to command in his +place; and Surrey was so imprudent as to drop some menacing expressions +against the ministers, on account of this affront which was put upon +him. And as he had refused to marry Hertford’s daughter, and even waived +every other proposal of marriage, Henry imagined that he had entertained +views of espousing the lady Mary; and he was instantly determined to +repress, by the most severe expedients, so dangerous an ambition. + +Actuated by all these motives, and perhaps influenced by that old +disgust with which the ill conduct of Catharine Howard had inspired him +against her whole family, he gave private orders to arrest Norfolk and +Surrey; and they were on the same day confined in the Tower. Surrey +being a commoner, his trial was the more expeditious; and as to proofs, +neither parliaments nor juries seem ever to have given the least +attention to them in any cause of the crown during this whole reign. + +{1547.} He was accused of entertaining in his family some Italians +who were suspected to be spies; a servant of his had paid a visit +to Cardinal Pole in Italy, whence he was suspected of holding a +correspondence with that obnoxious prelate; he had quartered the arms +of Edward the Confessor on his scutcheon, which made him be suspected +of aspiring to the crown, though both he and his ancestors had openly, +during the course of many years, maintained that practice, and the +heralds had even justified it by their authority. These were the crimes +for which a jury, notwithstanding his eloquent and spirited defence, +condemned the earl of Surrey for high treason; and their sentence was +soon after executed upon him. + +The innocence of the duke of Norfolk was still, if possible, more +apparent than that of his son; and his services to the crown had been +greater. His duchess, with whom he lived on bad terms, had been so base +as to carry intelligence to his enemies of all she knew against him: +Elizabeth Holland, a mistress of his, had been equally subservient to +the designs of the court; yet with all these advantages, his accusers +discovered no greater crime than his once saying, that the king was +sickly, and could not hold out long; and the kingdom was likely to fall +into disorders, through the diversity of religious opinions. He wrote a +pathetic letter to the king, pleading his past services and protesting +his innocence: soon after, he embraced a more proper expedient for +appeasing Henry, by making a submission and confession, such as his +enemies required; but nothing could mollify the unrelenting temper of +the king. He assembled a parliament, as the surest and most expeditious +instrument of his tyranny; and the house of peers, without examining the +prisoner, without trial or evidence, passed a bill of attainder against +him, and sent it down to the commons. Cranmer, though engaged for many +years in an opposite party to Norfolk, and though he had received +many and great injuries from him, would have no hand in so unjust a +prosecution; and he retired to his seat at Croydon.[*] The king was now +approaching fast towards his end; and fearing lest Norfolk should escape +him, he sent a message to the commons, by which he desired them to +hasten the bill, on pretence that Norfolk enjoyed the dignity of earl +marshal, and it was necessary to appoint another, who might officiate +at the ensuing ceremony of installing his son prince of Wales. The +obsequious commons obeyed his directions, though founded on so frivolous +a pretence; and the king having affixed the royal assent to the bill by +commissioners, issued orders for the execution of Norfolk on the morning +of the twenty-ninth of January. But news being carried to the Tower that +the king himself had expired that night, the lieutenant deferred obeying +the warrant; and it was not thought advisable by the council to begin a +new reign by the death of the greatest nobleman in the kingdom, who had +been condemned by a sentence so unjust and tyrannical. + +The king’s health had long been in a declining state; but for several +days all those near him plainly saw his end approaching. He was become +so froward, that no one durst inform him of his condition; and as some +persons during this reign had suffered as traitors for foretelling the +king’s death,[**] every one was afraid lest, in the transports of his +fury, he might on this pretence punish capitally the author of such +friendly intelligence. At last, Sir Anthony Denny ventured to disclose +to him the fatal secret, and exhorted him to prepare for the fate which +was awaiting him. He expressed his resignation, and desired that Cranmer +might be sent for; but before the prelate arrived, he was speechless, +though he still seemed to retain his senses. Cranmer desired him to give +some sign of his dying in the faith of Christ. He squeezed the prelate’s +hand, and immediately expired, after a reign of thirty-seven years and +nine months; and in the fifty-sixth year of his age. + + * Burnet, vol. i. p. 348. Fox. + + ** Lanquet’s Epitome of Chronicles in the year 1541. + +The king had made his will near a month before his demise; in which he +confirmed the destination of parliament, by leaving the crown first to +Prince Edward, then to the lady Mary, next to the lady Elizabeth: the +two princesses he obliged, under the penalty of forfeiting their title +to the crown, not to marry without consent of the council which he +appointed for the government of his minor son. After his own children, +he settled the succession on Frances Brandon, marchioness of Dorset, +eldest daughter of his sister, the French queen; then on Eleanor, +countess of Cumberland, the second daughter In passing over the +posterity of the queen of Scots, his eldest sister, he made use of the +power obtained from parliament, but as he subjoined that, after the +failure of the French queen’s posterity, the crown should descend to the +next lawful heir, it afterwards became a question, whether these words +could be applied to the Scottish line. It was thought that these princes +were not the next heirs after the house of Suffolk, but before that +house; and that Henry, by expressing himself in this manner, meant +entirely to exclude them. The late injuries which he had received from +the Scots, had irritated him extremely against that nation; and he +maintained to the last that character of violence and caprice by which +his life had been so much distinguished. Another circumstance of +his will may suggest the same reflection with regard to the strange +contrarieties of his temper and conduct: he left money for masses to be +said for delivering his soul from purgatory; and though he destroyed +all those institutions established by his ancestors and others for the +benefit of their souls, and had even left the doctrine of purgatory +doubtful in all the articles of faith which he promulgated during +his later years, he was yet determined, when the hour of death was +approaching, to take care at least of his own future repose, and to +adhere to the safer side of the question.[*] + + * See his will in Fuller, Heylin, and Rymer, p. 110. There + is no reasonable ground to suspect its authenticity. + +It is difficult to give a just summary of this prince’s qualities: he +was so different from himself in different parts of his reign, that, as +is well remarked by Lord Herbert, his history is his best character and +description. The absolute, uncontrolled authority which he maintained +at home, and the regard which he acquired among foreign nations, are +circumstances which entitle him, in some degree, to the appellation of +a great prince; while his tyranny and barbarity exclude him from the +character of a good one. He possessed, indeed, great vigor of mind, +which qualified him for exercising dominion over men; courage, +intrepidity, vigilance, inflexibility; and though these qualities lay +not always under the guidance of a regular and solid judgment, they were +accompanied with good parts and an extensive capacity; and every one +dreaded a contest with a man who was known never to yield or to forgive, +and who, in every controversy, was determined either to ruin himself or +his antagonist. A catalogue of his vices would comprehend many of the +worst qualities incident to human nature, violence, cruelty, profusion, +rapacity, injustice, obstinacy, arrogance, bigotry, presumption, +caprice: but neither was he subject to all these vices in the most +extreme degree, nor was he, at intervals, altogether destitute of +virtues: he was sincere, open, gallant, liberal, and capable at least +of a temporary friendship and attachment. In this respect he was +unfortunate, that the incidents of his reign served to display his +faults in their full light: the treatment which he met with from the +court of Rome provoked him to violence; the danger of a revolt from his +superstitious subjects seemed to require the most extreme severity. But +it must at the same time be acknowledged, that his situation tended +to throw an additional lustre on what was great and magnanimous in +his character; the emulation between the emperor and the French king +rendered his alliance, notwithstanding his impolitic conduct, of great +importance in Europe; the extensive powers of his prerogative, and the +submissive, not to say slavish, disposition of his parliaments, made +it the more easy for him to assume and maintain that entire dominion by +which his reign is so much distinguished in the English history. + +It may seem a little extraordinary, that, notwithstanding his cruelty, +his extortion, his violence, his arbitrary administration, this prince +not only acquired the regard of his subjects, but never was the object +of their hatred: he seems even, in some degree, to have possessed to +the last their love and affection.[*] His exterior qualities were +advantageous, and fit to captivate the multitude: his magnificence and +personal bravery rendered him illustrious in vulgar eyes; and it may +be said with truth, that the English in that age were so thoroughly +subdued, that, like Eastern slaves, they were inclined to admire those +acts of violence and tyranny which were exercised over themselves, and +at their own expense. + + * Strype, vol. i. p. 389. + +With regard to foreign states, Henry appears long to have supported an +intercourse of friendship with Francis, more sincere and disinterested +than usually takes place between neighboring princes. Their common +jealousy of the emperor Charles, and some resemblance in their +characters, (though the comparison sets the French monarch in a very +superior and advantageous light,) served as the cement of their mutual +amity. Francis is said to have been affected with the king’s death, +and to have expressed much regret for the loss. His own health began to +decline: he foretold that he should not long survive his friend;[*] and +he died in about two months after him. + +There were ten parliaments summoned by Henry VIII., and twenty-three +sessions held. The whole time in which these parliaments sat during this +long reign, exceeded not three years and a half. It amounted not to a +twelvemonth during the first twenty years. The innovations in religion +obliged the king afterwards to call these assemblies more frequently; +but though these were the most important transactions that ever fell +under the cognizance of parliament, their devoted submission to Henry’s +will, added to their earnest desire of soon returning to their country +seats, produced a quick despatch of the bills, and made the sessions +of short duration. All the king’s caprices were indeed blindly complied +with, and no regard was paid to the safety or liberty of the subject. +Besides the violent prosecution of whatever he was pleased to term +heresy, the laws of treason were multiplied beyond all former precedent. +Even words to the disparagement of the king, queen, or royal issue, were +subjected to that penalty; and so little care was taken in framing these +rigorous statutes, that they contain obvious contradictions; insomuch +that, had they been strictly executed, every man, without exception, +must have fallen under the penalty of treason. By one statute,[**] for +instance, it was declared treason to assert the validity of the +king’s marriage, either with Catharine of Arragon or Anne Boleyn; by +another,[***] it was treason to say any thing to the disparagement or +slander of the princesses Mary and Elizabeth; and to call them spurious +would, no doubt, have been construed to their slander. Nor would even a +profound silence with regard to these delicate points be able to save a +person from such penalties. For by the former statute, whoever refused +to answer upon oath to any point contained in that act, was subjected +to the pains of treason. The king, therefore, needed only propose to +any one a question with regard to the legality of either of his first +marriages: if the person were silent, he was a traitor by law: if he +answered either in the negative or in the affirmative, he was no less +a traitor. So monstrous were the inconsistencies which arose from +the furious passions of the king and the slavish submission of his +parliaments. It is hard to say whether these contradictions were owing +to Henry’s precipitancy, or to a formed design of tyranny. + + * Le Thou. + + ** 28 Henry VIII. c. 7. + + *** 34, 35 Henry VIII. c. 1. + +It may not be improper to recapitulate whatever is memorable in the +statutes of this reign, whether with regard to government or commerce: +nothing can better show the genius of the age than such a review of the +laws. + +The abolition of the ancient religion much contributed to the regular +execution of justice. While the Catholic superstition subsisted, there +was no possibility of punishing any crime in the clergy: the church +would not permit the magistrate to try the offences of her members, and +she could not herself inflict any civil penalties upon them. But Henry +restrained these pernicious immunities: the privilege of clergy was +abolished for the crimes of petty treason, murder, and felony, to all +under the degree of a subdeacon.[*] But the former superstition not +only protected crimes in the clergy; it exempted also the laity from +punishment, by affording them shelter in the churches and sanctuaries. +The parliament abridged these privileges. It was first declared, that no +sanctuaries were allowed in cases of high treason;[**] next, in those of +murder, felony, rapes, burglary, and petty treason:[***] and it limited +them in other particulars.[****] The further progress of the reformation +removed all distinction between the clergy and other subjects, and also +abolished entirely the privileges of sanctuaries. These consequences +were implied in the neglect of the canon law. + +The only expedient employed to support the military spirit during this +age, was the reviving and extending of some old laws enacted for the +encouragement of archery, on which the defence of the kingdom was +supposed much to depend. Every man was ordered to have a bow;[v] butts +were ordered to be erected in every parish;[v*] and every bowyer was +ordered, for each bow of yew which he made, to make two of elm or witch, +for the service of the common people.[v**] The use of crossbows and +handguns was also prohibited.[v***] + + * 23 Henry VIII. c. 1. + + ** 26 Henry VIII. c. 13. + + *** 32 Henry VIII. c. 12. + + **** 22 Henry VIII. c. 14. + + v 3 Henry VIII. c. 3. + + V* 3 Henry VIII. c. 3. + + V** 3 Henry VIII c. 3. + + V*** 3 Henry VIII. c. 13. + + +What rendered the English bowmen more formidable was, that they carried +halberts with them, by which they were enabled, upon occasion, to engage +in close fight with the enemy.[*] Frequent musters or arrays were also +made of the people, even during time of peace; and all men of substance +were obliged to have a complete suit of armor or harness, as it was +called.[**] The martial spirit of the English, during that age, rendered +this precaution, it was thought, sufficient for the defence of the +nation; and as the king had then an absolute power of commanding the +service of all his subjects, he could instantly, in case of danger, +appoint new officers, and levy regiments, and collect an army as +numerous as he pleased. When no faction or division prevailed among +the people, there was no foreign power that ever thought of invading +England. The city of London alone, could muster fifteen thousand +men.[***] Discipline, however, was an advantage wanting to those troops; +though the garrison of Calais was a nursery of officers, and Tournay +first,[****] Boulogne afterwards, served to increase the number. Every +one who served abroad was allowed to alienate his lands without paying +any fees.[v] A general permission was granted to dispose of land by +will.[v*] The parliament was so little jealous of its privileges, (which +indeed were, at that time, scarcely worth preserving,) that there is an +instance of one Strode, who, because he had introduced into the lower +house some bill regarding tin, was severely treated by the stannery +courts in Cornwall: heavy fines were imposed on him; and upon his +refusal to pay, he was thrown into a dungeon, loaded with irons, and +used in such a manner as brought his life in danger: yet all the notice +which the parliament took of this enormity, even in such a paltry court, +was to enact, that no man could afterwards be questioned for his conduct +in parliament.[v**] This prohibition, however, must be supposed to +extend only to the inferior courts: for as to the king, and privy +council, and star chamber, they were scarcely bound by any law. + +There is a bill of tonnage and poundage, which shows what uncertain +ideas the parliament had formed both of their own privileges and of the +rights of the sovereign.[v***] This duty had been voted to every king +since Henry IV., during the term of his own life only: yet Henry VIII. +had been allowed to levy it six years, without any law; and though there +had been four parliaments assembled during that time, no attention had +been given either to grant it to him regularly, or restrain him from +levying it. At last the parliament resolved to give him that supply; +but even in this concession, they plainly show themselves at a loss to +determine whether they grant it, or whether he has a right of himself +to levy it. They say, that the imposition was made to endure during +the natural life of the late king, and no longer: they yet blame the +merchants who had not paid it to the present king: they observe, that +the law for tonnage and poundage was expired; yet make no scruple to +call that imposition the king’s due: they affirm, that he had sustained +great and manifold losses by those who had defrauded him of it; and to +provide a remedy, they vote him that supply during his lifetime, and no +longer. It is remarkable that, notwithstanding this last clause, all +his successors for more than a century persevered in the like irregular +practice; if a practice may deserve that epithet, in which the whole +nation acquiesced, and which gave no offence. But when Charles I. +attempted to continue in the same course which had now received the +sanction of many generations, so much were the opinions of men altered, +that a furious tempest was excited by it; and historians, partial +or ignorant, still represent this measure as a most violent and +unprecedented enormity in that unhappy prince. + + * Herbert. + + ** Hall, fol. 234. Stowe, p. 515. Holingshed, p. 947. + + *** Hall, fol. 235. Holingshed, p. 547. Stowe, p. 577. + + **** Hall, fol. 68. + + v 14 and 15 Henry VIII. c. 15. + + v* 34 and 35 Henry VIII. c. 5. + + v** 4 Henry VIII. c. 8. + + v*** 6 Henry VIII. c. 14. + +The king was allowed to make laws for Wales without consent of +parliament.[*] It was forgotten that, with regard both to Wales and +England, the limitation was abolished by the statute which gave to the +royal proclamations the force of laws. + + * 34 Henry VIII. + +The foreign commerce of England during this age was mostly confined to +the Netherlands. The inhabitants of the Low Countries bought the English +commodities, and distributed them into other parts of Europe. Hence the +mutual dependence of those countries on each other; and the great loss +sustained by both in case of a rupture. During all the variations of +politics, the sovereigns endeavored to avoid coming to this extremity; +and though the king usually bore a greater friendship to Francis, the +nation always leaned towards the emperor. + +In 1528, hostilities commenced between England and the Low Countries; +and the inconvenience was soon felt on both sides. While the Flemings +were not allowed to purchase cloth in England, the English merchants +could not buy it from the clothiers, and the clothiers were obliged to +dismiss their workmen, who began to be tumultuous for want of bread. The +cardinal, to appease them, sent for the merchants, and ordered them to +buy cloth as usual: they told him that they could not dispose of it as +usual; and, notwithstanding his menaces, he could get no other answer +from them.[*] An agreement was at last made to continue the commerce +between the states, even during war. + +It was not till the end of this reign that any salads, carrots, turnips, +or other edible roots were produced in England. The little of these +vegetables that was used, was formerly imported from Holland and +Flanders.[**] Queen Catharine, when she wanted a salad, was obliged +to despatch a messenger thither on purpose. The use of hops, and the +planting of them, was introduced from Flanders about the beginning of +this reign, or end of the preceding. + + * Hall, fol. 174. + + ** Anderson, vol. i. p. 338. + +Foreign artificers, in general, much surpassed the English in dexterity, +industry, and frugality: hence the violent animosity which the latter on +many occasions expressed against any of the former who were settled in +England. They had the assurance to complain, that all their customers +went to foreign tradesmen; and in the year 1517, being moved by the +seditious sermons of one Dr. Bele, and the intrigues of Lincoln, a +broker, they raised an insurrection. The apprentices, and others of the +poorer sort, in London, began by breaking open the prisons, where some +persons were confined for insulting foreigners. They next proceeded +to the house of Meutas, a Frenchman, much hated by them; where they +committed great disorders; killed some of his servants; and plundered +his goods. The mayor could not appease them; nor Sir Thomas More, late +under sheriff, though much respected in the city. They also threatened +Cardinal Wolsey with some insult; and he thought it necessary to fortify +his house, and put himself on his guard. Tired at last with these +disorders, they dispersed themselves; and the earls of Shrewsbury and +Surrey seized some of them. A proclamation was issued, that women should +not meet together to babble and talk, and that all men should keep their +wives in their houses. Next day the duke of Norfolk came into the city, +at the head of thirteen hundred armed men, and made inquiry into the +tumult. Bele and Lincoln, and several others, were sent to the Tower, +and condemned for treason. Lincoln and thirteen more were executed. The +other criminals, to the number of four hundred, were brought before the +king with ropes about their necks, fell upon their knees, and cried for +mercy. Henry knew at that time how to pardon; he dismissed them without +further punishment.[*] + +So great was the number of foreign artisans in the city, that at least +fifteen thousand Flemings alone were at one time obliged to leave it, by +an order of council, when Henry became jealous of their favor for Queen +Catharine.[**] Henry himself confesses, in an edict of the star chamber, +printed among the statutes, that the foreigners starved the natives, and +obliged them from idleness to have recourse to theft, murder, and other +enormities.[***] He also asserts, that the vast multitude of foreigners +raised the price of grain and bread.[****] And to prevent an increase of +the evil, all foreign artificers were prohibited from having above two +foreigners in their house, either journeymen or apprentices. A like +jealousy arose against the foreign merchants; and to appease it, a law +was enacted obliging all denizens to pay the duties imposed upon aliens. +The parliament had done better to have encouraged foreign merchants and +artisans to come over in greater numbers to England; which might have +excited the emulation of the natives, and have improved their skill. The +prisoners in the kingdom for debts and crimes are asserted, in an act +of parliament, to be sixty thousand persons and above; which is scarcely +credible. Harrison asserts, that seventy-two thousand criminals were +executed during this reign for theft and robbery, which would amount +nearly to two thousand a year. He adds, that, in the latter end of +Elizabeth’s reign, there were not punished capitally four hundred in a +year; it appears that, in all England, there are not at present fifty +executed for those crimes. If these facts be just, there has been a +great improvement in morals since the reign of Henry VIII. And this +improvement has been chiefly owing to the increase of industry and of +the arts, which have given maintenance, and what is almost of equal +importance, occupation to the lower classes. + + * Stowe, p. 505. Holingshed, p. 840. + + ** Le Grand, vol. iii. p. 232. + + *** 21 Henry VIII. + + **** 21 Henry VIII., 22 Henry VIII. C 8., 3 Henry VIII. c. + +There is a remarkable clause in a statute passed near the beginning of +this reign,[*] by which we might be induced to believe that England was +extremely decayed from the flourishing condition which it had attained +in preceding times. It had been enacted in the reign of Edward II., +that no magistrate in town or borough, who by his office ought to keep +assize, should, during the continuance of his magistracy, sell, either +in wholesale or retail, any wine or victuals. This law seemed equitable, +in order to prevent fraud or private views in fixing the assize: yet the +law is repealed in this reign. The reason assigned is, that “since the +making of that statute and ordinance, many and the most part of all the +cities, boroughs, and towns corporate, within the realm of England, are +fallen in ruin and decay, and are not inhabited by merchants, and men +of such substance as at the time of making that statute: for at this +day the dwellers and inhabitants of the same cities and boroughs are +commonly bakers, vintners, fishmongers, and other victuallers, and there +remain few others to bear the offices.” Men have such a propensity to +exalt past times above the present, that it seems dangerous to credit +this reasoning of the parliament without further evidence to support it. +So different are the views in which the same object appears, that some +may be inclined to draw an opposite inference from this fact. A more +regular police was established in the reign of Henry VIII. than in any +former period, and a stricter administration of justice; an advantage +which induced the men of landed property to leave the provincial +towns, and to retire into the country. Cardinal Wolsey, in a speech to +parliament, represented it as a proof of the increase of riches, that +the customs had increased beyond what they were formerly.[**] + +But if there were really a decay of commerce, and industry, and +populousness in England, the statutes of this reign, except by +abolishing monasteries and retrenching holydays--circumstances of +considerable moment--were not in other respects well calculated to +remedy the evil. The fixing of the wages of artificers was attempted: +[***] luxury in apparel was prohibited by repeated statutes;[****] and +probably without effect. + + * Henry VIII. c. 8. + + ** Hall, fol. 110. + + *** 6 Henry VIII. c. 3. + + **** 1 Henry VIII. c. 14. 6 Henry VIII. c. I 7 Henry VIII. + c. 7 + +The chancellor and other ministers were empowered to fix the price of +poultry, cheese, and butter.[*] A statute was even passed to fix the +price of beef, pork, mutton, and veal.[**] Beef and pork were ordered +to be sold at a halfpenny a pound; mutton and veal at a halfpenny half +a farthing, money of that age. The preamble of the statute says, that +these four species of butcher’s meat were the food of the poorer sort. +This ace was afterwards repealed.[***] + +The practice of depopulating the country by abandoning tillage, and +throwing the lands into pasturage, still continued;[****] as appears by +the new laws which were from time to time enacted against that practice. +The king was entitled to half the rents of the land, where any farm +houses were allowed to fall to decay.[v] The unskilful husbandry was +probably the cause why the proprietors found no profit in tillage. The +number of sheep allowed to be kept in one flock, was restrained to two +thousand.[v*] Sometimes, says the statute, one proprietor or farmer +would keep a flock of twenty-four thousand. It is remarkable, that the +parliament ascribes the increasing price of mutton to this increase of +sheep: because, say they, the commodity being gotten into few hands, the +price of it is raised at pleasure.[v**] It is more probable, that the +effect proceeded from the daily increase of money; for it seems almost +impossible that such a commodity could be engrossed. + +In the year 1544, it appears that an acre of good land in Cambridgeshire +was let at a shilling, or about fifteen pence of our present +money.[v***] This is ten times cheaper than the usual rent at present. +But commodities were not above four times cheaper; a presumption of the +bad husbandry in that age. + +Some laws were made with regard to beggars and vagrants;[v****] one of +the circumstances in government, which humanity would most powerfully +recommend to a benevolent legislator; which seems, at first sight, the +most easily adjusted; and which is yet the most difficult to settle +in such a manner as to attain the end without destroying industry. +The convents formerly were a support to the poor; but at the same time +tended to encourage idleness and beggary. + + * 25 Henry VIII. c. 2. + + ** 24 Henry VIII. c. 3. + + *** 33 Henry VIII. c. 11. + + **** Strype, vol. i. p. 392. + + v 6 Henry VIII. c. 5. 7 Henry VIII. c. 1. + + v* 25 Henry VIII. c. 13. + + v** 25 Henry VIII. c. 13. + + v*** Anderson, vol. i. p. 374. + + v**** 22 Henry VIII. c. 12. 22 Henry VIII. c. 5. + +In 1546, a law was made for fixing the interest of money at ten per +cent.; the first legal interest known in England. Formerly all loans +of that nature were regarded as usurious. The preamble of this very law +treats the interest of money as illegal and criminal; and the prejudices +still remained so strong, that the law permitting interest was repealed +in the following reign. + +This reign, as well as many of the foregoing and even subsequent reigns, +abounds with monopolizing laws, confining particular manufactures to +particular towns, or excluding the open country in general.[*] There +remain still too many traces of similar absurdities. In the subsequent +reign, the corporations which had been opened by a former law, and +obliged to admit tradesmen of different kinds, were again shut up by act +of parliament; and every one was prohibited from exercising any trade +who was not of the corporation.[**] + +Henry, as he possessed himself some talent for letters, was an +encourager of them in others. He founded Trinity College in Cambridge, +and gave it ample endowments. Wolsey founded Christ Church in Oxford, +and intended to call it Cardinal College: but upon his fall, which +happened before he had entirely finished his scheme, the king seized all +the revenues; and this violence, above all the other misfortunes of that +minister, is said to have given him the greatest concern.[***] But Henry +afterwards restored the revenues of the college, and only changed the +name. The cardinal founded in Oxford the first chair for teaching Greek; +and this novelty rent that university into violent factions, which +frequently came to blows. The students divided themselves into parties, +which bore the names of Greeks and Trojans, and sometimes fought with +as great animosity as was formerly exercised by those hostile nations. +A new and more correct method of pronouncing Greek being introduced, it +also divided the Grecians themselves into parties; and it was remarked +that the Catholics favored the former pronunciation, the Protestants +gave countenance to the new. Gardiner employed the authority of the king +and council to suppress innovations in this particular, and to preserve +the corrupt sound of the Greek alphabet. So little liberty was then +allowed of any kind! + + * 21 Henry VIII. c. 12. 25 Henry VIII. c. 18. 3 and 4 Edward + VI. c. 20. 5 and 6 Edward VI. c. 24. + + ** 3 and 4 Edward VI. c. 20. + + *** Strype, vol. i. p. 117. + +The penalties inflicted upon the new pronunciation were no less than +whipping, degradation, and expulsion; and the bishop declared, that +rather than permit the liberty of innovating in the pronunciation of +the Greek alphabet, it were better that the language itself were totally +banished the universities. The introduction of the Greek language into +Oxford excited the emulation of Cambridge.[*] Wolsey intended to have +enriched the library of his college at Oxford with copies of all the +manuscripts that were in the Vatican.[**] The countenance given to +letters by this king and his ministers contributed to render learning +fashionable in England: Erasmus speaks with great satisfaction of the +general regard paid by the nobility and gentry to men of knowledge.[***] +It is needless to be particular in mentioning the writers of this reign +or of the preceding. There is no man of that age who has the least +pretension to be ranked among our classics. Sir Thomas More, though +he wrote in Latin, seems to come the nearest to the character of a +classical author. + + * Wood’s Hist. and Antiq. Oxon. lib. I p. 245. + + ** Wood’s Hist. and Antiq. Oxon. lib. I p. 246. + + *** Epist. ad Banisium. Also Epist. p. 668. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. + +[Illustration: 1-403-edward6.jpg EDWARD VI.] + + +EDWARD VI. + +CONTEMPORARY MONARCHS. + +{1547.} THE late king, by the regulations which he imposed on the +government of his infant son, as well as by the limitations of the +succession, had projected to reign even after his decease; and he +imagined that his ministers, who had always been so obsequious to him +during his lifetime, would never afterwards depart from the plan which +he had traced out to them. He fixed the majority of the prince at the +completion of his eighteenth year; and as Edward was then only a few +months past nine, he appointed sixteen executors; to whom, during the +minority, he intrusted the government of the king and kingdom. Their +names were, Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury; Lord Wriothesely, +chancellor; Lord St. John, great master; Lord Russel, privy seal; the +earl of Hertford, chamberlain: Viscount Lisle, admiral; Tonstal, bishop +of Durham; Sir Anthony Brown, master of horse; Sir William Paget, +secretary of state; Sir Edward North, chancellor of the court of +augmentations; Sir Edward Montague, chief justice of the common pleas; +Judge Bromley, Sir Anthony Denny, and Sir William Herbert, chief +gentlemen of the privy chamber; Sir Edward Wotton, treasurer of Calais; +Dr. Wotton, dean of Canterbury. To these executors, with whom was +intrusted the whole regal authority, were appointed twelve counsellors, +who possessed no immediate power, and could only assist with their +advice when any affair was laid before them. The council was composed +of the earls of Arundel and Essex; Sir Thomas Cheney, treasurer of +the household; Sir John Gage, comptroller; Sir Anthony Wingfield, +vice-chamberlain; Sir William Petre, secretary of state; Sir Richard +Rich, Sir John Baker, Sir Ralph Sadler Sir Thomas Seymour, Sir Richard +Southwell, and Sir Edmund Peckham.[*] The usual caprice of Henry appears +somewhat in this nomination; while he appointed several persons of +inferior station among his executors, and gave only the place of +counsellor to a person of such high rank as the earl of Arundel, and to +Sir Thomas Seymour, the king’s uncle. + +But the first act of the executors and counsellors was to depart from +the destination of the late king in a material article. No sooner were +they met, than it was suggested that the government would lose its +dignity for want of some head who might represent the royal majesty, +who might receive addresses from foreign ambassadors, to whom despatches +from English ministers abroad might be carried, and whose name might be +employed in all orders and proclamations: and as the king’s will seemed +to labor under a defect in this particular, it was deemed necessary to +supply it by choosing a protector; who, though he should possess all the +exterior symbols of royal dignity, should yet be bound, in every act of +power, to follow the opinion of the executors.[**] + + * Strype’s Memor. vol. ii. p. 457. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 5. + +This proposal was very disagreeable to Chancellor Wriothesely. That +magistrate, a man of an active spirit and high ambition, found himself +by his office entitled to the first rank in the regency after the +primate; and as he knew that this prelate had no talent or inclination +for state affairs, he hoped that the direction of public business +would, of course, devolve in a great measure upon himself. He opposed, +therefore, the proposal of choosing a protector; and represented that +innovation as an infringement of the late king’s will, which, being +corroborated by act of parliament, ought in every thing to be a law +to them, and could not be altered but by the same authority which had +established it. But he seems to have stood alone in the opposition. The +executors and counsellors were mostly courtiers who had been raised by +Henry’s favor, not men of high birth or great hereditary influence; and +as they had been sufficiently accustomed to submission during the reign +of the late monarch, and had no pretensions to govern the nation by +their own authority, they acquiesced the more willingly in a proposal +which seemed calculated for preserving public peace and tranquillity. It +being therefore agreed to name a protector, the choice fell, of course, +on the earl of Hertford, who, as he was the king’s maternal uncle, was +strongly interested in his safety; and possessing no claims to inherit +the crown, could never have any separate interest which might lead him +to endanger Edward’s person or his authority.[*] The public was informed +by proclamation of this change in the administration; and despatches +were sent to all foreign courts to give them intimation of it. All those +who were possessed of any office resigned their former commissions, and +accepted new ones in the name of the young king. The bishops themselves +were constrained to make a like submission. Care was taken to insert in +their new commissions, that they held their office during pleasure:[**] +and it is there expressly affirmed, that all manner of authority and +jurisdiction, as well ecclesiastical as civil, is originally derived +from the crown.[***] + +The executors, in their next measure, showed a more submissive deference +to Henry’s will, because many of them found their account in it. The +late king had intended, before his death, to make a new creation of +nobility, in order to supply the place of those peerages which had +fallen by former attainders, or the failure of issue; and that he might +enable the new peers to support their dignity, he had resolved either to +bestow estates on them, or advance them to higher offices. He had even +gone so far as to inform them of this resolution; and in his will he +charged his executors to make good all his promises.[****] That they +might ascertain his intentions in the most authentic manner Sir William +Paget, Sir Anthony Denny, and Sir William Herbert, with whom Henry had +always conversed in a familiar manner, were called before the board +of regency; and having given evidence of what they knew concerning +the king’s promises, their testimony was relied on, and the executors +proceeded to the fulfilling of these engagements. Hertford was created +duke of Somerset, mareschal, and lord treasurer; Wriothesely, earl of +Southampton; the earl of Essex, marquis of Northampton; Viscount +Lisle, earl of Warwick; Sir Thomas Seymour, Lord Seymour of Sudley, and +admiral; Sir Richard Rich, Sir William Willoughby, Sir Edward Sheffield +accepted the title of baron.[v] + + * Heylin, Hist. Ref. Edward VI. + + ** Collier, vol. ii. p. 218. Burnet, vol. ii. p. 6. Strype’s + Mem. of Cranm. p. 141. + + *** Strype’s Mem. of Cranm. p. 141. + + **** Fuller, Heylin, and Rymer. + + v Stowe’s Annals, p. 594 + +Several, to whom the same dignity was offered, refused it; because the +other part of the king’s promise, the bestowing of estates on these new +noblemen, was deferred till a more convenient opportunity. Some of +them, however, as also Somerset, the protector, were, in the mean time, +endowed with spiritual preferments, deaneries, and prebends. For, among +many other invasions of ecclesiastical privileges and property, this +irregular practice of bestowing spiritual benefices on laymen began now +to prevail. + +The earl of Southampton had always been engaged in an opposite party +to Somerset; and it was not likely that factions which had secretly +prevailed even during the arbitrary reign of Henry, should be suppressed +in the weak administration that usually attends a minority. The former +nobleman, that he might have the greater leisure for attending to public +business, had, of himself and from his own authority, put the great +seal in commission, and had empowered four lawyers Southwell, +Tregonel, Oliver, and Bellasis, to execute in his absence the office of +chancellor. This measure seemed very exceptionable; and the more so, as, +two of the commissioners being canonists, the lawyers suspected that, +by this nomination, the chancellor had intended to discredit the +common law. Complaints were made to the council, who, influenced by the +protector, gladly laid hold of the opportunity to depress Southampton. +They consulted the judges with regard to so unusual a case; and received +for answer, that the commission was illegal, and that the chancellor, by +his presumption in granting it, had justly forfeited the great seal, and +was even liable to punishment. The council summoned him to appear before +them. He maintained that he held his office by the late king’s will, +founded on an act of parliament, and could not lose it without a trial +in parliament; that if the commission which he had granted were found +illegal, it might be cancelled, and all the ill consequences of it be +easily remedied; and that the depriving him of his office for an error +of this nature, was a precedent by which any other innovation might be +authorized. But the council, notwithstanding these topics of defence, +declared that he had forfeited the great seal; that a fine should be +imposed upon him; and that he should be confined to his own house during +pleasure.[*] + + * Holingshed, p. 979 + +The removal of Southampton increased the protectors’ authority, as +well as tended to suppress faction in the regency yet was not Somerset +contented with this advantage; his ambition carried him to seek still +further acquisitions. On pretence that the vote of the executors +choosing his protector, was not a sufficient foundation for his +authority, he procured a patent from the young king, by which he +entirely overturned the will of Henry VIII., produced a total revolution +in the government, and may seem even to have subverted all the laws +of the kingdom. He named himself protector with full regal power, and +appointed a council, consisting of all the former counsellors, and all +the executors, except Southampton; he reserved a power of naming any +other counsellors at pleasure; and he was bound to consult with such +only as he thought proper. The protector and his council were likewise +empowered to act at discretion, and to execute whatever they deemed for +the public service, without incurring any penalty or forfeiture from any +law, statute, proclamation, or ordinance whatsoever.[*] Even had this +patent been more moderate in its concessions, and had it been drawn by +directions from the executors appointed by Henry, its legality might +justly be questioned; since it seems essential to a trust of this +nature to be exercised by the persons intrusted, and not to admit of a +delegation to others: but as the patent, by its very tenor, where +the executors are not so much as mentioned, appears to have been +surreptitiously obtained from a minor king, the protectorship of +Somerset was a plain usurpation, which it is impossible by any arguments +to justify. The connivance, however, of the executors, and their present +acquiescence in the new establishment, made it be universally submitted +to; and as the young king discovered an extreme attachment to his +uncle, who was also, in the main, a man of moderation and probity, no +objections were made to his power and title. All men of sense, likewise, +who saw the nation divided by the religious zeal of the opposite sects, +deemed it the more necessary to intrust the government to one person, +who might check the exorbitancies of faction, and insure the public +tranquillity. And though some clauses of the patent seemed to imply a +formal subversion of all limited government, so little jealousy was then +usually entertained on that head, that no exception was ever taken +at bare claims or pretensions of this nature, advanced by any person +possessed of sovereign power. The actual exercise alone of arbitrary +administration, and that in many, and great, and flagrant, and unpopular +instances, was able sometimes to give some umbrage to the nation. + + * Burnet, vol. ii. Records, No. 6. + +The extensive authority and imperious character of Henry had retained +the partisans of both religions in subjection; but upon his demise, the +hopes of the Protestants and the fears of the Catholics began to +revive, and the zeal of these parties produced every where disputes and +animosities, the usual preludes to more fatal divisions. The protector +had long been regarded as a secret partisan of the reformers; and being +now freed from restraint, he scrupled not to discover his intention of +correcting all abuses in the ancient religion, and of adopting still +more of the Protestant innovations. He took care that all persons +intrusted with the king’s education should be attached to the same +principles; and as the young prince discovered a zeal for every kind of +literature, especially the theological, far beyond his tender years, +all men foresaw, in the course of his reign, the total abolition of the +Catholic faith in England; and they early began to declare themselves in +favor of those tenets, which were likely to become in the end entirely +prevalent. After Southampton’s fall, few members of the council seemed +to retain any attachment to the Romish communion; and most of the +counsellors appeared even sanguine in forwarding the progress of the +reformation. The riches which most of them had acquired from the spoils +of the clergy, induced them to widen the breach between England and +Rome; and by establishing a contrariety of speculative tenets, as well +as of discipline and worship, to render a coalition with the mother +church altogether impracticable.[*] Their rapacity also, the chief +source of their reforming spirit, was excited by the prospect of +pillaging the secular, as they had already done the regular clergy; and +they knew that while any share of the old principles remained, or any +regard to the ecclesiastics, they could never hope to succeed in that +enterprise. + + * Goodwin’s Annals. Heylin. + +The numerous and burdensome superstitions with which the Romish church +was loaded had thrown many of the reformers by the spirit of opposition, +into an enthusiastic strain of devotion; and all rites, ceremonies, +pomp, order, and exterior observances were zealously proscribed by them, +as hinderances to their spiritual contemplations, and obstructions to +their immediate converse with Heaven. Many circumstances concurred to +inflame this daring spirit; the novelty itself of their doctrines, the +triumph of making proselytes, the furious persecutions to which they +were exposed, their animosity against the ancient tenets and practices, +and the necessity of procuring the concurrence of the laity by +depressing the hierarchy, and by tendering to them the plunder of the +ecclesiastics. Wherever the reformation prevailed over the opposition +of civil authority, this genius of religion appeared in its full extent, +and was attended with consequences, which, though less durable, were, +for some time, not less dangerous than those which were connected +with the ancient superstition. But as the magistrate took the lead in +England, the transition was more gradual; much of the ancient religion +was still preserved, and a reasonable degree of subordination was +retained in discipline, as well as some pomp, order, and ceremony in +public worship. + +The protector, in his schemes for advancing the reformation, had always +recourse to the counsels of Cranmer, who, being a man of moderation and +prudence, was averse to all violent changes, and determined to bring +over the people, by insensible innovations, to that system of doctrine +and discipline which he deemed the most pure and perfect. He probably +also foresaw, that a system which carefully avoided the extremes of +reformation, was likely to be most lasting; and that a devotion, merely +spiritual, was fitted only for the first fervors of a new sect, and +upon the relaxation of these naturally gave place to the inroads of +superstition. He seems therefore to have intended the establishment of a +hierarchy, which, being suited to a great and settled government, +might stand as a perpetual barrier against Rome, and might retain +the reverence of the people, even after their enthusiastic zeal was +diminished, or entirely evaporated. + +The person who opposed with greatest authority any further advances +towards reformation, was Gardiner, bishop of Winchester; who, though he +had not obtained a place in the council of regency, on account of +late disgusts which he had given to Henry, was entitled, by his age, +experience, and capacity, to the highest trust and confidence of his +party. This prelate still continued to magnify the great wisdom and +learning of the late king, which, indeed, were generally and sincerely +revered by the nation; and he insisted on the prudence, of persevering, +at least till the young king’s majority, in the ecclesiastical model +established by that great monarch. He defended the use of images, which +were now openly attacked by the Protestants; and he represented them +as serviceable in maintaining a sense of religion among the illiterate +multitude.[*] He even deigned to write an apology for “holy water,” + which Bishop Ridley had decried in a sermon; and he maintained that, by +the power of the Almighty, it might be rendered an instrument of doing +good, as much as the shadow of St. Peter, the hem of Christ’s garment, +or the spittle and clay laid upon the eyes of the blind.[**] Above all, +he insisted that the laws ought to be observed, that the constitution +ought to be preserved inviolate, and that it was dangerous to follow the +will of the sovereign, in opposition to an act of parliament.[***] + +But though there remained at that time in England an idea of laws and a +constitution, sufficient at least to furnish a topic of argument to such +as were discontented with any immediate exercise of authority; this plea +could scarcely, in the present case, be maintained with any plausibility +by Gardiner. An act of parliament had invested the crown with a +legislative power; and royal proclamations, even during a minority, were +armed with the force of laws. The protector, finding himself supported +by this statute, was determined to employ his authority in favor of the +reformers; and having suspended, during the interval, the jurisdiction +of the bishops, he appointed a general visitation to be made in all the +dioceses of England.[****] The visitors consisted of a mixture of clergy +and laity, and had six circuits assigned them. The chief purport +of their instructions was, besides correcting immoralities and +irregularities in the clergy, to abolish the ancient superstitions, and +to bring the discipline and worship somewhat nearer the practice of the +reformed churches. The moderation of Somerset and Cranmer is apparent +in the conduct of this delicate affair. The visitors were enjoined to +retain for the present all images which had not been abused to idolatry; +and to instruct the people not to despise such ceremonies as were not +yet abrogated, but only to beware of some particular superstitions, +such as the sprinkling of their beds with holy water, and the ringing +of bells, or using of consecrated candles, in order to drive away the +devil.[v] + + * Fox, vol. ii. p. 712. + + ** Fox, vol. ii. p. 724 + + *** Collier, vol. ii. p. 228. Fox, vol. ii. + + **** Mem. Cranm. p. 146, 147, etc. + + v Burnet, vol. ii. p. 28. + +But nothing required more the correcting hand of authority than the +abuse of preaching, which was now generally employed throughout England +in defending the ancient practices and superstitions. The court of +augmentation, in order to ease the exchequer of the annuities paid to +monks, had commonly placed them in the vacant churches; and these +men were led by interest, as well as by inclination, to support those +principles which had been invented for the profit of the clergy. Orders +therefore were given to restrain the topics of theft sermons: twelve +homilies were published, which they were enjoined to read to the people: +and all of them were prohibited, without express permission, from +preaching any where but in their parish churches. The purpose of this +injunction was to throw a restraint on the Catholic divines; while +the Protestant, by the grant of particular licenses, should he allowed +unbounded liberty. Bonner made some opposition to these measures; but +soon after retracted and acquiesced. Gardiner was more high-spirited and +more steady. He represented the peril of perpetual innovations, and the +necessity of adhering to some system. “‘Tis a dangerous thing,” said +he, “to use too much freedom in researches of this kind. If you cut the +old canal, the water is apt to run farther than you have a mind to. +If you indulge the humor of novelty, you cannot put a stop to people’s +demands, nor govern their indiscretions at pleasure.” “For my part,” + said he, on another occasion “my sole concern is, to manage the third +and last act of my life with decency, and to make a handsome exit off +the stage. Provided this point is secured, I am not solicitous about the +rest. I am already by nature condemned to death: no man can give me +a pardon from this sentence; nor so much as procure me a reprieve. To +speak my mind, and to act as my conscience directs, are two branches of +liberty which I can never part with. Sincerity in speech, and integrity +in action, are entertaining qualities: they will stick by a man when +every thing else takes its leave; and I must not resign them upon any +consideration. The best on it is, if I do not throw them away myself, no +man can force them from me: but if I give them up, then am I ruined by +myself, and deserve to lose all my preferments.”[*] This opposition of +Gardiner drew on him the indignation of the council; and he was sent to +the Fleet, where he was used with some severity. + + * Collier, vol. ii. p. 228, ex MS. Col. C. C. Cantab. + Bibliotheca Britannica, article Gardiner. + +One of the chief objections urged by Gardiner against the new homilies +was, that they defined with the most metaphysical precision the +doctrines of grace, and of justification by faith; points, he thought, +which it was superfluous for any man to know exactly, and which +certainly much exceeded the comprehension of the vulgar. A famous +martyrologist calls Gardiner, on account of this opinion, “an insensible +ass, and one that had no feeling of God’s spirit in the matter of +justification.”[*] The meanest Protestant imagined, at that time, that +he had a full comprehension of all those mysterious doctrines; and he +heartily despised the most learned and knowing person of the ancient +religion, who acknowledged his ignorance with regard to them. It is +indeed certain, that the reformers were very fortunate in their +doctrine of justification; and might venture to foretell its success, in +opposition to all the ceremonies, shows, and superstitions of Popery. +By exalting Christ and his sufferings, and renouncing all claim to +independent merit in ourselves, it was calculated to become popular, and +coincided with those principles of panegyric and of self-abasement which +generally have place in religion. + + * Fox. vol. ii. + +Tonstal, bishop of Durham, having, as well as Gardiner, made some +opposition to the new regulations, was dismissed by the council; but no +further severity was for the present exercised against him. He was a man +of great moderation, and of the most unexceptionable character in the +kingdom. + +The same religious zeal which engaged Somerset to promote the +reformation at home, led him to carry his attention to foreign +countries; where the interests of the Protestants were now exposed to +the most imminent danger. The Roman pontiff, with much reluctance, and +after long delays, had at last summoned a general council, which was +assembled at Trent, and was employed both in correcting the abuses of +the church, and in ascertaining her doctrines. The emperor, who desired +to repress the power of the court of Rome, as well as gain over the +Protestants, promoted the former object of the council; the pope, who +found his own greatness so deeply interested, desired rather to employ +them in the latter. He gave instructions to his legates, who presided in +the council, to protract the debates, and to engage the theologians in +argument, and altercation, and dispute concerning the nice points of +faith canvassed before them; a policy so easy to be executed, that the +legates soon found it rather necessary to interpose, in order to +appease the animosity of the divines, and bring them at last to some +decision.[*] The more difficult task for the legates was, to moderate +or divert the zeal of the council for reformation, and to repress the +ambition of the prelates, who desired to exalt the episcopal authority +on the ruins of the sovereign pontiff. Finding this humor become +prevalent, the legates, on pretence that the plague had broken out at +Trent, transferred of a sudden the council to Bologna, where they hoped +it would be more under the direction of his holiness. + +The emperor, no less than the pope, had learned to make religion +subservient to his ambition and policy. He was resolved to employ the +imputation of heresy as a pretence for subduing the Protestant princes, +and oppressing the liberties of Germany; but found it necessary to cover +his intentions under deep artifice, and to prevent the combination +of his adversaries. He separated the Palatine and the elector of +Brandenburgh from the Protestant confederacy: he took arms against the +elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse: by the fortune of war +he made the former prisoner: he employed treachery and prevarication +against the latter, and detained him captive, by breaking a safe-conduct +which he had granted him. He seemed to have reached the summit of his +ambition; and the German princes, who were astonished with his success, +were further discouraged by the intelligence which they had received +of the death, first of Henry VIII., then of Francis I., their usual +resources in every calamity.[**] + +Henry II., who succeeded to the crown of France, was a prince of vigor +and abilities; but less hasty in his resolutions than Francis, and +less inflamed with rivalship and animosity against the emperor Charles. +Though he sent ambassadors to the princes of the Smalcaldic league, and +promised them protection, he was unwilling, in the commencement of his +reign, to hurry into a war with so great a power as that of the emperor; +and he thought that the alliance of those princes was a sure resource, +which he could at any time lay hold of.[***] He was much governed by the +duke of Guise and the cardinal of Lorraine; and he hearkened to their +counsel, in choosing rather to give immediate assistance to Scotland, +his ancient ally, which, even before the death of Henry VIII. had loudly +claimed the protection of the French monarchy. + + * Father Paul, lib. ii. + + ** Sleidan. + + *** Père Daniel + +The hatred between the two factions, the partisans of the ancient and +those of the new religion, became every day more violent in Scotland; +and the resolution which the cardinal primate had taken, to employ the +most rigorous punishments against the reformers, brought matters to +a quick decision. There was one Wishart, a gentleman by birth, who +employed himself with great zeal in preaching against the ancient +superstitions, and began to give alarm to the clergy, who were justly +terrified with the danger of some fatal revolution in religion. This +man was celebrated for the purity of his morals, and for his extensive +learning; but these praises cannot be much depended on; because we know +that, among the reformers, severity of manners supplied the place of +many virtues; and the age was in general so ignorant, that most of the +priests in Scotland imagined the New Testament to be a composition of +Luther’s, and asserted that the Old alone was the Word of God.[*] [19] +But however the case may have stood with regard to those estimable +qualities ascribed to Wishart, he was strongly possessed with the desire +of innovation; and he enjoyed those talents which qualified him +for becoming a popular preacher, and for seizing the attention and +affections of the multitude. The magistrates of Dundee, where he +exercised his mission, were alarmed with his progress; and being unable +or unwilling to treat him with rigor, they contented themselves with +denying him the liberty of preaching, and with dismissing him the bounds +of their jurisdiction. Wishart, moved with indignation that they had +dared to reject him, together with the word of God, menaced them, in +imitation of the ancient prophets, with some imminent calamity; and he +withdrew to the west country, where he daily increased the number of his +proselytes. + + * See note S, at the end of the volume. + +Meanwhile, a plague broke out in Dundee; and all men exclaimed, that +the town had drawn down the vengeance of Heaven by banishing the pious +preacher, and that the pestilence would never cease, till they bed made +him atonement for their offence against him. No sooner did Wishart hear +of this change in their disposition, than he returned to them, and +made them a new tender of his doctrine: but lest he should spread the +contagion by bringing them together, he erected his pulpit on the top of +a gate; the infected stood within, the others without. And the preacher +failed not, in such a situation, to take advantage of the immediate +terrors of the people, and to enforce his evangelical mission.[*] + +The assiduity and success of Wishart became an object of attention to +Cardinal Beatoun; and he resolved, by the punishment of so celebrated a +preacher, to strike a terror into all other innovators. He engaged +the earl of Bothwell to arrest him, and to deliver him into his hands, +contrary to a promise given by Bothwell to that unhappy man; and being +possessed of his prey, he conducted him to St. Andrews, where, after a +trial, he condemned him to the flames for heresy. Arran, the governor, +was irresolute in his temper; and the cardinal, though he had gained him +over to his party, found that he would not concur in the condemnation +and execution of Wishart. He determined, therefore, without the +assistance of the secular arm, to bring that heretic to punishment; and +he himself beheld from his window the dismal spectacle. Wishart suffered +with the usual patience, but could not forbear remarking the triumph of +his insulting enemy. He foretold that, in a few days, he should, in the +very same place, lie as low as now he was exalted aloft in opposition to +true piety and religion.[**] + + * Knox’s Hist. of Ref. p. 44. Spotswood. + + ** Spotswood. Buchanan. + +This prophecy was probably the immediate cause of the event which it +foretold. The disciples of this martyr, enraged at the cruel execution, +formed a conspiracy against the cardinal; and having associated to them +Norman Lesly, who was disgusted on account of some private quarrel, they +conducted their enterprise with great secrecy and success. Early in +the morning, they entered the cardinal’s palace, which he had strongly +fortified, and though they were not above sixteen persons, they thrust +out a hundred tradesmen and fifty servants, whom they seized separately, +before any suspicion arose of their intentions; and having shut the +gates, they proceeded very deliberately to execute their purpose on the +cardinal. That prelate had been alarmed with the noise which he heard +in the castle, and had barricadoed the door of his chamber; but finding +that they had brought fire in order to force their way, and having +obtained, as is believed, a promise of life, he opened the door, and +reminding them that he was a priest, he conjured them to spare him. Two +of the assassins rushed upon him with drawn swords; but a third, James +Melvil, more calm and more considerate in villany, stopped their career, +and bade them reflect, that this sacrifice was the work and judgment of +God, and ought to be executed with becoming deliberation and gravity. +Then turning the point of his sword towards Beatoun, he called to him, +“Repent thee, thou wicked cardinal, of all thy sins and iniquities, +especially of the murder of Wishart, that instrument of God for the +conversion of these lands: it is his death which now cries vengeance +upon thee: we are sent by God to inflict the deserved punishment. For +here, before the Almighty, I protest that it is neither hatred of thy +person, nor love of thy riches, nor fear of thy power, which moves me to +seek thy death; but only because thou hast been, and still remainest, +an obstinate enemy to Christ Jesus and his holy gospel.” Having spoken +these words, without giving Beatoun time to finish that repentance to +which he exhorted him, he thrust him through the body; and the cardinal +fell dead at his feet.[*] This murder was executed on the twenty-eighth +of May, 1546. The assassins, being reenforced by their friends to +the number of a hundred and forty persons, prepared themselves for the +defence of the castle, and sent a messenger to London craving assistance +from Henry. That prince, though Scotland was comprehended in his +peace with France, would not forego the opportunity of disturbing the +government of a rival kingdom; and he promised to take them under his +protection. + + * The famous Scotch reformer, John Knox, calls James Melvil + (p. 65) a man most gentle and most modest. It is very + horrid, but at the same time somewhat amusing, to consider + the joy, and alacrity, and pleasure which that historian + discovers in his narrative of this assassination; and it is + remarkable, that in the first edition of his work, these + words were printed in the margin of the page: “The godly + Fact and Words of James Melvil.” But the following editors + retrenched them. Knox himself had no hand in the murder of + Beatoun; but he afterwards joined the assassins, and + assisted them in holding out the castle. See Keith’s Hist. + of the Rcf. of Scotland, p. 43. + +It was the peculiar misfortune of Scotland, that five short reigns had +been followed successively by as many long minorities; and the execution +of justice, which the prince was beginning to introduce, had been +continually interrupted by the cabals, factions, and animosities of the +great. But besides these inveterate and ancient evils, a new source of +disorder had arisen, the disputes and contentions of theology which were +sufficient to disturb the most settled government; and the death of +the cardinal, who was possessed of abilities and vigor, seemed much +to weaken the hands of the administration. But the queen dowager was a +woman of uncommon talents and virtue; and she did as much to support the +government, and supply the weakness of Arran, the governor, as could be +expected in her situation. + +The protector of England, as soon as the state was brought to some +composure, made preparations for war with Scotland; and he was +determined to execute, if possible, that project of uniting the two +kingdoms by marriage, on which the late king had been so intent, and +which he had recommended with his dying breath to his executors. He +levied an army of eighteen thousand men, and equipped a fleet of +sixty sail, one half of which were ships of war, the other laden with +provisions and ammunition. He gave the command of the fleet to Lord +Clinton; he himself marched at the head of the army, attended by the +earl of Warwick. These hostile measures were covered with a pretence of +revenging some depredations committed by the borderers: but besides that +Somerset revived the ancient claim of the superiority of the English +crown over that of Scotland, he refused to enter into negotiation on any +other condition than the marriage of the young queen with Edward. + +The protector, before he opened the campaign, published a manifesto, +in which he enforced all the arguments for that measure. He said, that +nature seemed originally to have intended this island for one empire, +and having cut it off from all communication with foreign states, and +guarded it by the ocean, she had pointed out to the inhabitants the +road to happiness and to security; that the education and customs of the +people concurred with nature; and, by giving them the same language, and +laws, and manners, had invited them to a thorough union and coalition: +that fortune had at last removed all obstacles, and had prepared an +expedient by which they might become one people, without leaving any +place for that jealousy either of honor or of interest, to which rival +nations are naturally exposed: that the crown of Scotland had devolved +on a female; that of England on a male; and happily the two sovereigns, +as of a rank, were also of an age the most suitable to each other: that +the hostile dispositions which prevailed between the nations, and which +arose from past injuries, would soon be extinguished, after a long and +secure peace had established confidence between them: that the memory of +former miseries, which at present inflamed their mutual animosity, +would then serve only to make them cherish with more passion a state of +happiness and tranquillity so long unknown to their ancestors: that when +hostilities had ceased between the kingdoms, the Scottish nobility, +who were at present obliged to remain perpetually in a warlike posture, +would learn to cultivate the arts of peace, and would soften their minds +to a love of domestic order and obedience: that as this situation was +desirable to both kingdoms, so particularly to Scotland, which had been +exposed to the greatest miseries from intestine and foreign wars, and +saw herself every moment in danger of losing her independency by the +efforts of a richer and more powerful people: that though England had +claims of superiority, she was willing to resign every pretension for +the sake of future peace; and desired a union which would be the more +secure, as it would be concluded on terms entirely equal; and that, +besides all these motives, positive engagements had been taken for +completing this alliance; and the honor and good faith of the +nation were pledged to fulfil what her interest and safety so loudly +demanded.[*] + +Somerset soon perceived that these remonstrances would have no +influence; and that the queen dowager’s attachment to France and to +the Catholic religion would render ineffectual all negotiations for the +intended marriage. He found himself, therefore, obliged to try the force +of arms, and to constrain the Scots by necessity to submit to a measure +for which they seemed to have entertained the most incurable aversion. +He passed the borders at Berwick, and advanced towards Edinburgh, +without meeting any resistance for some days, except from some small +castles, which he obliged to surrender at discretion. The protector +intended to have punished the governor and garrison of one of these +castles for their temerity in resisting such unequal force: but they +eluded his anger by asking only a few hours’ respite, till they should +prepare themselves for death; after which they found his ears more open +to their applications for mercy.[**] + + * Sir John Haywood in Kennet, p. 279. Heylin, p. 42. + + ** Haywood. Patten. + +The governor of Scotland had summoned together the whole force of the +kingdom; and his army, double in number to that of the English, had +taken post on advantageous ground, guarded by the banks of the Eske, +about four miles from Edinburgh. The English came within sight of them +at Faside; and after a skirmish between the horse, where the Scots were +worsted, and Lord Hume dangerously wounded, Somerset prepared himself +for a more decisive action. But having taken a view of the Scottish camp +with the earl of Warwick, he found it difficult to make an attempt upon +it with any probability of success. He wrote, therefore, another letter +to Arran; and offered to evacuate the kingdom, as well as to repair all +the damages which he had committed, provided the Scots would stipulate +not to contract the queen to any foreign prince, but to detain her at +home till she reached the age of choosing a husband for herself. So +moderate a demand was rejected by the Scots merely on account of its +moderation; and it made them imagine that the protector must either be +reduced to great distress, or be influenced by fear, that he was now +contented to abate so much of his former pretensions. Inflamed also by +their priests, who had come to the camp in great numbers, they believed +that the English were detestable heretics, abhorred of God, and exposed +to divine vengeance; and that no success could ever crown their arms. +They were confirmed in this fond conceit when they saw the protector +change his ground, and move towards the sea; nor did they any longer +doubt that he intended to embark his army, and make his escape on board +the ships which at that very time moved into the bay opposite to him.[*] +Determined therefore to cut off his retreat, they quitted their camp; +and passing the River Eske, advanced into the plain. They were divided +into three bodies: Angus commanded the vanguard; Arran the main body; +Huntley the rear: their cavalry consisted only of light horse, which +were placed on their left flank, strengthened by some Irish archers whom +Argyle had brought over for this service. + + * Holingshed, p. 985. + +Somerset was much pleased when he saw this movement of the Scottish +army; and as the English had usually been superior in pitched battles, +he conceived great hopes of success. He ranged his van on the left, +farthest from the sea; and ordered them to remain on the high grounds on +which he placed them, till the enemy should approach: he placed his main +battle and his rear towards the right; and beyond the van he posted +Lord Grey at the head of the men at arms, and ordered him to take the +Scottish van in flank, but not till they should be engaged in close +fight with the van of the English. + +While the Scots were advancing on the plain, they were galled with the +artillery from the English ships: the eldest son of Lord Graham was +killed: the Irish archers were thrown into disorder; and even the other +troops began to stagger; when Lord Grey, perceiving their situation, +neglected his orders, left his ground, and at the head of his +heavy-armed horse made an attack on the Scottish infantry, in hopes of +gaining all the honor of the victory. On advancing, he found a slough +and ditch in his way; and behind were ranged the enemy armed with +spears, and the field on which they stood was fallow ground, broken with +ridges which lay across their front, and disordered the movements of +the English cavalry. From all these accidents, the shock of this body +of horse was feeble and irregular; and as they were received on the +points of the Scottish spears, which were longer than the lances of +the English horsemen, they were in a moment pierced, over-thrown, and +discomfited. Grey himself was dangerously wounded: Lord Edward Seymour, +son of the protector, had his horse killed under him: the standard was +near being taken: and had the Scots possessed any good body of cavalry, +who could have pursued the advantage, the whole English army had been +exposed to great danger.[*] + + * Patter. Holingshed, p. 986. + +The protector, meanwhile, assisted by Sir Ralph Sadler and Sir Ralph +Vane, employed himself with diligence and success in rallying the +cavalry. Warwick showed great presence of mind in maintaining the ranks +of the foot, on which the horse had recoiled: he made Sir Peter Meutas +advance, captain of the foot harquebusiers, and Sir Peter Gamboa, +captain of some Italian and Spanish harquebusiers on horseback; and +ordered them to ply the Scottish infantry with their shot. They marched +to the slough, and discharged their pieces full in the face of the +enemy: the ships galled them from the flank: the artillery, planted on +a height, infested them from the front: the English archers poured in a +shower of arrows upon them: and the vanguard, descending from the hill, +advanced leisurely and in good order towards them. Dismayed with all +these circumstances, the Scottish van began to retreat: the retreat soon +changed into a flight, which was begun by the Irish archers. The panic +of the van communicated itself to the main body, and passing thence to +the rear, rendered the whole field a scene of confusion, terror, flight, +and consternation. The English army perceived from the heights the +condition of the Scots, and began the pursuit with loud shouts and +acclamations, which added still more to the dismay of the vanquished. +The horse in particular, eager to revenge the affront which they had +received in the beginning of the day, did the most bloody execution on +the flying enemy; and from the field of battle to Edinburgh, for the +space of five miles, the whole ground was strowed with dead bodies. The +priests, above all, and the monks, received no quarter; and the +English made sport of slaughtering men who, from their extreme zeal +and animosity, had engaged in an enterprise so ill befitting their +profession. Few victories have been more decisive, or gained with +smaller loss to the conquerors. There fell not two hundred of the +English; and according to the most moderate computation, there perished +above ten thousand of the Scots. About fifteen hundred were taken +prisoners. This action was called the battle of Pinkey, from a +nobleman’s seat of that name in the neighborhood. + +The queen dowager and Arran fled to Stirling, and were scarcely able +to collect such a body of forces as could check the incursions of small +parties of the English. About the same time, the earl of Lenox and Lord +Wharton entered the west marches, at the head of five thousand men; and +after taking and plundering Annan, they spread devastation over all +the neighboring counties.[*] Had Somerset prosecuted his advantages, he +might have imposed what terms he pleased on the Scottish nation: but he +was impatient to return to England, where, he heard, some counsellors, +and even his own brother, the admiral, were carrying on cabals against +his authority. Having taking the castles of Hume, Dunglass, Eymouth, +Fastcastle, Roxborough, and some other small places, and having +received the submission of some counties on the borders, he retired +from Scotland. The fleet, besides destroying all the shipping along the +coast, took Broughty, in the Frith of Tay; and having fortified it, +they there left a garrison. Arran desired leave to send commissioners +in order to treat of a peace; and Somerset, having appointed Berwick for +the place of conference, left Warwick with full powers to negotiate: but +no commissioners from Scotland ever appeared. The overture of the Scots +was an artifice, to gain time till succors should arrive from France. + + * Holingshed, p. 992. + +The protector, on his arrival in England, summoned a parliament: and +being somewhat elated with his success against the Scots, he procured +from his nephew a patent, appointing him to sit on the throne, upon +a stool or bench at the right hand of the king, and to enjoy the same +honors and privileges that had usually been possessed by any prince of +the blood, or uncle of the kings of England. In this patent the +king employed his dispensing power, by setting aside the statute of +precedency enacted during the former reign.[*] But if Somerset gave +offence by assuming too much state, he deserves great praise on account +of the laws passed this session, by which the rigor of former statutes +was much mitigated, and some security given to the freedom of the +constitution. All laws were repealed which extended the crime of treason +beyond the statute of the twenty-fifth of Edward III.;[**] all laws +enacted during the late reign extending the crime of felony; all the +former laws against Lollardy or heresy, together with the statute of +the six articles. None were to be accused for words, but within a month +after they were spoken. By these repeals several of the most rigorous +laws that ever had passed in England were annulled; and some dawn, both +of civil and religious liberty, began to appear to the people. Heresy, +however, was still a capital crime by the common law, and was subjected +to the penalty of burning. Only there remained no precise standard by +which that crime could be defined or determined; a circumstance which +might either be advantageous or hurtful to public security, according to +the disposition of the judges. + +A repeal also passed of that law, the destruction of all laws, by which +the king’s proclamation was made of equal force with a statute.[***] +That other law, likewise, was mitigated, by which the king was empowered +to annul every statute passed before the four-and-twentieth year of his +age: he could prevent their future execution; but could not recall any +past effects which had ensued from them.[****] + + * Rymer, vol. xv. p. 164. + + ** 1 Edward VI. c. 12. + + *** 1 Edward VI. c. 2. + + **** 1 Edward VI. c. 2. + +It was also enacted, that all who denied the king’s supremacy, or +asserted the pope’s, should, for the first offence, forfeit their goods +and chattels, and suffer imprisonment during pleasure; for the second +offence, should incur the penalty of a “præmunire;” and for the third, +be attainted of treason. But if any, after the first of March ensuing, +endeavored, by writing, printing, or any overt act or deed, to deprive +the king of his estate or titles, particularly of his supremacy, or to +confer them on any other, he was to be adjudged guilty of treason. If +any of the heirs of the crown should usurp upon another, or endeavor to +break the order of succession, it was declared treason in them, their +aiders and abettors. These were the most considerable acts passed +during this session. The members in general discovered a very passive +disposition with regard to religion: some few appeared zealous for +the reformation: others secretly harbored a strong propensity to the +Catholic faith: but the greater part appeared willing to take any +impression which they should receive from interest authority, or the +reigning fashion.[*] + +The convocation met at the same time with the parliament and as it was +found that their debates were at first cramped by the rigorous statute +of the six articles, the king granted them a dispensation from that law, +before it was repealed by parliament.[**] The lower house of convocation +applied to have liberty of sitting with the commons in parliament; or +if this privilege were refused them, which they claimed as their +ancient right, they desired that no law regarding religion might pass +in parliament without their consent and approbation. But the principles +which now prevailed were more favorable to the civil than to the +ecclesiastical power; and this demand of the convocation was rejected. + +{1548.} The protector had assented to the repeal of that law which gave +to the king’s proclamations the authority of statutes; but he did not +intend to renounce that arbitrary or discretionary exercise of power, +in issuing proclamations, which had ever been assumed by the crown, and +which it is difficult to distinguish exactly from a full legislative +power. He even continued to exert this authority in some particulars, +which were then regarded as the most momentous. Orders were issued by +council, that candles should no longer be carried about on Candlemas +day, ashes on Ash Wednesday, palms on Palm Sunday.[***] + + * Heylin, p. 48. + + ** Ant. Brit. p. 339. + + *** Burnet, vol. ii p. 59. Collier, vol. ii. p. 241. Heylin, + p. 55. + +These were ancient religious practices, now termed superstitions; +though it is fortunate for mankind, when superstition happens to take +a direction so innocent and inoffensive. The severe disposition which +naturally attends all reformers prompted likewise the council to abolish +some gay and showy ceremonies which belonged to the ancient religion.[*] + +An order was also issued by council for the removal of all images from +the churches; an innovation which was much desired by the reformers, +and which alone, with regard to the populace, amounted almost to a total +change of the established religion.[**] An attempt had been made to +separate the use of images from their abuse, the reverence from the +worship of them; but the execution of this design was found, upon trial, +very difficult, if not wholly impracticable. + +As private masses were abolished by law, it became necessary to compose +a new communion service; and the council went so far, in the preface +which they prefixed to this work, as to leave the practice of auricular +confession wholly indifferent.[***] This was a prelude to the entire +abolition of that invention, one of the most powerful engines that ever +was contrived for degrading the laity, and giving their spiritual guides +an entire ascendant over them. And it may justly be said, that, though +the priest’s absolution, which attends confession, serves somewhat to +ease weak minds from the immediate agonies of superstitious terror, it +operates only by enforcing superstition itself, and thereby preparing +the mind for a more violent relapse into the same disorders. + +The people were at that time extremely distracted by the opposite +opinions of their preachers; and as they were totally unable to judge of +the reasons advanced on either side, and naturally regarded every thing +which they heard at church as of equal authority, a great confusion +and fluctuation resulted from this uncertainty. The council had first +endeavored to remedy the inconvenience by laying some restraints on +preaching; but finding this expedient ineffectual, they imposed a total +silence on the preachers, and thereby put an end at once to all the +polemics of the pulpit.[****] By the nature of things, this restraint +could only be temporary. For in proportion as the ceremonies of public +worship, its shows and exterior observances, were retrenched by the +reformers, the people were inclined to contract a stronger attachment +to sermons, whence alone they received any occupation or amusement. The +ancient religion, by giving its votaries something to do, freed them +from the trouble of thinking: sermons were delivered only in the +principal churches, and at some particular fasts and festivals: and the +practice of haranguing the populace, which, if abused, is so powerful +an incitement to faction and sedition, had much less scope and influence +during those ages. + + * Burnet, vol. ii. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 60. Collier, vol. ii. p. 241. Heylin, + p. 55. + + *** Burnet, vol. ii. + + **** Fuller. Heylin. Burnet. + +The greater progress was made towards a reformation in England, the +farther did the protector find himself from all prospect of completing +the union with Scotland; and the queen dowager, as well as the clergy, +became the more averse to all alliance with a nation which had so far +departed from all ancient principles. Somerset, having taken the town +of Haddington, had ordered it to be strongly garrisoned and fortified by +Lord Grey: he also erected some fortifications at Lauder; and he +hoped that these two places, together with Broughty and some smaller +fortresses which were in the hands of the English, would serve as a curb +on Scotland, and would give him access into the heart of the country. + +Arran, being disappointed in some attempts on Broughty, relied chiefly +on the succors expected from France for the recovery of these places; +and they arrived at last in the frith, to the number of six thousand +men; half of them Germans. They were commanded by Dessé, and under him +by Andelot, Strozzi, Meilleraye, and Count Rhingrave. The Scots were at +that time so sunk by their misfortunes, that five hundred English horse +were able to ravage the whole country without resistance, and make +inroads to the gates of the capital:[*] but on the appearance of the +French succors, they collected more courage; and having joined Dessé +with a considerable reënforcement, they laid siege to Haddington.[**] +This was an undertaking for which they were by themselves totally unfit; +and even with the assistance of the French, they placed their chief +hopes of success in starving the garrison. After some vain attempts +to take the place by a regular siege, the blockade was formed, and the +garrison was repulsed with loss in several sallies which they made upon +the besiegers. + + * Beagué, Hist. of the Campaigns, 1548 and 1549. p. 6. + + ** Holingshed, p. 993. + +The hostile attempts which the late king and the protector had made +against Scotland, not being steady, regular, nor pushed to the last +extremity, had served only to imitate the nation, and to inspire them +with the strongest aversion to that union which was courted in so +violent a manner. Even those who were inclined to the English alliance +were displeased to have it imposed on them by force of arms; and the +earl of Huntley in particular said, pleasantly, that he disliked not the +match, but he hated the manner of wooing.[*] The queen dowager, finding +these sentiments to prevail, called a parliament in an abbey near +Haddington; and it was there proposed that the young queen, for her +greater security, should be sent to France, and be committed to the +custody of that ancient ally. Some objected that this measure was +desperate, allowed no resource in case of miscarriage, exposed the +Scots to be subjected by foreigners, involved them in perpetual war with +England, and left them no expedient by which they could conciliate the +friendship of that powerful nation. It was answered, on the other hand, +that the queen’s presence was the very cause of war with England; that +that nation would desist when they found that their views of forcing +a marriage had become altogether impracticable; and that Henry, being +engaged by so high a mark of confidence, would take their sovereign +under his protection, and use his utmost efforts to defend the kingdom. +These arguments were aided by French gold, which was plentifully +distributed among the nobles. The governor had a pension conferred on +him of twelve thousand livres a year, received the title of duke of +Chatelrault, and obtained for his son the command of a hundred men at +arms.[**] And as the clergy dreaded the consequences of the English +alliance, they seconded this measure with all the zeal and industry +which either principle or interest could inspire. It was accordingly +determined to send the queen to France; and, what was understood to be +the necessary consequence, to marry her to the dauphin. Villegaignon, +commander of four French galleys lying in the Frith of Forth, set sail +as if he intended to return home; but when he reached the open sea he +turned northwards, passed by the Orkneys, and came in on the west coast +at Dunbarton; an extraordinary voyage for ships of that fabric.[***] The +young queen was there committed to him; and, being attended by the lords +Ereskine and Livingstone, she put to sea, and, after meeting with some +tempestuous weather, arrived safely at Brest, whence she was conducted +to Paris, and soon after she was betrothed to the dauphin. + + * Heylin, p. 46. Patten. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 83. Buchanan, lib. xv. Keith, p. 55. + Thuanus, lib. v. c. 15. + + *** Thuanus, lib. v. c. 15. + +Somerset, pressed by many difficulties at home and despairing of success +in his enterprise against Scotland, was desirous of composing the +differences with that kingdom, and he offered the Scots a ten years’ +truce; but as they insisted on his restoring all the places which he had +taken, the proposal came to nothing. The Scots recovered the fortresses +of Hume and Fastcastle by surprise, and put the garrisons to the sword: +they repulsed with loss the English, who, under the command of Lord +Seymour, made a descent, first in Fife, then at Montrose: in the former +action, James Stuart, natural brother to the queen, acquired honor; in +the latter, Ereskine of Dun. An attempt was made by Sir Robert Bowes and +Sir Thomas Palmer, at the head of a considerable body, to throw relief +into Haddington; but these troops, falling into an ambuscade, were +almost wholly cut in pieces.[*] And though a small body of two hundred +men escaped all the vigilance of the French, and arrived safely in +Haddington with some ammunition and provisions, the garrison was reduced +to such difficulties, that the protector found it necessary to provide +more effectually for their relief. He raised an army of eighteen +thousand men, and adding three thousand Germans, who, on the dissolution +of the Protestant alliance, had offered their service to England, he +gave the command of the whole to the earl of Shrewsbury.[**] Dessé +raised the blockade on the approach of the English; and with great +difficulty made good his retreat to Edinburgh, where he posted himself +advantageously. Shrewsbury, who had lost the opportunity of attacking +him on his march, durst not give him battle in his present situation; +and contenting himself with the advantage already gained of supplying +Haddington, he retired into England. + + * Stowe, p. 595. Holingshed, p, 994. + + ** Hayward, p. 291. + +Though the protection of France was of great consequence to the Scots in +supporting them against the invasions of England, they reaped still more +benefit from the distractions and divisions which have crept into the +councils of this latter kingdom. Even the two brothers, the protector +and admiral, not content with the high stations which they severally +enjoyed, and the great eminence to which they had risen, had entertained +the most violent jealousy of each other; and they divided the whole +court and kingdom by their opposite cabals and pretensions. Lord Seymour +was a man of insatiable ambition; arrogant, assuming, implacable; and +though esteemed of superior capacity to the protector, he possessed +not to the same degree the confidence and regard of the people. By his +flattery and address, he had so insinuated himself into the good graces +of the queen dowager, that, forgetting her usual prudence and decency, +she married him immediately upon the demise of the late king; insomuch +that, had she soon proved pregnant, it might have been doubtful to +which husband the child belonged. The credit and riches of this alliance +supported the ambition of the admiral, but gave umbrage to the duchess +of Somerset, who, uneasy that the younger brother’s wife should have +the precedency, employed all her credit with her husband, which was +too great, first to create, then to widen the breach between the two +brothers.[*] + + * Hayward, p. 301. Heylin, p. 72. Camden. Thuanus, lib. vi. + p. 6. Haynes, p. 69. + +The first symptoms of this misunderstanding appeared when the protector +commanded the army in Scotland. Secretary Paget, a man devoted to +Somerset, remarked that Seymour was forming separate intrigues among the +counsellors; was corrupting by presents the king’s servants; and even +endeavoring, by improper indulgences and liberalities, to captivate the +affections of the young monarch. Paget represented to him the danger of +this conduct; desired him to reflect on the numerous enemies whom the +sudden elevation of their family had created; and warned him, that any +dissension between him and the protector would be greedily laid hold +of to effect the ruin of both. Finding his remonstrances neglected, +he conveyed intelligence of the danger to Somerset, and engaged him to +leave the enterprise upon Scotland unfinished, in order to guard against +the attempts of his domestic enemies. In the ensuing parliament, the +admiral’s projects appeared still more dangerous to public tranquillity; +and as he had acquired many partisans, he made a direct attack upon +his brother’s authority. He represented to his friends, that formerly, +during a minority, the office of protector of the kingdom had been +kept separate from that of governor of the king’s person; and that the +present union of these two important trusts conferred on Somerset an +authority which could not safely be lodged in any subject.[*] The young +king was even prevailed on to write a letter to the parliament desiring +that Seymour might be appointed his governor; and that nobleman had +formed a party in the two houses, by which he hoped to effect his +purpose. The design was discovered before its execution; and some common +friends were sent to remonstrate with him, but had so little influence, +that he threw out many menacing expressions, and rashly threatened that, +if he were thwarted in his attempt, he would make this parliament the +blackest that ever sat in England.[**] The council sent for him to +answer for his conduct; but he refused to attend: they then began to +threaten in their turn, and informed him that the king’s letter, instead +of availing him any thing to the execution of his views, would be +imputed to him as a criminal enterprise, and be construed as a design to +disturb the government, by forming a separate interest with a child and +minor. They even let fall some menaces of sending him to the Tower for +his temerity; and the admiral, finding himself prevented in his design, +was obliged to submit, and to desire a reconciliation with his brother. + +The mild and moderate temper of Somerset made him willing to forget +these enterprises of the admiral; but the ambition of that turbulent +spirit could not be so easily appeased. His spouse, the queen dowager, +died in childbed; but so far from regarding this event as a check to +his aspiring views, he founded on it the scheme of a more extraordinary +elevation. He made his addresses to the lady Elizabeth, then in the +sixteenth year of her age; and that princess, whom even the hurry of +business and the pursuits of ambition could not, in her more advanced +years, disengage entirely from the tender passions, seems to have +listened to the insinuations of a man who possessed every talent proper +to captivate the affections of the fair.[***] + + * Haynes, p. 82, 90. + + ** Haynes, p. 75. + + *** Haynes, p. 95, 96, 102, 108. + +But as Henry VIII. had excluded his daughters from all hopes of +succession if they married without the consent of his executors, which +Seymour could never hope to obtain, it was concluded that he meant to +effect his purpose by expedients still more rash and more criminal. All +the other measures of the admiral tended to confirm this suspicion. He +continued to attack, by presents, the fidelity of those who had more +immediate access to the king’s person: he endeavored to seduce the +young prince into his interest, he found means of holding a private +correspondence with him; he openly decried his brother’s administration; +and asserted that, by enlisting Germans and other foreigners he intended +to form a mercenary army, which might endanger the king’s authority, and +the liberty of the people: by promises and persuasion he brought over to +his party many of the principal nobility; and had extended his interest +all over England: he neglected not even the most popular persons of +inferior rank; and had computed that he could, on occasion, muster +an army of ten thousand men, composed of his servants, tenants, and +retainers:[*] he had already provided arms for their use; and having +engaged in his interests Sir John Sharington, a corrupt man, master +of the mint at Bristol, he flattered himself that money would not be +wanting. Somerset was well apprised of all these alarming circumstances, +and endeavored, by the most friendly expedients, by entreaty, reason, +and even by heaping new favors upon the admiral, to make him desist from +his dangerous counsels: but finding all endeavors ineffectual, he +began to think of more severe remedies. The earl of Warwick was an ill +instrument between the brothers; and had formed the design, by inflaming +the quarrel, to raise his own fortune on the ruins of both. + + * Hayne, p. 105, 106. + +Dudley, earl of Warwick, was the son of that Dudley, minister to Henry +VII., who, having, by rapine, extortion, and perversion of law, incurred +the hatred of the public, had been sacrificed to popular animosity in +the beginning of the subsequent reign. The late king, sensible of the +iniquity, at least illegality, of the sentence, had afterwards restored +young Dudley’s blood by act of parliament; and finding him endowed +with abilities, industry, and activity, he had intrusted him with +many important commands, and had ever found him successful in his +undertakings. He raised him to the dignity of Viscount Lisle, conferred +on him the office of admiral, and gave him by his will a place among his +executors. Dudley made still further progress during the minority; and +having obtained the title of earl of Warwick, and undermined the +credit of Southampton, he bore the chief rank among the protector’s +counsellors. The victory gained at Pinkey was much ascribed to his +courage and conduct; and he was universally regarded as a man equally +endowed with the talents of peace and of war. But all these virtues were +obscured by still greater vices; an exorbitant ambition, an insatiable +avarice, a neglect of decency, a contempt of justice: and as he found +that Lord Seymour, whose abilities and enterprising spirit he chiefly +dreaded, was involving himself in ruin by his rash counsels, he was +determined to push him on the precipice, and thereby remove the chief +obstacle to his own projected greatness. + +When Somerset found that the public peace was endangered by his +brother’s seditious, not to say rebellious schemes, he was the more +easily persuaded by Warwick to employ the extent of royal authority +against him; and after depriving him of the office of admiral, he signed +a warrant for committing him to the Tower. Some of his accomplices were +also taker into custody; and three privy counsellors, being sent to +examine them, made a report, that they had met with very full and +important discoveries. Yet still the protector suspended the blow, and +showed a reluctance to ruin his brother. He offered to desist from the +prosecution, if Seymour would promise him a cordial reconciliation, and, +renouncing all ambitious hopes, be contented with a private life, and +retire into the country. But as Seymour made no other answer to these +friendly offers than menaces and defiances, he ordered a charge to be +drawn up against him, consisting of thirty-three articles;[*] and the +whole to be laid before the privy council. It is pretended, that every +particular was so incontestably proved, both by witnesses and his own +handwriting, that there was no room for doubt; yet did the council think +proper to go in a body to the Tower, in order more fully to examine the +prisoner. He was not daunted by the appearance: he boldly demanded a +fair trial; required to be confronted with the witnesses; desired +that the charge might be left with him, in order to be considered; and +refused to answer any interrogatories by which he might accuse himself. + + * Buruet, Tol. ii. coll. 31. 2 and 3 Edward VI. c. 18. + +It is apparent that, notwithstanding what is pretended, there must have +been some deficiency in the evidence against Seymour, when such demands, +founded on the plainest principles of law and equity, were absolutely +rejected. We shall indeed conclude, if we carefully examine the charge, +that many of the articles were general, and scarcely capable of +any proof many of them, if true, susceptible of a more favorable +interpretation; and that though, on the whole, Seymour appears to have +been a dangerous subject, he had not advanced far in those treasonable +projects imputed to him. The chief part of his actual guilt seems to +have consisted in some unwarrantable practices in the admiralty, by +which pirates were protected and illegal impositions laid upon the +merchants. + +But the administration had at that time an easy instrument of vengeance, +to wit, the parliament; and needed not to give themselves any concern +with regard either to the guilt of the persons whom they prosecuted, +or the evidence which could be produced against them. A session of +parliament being held, it was resolved to proceed against Seymour +by bill of attainder; and the young king being induced, after much +solicitation, to give his consent to it, a considerable weight was put +on his approbation. The matter was first laid before the upper house; +and several peers, rising up in their places, gave an account of what +they knew concerning Lord Seymour’s conduct, and his criminal words or +actions. + +{1549.} These narratives were received as undoubted evidence; and though +the prisoner had formerly engaged many friends and partisans among the +nobility, no one had either the courage or equity to move, that he +might be heard in his defence, that the testimony against him should be +delivered in a legal manner, and that he should be confronted with the +witnesses. A little more scruple was made in the house of commons: +there were even some members who objected against the whole method of +proceeding by bill of attainder passed in absence; and insisted, that a +formal trial should be given to every man before his condemnation. But +when a message was sent by the king, enjoining the house to proceed, and +offering that the same narratives should be laid before them which had +satisfied the peers, they were easily prevailed on to acquiesce.[*] The +bill passed in a full house. Near four hundred voted for it; not above +nine or ten against it.[**] The sentence was soon after executed, and +the prisoner was beheaded on Tower Hill. The warrant was signed by +Somerset, who was exposed to much blame, on account of the violence of +these proceedings. The attempts of the admiral seem chiefly to have +been levelled against his brother’s usurped authority; and though his +ambitious, enterprising character, encouraged by a marriage with the +lady Elizabeth, might have endangered the public tranquillity, the +prudence of foreseeing evils at such a distance was deemed too great, +and the remedy was plainly illegal. It could only be said, that this +bill of attainder was somewhat more tolerable than the preceding ones, +to which the nation had been inured; for here, at least, some shadow of +evidence was produced. + + * 2 and 3 Edward VI. c. 18. + + ** Burnet vol. ii. p. 99. + +All the considerable business transacted this session, besides the +attainder of Lord Seymour, regarded ecclesiastical affairs, which were +now the chief object of attention throughout the nation. A committee +of bishops and divines had been appointed by the council to compose +a liturgy; and they had executed the work committed to them. They +proceeded with moderation in this delicate undertaking; they retained +as much of the ancient mass as the principles of the reformers would +permit: they indulged nothing to the spirit of contradiction, which +so naturally takes place in all great innovations: and they flattered +themselves, that they had established a service in which every +denomination of Christians might without scruple concur. The mass had +always been celebrated in Latin; a practice which might have been deemed +absurd, had it not been found useful to the clergy, by impressing the +people with an idea of some mysterious unknown virtue in those rites, +and by checking all their pretensions to be familiarly acquainted with +their religion. But as the reformers pretended in some few particulars +to encourage private judgment in the laity, the translation of the +liturgy, as well as of the Scriptures, into the vulgar tongue, seemed +more conformable to the genius of their sect; and this innovation, +with the retrenching of prayers to saints, and of some superstitious +ceremonies, was the chief difference between the old mass and the new +liturgy. The parliament established this form of worship in all the +churches, and ordained a uniformity to be observed in all the rites and +ceremonies.[*] + + * 2 and 3 Edward VI. c. 1. + +There was another material act which passed this session. The former +canons had established the celibacy of the clergy; and though this +practice is usually ascribed to the policy of the court of Rome, who +thought that the ecclesiastics would be more devoted to their spiritual +head, and less dependent on the civil magistrate, when freed from +the powerful tie of wives and children, yet was this institution much +forwarded by the principles of superstition inherent in human nature. +These principles had rendered the panegyrics on an inviolate chastity +so frequent among the ancient fathers, long before the establishment of +celibacy. And even this parliament, though they enacted a law permitting +the marriage of priests, yet confess in the preamble, “that it were +better for priests and the ministers of the church to live chaste and +without marriage, and it were much to be wished they would of themselves +abstain.” The inconveniences which had arisen from the compelling of +chastity and the prohibiting of marriage, are the reasons assigned for +indulging a liberty in this particular.[*] The ideas of penance also +were so much retained in other particulars, that an act of parliament +passed, forbidding the use of flesh meat during Lent and other times of +abstinence.[**] [20] + +The principal tenets and practices of the Catholic religion were now +abolished, and the reformation, such as it is enjoyed at present, was +almost entirely completed in England. But the doctrine of the real +presence, though tacitly condemned by the new communion service, and +by the abolition of many ancient rites, still retained some hold on the +minds of men: and it was the last doctrine of Popery that was wholly +abandoned by the people.[***] The great attachment of the late king +to that tenet might, in part, be the ground of this obstinacy: but the +chief cause was really the extreme absurdity of the principle itself, +and the profound veneration, which, of course, it impressed on the +imagination. The priests, likewise, were much inclined to favor an +opinion which attributed to them so miraculous a power; and the people, +who believed that they participated of the very body and blood of their +Savior, were loath to renounce so extraordinary, and, as they imagined, +so salutary a privilege. The general attachment to this dogma was so +violent, that the Lutherans, notwithstanding their separation from Rome, +had thought proper, under another name, still to retain it; and the +Catholic preachers in England, when restrained in all other particulars, +could not forbear, on every occasion, inculcating that tenet. Bonner, +for this offence among others, had been tried by the council, had been +deprived of his see, and had been committed to custody. Gardiner, also, +who had recovered his liberty, appeared anew refractory to the authority +which established the late innovations; and he seemed willing to +countenance that opinion, much favored by all the English Catholics, +that the king was indeed supreme head of the church, but not the council +during a minority. Having declined to give full satisfaction on this +head, he was sent to the Tower, and threatened with further effects of +the council’s displeasure. + + * 2 and 3 Edward VI. cap. 21. + + ** 2 and 3 Edward VI. cap. 19. See note T. at the end of the + volume. + + *** Burnet, vol. ii, p 104. + +These severities, being exercised on men possessed of office and +authority, seemed in that age a necessary policy, in order to enforce +a uniformity in public worship and discipline; but there were other +instances of persecution, derived from no origin but the bigotry +of theologians; a malady which seems almost incurable. Though the +Protestant divines had ventured to renounce opinions deemed certain +during many ages, they regarded, in their turn, the new system as so +certain, that they would suffer no contradiction with regard to it; and +they were ready to burn in the same flames from which they themselves +had so narrowly escaped, every one that had the assurance to differ from +them. A commission, by act of council, was granted to the primate and +some others, to examine and search after all Anabaptists, heretics, or +contemners of the Book of Common Prayer.[*] + + * Burnet, vol. ii. p. 3. Rymer, tom. xv. p. 181. + +The commissioners were enjoined to reclaim them, if possible; to impose +penance on them, and to give them absolution; or, if these criminals +were obstinate, to excommunicate and imprison them, and to deliver them +over to the secular arm: and in the execution of this charge, they were +not bound to observe the ordinary methods of trial; the forms of law +were dispensed with; and if any statutes happened to interfere with +the powers in the commission, they were overruled and abrogated by +the council. Some tradesmen in London were brought before these +commissioners, and were accused of maintaining, among other opinions, +that a man regenerate could not sin, and that, though the outward man +might offend, the inward was incapable of all guilt. They were prevailed +on to abjure, and were dismissed. But there was a woman accused of +heretical pravity, called Joan Bocher, or Joan of Kent, who was so +pertinacious, that the commissioners could make no impression upon her +Her doctrine was, “that Christ was not truly incarnate of the Virgin, +whose flesh, being the outward man, was sinfully begotten, and born in +sin, and, consequently, he could take none of it; but the Word, by +the consent of the inward man of the Virgin, was made flesh.”[*] This +opinion, it would seem, is not orthodox; and there was a necessity for +delivering the woman to the flames for maintaining it. But the +young king, though in such tender years, had more sense than all his +counsellors and preceptors; and he long refused to sign the warrant for +her execution. Cranmer was employed to persuade him to compliance; +and he said, that there was a great difference between errors in other +points of divinity, and those which were in direct contradiction to +the apostles’ creed: these latter were impieties against God, which +the prince, being God’s deputy, ought to repress, in like manner, as +inferior magistrates were bound to punish offences against the king’s +person. Edward, overcome by importunity, at last submitted, though with +tears in his eyes; and he told Cranmer, that if any wrong were done, the +guilt should lie entirely on his head. The primate, after making a new +effort to reclaim the woman from her errors, and finding her obstinate +against all his arguments, at last committed her to the flames. Some +time after, a Dutchman, called Van Paris, accused of the heresy which +has received the name of Arianism, was condemned to the same punishment. +He suffered with so much satisfaction, that he hugged and caressed the +fagots that were consuming him; a species of frenzy of which there is +more than one instance among the martyrs of that age.[**] + +These rigorous methods of proceeding soon brought the whole nation to a +conformity, seeming or real, with the new doctrine and the new liturgy. +The lady Mary alone continued to adhere to the mass, and refused to +admit the established modes of worship. When pressed and menaced on +this head, she applied to the emperor, who, using his interest with +Sir Philip Hobby, the English ambassador, procured her a temporary +connivance from the council.[***] + + * Burnet, vol. ii. coll. 35 Strype’s Mem. Cranm. p. 181. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 112. Strype’s Mem. Cranm. p. 181. + + *** Heylin, p. 102 + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + + + + +EDWARD VI. + +{1549.} There is no abuse so great in civil society, as not to be +attended with a variety of beneficial consequence; and in the beginnings +of reformation, the loss of these advantages is always felt very +sensibly, while the benefit, resulting from the change is the slow +effect of time, and is seldom perceived by the bulk of a nation. Scarce +any institution can be imagined less favorable, in the main, to the +interests of mankind than that of monks and friars; yet was it followed +by many good effects, which, having ceased by the suppression of +monasteries, were much regretted by the people of England. The monks, +always residing in their convents, in the centre of their estates, spent +their money in the provinces and among their tenants, afforded a ready +market for commodities, were a sure resource to the poor and indigent; +and though their hospitality and charity gave but too much encouragement +to idleness, and prevented the increase of public riches, yet did +it provide to many a relief from the extreme pressures of want and +necessity. It is also observable, that as the friars were limited by +the rules of their institution to a certain mode of living, they had not +equal motives for extortion with other men, and they were acknowledged +to have been in England, as they still are in Roman Catholic countries, +the best and most indulgent landlords. The abbots and priors were +permitted to give leases at an under-value, and to receive in return a +large present from the tenant, in the same manner as is still practised +by the bishops and colleges. But when the abbey lands were distributed +among the principal nobility and courtiers, they fell under a different +management: the rents of farms were raised, while the tenants found not +the same facility in disposing of the produce; the money was often spent +in the capital, and the farmers, living at a distance, were exposed to +oppression from their new masters, or to the still greater rapacity of +the stewards. + +These grievances of the common people were at that time heightened by +other causes. The arts of manufacture were much more advanced in other +European countries than in England; and even in England these arts had +made greater progress than the knowledge of agriculture; a profession +which of all mechanical employments, requires the most reflection and +experience. A great demand arose for wool both abroad and at home: +pasturage was found more profitable than unskilful tillage: whole +estates were laid waste by enclosures; the tenants, regarded as a +useless burden, were expelled their habitations; even the cottagers, +deprived of the commons on which they formerly fed their cattle, were +reduced to misery; and a decay of people, as well as a diminution of the +former plenty, was remarked in the kingdom.[*] This grievance was now +of an old date, and Sir Thomas More, alluding to it, observes in his +Utopia, that a sheep had become in England a more ravenous animal than a +lion or wolf, and devoured whole villages, cities, and provinces. + + * Strype, vol. ii. Repository, Q. + +The general increase, also, of gold and silver in Europe, after +the discovery of the West Indies, had a tendency to inflame these +complaints. The growing demand in the more commercial countries had +heightened every where the price of commodities, which could easily be +transported thither; but in England, the labor of men, who could not +so easily change their habitation, still remained nearly at the +ancient rates, and the poor complained that they could no longer gain a +subsistence by their industry. It was by an addition alone of toil and +application they were enabled to procure a maintenance; and though this +increase of industry was at last the effect of the present situation, +and an effect beneficial to society, yet was it difficult for the people +to shake off their former habits of indolence; and nothing but necessity +could compel them to such an exertion of their faculties. + +It must also be remarked, that the profusion of Henry VIII. had reduced +him, notwithstanding his rapacity, to such difficulties, that he had +been obliged to remedy a present necessity by the pernicious expedient +of debasing the coin; and the wars in which the protector had been +involved, had induced him to carry still further the same abuse. The +usual consequences ensued: the good specie was hoarded or exported; base +metal was coined at home, or imported from abroad in great abundance; +the common people, who received their wages in it, could not purchase +commodities at the usual rates: a universal diffidence and stagnation +of commerce took place; and loud complaints were heard in every part of +England. + +The protector, who loved popularity, and pitied the condition of the +people, encouraged these complaints by his endeavors to redress them. +He appointed a commission for making inquiry concerning enclosures; and +issued a proclamation, ordering all late enclosures to be laid open by +a day appointed. The populace, meeting with such countenance from +government, began to rise in several places, and to commit disorders; +but were quieted by remonstrances and persuasion. In order to give them +greater satisfaction, Somerset appointed new commissioners, whom he sent +every where, with an unlimited power to hear and determine all causes +about enclosures, highways, and cottages.[*] As this commission +was disagreeable to the gentry and nobility, they stigmatized it as +arbitrary and illegal; and the common people, fearing it would be +eluded, and being impatient for immediate redress, could no longer +contain their fury, but sought for a remedy by force of arms. The rising +began at once in several parts of England, as if a universal conspiracy +had been formed by the commonalty. The rebels in Wiltshire were +dispersed by Sir William Herbert: those in’ the neighboring counties, +Oxford and Glocester, by Lord Gray, of Wilton. Many of the rioters were +killed in the field: others were executed by martial law. The commotions +in Hampshire, Sussex, Kent, and other counties, were quieted by gentler +expedients; but the disorders in Devonshire and Norfolk threatened more +dangerous consequences. + + * Burnet, vol. ii. p. 115. Strype, vol. ii. p. 171. + +The commonalty in Devonshire began with the usual complaints against +enclosures and against oppressions from the gentry; but the parish +priest of Sampford Courtenay had the address to give their discontent +a direction towards religion; and the delicacy of the subject, in the +present emergency, made the insurrection immediately appear formidable. +In other counties, the gentry had kept closely united with government; +but here many of them took part with the populace among others, Humphrey +Arundel, governor of St. Michael’s Mount. The rioters were brought +into the form of a regular army, which amounted to the number of ten +thousand. Lord Russel had been sent against them at the head of a small +force; but finding himself too weak to encounter them in the field, +he kept at a distance, and began to negotiate with them; in hopes of +eluding their fury by delay, and of dispersing them by the difficulty of +their subsisting in a body. Their demands were, that the mass should be +restored, half of the abbey lands resumed, the law of the six articles +executed, holy water and holy bread respected, and all other particular +grievances redressed.[*] The council, to whom Russet transmitted these +demands, sent a haughty answer; commanded the rebels to disperse, and +promised them pardon upon their immediate submission. Enraged at this +disappointment, they marched to Exeter, carrying before them crosses, +banners, holy water, candlesticks, and other implements of ancient +superstition; together with the host, which they covered with a +canopy.[**] The citizens of Exeter shut their gates; and the rebels, as +they had no cannon, endeavored to take the place, first by scalade, then +by mining; but were repulsed in every attempt. Russel meanwhile lay at +Honiton, till reënforced by Sir William Herbert and Lord Gray with some +German horse, and some Italian arquebusiers under Battista Spinola. He +then resolved to attempt the relief of Exeter, which was now reduced to +extremities. He attacked the rebels, drove them from all their posts, +did great execution upon them, both in the action and pursuit,[***] and +took many prisoners. Arundel and the other leaders were sent to London, +tried, and executed. Many of the inferior sort were put to death +by martial law:[****] the vicar of St. Thomas, one of the principal +incendiaries, was hanged on the top of his own steeple, arrayed in his +Popish weeds, with his beads at his girdle.[v] + + * Hayward, p. 292. Holingshed, p. 1003. Fox, vol. ii, p. + €61[** Unreadable in the OCR Scan] Mem. Cranm. p. 186. + + ** Heylin, p. 76. + + *** Stowe’s Annals. p. 597. Hayward, p. 295. + + **** Hayward, p. 295, 296. + + v Heylin, p. 76. Holingshed, p 1026. + +The insurrection in Norfolk rose to a still greater height, and was +attended with greater acts of violence. The populace were at first +excited, as in other places, by complaints against enclosures; but +finding their numbers amount to twenty thousand, they grew insolent, and +proceeded to more exorbitant pretensions. They required the suppression +of the gentry, the placing of new counsellors about the king, and the +reëstablishment of the ancient rites. One Ket, a tanner, had assumed +the government over them; and he exercised his authority with the utmost +arrogance and outrage. Having taken possession of Moushold Hill near +Norwich, he erected his tribunal under an old oak, thence called the oak +of reformation; and summoning the gentry to appear before him, he gave +such decrees as might be expected from his character and situation. The +marquis of Northampton was first ordered against him; but met with a +repulse in an action, where Lord Sheffield was killed.[*] The protector +affected popularity, and cared not to appear in person against the +rebels; he therefore sent the earl of Warwick at the head of six +thousand men, levied for the wars against Scotland; and he thereby +afforded his mortal enemy an opportunity of increasing his reputation +and character. Warwick, having tried some skirmishes with the rebels, +at last made a general attack upon them, and put them to flight. Two +thousand fell in the action and pursuit: Ket was hanged at Norwich +Castle, nine of his followers on the boughs of the oak of reformation; +and the insurrection was entirely suppressed. Some rebels in Yorkshire, +learning the fate of their companions, accepted the offers of pardon, +and threw down their arms. A general indemnity was soon after published +by the protector.[**] + + * Stowe, p. 597. Holingshed, p. 1030-34. Strype, vol. ii. p. + 174. + + ** Hayward, p. 297, 298, 299. + +But though the insurrections were thus quickly subdued in England, +and no traces of them seemed to remain, they were attended with bad +consequences to the foreign interests of the nation. The forces of the +earl of Warwick, which might have made a great impression on Scotland, +were diverted from that enterprise; and the French general had leisure +to reduce that country to some settlement and composure. He took the +fortress of Broughty, and put the garrison to the sword. He straitened +the English at Haddington; and though Lord Dacres was enabled to throw +relief into the place, and to reenforce the garrison, it was found at +last very chargeable, and even impracticable, to keep possession of that +fortress. The whole country in the neighborhood was laid waste by the +inroads both of the Scots and English, and could afford no supply to the +garrison: the place lay above thirty miles from the borders; so that a +regular army was necessary to escort any provisions thither: and as the +plague had broken out among the troops, they perished daily, and were +reduced to a state of great weakness. For these reasons, orders were +given to dismantle Haddington, and to convey the artillery and garrison +to Berwick; and the earl of Rutland, now created warden of the east +marches, executed the orders. + +The king of France also took advantage of the distractions among the +English, and made an attempt to recover Boulogne and that territory +which Henry VIII. had conquered from France, On other pretences, he +assembled an army, and falling suddenly upon the Boulonnois, took the +castles of Sellaque, Blackness, and Ambleteuse, though well supplied +with garrisons, ammunition, and provisions.[*] He endeavored to surprise +Boulenberg, and was repulsed; but the garrison, not thinking the place +tenable after the loss of the other fortresses, destroyed the works, and +retired to Boulogne. The rains, which fell in great abundance during the +autumn, and a pestilential distemper which broke out in the French camp, +deprived Henry of all hopes of success against Boulogne itself; and +he retired to Paris.[**] He left the command of the army to Gaspar de +Coligny, lord of Chatillon, so famous afterwards by the name of Admiral +Coligny; and he gave him orders to form the siege early in the spring. +The active disposition of this general engaged him to make, during +the winter, several attempts against the place; but they all proved +unsuccessful. + +Strozzi, who commanded the French fleet and galleys, endeavored to +make a descent on Jersey; but meeting there with an English fleet, he +commenced an action, which seems not to have been decisive, since the +historians of the two nations differ in their account of the event.[***] + + * Thuanus, lib. vi. c. 6. + + ** Hayward, p. 300. + + *** Thuan. King Edward’s Journal. Stowe, p. 597. + +As soon as the French war broke out, the protector endeavored to fortify +himself with the alliance of the emperor; and he sent over Secretary +Paget to Brussels, where Charles then kept court, in order to assist +Sir Philip Hobby, the resident ambassador, in this negotiation. But that +prince had formed a design of extending his dominions by acting the part +of champion for the Catholic religion; and though extremely desirous +of accepting the English alliance against France, his capital enemy, +he thought it unsuitable to his other pretensions to enter into strict +confederacy with a nation which had broken off all connections with the +church of Rome. He therefore declined the advances of friendship from +England, and eluded the applications of the ambassadors. An exact +account is preserved of this negotiation in a letter of Hobby’s; and +it is remarkable, that the emperor, in a conversation with the English +ministers, asserted, that the prerogatives of a king of England were +more extensive than those of a king of France.[*] Burnet, who preserves +this letter, subjoins, as a parallel instance, that one objection which +the Scots made to marrying their queen with Edward was, that all their +privileges would be swallowed up by the great prerogative of the kings +of England.[**] + +Somerset, despairing of assistance from the emperor, was inclined to +conclude a peace with France and Scotland; and besides that he was not +in a condition to maintain such ruinous wars, he thought that there no +longer remained any object of hostility. The Scots had sent away their +queen; and could not, if ever so much inclined, complete the marriage +contracted with Edward; and as Henry VIII. had stipulated to restore +Boulogne in 1554, it seemed a matter of small moment to anticipate a few +years the execution of the treaty. But when he proposed these reasons to +the council, he met with strong opposition from his enemies; who, seeing +him unable to support the war, were determined, for that very reason, +to oppose all proposals for a pacification. The factions ran high in +the court of England; and matters were drawing to an issue fatal to the +authority of the protector. + +After Somerset obtained the patent investing him with regal authority, +he no longer paid any attention to the opinion of the other executors +and counsellors; and being elated with his high dignity, as well as with +his victory at Pinkey, he thought that every one ought, in every thing, +to yield to his sentiments. All those who were not entirely devoted to +him were sure to be neglected; whoever opposed his will received marks +of anger or contempt;[***] and while he showed a resolution to govern +every thing, his capacity appeared not in any respect proportioned to +his ambition. Warwick, more subtle and artful, covered more exorbitant +views under fairer appearances, and having associated himself with +Southampton, who had been readmitted into the council, he formed a +strong party who were determined to free themselves from the slavery +imposed on them by the protector. + + * Burnet, vol. ii. p. 132, 175. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 133. + + *** Strype, vol ii. p. 181. + +The malecontent counsellors found the disposition of the nation +favorable to their designs. The nobility and gentry were in general +displeased with the preference which Somerset seemed to have given to +the people; and as they ascribed all the insults to which they had been +lately exposed to his procrastination, and to the countenance shown to +the multitude, they apprehended a renewal of the same disorders from his +present affectation of popularity. He had erected a court of requests +in his own house for the relief of the people,[*] and he interposed with +the judges in their behalf; a measure which might be deemed illegal, if +any exertion of prerogative at that time could with certainty deserve +that appellation. And this attempt, which was a stretch of power, seemed +the more impolitic, because it disgusted the nobles, the surest support +of monarchical authority. + + * Strype, vol. ii. p. 183. + +But though Somerset courted the people, the interest which he had formed +with them was in no degree answerable to his expectations. The Catholic +party who retained influence with the lower ranks, were his declared +enemies, and took advantage of every opportunity to decry his conduct. +The attainder and execution of his brother bore an odious aspect: the +introduction of foreign troops into the kingdom was represented in +invidious colors: the great estate which he had suddenly acquired at the +expense of the church and of the crown, rendered him obnoxious; and the +palace which he was building in the Strand, served by its magnificence, +and still more by other circumstances which attended it, to expose him +to the censure of the public. The parish church of St. Mary, with +three bishops’ houses, was pulled down, in order to furnish ground +and materials for this structure: not content with that sacrilege, an +attempt was made to demolish St. Margaret’s Westminster, and to employ +the stones to the same purpose but the parishioners rose in a tumult, +and chased away the protector’s tradesmen. He then laid his hands on +a chapel in St. Paul’s churchyard, with a cloister and charnel-house +belonging to it; and these edifices, together with a church of St. John +of Jerusalem, were made use of to raise his palace. What rendered the +matter more odious to the people was, that the tombs and other monuments +of the dead wore defaced; and the bones, being carried away, were buried +in unconsecrated ground.[*] + +All these imprudences were remarked by Somerset’s enemies, who resolved +to take advantage of them. Lord St. John president of the council, the +earls of Warwick, Southampton and Arundel, with five members more, met +at Ely House and, assuming to themselves the whole power of the council, +began to act independently of the protector, whom they represented as +the author of every public grievance and misfortune. They wrote letters +to the chief nobility and gentry in England, informing them of the +present measures, and requiring their assistance: they sent for the +mayor and aldermen of London, and enjoined them to obey their orders, +without regard to any contrary orders which they might receive from the +duke of Somerset. They laid the same injunctions on the lieutenant of +the Tower, who expressed his resolution to comply with them. Next +day, Rich, lord chancellor, the marquis of Northampton, the earl of +Shrewsbury, Sir Thomas Cheney, Sir John Gage, Sir Ralph Sadler, and +Chief Justice Montague, joined the malecontent counsellors; and every +thing bore a bad aspect for the protector’s authority. Secretary Petre, +whom he had sent to treat with the council, rather chose to remain with +them: the common council of the city, being applied to, declared with +one voice their approbation of the new measures, and their resolution of +supporting them.[**] + + * Heylin, p. 72, 73. Stowe’s Survey of London. Hayward, + p.308. + + ** Stowe, p. 597, 598. Holingshed, p. 1057. + +As soon as the protector heard of the defection of the counsellors, +he removed the king from Hampton Court, where he then resided, to the +Castle of Windsor; and arming his friends and servants, seemed resolute +to defend himself against all his enemies. But finding that no man of +rank, except Cranmer and Paget, adhered to him, that the people did not +rise at his summons, that the city and Tower had declared against +him, that even his best friends had deserted him, he lost all hopes of +success, and began to apply to his enemies for pardon and forgiveness. +No sooner was this despondency known, than Lord Russell, Sir John Baker, +speaker of the house of commons, and three counsellors more, who had +hitherto remained neuters, joined the party of Warwick, whom every +one now regarded as master. The council informed the public, by +proclamation, of their actions and intentions; they wrote to the +princesses Mary and Elizabeth to the same purpose; and they made +addresses to the king, in which, after the humblest protestations +of duty and submission, they informed him that they were the council +appointed by his father for the government of the kingdom during his +minority; that they had chosen the duke of Somerset protector, under +the express condition that he should guide himself by their advice and +direction; that he had usurped the whole authority, and had neglected, +and even in every thing opposed, their counsel; that he had proceeded +to that height of presumption, as to levy forces against them and place +these forces about his majesty’s person: they therefore begged that they +might be admitted to his royal presence, that he would be pleased to +restore them to his confidence, and that Somerset’s servants might be +dismissed. Their request was complied with: Somerset capitulated only +for gentle treatment, which was promised him. He was, however, sent to +the Tower,[*] with some of his friends and partisans, among whom was +Cecil, afterwards so much distinguished. Articles of indictment were +exhibited against him;[**] of which the chief, at least the best +founded, is his usurpation of the government, and his taking into his +own hands the whole administration of affairs. The clause of his patent, +which invested him with absolute power, unlimited by any law, was never +objected to him; plainly because, according to the sentiments of those +times, that power was in some degree involved in the very idea of regal +authority. + + * Stowe, p. 600. + + ** Burner, vol. ii. book i. coll. 46. Hayward, p. 308. + Stowe, p. 601 Holingshed, p. 1059. + +The Catholics were extremely elated with this revolution; and as they +had ascribed all the late innovations to Somerset’s authority, they +hoped that his fall would prepare the way for the return of the ancient +religion. But Warwick, who now bore chief sway in the council, was +entirely indifferent with regard to all these points of controversy; +and finding that the principles of the reformation had sunk deeper into +Edward’s mind than to be easily eradicated, he was determined to comply +with the young prince’s inclinations, and not to hazard his new-acquired +power by any dangerous enterprise. He took care very early to express +his intentions of supporting the reformation; and he threw such +discouragements on Southampton, who stood at the head of the Romanists, +and whom he considered as a dangerous rival, that that high-spirited +nobleman retired from the council, and soon after died from vexation +and disappointment. The other counsellors, who had concurred in the +revolution, received their reward by promotions and new honors. Russel +was created earl of Bedford: the marquis of Northampton obtained the +office of great chamberlain; and Lord Wentworth, besides the office of +chamberlain of the household, got two large manors, Stepney and Hackney, +which were torn from the see of London.[*] A council of regency was +formed; not that which Henry’s will had appointed for the government of +the kingdom, and which, being founded on an act of parliament, was the +only legal one, but composed chiefly of members who had formerly been +appointed by Somerset, and who derived their seat from an authority +which was now declared usurped and illegal. But such niceties were, +during that age, little understood, and still less regarded, in England. + +A session of parliament was held; and as it was the usual maxim of that +assembly to acquiesce in every administration which was established, the +council dreaded no opposition from that quarter, and had more reason to +look for a corroboration of their authority. Somerset had been prevailed +on to confess, on his knees, before the council, all the articles +of charge against him; and he imputed these misdemeanors to his +own rashness, folly, and indiscretion, not to any malignity of +intention.[**] He even subscribed this confession; and the paper was +given in to parliament, who, after sending a committee to examine him, +and hear him acknowledge it to be genuine, passed a vote, by which they +deprived him of all his offices, and fined him two thousand pounds a +year in land. Lord St. John was created treasurer in his place, and +Warwick earl marshal. The prosecution against him was carried no +further. His fine was remitted by the king: he recovered his liberty: +and Warwick, thinking that he was now sufficiently humbled, and that +his authority was much lessened by his late tame and abject behavior, +readmitted him into the council, and even agreed to an alliance between +their families, by the marriage of his own son, Lord Dudley, with the +Lady Jane Seymour, daughter of Somerset.[***] + + * Heylin, p. 85. Rymer, tom. xv. p. 226. + + ** Heylin, p. 84. Hayward, p. 309. Stowe, p. 603. + + *** Hayward, p. 309 * 3 and 4 Edward VI. c. 5. + +During this session, a severe law was passed against riots.[*] It was +enacted, that if any, to the number of twelve persons, should meet +together for any matter of state, and being required by a lawful +magistrate, should not disperse, it should be treason; and if any broke +hedges, or violently pulled up pales about enclosures, without lawful +authority, it should be felony: any attempt to kill a privy counsellor +was subjected to the same penalty. The bishops had made an application, +complaining that they were deprived of all their power by the +encroachments of the civil courts, and the present suspension of the +canon law; that they could summon no offender before them, punish no +vice, or exert the discipline of the church; from which diminution of +their authority, they pretended, immorality had every where received +great encouragement and increase. The design of some was to revive the +penitentiary rules of the primitive church; but others thought, that +such an authority committed to the bishops would prove more oppressive +than confession, penance, and all the clerical inventions of the Romish +superstition. The parliament, for the present, contented themselves with +empowering the king to appoint thirty-two commissioners to compile a +body of canon laws, which were to be valid, though never ratified by +parliament. Such implicit trust did they repose in the crown, without +reflecting that all their liberties and properties might be affected by +these canons.[**] The king did not live to affix the royal sanction to +the new canons. Sir John Sharington, whose crimes and malversations had +appeared so egregious at the condemnation of Lord Seymour, obtained from +parliament a reversal of his attainder. This man sought favor with +the more zealous reformers; and Bishop Latimer affirmed that, though +formerly he had been a most notorious knave, he was now so penitent that +he had become a very honest man. + + * 3 and 4 Edward VI. c. 2. + + ** 3 and 4 Edward VI. c. 13. + +{1550.} When Warwick and the council of regency began to exercise their +power, they found themselves involved in the same difficulties that had +embarrassed the protector. The wars with France and Scotland could not +be supported by an exhausted exchequer; seemed dangerous to a divided +nation; and were now acknowledged not to have any object which even the +greatest and most uninterrupted success could attain. The project of +peace entertained by Somerset had served them as a pretence for clamor +against his administration; yet, after sending Sir Thomas Cheney to +the emperor, and making again a fruitless effort to engage him in the +protection of Boulogne, they found themselves obliged to listen to the +advances which Henry made them, by the canal of Guidotti, a Florentine +merchant. The earl of Bedford, Sir John Mason, Paget, and Petre, were +sent over to Boulogne, with full powers to negotiate. The French +king absolutely refused to pay the two millions of crowns, which his +predecessor had acknowledged to be due to the crown of England as +arrears of pensions; and said, that he never would consent to render +himself tributary to any prince: but he offered a sum for the immediate +restitution of Boulogne; and four hundred thousand crowns were at +last agreed on, one half to be paid immediately, the other in August +following. Six hostages were given for the performance of this article. +Scotland was comprehended in the treaty: the English stipulated to +restore Lauder and Dunglas, and to demolish the fortresses of Roxburgh +and Eymouth.[*] No sooner was peace concluded with France, than a +project was entertained of a close alliance with that kingdom; and Henry +willingly embraced a proposal so suitable both to his interests and his +inclinations. An agreement some time after was formed for a marriage +between Edward and Elizabeth, a daughter of France; and all the articles +were, after a little negotiation, fully settled:[**] but this project +never took effect. + + * Burnet, vol. ii. p. 148. Hayward, p. 310, 811, 312. Rymer, + vol. xv. p. 211. + + ** Hayward, p. 318. Heylin, p. 104. Rymer, tom. xv. p. 293. + +The intention of marrying the king to a daughter of Henry, a violent +persecutor of the Protestants, was nowise acceptable to that party in +England: but in all other respects the council was steady in promoting +the reformation, and in enforcing the laws against the Romanists. +Several prelates were still addicted to that communion; and though they +made some compliances, in order to save their bishoprics, they retarded, +as much as they safely could, the execution of the new laws, and gave +countenance to such incumbents as were negligent or refractory. A +resolution was therefore taken to seek pretences for depriving those +prelates; and the execution of this intention was the more easy, as +they had all of them been obliged to take commissions, in which it was +declared, that they held their sees during the king’s pleasure only. It +was thought proper to begin with Gardiner, in order to strike a terror +into the rest. The method of proceeding against him was violent, and had +scarcely any color of law or justice. Injunctions had been given him to +inculcate in a sermon the duty of obedience to a king, even during his +minority; and because he had neglected this topic, he had been thrown +into prison, and had been there detained during two years, without being +accused of any crime except disobedience to this arbitrary command. The +duke of Somerset, Secretary Petre, and some others of the council, were +now sent, in order to try his temper, and endeavor to find some grounds +for depriving him: he professed to them his intention of conforming to +the government, of supporting the king’s laws, and of officiating by +the new liturgy. This was not the disposition which they expected or +desired.[*] A new deputation was therefore sent, who carried him +several articles to subscribe. He was required to acknowledge his former +misbehavior, and to confess the justice of his confinement: he was +likewise to own, that the king was supreme head of the church; that +the power of making and dispensing with holydays was part of the +prerogative; that the book of common prayer was a godly and commendable +form; that the king was a complete sovereign in his minority; that the +law of the six articles was justly repealed; and that the king had +full authority to correct and reform what was amiss in ecclesiastical +discipline, government, or doctrine. The bishop was willing to set his +hand to all the articles except the first: he maintained his conduct +to have been inoffensive; and declared, that he would not own himself +guilty of faults which he had never committed.[**] + + * Heylin, p. 99. + + ** Collier, vol. ii. p, 305., from the council books. Heylin, + p. 99. + +The council, finding that he had gone such lengths, were determined to +prevent his full compliance by multiplying the difficulties upon him, +and sending him new articles to subscribe. A list was selected of such +points as they thought would be the hardest of digestion; and, not +content with this rigor, they also insisted on his submission, and +his acknowledgment of past errors. To make this subscription more +mortifying, they demanded a promise, that he would recommend and publish +all these articles from the pulpit: but Gardiner, who saw that they +intended either to ruin or dishonor him, or perhaps both, determined not +to gratify his enemies by any further compliance: he still maintained +his innocence; desired a fair trial; and refused to subscribe more +articles till he should recover his liberty. For this pretended offence +his bishopric was put under sequestration for three months; and as he +then appeared no more compliant than before, a commission was appointed +to try, or, more properly speaking, to condemn him. + +{1551.} The commissioners were, the primate, the bishops of London, Ely, +and Lincoln, Secretary Petre, Sir James Hales, and some other lawyers. +Gardiner objected to the legality of the commission, which was +not founded on any statute or precedent; and he appealed from the +commissioners to the king. His appeal was not regarded: sentence was +pronounced against him; he was deprived of his bishopric, and committed +to close custody; his books and papers were seized; he was secluded from +all company; and it was not allowed him either to send or receive any +letters or messages.[*] + +Gardiner, as well as the other prelates, had agreed to hold his office +during the king’s pleasure: but the council, unwilling to make use of a +concession which had been so illegally and arbitrarily extorted, chose +rather to employ some forms of justice; a resolution which led them to +commit still greater iniquities and severities. But the violence of +the reformers did not stop here. Day, bishop of Chichester, Heathe of +Worcester, and Voisey of Exeter, were deprived of their bishoprics, on +pretence of disobedience. Even Kitchen of Landaff, Capon of Salisbury, +and Samson of Coventry, though they had complied in every thing, yet, +not being supposed cordial in their obedience, were obliged to seek +protection, by sacrificing the most considerable revenues of their see +to the rapacious courtiers.[**] + +These plunderers neglected not even smaller profits. An order was +issued by council for purging the library at Westminster of all missals, +legends, and other superstitious volumes, and delivering their garniture +to Sir Anthony Aucher.[***] + + * Fox, vol. ii..p. 734, et seq. Burnet. Heylin. Collier. + + ** Goodwin de Præsul. Angl Heylin. p. 100. + + *** Collier, vol. ii. p. 307. + +Many of these books were plated with gold and silver, and curiously +embossed; and this finery was probably the superstition that condemned +them. Great havoc was likewise made on the libraries at Oxford. Books +and manuscripts were destroyed without distinction: the volumes of +divinity from the council books, suffered for their rich binding: those +of literature were condemned as useless: those of geometry and astronomy +were supposed to contain nothing but necromancy.[*] The university had +not power to oppose these barbarous violences: they were in danger of +losing their own revenues; and expected every moment to be swallowed up +by the earl of Warwick and his associates. + +Though every one besides yielded to the authority of the council, the +lady Mary could never be brought to compliance; and she still continued +to adhere to the mass, and to reject the new liturgy. Her behavior was, +during some time, connived at; but at last her two chaplains, Mallet and +Berkeley, were thrown into prison;[**] and remonstrances were made to +the princess herself on account of her disobedience. The council +wrote her a letter, by which they endeavored to make her change her +sentiments, and to persuade her that her religious faith was very ill +grounded. They asked her what warrant there was in Scripture for prayers +in an unknown tongue, the use of images, or offering up the sacrament +for the dead; and they desired her to peruse St. Austin, and the other +ancient doctors, who would convince her of the errors of the Romish +superstition, and prove that it was founded merely on false miracles and +lying stories.[***] The lady Mary remained obstinate against all +this advice, and declared herself willing to endure death rather than +relinquish her religion; she only feared, she said, that she was not +worthy to suffer martyrdom in so holy a cause: and as for Protestant +books, she thanked God, that as she never had, so she hoped never to +read any of them. Dreading further violence, she endeavored to make +an escape to her kinsman Charles; but her design was discovered and +prevented.[****] The emperor remonstrated in her behalf, and even +threatened hostilities if liberty of conscience were refused her: but +though the council, sensible that the kingdom was in no condition to +support with honor such a war, was desirous to comply, they found great +difficulty to overcome the scruples of the young king. He had been +educated in such a violent abhorrence of the mass and other popish +rites, which he regarded as impious and idolatrous, that he should +participate, he thought, in the sin, if he allowed its commission: and +when at last the importunity of Cranmer, Ridley, and Poinet prevailed +somewhat over his opposition, he burst into tears; lamenting his +sister’s obstinacy, and bewailing his own hard fate, that he must suffer +her to continue in such an abominable mode of worship. + + * Wood, Hist. and Antiq. Oxon. lib. i. p. 271, 272. + + ** Strype, vol. ii. p. 249. + + *** Fox, vol. ii. Collier, Burnet. + + **** Hayward, p. 315. + +The great object, at this time, of antipathy among the Protestant +sects was Popery, or, more properly, speaking, the Papists. These they +regarded as the common enemy, who threatened every moment to overwhelm +the evangelical faith, and destroy its partisans by fire and sword: they +had not as yet had leisure to attend to the other minute differences +among themselves, which afterwards became the object of such furious +quarrels and animosities, and threw the whole kingdom into combustion. +Several Lutheran divines, who had reputation in those days, Bucer, Peter +Martyr, and others, were induced to take shelter in England, from the +persecutions which the emperor exercised in Germany; and they received +protection and encouragement. John Alasco, a Polish nobleman, being +expelled his country by the rigors of the Catholics, settled during +some time at Embden in East Friezland, where he became preacher to a +congregation of the reformed. Foreseeing the persecutions which ensued, +he removed to England, and brought his congregation along with him. The +council, who regard them as industrious, useful people, and desired to +invite over others of the same character, not only gave them the church +of Augustine Friars for the exercise of their religion, but granted them +a charter, by which they were erected into a corporation, consisting +of a superintendent and four assisting ministers. This ecclesiastical +establishment was quite independent of the church of England, and +differed from it in some rites and ceremonies.[*] + +These differences among the Protestants were matter of triumph to the +Catholics; who insisted, that the moment men departed from the authority +of the church, they lost all criterion of truth and falsehood in matters +of religion, and must be carried away by every wind of doctrine. The +continual variations of every sect of Protestants afforded them the same +topic of reasoning. The book of common prayer suffered in England a +new revisal, and some rites and ceremonies which had given offence were +omitted.[**] * Mem. Cranm. p. 234. + + ** Mem. Cieum. p, 289. + +The speculative doctrines, or the metaphysics of religion, were also +reduced to forty-two articles. These were intended to obviate further +divisions and variations; and the compiling of them had been postponed +till the establishment of the liturgy, which was justly regarded as a +more material object to the people. The eternity of hell torments +is asserted in this confession of faith; and care is also taken to +inculcate, not only that no heathen, how virtuous soever, can escape an +endless state of the most exquisite misery, but also that every one who +presumes to maintain that any pagan can possibly be saved, is himself +exposed to the penalty of eternal perdition.[*] + + * Article xviii. + +The theological zeal of the council, though seemingly fervent, went not +so far as to make them neglect their own temporal concerns, which seem +to have ever been uppermost in their thoughts: they even found leisure +to attend to the public interest; nay, to the commerce of the nation, +which was at that time very little the object of general study or +attention. The trade of England had anciently been carried on +altogether by foreigners, chiefly the inhabitants of the Hanse Towns, +or Easterlings, as they were called; and in order to encourage these +merchants to settle in England, they had been erected into a corporation +by Henry III., had obtained a patent, were endowed with privileges, +and were exempted from several heavy duties paid by other aliens. +So ignorant were the English of commerce, that this company, usually +denominated the merchants of the “stil-yard,” engrossed, even down to +the reign of Edward, almost the whole foreign trade of the kingdom; +and as they naturally employed the shipping of their own country, the +navigation of England was also in a very languishing condition. It was +therefore thought proper by the council to seek pretences for annulling +the privileges of this corporation, privileges which put them nearly on +an equal footing with Englishmen in the duties which they paid; and as +such patents were, during that age, granted by the absolute power of +the king, men were the less surprised to find them revoked by the same +authority. Several remonstrances were made against this innovation by +Lubec, Hamburgh, and other Hanse Towns; but the council persevered in +their resolution, and the good effects of it soon became visible to the +nation. The English merchants, by their very situation as natives, had +advantages above foreigners in the purchase of cloth, wool, and other +commodities; though these advantages had not hitherto been sufficient +to rouse then industry, or engage them to become rivals to this opulent +company: but when aliens’ duty was also imposed upon all foreigners +indiscriminately, the English were tempted to enter into commerce; and a +spirit of industry began to appear in the kingdom.[*] + +About the same time a treaty was made with Gustavus Ericson, king +of Sweden, by which it was stipulated, that if he sent bullion into +England, he might export English commodities without paying custom; +that he should carry bullion to no other prince; that if he sent ozimus, +steel, copper, etc., he should pay custom for English commodities as an +Englishman; and that if he sent other merchandise, he should have free +intercourse, paying custom as a stranger.[**] The bullion sent over by +Sweden, though it could not be in great quantity, set the mint to work: +good specie was coined, and much of the base metal formerly issued was +recalled: a circumstance which tended extremely to the encouragement of +commerce. + + * Hayward, p. 323 Heylin, p. 108. Strype’s Mem. vol. ii. p + 295. + + ** Heylin p 109. + +But all these schemes for promoting industry were likely to prove +abortive by the fear of domestic convulsions, arising from the ambition +of Warwick. That nobleman, not contented with the station which he had +attained, carried further his pretensions, and had gained partisans +who were disposed to second him in every enterprise. The last earl +of Northumberland died without issue; and as Sir Thomas Piercy, his +brother, had been attainted on account of the share which he had in the +Yorkshire insurrection during the late reign, the title was at present +extinct, and the estate was vested in the crown. Warwick now procured +to himself a grant of those ample possessions, which lay chiefly in the +north, the most warlike part of the kingdom; and was dignified with the +title of duke of Northumberland. His friend Paulet, Lord St. John, +the treasurer, was created, first, earl of Wiltshire, then marquis of +Winchester: Sir William Herbert obtained the title of earl of Pembroke. + +But the ambition of Northumberland made him regard all increase of +possessions and titles, either to himself or his artisans, as steps only +to further acquisitions. Finding that Somerset, though degraded from +his dignity, and even lessened in the public opinion by his spiritless +conduct, still enjoyed a considerable share of popularity, he determined +to ruin the man whom he regarded as the chief obstacle to the attainment +of his hopes. The alliance which had been contracted between the +families had produced no cordial union, and only enabled Northumberland +to compass with more certainty the destruction of his rival. He secretly +gained many of the friends and servants of that unhappy nobleman: he +sometimes terrified him by the appearance of danger; sometimes provoked +him by ill usage. The unguarded Somerset often broke out into menacing +expressions against Northumberland: at other times he formed rash +projects, which he immediately abandoned his treacherous confidants +carried to his enemy every passionate word which dropped from him: they +revealed the schemes which they themselves had first suggested: and +Northumberland, thinking that the proper season was now come, began to +act in an open manner against him. + +In one night, the duke of Somerset, Lord Grey, David and John Seymour, +Hammond, and Neudigate, two of the duke’s servants, Sir Ralph Vane, and +Sir Thomas Palmer, were arrested and committed to custody. Next day, the +duchess of Somerset, with her favorites Crane and his wife, Sir Miles +Partridge, Sir Michael Stanhope, Bannister, and others, was thrown +into prison. Sir Thomas Palmer, who had all along acted as a spy upon +Somerset, accused him of having formed a design to raise an insurrection +in the north, to attack the gens d’armes on a muster day, to secure +the Tower, and to raise a rebellion in London: but, what was the only +probable accusation, he asserted, that Somerset had once laid a project +for murdering Northumberland, Northampton, and Pembroke at a banquet +which was to be given them by Lord Paget Crane and his wife confirmed +Palmer’s testimony with regard to this last design; and it appears that +some rash scheme of that nature had really been mentioned, though no +regular conspiracy had been formed, or means prepared for its execution +Hammond confessed that the duke had armed men to guard him one night in +his house at Greenwich. + +Somerset was brought to his trial before the marquis of Winchester, +created high steward. Twenty-seven peers composed the jury, among whom +were Northumberland, Pembroke, and Northampton, whom decency should have +hindered from acting as judges in the trial of a man that appeared to be +their capital enemy. Somerset was accused of high treason, on account of +the projected insurrections, and of felony in laying a design to murder +privy counsellors. + +We have a very imperfect account of all state trials during that ago, +which is a sensible defect in our history; but it appears that some more +regularity was observed in the management of this prosecution than +had usually been employed in like cases. The witnesses were at least +examined by the privy council; and though they were neither produced in +court, nor confronted with the prisoner, (circumstances required by +the strict principles of equity,) their depositions were given in to the +jury. The proof seems to have been lame with regard to the treasonable +part of the charge; and Somerset’s defence was so satisfactory, that the +peers gave verdict in his favor: the intention alone of assaulting the +privy counsellors was supported by tolerable evidence; and the jury +brought him in guilty of felony. The prisoner himself confessed that he +had expressed his intention of murdering Northumberland and the other +lords; but had not formed any resolution on that head: and when he +received sentence, he asked pardon of those peers for the designs which +he had hearkened to against them. The people, by whom Somerset was +beloved, hearing the first part of his sentence, by which he was +acquitted from treason, expressed their joy by loud acclamations: but +their satisfaction was suddenly damped on finding that he was condemned +to death for felony.[*] + +{1552.} Care had been taken by Northumberland’s emissaries to prepossess +the young king against his uncle; and lest he should relent, no access +was given to any of Somerset’s friends, and the prince was kept from +reflection by a continued series of occupations and amusements. At last +the prisoner was brought to the scaffold on Tower Hill, amidst great +crowds of spectators, who bore him such sincere kindness, that they +entertained to the last moment the fond hopes of his pardon.[**] Many of +them rushed in to dip their hand-kerchiefs in his blood, which they +long preserved as a precious relic; and some of them soon after, when +Northumberland met with a like doom, upbraided him with this cruelty, +and displayed to him these symbols of his crime. Somerset indeed, though +many actions of his life were exceptionable, seems in general to have +merited a better fate; and the faults which he committed were owing to +weakness, not to any bad intention. His virtues were better calculated +for private than for public life; and by his want of penetration and +firmness, he was ill fitted to extricate himself from those cabals and +violences to which that age was so much addicted. Sir Thomas Arundel, +Sir Michael Stanhope, Sir Miles Partridge, and Sir Ralph Vane, all of +them Somerset’s friends, were brought to their trial, condemned, and +executed: great injustice seems to have been used in their prosecution. + + * Hayward, p. 320, 321, 322. Stowe, p. 606. Holingshed, p. + 1067. + + ** Hayward p. 324, 325. + +Lord Paget, chancellor of the duchy, was on some pretence tried in the +star chamber, and condemned in a fine of six thousand pounds, with the +loss of his office. To mortify him the more, he was degraded from the +order of the garter; as unworthy, on account of his mean birth, to share +that honor.[*] Lord Rich, chancellor, was also compelled to resign his +office, on the discovery of some marks of friendship which he had shown +to Somerset. + +The day after the execution of Somerset, a session of parliament was +held, in which further advances were made towards the establishment +of the reformation. The new liturgy was authorized; and penalties +were enacted against all those who absented themselves from public +worship.[**] To use the mass had already been prohibited under severe +penalties; so that the reformers, it appears, whatever scope they had +given to their own private judgment, in disputing the tenets of the +ancient religion, were resolved not to allow the same privilege to +others, and the practice, nay the very doctrine of toleration, was at +that time equally unknown to all sects and parties. To dissent from the +religion of the magistrate, was universally conceived to be as criminal +as to question his title, or rebel against his authority. + +A law was enacted against usury; that is, against taking any interest +for money.[***] This act was the remains of ancient superstition; but +being found extremely iniquitous in itself, as well as prejudicial to +commerce, it was afterwards repealed in the twelfth of Elizabeth. The +common rate of interest, notwithstanding the law, was at this time +fourteen per cent.[****] + + * Stowe, p. 608. + + ** 5 and 6 Edward VI. cap. 1 + + *** 5 and 6 Edward VI. cap. 20. + + **** Hayward, p. 318. + +A bill was introduced by the ministry into the house of lords, renewing +those rigorous statutes of treason which had been abrogated in the +beginning of this reign; and though the peers, by their high station, +stood most exposed to these tempests of state, yet had they so little +regard to public security, or even to their own true interest, that +they passed the bill with only one dissenting voice.[*] But the commons +rejected it, and prepared a new bill, that passed into a law, by which +it was enacted, that whoever should call the king, or any of his heirs +named in the statute of the thirty-fifth of the last reign, heretic, +schismatic, tyrant, infidel, or usurper of the crown, should forfeit, +for the first offence, their goods and chattels, and be imprisoned +during pleasure; for the second, should incur a “præmunire;” for the +third, should be attainted for treason. But if any should unadvisedly +utter such a slander in writing, printing, painting, carving, or +graving, he was, for the first offence, to be held a traitor.[**] It +may be worthy of notice, that the king and his next heir, the lady Mary, +were professedly of different religions; and religions which threw on +each other the imputation of heresy, schism, idolatry, profaneness, +blasphemy, wickedness, and all the opprobrious epithets that religious +zeal has invented. It was almost impossible, therefore, for the people, +if they spoke at all on these subjects, not to fall into the crime so +severely punished by the statute; and the jealousy of the commons for +liberty, though it led them to reject the bill of treasons sent to +them by the lords, appears not to have been very active, vigilant, or +clearsighted. + + * Parl. Hist. vol. iii. p. 258. Burnet, vol. ii. p. 190. + + ** 5 and 6 Edward VI. cap. 2. + +The commons annexed to this bill a clause, which was of more importance +than the bill itself, that no one should be convicted of any kind of +treason, unless the crime were proved by the oaths of two witnesses, +confronted with the prisoner. The lords for some time scrupled to +pass this clause, though conformable to the most obvious principles of +equity. But the members of that house trusted for protection to their +present personal interest and power, and neglected the noblest and most +permanent security, that of laws. + +The house of peers passed a bill, whose object was, making a provision +for the poor; but the commons, not choosing that a money bill should +begin in the upper house, framed a new act to the same purpose. By +this act the churchwardens were empowered to collect charitable +contributions; and if any refused to give, or dissuaded others from that +charity the bishop of the diocese was empowered to proceed against them. +Such large discretionary powers intrusted to the prelates seem as proper +an object of jealousy as the authority assumed by the peers.[*] + +There was another occasion in which the parliament reposed an unusual +confidence in the bishops. They empowered them to proceed against such +as neglected the Sundays and holy-day.[**] But these were unguarded +concessions granted to the church: the general humor of the age rather +led men to bereave the ecclesiastics of all power, and even to pillage +them of their property: many clergymen, about this time, were obliged +for a subsistence to turn carpenters or tailors, and some kept +alehouses.[***] The bishops themselves were generally reduced to +poverty, and held both their revenues and spiritual office by a very +precarious and uncertain tenure. + + * 5 and 6 Edward VI. cap. 2. + + ** 5 and 6 Edward VI. cap, 3. + + *** Burnet, vol ii. p. 202. + +Tonstal, bishop of Durham, was one of the most eminent prelates of that +age, still less for the dignity of his see, than for his own personal +merit, his learning, moderation, humanity, and beneficence. He had +opposed, by his vote and authority, all innovations in religion; but as +soon as they were enacted, he had always submitted, and had conformed to +every theological system which had been established. His known +probity had made this compliance be ascribed, not to an interested or +time-serving spirit, but to a sense of duty, which led him to think +that all private opinion ought to be sacrificed to the great concern of +public peace and tranquillity. The general regard paid to his character +had protected him from any severe treatment during the administration +of Somerset; but when Northumberland gained the ascendant, he was thrown +into prison; and as that rapacious nobleman had formed a design of +seizing the revenues of the see of Durham, and of acquiring to himself +a principality in the northern counties, he was resolved, in order +to effect his purpose, to deprive Tonstal of his bishopric. A bill +of attainder, therefore, on pretence of misprision of treason, was +introduced into the house of peers against the prelate; and it passed +with the opposition only of Lord Stourton, a zealous Catholic, and of +Cranmer, who always bore a cordial and sincere friendship to the bishop +of Durham. But when the bill was sent down to the commons, they required +that witnesses should be examined, that Tonstal should be allowed to +defend himself, and that he should be confronted with his accusers; and +when these demands were refused, they rejected the bill. + +This equity, so unusual in the parliament during that age, was ascribed, +by Northumberland and his partisans, not to any regard for liberty +and justice, but to the prevalence of Somerset’s faction in a house of +commons which, being chosen during the administration of that nobleman, +had been almost entirely filled with his creatures. They were confirmed +in this opinion, when they found that a bill, ratifying the attainder of +Somerset and his accomplices, was also rejected by the commons, though +it had passed the upper house. A resolution was therefore taken to +dissolve the parliament, which had sitten during this whole reign; and +soon after to summon a new one. + +Northumberland, in order to insure to himself a house of commons +entirely obsequious to his will, ventured on an expedient which could +not have been practised, or even imagined, in an age when there was any +idea or comprehension of liberty. He engaged the king to write circular +letters to all the sheriffs, in which he enjoined them to inform the +freeholders, that they were required to choose men of knowledge and +experience for their representatives. After this general exhortation, +the king continued in these words: “And yet, nevertheless, our pleasure +is, that where our privy council, or any of them, shall, in our behalf, +recommend within their jurisdiction men of learning and wisdom; in such +cases their directions shall be regarded and followed, as tending to the +same end which we desire; that is, to have this assembly composed of +the persons in our realm the best fitted to give advice and good +counsel.”[*] Several letters were sent from the king, recommending +members to particular counties; Sir Richard Cotton to Hampshire; Sir +William Fitzwilliams and Sir Henry Nevil to Berkshire; Sir William Drury +and Sir Henry Benningfield to Suffolk, etc. But though some counties +only received this species of congé d’élire from the king; the +recommendations from the privy council and the counsellors, we may +fairly presume, would extend to the greater part, if not the whole, of +the kingdom. + + * Strype’s Ecclesiastical Memorials, vol. ii. p. 394. + +It is remarkable, that this attempt was made during the reign of a minor +king, when the royal authority is usually weakest that it was patiently +submitted to; and that it gave so little umbrage as scarcely to be taken +notice of by any historian. The painful and laborious collector above +cited, who never omits the most trivial matter, is the only person +that has thought this memorable letter worthy of being transmitted to +posterity. + +{1553.} The parliament answered Northumberland’s expectations. As +Tonstal had been in the interval deprived of his bishopric in an +arbitrary manner, by the sentence of lay commissioners appointed to +try him, the see of Durham was, by act of parliament, divided into two +bishoprics, which had certain portions of the revenue assigned them. +The regalities of the see, which included the jurisdiction of a count +palatine, were given by the king to Northumberland; nor is it to be +doubted but that noblemen had also purposed to make rich plunder of +the revenue, as was then usual with the courtiers whenever a bishopric +became vacant. + +The commons gave the ministry another mark of attachment, which was +at that time the most sincere of any, the most cordial, and the most +difficult to be obtained: they granted a supply of two subsidies and +two fifteenths. To render this present the more acceptable, they voted +a preamble, containing a long accusation of Somerset, “for involving the +king in wars, wasting his treasure, engaging him in much debt, embasing +the coin, and giving occasion for a most terrible rebellion.”[*] + +The debts of the crown were at this time considerable. The king +had received from France four hundred thousand crowns on delivering +Boulogne; he had reaped profit from the sale of some chantry lands; the +churches had been spoiled of all their plate and rich ornaments, which, +by a decree of council, without any pretence of law or equity, had been +converted to the king’s use: [**] yet such had been the rapacity of the +courtiers, that the crown owed about three hundred thousand pounds: and +great dilapidations were at the same time made of the royal demesnes. +The young prince showed, among other virtues, a disposition to +frugality, which, had he lived, would soon have retrieved these losses; +but as his health was declining very fast, the present emptiness of the +exchequer was a sensible obstacle to the execution of those projects +which the ambition of Northumberland had founded on the prospect of +Edward’s approaching end. + + * 7 Edward VI. cap. 12., Heylin, p. 95, 132. + + ** Strype’s Ecclesiastical Memorials, vol. ii. p. 344. + +That nobleman represented to the prince, whom youth and an infirm state +of health made susceptible of any impression, that his two sisters, Mary +and Elizabeth, had both of them been declared illegitimate by act of +parliament; and though Henry by his will had restored them to a place +in the succession, the nation would never submit to see the throne of +England filled by a bastard: that they were the king’s sisters by the +half blood only; and even if they were legitimate, could not enjoy +the crown as his heirs and successors: that the queen of Scots stood +excluded by the late king’s will; and being an alien, had lost by law +all right of inheriting; not to mention that, as she was betrothed to +the dauphin, she would, by her succession, render England, as she +had already done Scotland, a province to France: that the certain +consequence of his sister Mary’s succession, or that of the queen of +Scots was the abolition of the Protestant religion, and the repeal of +the laws enacted in favor of the reformation, and the reëstabishment of +the usurpation and idolatry of the church of Rome, that, fortunately for +England, the same order of succession which justice required, was also +the most conformable to public interest; and there was not on any +side any just ground for doubt or deliberation: that when these three +princesses were excluded by such solid reasons, the succession devolved +on the marchioness of Dorset, elder daughter of the French queen and the +duke of Suffolk: that the next heir of the marchioness was the lady Jane +Gray, a lady of the most amiable character, accomplished by the best +education, both in literature and religion, and every way worthy of a +crown; and that even if her title by blood were doubtful, which there +was no just reason to pretend, the king was possessed of the same +power that his father enjoyed, and might leave her the crown by letters +patent. These reasonings made impression on the young prince; and +above all, his zealous attachment to the Protestant religion made him +apprehend the consequences if so bigoted a Catholic as his sister Mary +should succeed to the throne. And though he bore a tender affection to +the lady Elizabeth, who was liable to no such objection means were found +to persuade him that he could not exclude the one sister, on account of +illegitimacy, without giving also an exclusion to the other. + +[Illustration: 1-424-jane_grey.jpg LADY JANE GREY] + +Northumberland, finding that his arguments were likely to operate on the +king, began to prepare the other parts of his scheme. Two sons of +the duke of Suffolk by a second venter having died this season of the +sweating sickness, that title was extinct; and Northumberland engaged +the king to bestow it on the marquis of Dorset. By means of this favor, +and of others which he conferred upon him, he persuaded the new duke +of Suffolk and the duchess, to give their daughter, the lady Jane, +in marriage to his fourth son, the Lord Guildford Dudley. In order to +fortify himself by further alliances, he negotiated a marriage between +the lady Catharine Gray, second daughter of Suffolk, and Lord Herbert, +eldest son of the earl of Pembroke. He also married his own daughter to +Lord Hastings, eldest son of the earl of Huntingdon.[*] These marriages +were solemnized with great pomp and festivity; and the people, who hated +Northumberland, could not forbear expressing their indignation at seeing +such public demonstrations of joy during the languishing state of the +young prince’s health. + + * Heylin, p. 199. Stowe, p. 609. + +Edward had been seized in the foregoing year, first with the measles, +then with the small-pox; but having perfectly recovered from both these +distempers, the nation entertained hopes that they would only serve to +confirm his health; and he had afterwards made a progress through some +parts of the kingdom. It was suspected that he had there overheated +himself in exercise; he was seized with a cough, which proved obstinate, +and gave way neither to regimen nor medicines: several fatal symptoms +of consumption appeared; and though it was hoped that, as the season +advanced, his youth and temperance might get the better of the malady, +men saw with great concern his bloom and vigor insensibly decay. The +general attachment to the young prince, joined to the hatred borne the +Dudleys, made it be remarked, that Edward had every moment declined in +health, from the time that Lord Robert Dudley had been put about him in +quality of gentleman of the bedchamber. + +The languishing state of Edward’s health made Northumberland the more +intent on the execution of his project. He removed all, except his +own emissaries, from about the king; he himself attended him with the +greatest assiduity: he pretended the most anxious concern for his health +and welfare; and by all these artifices he prevailed on the young +prince to give his final consent to the settlement projected. Sir Edward +Montague, chief justice of the common pleas, Sir John Baker and Sir +Thomas Bromley, two judges, with the attorney and solicitor-general, +were summoned to the council, where, after the minutes of the intended +deed were read to them, the king required them to draw them up in the +form of letters patent. They hesitated to obey, and desired time to +consider of it. The more they reflected the greater danger they found in +compliance. The settlement of the crown by Henry VIII. had been made in +consequence of an act of parliament; and by another act, passed in the +beginning of this reign, it was declared treason in any of the heirs, +their aiders or abettors, to attempt on the right of another, or change +the order of succession. The judges pleaded these reasons before +the council. They urged, that such a patent as was intended would be +entirely invalid; that it would subject, not only the judges who drew +it, but every counsellor who signed it, to the pains of treason; and +that the only proper expedient, both for giving sanction to the new +settlement, and freeing its partisans from danger, was to summon a +parliament, and to obtain the consent of that assembly. The king said, +that he intended afterwards to follow that method, and would call a +parliament in which he purposed to have his settlement ratified; but in +the mean time he required the judges, on their allegiance, to draw the +patent in the form required. The council told the judges, that +their refusal would subject all of them to the pains of treason. +Northumberland gave to Montague the appellation of traitor; and said +that he would in his shirt fight any man in so just a cause as that of +Lady Jane’s succession. The judges were reduced to great difficulties +between the dangers from the law, and those which arose from the +violence of present power and authority.[*] + + * Fuller, book viii. p. 2. + +The arguments were canvassed in several different meetings between +the council and the judges, and no solution could be found of the +difficulties. At last, Montague proposed an expedient, which satisfied +both his brethren and the counsellors. He desired that a special +commission should be passed by the king and council, requiring the +judges to draw a patent for the new settlement of the crown; and that +a pardon should immediately after be granted them for any offence which +they might have incurred by their compliance. When the patent was drawn, +and brought to the bishop of Ely, Chancellor, in order to have the great +seal affixed to it, this prelate required that all the judges should +previously sign it. Gosnald at first refused; and it was with much +difficulty that he was prevailed on, by the violent menaces of +Northumberland to comply; but the constancy of Sir James Hales, who, +though a zealous Protestant, preferred justice on this occasion to +the prejudices of his party, could not be shaken by any expedient. The +chancellor next required, for his greater security, that all the privy +counsellors should set their hands to the patent: the intrigues of +Northumberland, or the fears of his violence, were so prevalent that the +counsellors complied with this demand. Cranmer alone hesitated during +some time, but at last yielded to the earnest and pathetic entreaties +of the king.[*] Cecil, at that time secretary of state, pretended +afterwards that he only signed as witness to the king’s subscription. +And thus, by the king’s letters patent, the two princesses, Mary and +Elizabeth, were set aside; and the crown was settled on the heirs of the +duchess of Suffolk; for the duchess herself was content to give place to +her daughters. + + * Cranm. Mem. p. 295 + +After this settlement was made, with so many inauspicious circumstances, +Edward visibly declined every day, and small hopes were entertained of +his recovery. To make matters worse, his physicians were dismissed by +Northumberland’s advice, and by an order of council; and he was put +into the hands of an ignorant woman, who undertook in a little time +to restore him to his former state of health. After the use of her +medicines, all the bad symptoms increased to the most violent degree: +he felt a difficulty of speech and breathing; his pulse failed, his legs +swelled, his color became livid, and many other symptoms appeared of his +approaching end. He expired at Greenwich, in the sixteenth year of his +age, and the seventh of his reign. + +All the English historians dwell with pleasure on the excellent +qualities of this young prince; whom the flattering promises of hope, +joined to many real virtues, had made an object of tender affection to +the public. He possessed mildness of disposition, application to study +and business, a capacity to learn and judge, and an attachment to equity +and justice. He seems only to have contracted, from his education, +and from the genius of the age in which he lived, too much of a narrow +prepossession in matters of religion, which made him incline somewhat +to bigotry and persecution: but as the bigotry of Protestants, less +governed by priests, lies under more restraints than that of Catholics, +the effects of this malignant quality were the less to be apprehended if +a longer life had been granted to young Edward. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. + +[Illustration: 1-432-mary.jpg MARY] + + + + +MARY. + +{1553.} The title of the princess Mary, after the demise of her brother, +was not exposed to any considerable difficulty; and the objections +started by the lady Jane’s partisans were new and unheard of by the +nation. Though all the Protestants, and even many of the Catholics, +believed the marriage of Henry VIII. with Catharine of Arragon to be +unlawful and invalid; yet, as it had been contracted by the parties +without any criminal intention, had been avowed by their parents, +recognized by the nation, and seemingly founded on those principles of +law and religion which then prevailed, few imagined that their issue +ought on that account to be regarded as illegitimate. A declaration +to that purpose had indeed been extorted from parliament by the usual +violence and caprice of Henry; but as that monarch had afterwards been +induced to restore his daughter to the right of succession, her title +was now become as legal and parliamentary as it was ever esteemed just +and natural. The public had long been familiarized to these sentiments: +during all the reign of Edward, the princess was regarded as his +lawful successor; and though the Protestants dreaded the effects of +her prejudices, the extreme hatred universally entertained against the +Dudleys,[*] who, men foresaw, would, under the name of Jane, be the real +sovereigns, was more than sufficient to counterbalance, even with that +party, the attachment to religion. + + * Sleidan, lib. xxv. + +This last attempt to violate the order of succession had displayed +Northumberland’s ambition and injustice in a full light; and when the +people reflected on the long train of fraud, iniquity, and cruelty, +by which that project had been conducted; that the lives of the two +Seymours, as well as the title of the princesses, had been sacrificed to +it; they were moved by indignation to exert themselves in opposition +to such criminal enterprises. The general veneration also paid to the +memory of Henry VIII. prompted the nation to defend the rights of +his posterity; and the miseries of the ancient civil wars were not +so entirely forgotten, that men were willing, by a departure from the +lawful heir, to incur the danger of like bloodshed and confusion. + +Northumberland, sensible of the opposition which he must expect, had +carefully concealed the destination made by the king; and in order to +bring the two princesses into his power, he had had the precaution to +engage the council, before Edward’s death, to write to them in that +prince’s name, desiring their attendance, on pretence that his infirm +state of health required the assistance of their counsel and the +consolation of their company.[*] Edward expired before their arrival; +but Northumberland, in order to make the princesses fall into the +snare, kept the king’s death still secret; and the lady Mary had already +reached Hoddesden, within half a day’s journey of the court. Happily, +the earl of Arundel sent her private intelligence, both of her brother’s +death, and of the conspiracy formed against her;[**] she immediately +made haste to retire; and she arrived, by quick journeys, first at +Kenning Hall in Norfolk, then at Framlingham in Suffolk; where she +purposed to embark and escape to Flanders, in case she should find it +impossible to defend her right of succession. She wrote letters to +the nobility and most considerable gentry in every county in England; +commanding them to assist her in the defence of her crown and person. +And she despatched a message to the council; by which she notified to +them, that her brother’s death was no longer a secret to her, promised +them pardon for past offences, and required them immediately to give +orders for proclaiming her in London.[***] + + * Heylin, p. 154. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 233. + + *** Fox, vol. iii, p. 14. + +Northumberland found that further dissimulation was fruitless: he +went to Sion House,[*] accompanied by the duke of Suffolk, the earl of +Pembroke, and others of the nobility; and he approached the lady Jane, +who resided there, with all the respect usually paid to the sovereign. +Jane was in a great measure ignorant of these transactions; and it +was with equal grief and surprise that she received intelligence of +them.[**] She was a lady of an amiable person, an engaging disposition, +accomplished parts; and being of an equal age with the late king, she +had received all her education with him, and seemed even to possess +greater facility in acquiring every part of manly and polite literature. +She had attained a familiar knowledge of the Roman and Greek languages, +besides modern tongues; had passed most of her time in an application to +learning; and expressed a great indifference for other occupations and +amusements usual with her sex and station. Roger Ascham, tutor to the +lady Elizabeth, having one day paid her a visit, found her employed in +reading Plato, while the rest of the family were engaged in a party of +hunting in the park; and on his admiring the singularity of her choice, +she told him, that she received more pleasure from that author than the +others could reap from all their sport and gayety.[***] Her heart, full +of this passion for literature and the elegant arts, and of tenderness +towards her husband, who was deserving of her affections, had never +opened itself to the flattering allurements of ambition; and the +intelligence of her elevation to the throne was nowise agreeable to her. +She even refused to accept of the present; pleaded the preferable title +of the two princesses; expressed her dread of the consequences attending +an enterprise so dangerous, not to say so criminal; and desired to +remain in the private station in which she was born. + + * Thuanus, lib. xiii. c. 10. + + ** Godwin in Kennet, p. 329. Heylin, p. 149. Burnet, vol. + ii. p. 234. + + *** Ascham’s Works, p. 222, 223. + +Overcome at last by the entreaties, rather than the reasons, of her +father and father-in-law, and above all of her husband, she submitted to +their will, and was prevailed on to relinquish her own judgment. It was +then usual for the kings of England, after their accession, to pass the +first days in the Tower; and Northumberland immediately conveyed thither +the new sovereign. All the counsellors were obliged to attend her to +that fortress; and by this means became, in reality, prisoners in the +hands of Northumberland, whose will they were necessitated to obey. +Orders were given by the council to proclaim Jane throughout the +kingdom; but these orders were executed only in London and the +neighborhood. No applause ensued: the people heard the proclamation with +silence and concern: some even expressed their scorn and contempt; and +one Pot, a vintner’s apprentice, was severely punished for this offence. +The Protestant teachers themselves, who were employed to convince the +people of Jane’s title, found their eloquence fruitless; and Ridley, +bishop of London, who preached a sermon to that purpose, wrought no +effect upon his audience. + +The people of Suffolk, meanwhile, paid their attendance on Mary. As they +were much attached to the reformed communion, they could not forbear, +amidst their tenders of duty, expressing apprehensions for their +religion; but when she assured them that she never meant to change the +laws of Edward, they enlisted themselves in her cause with zeal and +affection. The nobility and gentry daily flocked to her, and brought +her reënforcement. The earls of Bath and Sussex, the eldest sons of Lord +Wharton and Lord Mordaunt, Sir William Drury, Sir Henry Benningfield, +Sir Henry Jernegan, persons whose interest lay in the neighborhood, +appeared at the head of their tenants and retainers.[*] Sir Edward +Hastings, brother to the earl of Huntingdon, having received a +commission from the council to make levies for the lady Jane in +Buckinghamshire, carried over his troops, which amounted to four +thousand men, and joined Mary. Even a fleet which had been sent by +Northumberland to lie off the coast of Suffolk, being forced into +Yarmouth by a storm, was engaged to declare for that princess. + +Northumberland, hitherto blinded by ambition, saw at last the danger +gather round him, and knew not to what hand to turn himself. He had +levied forces, which were assembled at London; but dreading the cabals +of the courtiers and counsellors, whose compliance, he knew, had been +entirely the result of fear or artifice, he was resolved to keep near +the person of the lady Jane, and send Suffolk to command the army. But +the counsellors, who wished to remove him,[**] working on the filial +tenderness of Jane, magnified to her the danger to which her father +would be exposed; and represented that Northumberland, who had gained +reputation by formerly suppressing a rebellion in those parts, was more +proper to command in that enterprise. + + * Heylin, p. 160. Burnet, vol. ii. p. 237. + + ** Godwin, p. 330. Heylin, p. 159. Burnet vol. ii. p. 239. + Fox, vol. iii. p 15. + +The duke himself, who knew the slender capacity of Suffolk, began to +think that none but himself was able to encounter the present danger; +and he agreed to take on him the command of the troops. The counsellors +attended on him at his departure with the highest protestations of +attachment, and none more than Arundel, his mortal enemy.[*] As he went +along, he remarked the disaffection of the people, which foreboded a +fatal issue to his ambitious hopes. “Many,” said he to Lord Gray, “come +out to look at us, but I find not one who cries, God speed you!”[**] + +The duke had no sooner reached St. Edmondsbury, than he found his +army, which did not exceed six thousand men, too weak to encounter +the queen’s,[***] which amounted to double the number. He wrote to the +council, desiring them to send him a reënforcement; and the counsellors +immediately laid hold of the opportunity to free themselves from +confinement. They left the Tower, as if they meant to execute +Northumberland’s commands; but being assembled in Baynard’s castle, a +house belonging to Pembroke, they deliberated concerning the method +of shaking off his usurped tyranny. Arundel began the conference, +by representing the injustice and cruelty of Northumberland, the +exorbitancy of his ambition, the criminal enterprise which he had +projected, and the guilt in which he had involved the whole council; +and he affirmed, that the only method of making atonement for their past +offences, was by a speedy return to the duty which they owed to their +lawful sovereign.[****] This motion was seconded by Pembroke, who, +clapping his hand to his sword, swore he was ready to fight any man that +expressed himself of a contrary sentiment. The mayor and aldermen of +London were immediately sent for, who discovered great alacrity in +obeying the orders they received to proclaim Mary. The people expressed +their approbation by shouts of applause. Even Suffolk, who commanded in +the Tower, finding resistance fruitless, opened the gates, and declared +for the queen. The lady Jane, after the vain pageantry of wearing a +crown during ten days, returned to a private life with more satisfaction +than she felt when the royalty was tendered to her:[v] and the +messengers who were sent to Northumberland with orders to lay down his +arms, found that he had despaired of success, was deserted by all his +followers, and had already proclaimed the queen, with exterior marks +of joy and satisfaction.[v*] The people every where, on the queen’s +approach to London, gave sensible expressions of their loyalty and +attachment; and the lady Elizabeth met her at the head of a thousand +horse, which that princess had levied in order to support their joint +title against the usurper.[v**] + + * Heylin, p. 161. Baker, p. 315. Holingshed, p. 1086. + + ** Speed, p. 816. + + *** Godwin, p. 331. + + **** Godwin, p. 331, 332. Thuanus, lib. xiii. + + v Godwin, p. 332. Thuanus, lib. xiii. c. 2 + + v* Stowe, p. 612. + + v** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 240. Heylin, p. 19. Stowe, p. 613. + +The queen gave orders for taking into custody the duke of +Northumberland, who fell on his knees to the earl of Arundel, that +arrested him, and abjectly begged his life.[*] At the same time were +committed the earl of Warwick, his eldest son, Lord Ambrose and Lord +Henry Dudley, two of his younger sons, Sir Andrew Dudley, his brother, +the marquis of Northampton, the earl of Huntingdon, Sir Thomas Palmer, +and Sir John Gates. The queen afterwards confined the duke of Suffolk, +Lady Jane Gray, and Lord Guildford Dudley. But Mary was desirous, in +the beginning of her reign, to acquire popularity by the appearance of +clemency; and because the counsellors pleaded constraint as an excuse +for their treason, she extended her pardon to most of them. Suffolk +himself recovered his liberty; and he owed this indulgence, in a great +measure, to the contempt entertained of his capacity. But the guilt of +Northumberland was too great, as well as his ambition and courage too +dangerous, to permit him to entertain any reasonable hopes of life. When +brought to his trial, he only desired permission to ask two questions of +the peers appointed to sit on his jury; whether a man could be guilty +of treason that obeyed orders given him by the council under the great +seal; and whether those who were involved in the same guilt with himself +could sit as his judges. Being told that the great seal of a usurper was +no authority, and that persons not lying under any sentence of attainder +were still innocent in the eye of the law, and might be admitted on any +jury,[**] he acquiesced, and pleaded guilty. At his execution, he made +profession of the Catholic religion, and told the people that they +never would enjoy tranquillity till they returned to the faith of their +ancestors: whether that such were his real sentiments, which he had +formerly disguised from interest and ambition, or that he hoped by this +declaration to render the queen more favorable to his family.[***] Sir +Thomas Palmer and Sir John Gates suffered with him; and this was all +the blood spilled on account of so dangerous and criminal an enterprise +against the rights of the sovereign. Sentence was pronounced against +the lady Jane and Lord Guildford, but without any present intention of +putting it in execution. The youth and innocence of the persons, neither +of whom had reached their seventeenth year, pleaded sufficiently in +their favor. + + * Burnet, vol. ii. p. 239. Stowe, p. 612. Baker, p. 315. + Holingshed, p. 1088. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 243. Heylin, p. 18. Baker, p. 316. + Holingshed, p. 1089. + + *** Heylin, p. 19. Burnet. vol. iii. p. 243. Stowe, p. 614. + +When Mary first arrived in the Tower, the duke of Norfolk, who had +been detained prisoner during all the last reign, Courtney, son of the +marquis of Exeter, who, without being charged with any crime, had been +subjected to the same punishment ever since his father’s attainder; +Gardiner, Tonstal, and Bonner, who had been confined for their adhering +to the Catholic cause, appeared before her, and implored her clemency +and protection.[*] They were all of them restored to their liberty, and +immediately admitted to her confidence and favor. Norfolk’s attainder, +notwithstanding that it had passed in parliament, was represented as +null and invalid; because, among other informalities, no special matter +had been alleged against him, except wearing a coat of arms which he and +his ancestors, without giving any offence, had always made use of, +in the face of the court and of the whole nation. Courtney soon after +received the title of earl of Devonshire; and though educated in such +close confinement that he was altogether unacquainted with the world, he +soon acquired all the accomplishments of a courtier and a gentleman, and +made a considerable figure during the few years which he lived after he +recovered his liberty.[**] Besides performing all those popular acts, +which, though they only affected individuals, were very acceptable to +the nation, the queen endeavored to ingratiate herself with the public +by granting a general pardon, though with some exceptions, and by +remitting the subsidy voted to her brother by the last parliament.[***] + + * Heylin, p. 20. Stowe, p. 613. Holingshed, p. 1088. + + ** Dépêches de Noailles, vol ii. p 246, 247. + + *** Stowe, p. 616. + +The joy arising from the succession of the lawful heir, and from the +gracious demeanor of the sovereign, hindered not the people from being +agitated with great anxiety concerning the state of religion; and as +the bulk of the nation inclined to the Protestant communion, the +apprehensions entertained concerning the principles and prejudices of +the new queen were pretty general. The legitimacy of Mary’s birth had +appeared to be somewhat connected with the papal authority; and that +princess being educated with her mother, had imbibed the strongest +attachment to the Catholic communion, and the highest aversion to those +new tenets, whence, she believed, all the misfortunes of her family +had originally sprung. The discouragements which she lay under from her +father, though at last they brought her to comply with his will, tended +still more to increase her disgust to the reformers; and the vexations +which the protector and the council gave her during Edward’s reign, had +no other effect than to confirm her further in her prejudices. Naturally +of a sour and obstinate temper, and irritated by contradiction and +misfortunes, she possessed all the qualities fitted to compose a bigot; +and her extreme ignorance rendered her utterly incapable of doubt in +her own belief, or of indulgence to the opinions of others. The nation, +therefore, had great reason to dread, not only the abolition, but the +persecution of the established religion from the zeal of Mary; and it +was not long ere she discovered her intentions. + +Gardiner, Bonner, Tonstal, Day, Heath, and Vesey, were reinstated in +their sees, either by a direct act of power, or, what is nearly the +same, by the sentence of commissioners appointed to review their trial +and condemnation. Though the bishopric of Durham had been dissolved by +authority of parliament, the queen erected it anew by letters patent, +and replaced Tonstal in his regalities as well as in his revenue. +On pretence of discouraging controversy, she silenced, by an act of +prerogative, all the preachers throughout England, except such as should +obtain a particular license; and it was easy to foresee, that none but +Catholics would be favored with this privilege. Holgate, archbishop +of York, Coverdale, bishop of Exeter, Ridley of London, and Hooper of +Glocester, were thrown into prison; whither old Latimer also was sent +soon after. The zealous bishops and priests were encouraged in their +forwardness to revive the mass, though contrary to the present laws. +Judge Hales, who had discovered such constancy in defending the queen’s +title, lost all his merit by an opposition to those illegal practices; +and being committed to custody, was treated with such severity, that he +fell into frenzy, and killed himself. The men of Suffolk were browbeaten +because they presumed to plead the promise which the queen, when they +enlisted themselves in her service, had given them of maintaining the +reformed religion: one in particular was set in the pillory, because he +had been too peremptory in recalling to her memory the engagements which +she had taken on that occasion. And though the queen still promised in +a public declaration before the council, to tolerate those who differed +from her; men foresaw that this engagement, like the former, would prove +but a feeble security when set in opposition to religious prejudices. + +The merits of Cranmer towards the queen during the reign of Henry had +been considerable; and he had successfully employed his good offices +in mitigating the severe prejudices which that monarch had entertained +against her. But the active part which he had borne in promoting her +mother’s divorce, as well as in conducting the reformation, had made him +the object of her hatred; and though Gardiner had been equally forward +in soliciting and defending the divorce, he had afterwards made +sufficient atonement, by his sufferings in defence of the Catholic +cause. The primate, therefore, had reason to expect little favor during +the present reign; but it was by his own indiscreet zeal, that he +brought on himself the first violence and persecution. A report being +spread that Cranmer, in order to pay court to the queen, had promised +to officiate in the Latin service, the archbishop, to wipe off this +aspersion, published a manifesto in his own defence. Among other +expressions, he there said, that as the devil was a liar from the +beginning, and the father of lies, he had at this time stirred up his +servants to persecute Christ and his true religion: that this infernal +spirit now endeavored to restore the Latin satisfactory masses, a thing +of his own invention and device; and in order to effect his purpose, had +falsely made use of Cranmer’s name and authority: and that the mass is +not only without foundation, either in the Scriptures or in the practice +of the primitive church, but likewise discovers a plain contradiction +to antiquity and the inspired writings, and is besides replete with many +horrid blasphemies.[*] + + * Fox, vol. iii. p. 94. Heylin, p. 25. Godwin, p. 336. + Burnet Vol. ii. Coll. No. 8. Cranm. Mem. p. 305. Thuanus, + lib xiii. c. 8. + +On the publication of this inflammatory paper Cranmer was thrown into +prison, and was tried for the part which he had acted in concurring +with the lady Jane, and opposing the queen’s accession. Sentence of high +treason was pronounced against him, and though his guilt was shared with +the whole privy council and was even less than that of the greater part +of them, this sentence, however severe, must be allowed entirely legal. +The execution of it, however, did not follow; and Cranmer was reserved +for a more cruel punishment. + +Peter Martyr, seeing a persecution gathering against the reformers +desired leave to withdraw;[*] and while some zealous Catholics moved +for his commitment, Gardiner both pleaded that he had come over by +an invitation from the government, and generously furnished him with +supplies for his journey: but as bigoted zeal still increased, his +wife’s body, which had been interred at Oxford, was afterwards dug up +by public orders, and buried in a dunghill.[**] The bones of Bucer and +Fagius, two foreign reformers, were about the same time committed to the +flames at Cambridge.[***] John Alasco was first silenced, then ordered +to depart the kingdom with his congregation. The greater part of the +foreign Protestants followed him; and the nation thereby lost many +useful hands for arts and manufactures. Several English Protestants also +took shelter in foreign parts; and every thing bore a dismal aspect for +the reformation. + +During this revolution of the court, no protection was expected by +Protestants from the Parliament which was summoned to assemble. A +zealous reformer[****] pretends, that great violence and iniquity were +used in the elections; but, besides that the authority of this writer is +inconsiderable, that practice, as the necessities of government seldom +required it, had not hitherto been often employed in England. There +still remained such numbers devoted by opinion or affection to many +principles of the ancient religion, that the authority of the crown was +able to give such candidates the preference in most elections; and all +those who hesitated to comply with the court religion, rather declined +taking a seat, which, while it rendered them obnoxious to the queen, +could afterwards afford them no protection against the violence of +prerogative. It soon appeared, therefore, that a majority of the commons +would be obsequious to Mary’s designs; and as the peers were mostly +attached to the court from interest or expectations, little opposition +was expected from that quarter. + + * Heylin, p. 26. Godwin, p. 336. Cranm. Mem. p. 317. + + ** Heylin, p. 26. + + *** Saunders de Schism. Anglie. + + **** Beale. But Fox, who lived at the time, and is very + minute in his narratives, says nothing of the matter. See + vol. iii. p. 16. + +In opening the parliament, the court showed a contempt of the laws, +by celebrating, before the two houses, a mass of the Holy Ghost in the +Latin tongue, attended with all the ancient rites and ceremonies, though +abolished by act of parliament.[*] Taylor, bishop of Lincoln, having +refused to kneel at this service, was severely handled, and was +violently thrust out of the house.[**] The queen, however, still +retained the title of supreme head of the church of England; and it was +generally pretended, that the intention of the court was only to restore +religion to the same condition in which it had been left by Henry; but +that the other abuses of popery, which were the most grievous to the +nation, would never be revived. + +The first bill passed by the parliament was of a popular nature, and +abolished every species of treason not contained in the statute of +Edward III., and every species of felony that did not subsist before the +first of Henry VIII.[***] The parliament next declared the queen to be +legitimate, ratified the marriage of Henry with Catharine of Arragon, +and annulled the divorce pronounced by Cranmer,[****] whom they greatly +blamed on that account. No mention, however, is made of the pope’s +authority, as any ground of the marriage. All the statutes of King +Edward with regard to religion were repealed by one vote.[v] The +attainder of the duke of Norfolk was reversed; and this act of justice +was more reasonable than the declaring of that attainder invalid without +further authority. Many clauses of the riot act, passed in the late +reign, were revived: a step which eluded in a great measure the popular +statute enacted at the first meeting of parliament. + + * Fox, vol. iii. p. 19. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 252. + + *** Mariæ, sess. i. cap. 1. By this repeal, though it was in + general popular, the clause of 5 and 6 Edward VI. cap. 11, + was lost, which required the confronting of two witnesses in + order to prove any treason. + + **** Mariæ, sess. ii. cap. 1. + + v Mariæ, sess. ii. cap. 1. + +Notwithstanding the compliance of the two houses with the queen’s +inclinations, they had still a reserve in certain articles; and her +choice of a husband, in particular, was of such importance to national +interest, that they were determined not to submit tamely, in that +respect, to her will and pleasure. There were three marriages[*] +concerning which it was supposed that Mary had deliberated after her +accession. The first person proposed to her was Courtney, earl of +Devonshire, who, being an Englishman nearly allied to the crown, could +not fail of being acceptable to the nation; and as he was of an engaging +person and address, he had visibly gained on the queen’s affections,[**] +and hints were dropped him of her favorable dispositions towards +him.[***] But that nobleman neglected these overtures; and seemed rather +to attach himself to the lady Elizabeth, whose youth and agreeable +conversation he preferred to all the power and grandeur of her sister. +This choice occasioned a great coldness in Mary towards Devonshire; +and made her break out in a declared animosity against Elizabeth. The +ancient quarrel between their mothers had sunk deep into the malignant +heart of the queen; and after the declaration made by parliament +in favor of Catharine’s marriage, she wanted not a pretence for +representing the birth of her sister as illegitimate. The attachment of +Elizabeth to the reformed religion offended Mary’s bigotry; and as the +young princess had made some difficulty in disguising her sentiments, +violent menaces had been employed to bring her to compliance.[****] But +when the queen found that Elizabeth had obstructed her views in a point +which, perhaps, touched her still more nearly, her resentment, excited +by pride, no longer knew any bounds, and the princess was visibly +exposed to the greatest danger.[v] + +Cardinal Pole, who had never taken priest’s orders, was another party +proposed to the queen; and there appeared many reasons to induce her to +make choice of this prelate. The high character of Pole for virtue and +humanity; the great regard paid him by the Catholic church, of which he +had nearly reached the highest dignity on the death of Paul III.;[v*] +the queen’s affection for the countess of Salisbury, his mother, who +had once been her governess; the violent animosity to which he had been +exposed on account of his attachment to the Romish communion; all these +considerations had a powerful influence on Mary. But the cardinal was +now in the decline of life; and having contracted habits of study and +retirement, he was represented to her as unqualified for the bustle of a +court and the hurry of business.[v**] + + * Thuan. lib. ii. cap. 3. + + ** Dépêches de Noailles, vol. ii. p. 147, 163, 214, 215; + vol. iii. p. 27. + + *** Godwin, p. 339. + + **** Dep. de Noailles, vol. ii. passim. + + v Heylin, p. 31. Burnet, vol. ii. p, 255. + + v* Father Paul, book iii. + + v** Heylin, p. 31. + +The queen, therefore, dropped all thoughts of that alliance: but as +she entertained a great regard for Pole’s wisdom and virtue, she still +intended to reap the benefit of his counsel in the administration of her +government. She secretly entered into a negotiation with Commendone, an +agent of Cardinal Dandino, legate at Brussels; she sent assurances to +the pope, then Julius III, of her earnest desire to reconcile herself +and her kingdoms to the holy see; and she desired that Pole might be +appointed legate for the performance of that pious office.[*] + +These two marriages being rejected, the queen cast her eye towards the +emperor’s family, from which her mother was descended, and which, during +her own distresses, had always afforded her countenance and protection. +Charles V., who a few years before was almost absolute master of +Germany, had exercised his power in such an arbitrary manner, that he +gave extreme disgust to the nation, who apprehended the total extinction +of their liberties from the encroachments of that monarch.[**] Religion +had served him as a pretence for his usurpations; and from the same +principle he met with that opposition which overthrew his grandeur, and +dashed all his ambitious hopes. Maurice, elector of Saxony, enraged that +the landgrave of Hesse, who, by his advice, and on his assurances, had +put himself into the emperor’s hands, should be unjustly detained a +prisoner, formed a secret conspiracy among the Protestant princes; and, +covering his intentions with the most artful disguises, he suddenly +marched his forces against Charles, and narrowly missed becoming master +of his person. + + * Burnet, vol ii. p. 258. + + ** Thuanus. lib. iv. c. 17. + +The Protestants flew to arms in every quarter; and their insurrection, +aided by an invasion from France, reduced the emperor to such +difficulties, that he was obliged to submit to terms of peace which +insured the independency of Germany. To retrieve his honor, he made an +attack on France; and laying siege to Metz with an army of a hundred +thousand men, he conducted the enterprise in person, and seemed +determined, at all hazards, to succeed in an undertaking which had fixed +the attention of Europe. But the duke of Guise, who defended Metz with +a garrison composed of the bravest nobility of France, exerted such +vigilance, conduct, and valor, that the siege was protracted to the +depth of winter; and the emperor found it dangerous to persevere any +longer. He retired with the remains of his army into the Low Countries, +much dejected with that reverse of fortune which in his declining years, +had so fatally overtaken him. + +No sooner did Charles hear of the death of Edward, and the accession of +his kinswoman Mary to the crown of England, than he formed the scheme of +acquiring that kingdom to his family; and he hoped by this incident to +balance all the losses which he had sustained in Germany. His son Philip +was a widower; and though he was only twenty-seven years of age, eleven +years younger than the queen, this objection, it was thought, would be +overlooked, and there was no reason to despair of her still having a +numerous issue. The emperor, therefore, immediately sent over an agent +to signify his intentions to Mary; who, pleased with the support of so +powerful an alliance, and glad to unite herself more closely with +her mother’s family, to which she was ever strongly attached, readily +embraced the proposal. Norfolk, Arundel, and Paget, gave their advice +for the match: and Gardiner, who was become prime minister, and who +had been promoted to the office of chancellor, finding how Mary’s +inclinations lay, seconded the project of the Spanish alliance. At the +same time he represented, both to her and the emperor, the necessity of +stopping all further innovations in religion, till the completion of the +marriage. He observed, that the parliament amidst all their compliances +had discovered evident symptoms of jealousy, and seemed at present +determined to grant no further concessions in favor of the Catholic +religion: that though they might make a sacrifice to their sovereign of +some speculative principles which they did not well comprehend, or of +some rites which seemed not of any great moment, they had imbibed such +strong prejudices against the pretended usurpations and exactions of the +court of Rome, that they would with great difficulty be again brought +to submit to its authority: that the danger of resuming the abbey lands +would alarm the nobility and gentry, and induce them to encourage the +prepossessions, which were but too general among the people, against the +doctrine and worship of the Catholic church: that much pains had been +taken to prejudice the nation against the Spanish alliance; and if that +point were urged at the same time with further changes in religion, it +would hazard a general revolt and insurrection: that the marriage being +once completed would give authority to the queen’s measures, and enable +her afterwards to forward the pious work in which she was engaged: and +that it was even necessary previously to reconcile the people to +the marriage, by rendering the conditions extremely favorable to the +English, and such as would seem to insure to them their independency, +and the entire possession of their ancient laws and privileges.[*] + +The emperor, well acquainted with the prudence and experience of +Gardiner, assented to all these reasons, and he endeavored to temper the +zeal of Mary, by representing the necessity of proceeding gradually in +the great work of converting the nation. Hearing that Cardinal Pole, +more sincere in his religious opinions, and less guided by the maxims +of human policy, after having sent contrary advice to the queen, had +set out on his journey to England, where he was to exercise his legatine +commission, he thought proper to stop him at Dillinghen, a town on the +Danube; and he afterwards obtained Mary’s consent for this detention. +The negotiation for the marriage meanwhile proceeded apace; and Mary’s +intentions of espousing Philip became generally known to the nation. +The commons, who hoped that they had gained the queen by the concessions +which they had already made, were alarmed to hear that she was resolved +to contract a foreign alliance; and they sent a committee to remonstrate +in strong terms against that dangerous measure. To prevent further +applications of the same kind, she thought proper to dissolve the +parliament. + +A convocation had been summoned at the same time with the parliament; +and the majority here also appeared to be of the court religion. An +offer was very frankly made by the Romanists, to dispute concerning +the points controverted between the two communions; and as +transubstantiation was the article which of all others they deemed the +clearest, and founded on the most irresistible arguments, they chose to +try their strength by defending it. The Protestants pushed the dispute +as far as the clamor and noise of their antagonists would permit; and +they fondly imagined that they had obtained some advantage, when, in the +course of the debate, they obliged the Catholics to avow that, according +to their doctrine, Christ had in his last supper held himself in his +hand, and had swallowed and eaten himself.[**] + + * Burnet, vol. ii. p. 261. + + ** Collier, vol. ii. p. 356. + +This triumph, however, was confined only to their own party: the +Romanists maintained, that their champions had clearly the better of +the day, that their adversaries were blind and obstinate heretics; that +nothing but the most extreme depravity of heart could induce men to +contest such self-evident principles; and that the severest punishments +were due to their perverse wickedness. So pleased were they with their +superiority in this favorite point, that they soon after renewed the +dispute at Oxford; and, to show that they feared no force of learning or +abilities, where reason was so evident on their side, they sent thither +Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, under a guard, to try whether these +renowned controversialists could find any appearance of argument to +defend their baffled principles.[*] The issue of the debate was very +different from what it appeared to be a few years before, in a famous +conference held at the same place during the reign of Edward. + +{1554.} After the parliament and convocation were dismissed, the new +laws with regard to religion, though they had been anticipated in most +places by the zeal of the Catholics, countenanced by government, +were still more openly put in execution: the mass was every where +reëstablished; and marriage was declared to be incompatible with any +spiritual office. It has been asserted by some writers, that three +fourths of the clergy were at this time deprived of their livings; +though other historians, more accurate,[**] have estimated the number +of sufferers to be far short of this proportion. A visitation was +appointed, in order to restore more perfectly the mass and the ancient +rites. Among other articles, the commissioners were enjoined to forbid +the oath of supremacy to be taken by the clergy on their receiving any +benefice.[***] It is to be observed, that this oath had been established +by the laws of Henry VIII., which were still in force. + + * Mem. Cranm. p. 354. Heylin, p. 50. + + ** Harmer, p. 138. + + *** Collier, vol. ii. p. 364. Fox, vol. iii. p. 38. Heylin, + p. 35. Sleiden, lib. xxv. + +This violent and sudden change of religion inspired the Protestants with +great discontent; and even affected indifferent spectators with concern, +by the hardships to which so many individuals were on that account +exposed. But the Spanish match was a point of more general concern, and +diffused universal apprehension for the liberty and independence of the +nation. To obviate all clamor, the articles of marriage were drawn as +favorable as possible for the interests and security, and even grandeur +of England. It was agreed, that though Philip should have the title +of king, the administration should be entirely in the queen; that no +foreigner should be capable of enjoying any office in the kingdom; +that no innovation should be made in the English laws, customs, and +privileges; that Philip should not carry the queen abroad without her +consent, nor any of her children without the consent of the nobility; +that sixty thousand pounds a year should be settled as her jointure; +that the male issue of this marriage should inherit, together with +England, both Burgundy and the Low Countries; and that if Don Carlos, +Philip’s son by his former marriage, should die, and his line be +extinct, the queen’s issue, whether male or female, should inherit +Spain, Sicily, Milan, and all the other dominions of Philip.[*] Such +was the treaty of marriage signed by Count Egmont and three other +ambassadors, sent over to England by the emperor.[**] + +These articles, when published, gave no satisfaction to the nation. It +was universally said, that the emperor, in order to get possession of +England, would verbally agree to any terms and the greater advantage +there appeared in the conditions which he granted, the more certainly +might it be concluded that he had no serious intention of observing +them: that the usual fraud and ambition of that monarch might assure the +nation of such a conduct: and his son Philip, while he inherited these +vices from his father, added to them tyranny, sullenness, pride, and +barbarity, more dangerous vices of his own: that England would become a +province, and a province to a kingdom which usually exercised the +most violent authority over all her dependent dominions: that the +Netherlands, Milan, Sicily, Naples, groaned under the burden of Spanish +tyranny; and throughout all the new conquests in America there had been +displayed scenes of unrelenting cruelty, hitherto unknown in the +history of mankind: that the inquisition was a tribunal invented by that +tyrannical nation, and would infallibly, with all their other laws +and institutions, be introduced into England; and that the divided +sentiments of the people with regard to religion would subject +multitudes to this iniquitous tribunal, and would reduce the whole +nation to the most abject servitude.[***] + + * Rymer, vol. xv. p. 377. + + ** Dépêches de Noailles, vol. ii. p. 299. + + *** Heylin p. 32. Burnet, vol. ii. p. 268. Godwin, p. 339. + +These complaints being diffused every where, prepared the people for a +rebellion; and had any foreign power given them encouragement, or any +great man appeared to head them, the consequence might have proved fatal +to the queen’s authority. But the king of France, though engaged in +hostilities with the emperor, refused to concur in any proposal for an +insurrection, lest he should afford Mary a pretence for declaring war +against him.[*] And the more prudent part of the nobility thought that, +as the evils of the Spanish alliance were only dreaded at a distance, +matters were not yet fully prepared for a general revolt. Some persons, +however, more turbulent than the rest, believed that it would be safer +to prevent than to redress grievances; and they formed a conspiracy to +rise in arms, and declare against the queen’s marriage with Philip. Sir +Thomas Wiat purposed to raise Kent; Sir Peter Carew, Devonshire; and +they engaged the duke of Suffolk, by the hopes of recovering the crown +for the lady Jane, to attempt raising the midland counties.[**] Carew’s +impatience or apprehensions engaged him to break the concert, and to +rise in arms before the day appointed. He was soon suppressed by +the earl of Bedford, and constrained to fly into France. On this +intelligence, Suffolk, dreading an arrest, suddenly left the town with +his brothers, Lord Thomas and Lord Leonard Gray, and endeavored to raise +the people in the counties of Warwick and Leicester, where his interest +lay; but he was so closely pursued by the earl of Huntingdon, at +the head of three hundred horse, that he was obliged to disperse his +followers, and being discovered in his concealment, he was carried +prisoner to London.[***] + + * Dépêches de Noailles, vol. ii. p. 249; vol. iii. p. 17, + 58. + + ** Heylin, p. 33. Godwin, p. 340. + + *** Fox, vol. iii. p. 30. + +Wiat was at first more successful in his attempt; and having published a +declaration, at Maidstone in Kent, against the queen’s evil counsellors, +and against the Spanish match, without any mention of religion, the +people began to flock to his standard. The duke of Norfolk, with Sir +Henry Jernegan, was sent against him, at the head of the guards and some +other troops, reënforced with five hundred Londoners commanded by Bret: +and he came within sight of the rebels at Rochester, where they had +fixed their head-quarters. Sir George Harper here pretended to desert +from them; but having secretly gained Bret, these two malecontents so +wrought on the Londoners, that the whole body deserted to Wiat, and +declared that they would not contribute to enslave their native country. +Norfolk, dreading the contagion of the example, immediately retreated +with his troops, and took shelter in the city.[*] + +After this proof of the disposition of the people, especially of the +Londoners, who were mostly Protestants, Wiat was encouraged to proceed; +he led his forces to Southwark, where he required of the queen that she +should put the Tower into his hands, should deliver four counsellors +as hostages, and in order to insure the liberty of the nation, should +immediately marry an Englishman. Finding that the bridge was secured +against him, and that the city was overawed, he marched up to Kingston, +where he passed the river with four thousand men; and returning towards +London, hoped to encourage his partisans who had engaged to declare for +him. He had imprudently wasted so much time at Southwark, and in his +march from Kingston, that the critical season, on which all popular +commotions depend, was entirely lost: though he entered Westminster +without resistance, his followers, finding that no person of note joined +him, insensibly fell off, and he was at last seized near Temple Bar by +Sir Maurice Berkeley.[**] Four hundred persons are said to have suffered +for this rebellion:[***] four hundred more were conducted before the +queen with ropes about their necks: and falling on their knees, received +a pardon, and were dismissed. Wiat was condemned and executed: as it +had been reported that, on his examination, he had accused the lady +Elizabeth and the earl of Devonshire as accomplices, he took care, on +the scaffold, before the whole people, fully to acquit them of having +any share in his rebellion. + + * Heylin, p. 33. Godwin, p. 341. Stowe, p. 619. Baker, p. + 318. Holingshed, p. 1094. + + ** Fox, vol. iii. p. 31. Heylin, p. 34. Burnet, vol. ii. p. + 270. Stowe, p. 621. + + *** Dépêches de Noailles, vol. iii. p. 124. + +The lady Elizabeth had been, during some time, treated with great +harshness by her sister; and many studied instances of discouragement +and disrespect had been practised against her. She was ordered to take +place at court after the countess of Lenox and the duchess of Suffolk, +as if she were not legitimate:[*] her friends were discountenanced on +every occasion: and while her virtues, which were now become eminent, +drew to her the attendance of all the young nobility, and rendered +her the favorite of the nation;[**] the malevolence of the queen still +discovered itself every day by fresh symptoms, and obliged the princess +to retire into the country. Mary seized the opportunity of this +rebellion; and hoping to involve her sister in some appearance of guilt, +sent for her under a strong guard, committed her to the Tower, and +ordered her to be strictly examined by the council. But the public +declaration made by Wiat rendered it impracticable to employ against her +any false evidence which might have offered; and the princess made +so good a defence, that the queen found herself under a necessity of +releasing her.[***] In order to send her out of the kingdom, a marriage +was offered her with the duke of Savoy; and when she declined the +proposal, she was committed to custody under a strong guard at +Wodestoke.[****] The earl of Devonshire, though equally innocent, was +confined in Fotheringay Castle. + +But this rebellion proved still more fatal to the lady Jane Gray, as +well as to her husband: the duke of Suffolk’s guilt was imputed to her; +and though the rebels and malecontents seemed chiefly to rest their +hopes on the lady Elizabeth and the earl of Devonshire, the queen, +incapable of generosity or clemency, determined to remove every person +from whom the least danger could be apprehended. Warning was given the +lady Jane to prepare for death; a doom which she had long expected, and +which the innocence of her life, as well as the misfortunes to which she +had been exposed, rendered nowise unwelcome to her. The queen’s zeal, +under color of tender mercy to the prisoner’s soul, induced her to +send divines, who harassed her with perpetual disputation; and even +a reprieve for three days was granted her, in hopes that she would be +persuaded during that time to pay, by a timely conversion, some regard +to her eternal welfare. The lady Jane had presence of mind, in those +melancholy circumstances, not only to defend her religion by all the +topics then in use, but also to write a letter to her sister[v] in the +Greek language; in which, besides sending her a copy of the Scriptures +in that tongue, she exhorted her to maintain, in every fortune, a like +steady perseverance. + + * Dépêches de Noailles, vol. ii. p. 273, 288. + + ** Dépêches de Noailles, vol. iii. p. 273. + + *** Godwin, p. 343. Burnet, vol. ii. p. 273. Fox, vol. ii. + p. 99, 105. Strype’s Mem. vol. iii. p. 85. + + **** Dépêches de Noailles, vol. iii. p. 226. + + v Fox vol. iii. p. 35. Heylin, p. 166. + +On the day of her execution, her husband, Lord Guildford, desired +permission to see her; but she refused her consent, and informed him +by a message, that the tenderness of their parting would overcome the +fortitude of both, and would too much unbend their minds from +that constancy which their approaching end required of them: their +separation, she said, would be only for a moment; and they would soon +rejoin each other in a scene where their affections would be forever +united, and where death, disappointment, and misfortunes, could no +longer have access to them, or disturb their eternal felicity.[*] + +It had been intended to execute the lady Jane and Lord Guildford +together on the same scaffold at Tower Hill; but the council, dreading +the compassion of the people for their youth, beauty, innocence, and +noble birth, changed their orders, and gave directions that she should +be beheaded within the verge of the Tower. She saw her husband led +to execution; and having given him from the window some token of her +remembrance, she waited with tranquillity till her own appointed hour +should bring her to a like fate. She even saw his headless body carried +back in a cart; and found herself more confirmed by the reports which +she heard of the constancy of his end, than shaken by so tender and +melancholy a spectacle. Sir John Gage, constable of the Tower, when he +led her to execution, desired her to bestow on him some small present, +which he might keep as a perpetual memorial of her: she gave him her +table-book, on which she had just written three sentences on seeing +her husband’s dead body; one in Greek, another in Latin, a third in +English.[**] The purport of them was, that human justice was against his +body, but divine mercy would be favorable to his soul; that if her fault +deserved punishment, her youth at least, and her imprudence, were worthy +of excuse; and that God and posterity, she trusted, would show her +favor. + + * Heylin, p. 167. Baker p. 319. + + ** Heylin, p. 167. + +On the scaffold she made a speech to the bystanders; in which the +mildness of her disposition led her to take the blame wholly on herself, +without uttering one complaint against the severity with which she had +been treated. She said, that her offence was not the having laid her +hand upon the crown, but the not rejecting it with sufficient constancy; +that she had less erred through ambition than through reverence to +her parents, whom she had been taught to respect and obey: that she +willingly received death, as the only satisfaction which she could now +make to the injured state; and though her infringement of the laws had +been constrained, she would show, by her voluntary submission to their +sentence, that she was desirous to atone for that disobedience into +which too much filial piety had betrayed her: that she had justly +deserved this punishment for being made the instrument, though the +unwilling instrument, of the ambition of others; and that the story of +her life, she hoped, might at least be useful, by proving that innocence +excuses not great misdeeds, if they tend anywise to the destruction of +the commonwealth. After uttering these words, she caused herself to be +disrobed by her women; and with a steady serene countenance submitted +herself to the executioner.[*] + +The duke of Suffolk was tried, condemned, and executed soon after; and +would have met with more compassion, had not his temerity been the cause +of his daughter’s untimely end. Lord Thomas Gray lost his life for the +same crime. Sir Nicholas Throgmorton was tried in Guildhall; but there +appearing no satisfactory evidence against him, he was able, by making +an admirable defence, to obtain a verdict of the jury in his favor. The +queen was so enraged at this disappointment, that, instead of releasing +him as the law required, she recommitted him to the Tower, and kept him +in close confinement during some time. But her resentment stopped not +here: the jury, being summoned before the council, were all sent to +prison, and afterwards fined, some of them a thousand pounds, others two +thousand apiece.[**] This violence proved fatal to several; among others +to Sir John Throgmorton, brother to Sir Nicholas, who was condemned on +no better evidence, than had formerly been rejected. The queen filled +the Tower and all the prisons with nobility and gentry, whom their +interest with the nation, rather than any appearance of guilt, had +made the objects of her suspicion; and finding that she was universally +hated, she determined to disable the people from resistance, by ordering +general musters, and directing the commissioners to seize their arms, +and lay them up in forts and castles.[***] + + * Heylin, p. 167. Fox, vol iii. p. 36, 37. Holingshed, p. + 1099. + + ** Fox, vol. iii. p. 99. Stowe, p. 624. Baker, p. 320. + Holingshed, p. 1104, 1121. Strype, vol. iii. p. 120. Dép. de + Noailles, vol. iii. p. 173. + + *** Dép. de Noailles, vol. iii p. 98. + +Though the government labored under so general an odium, the queen’s +authority had received such an increase from the suppression of Wiat’s +rebellion, that the ministry hoped to find a compliant disposition in +the new parliament which was summoned to assemble. The emperor also, in +order to facilitate the same end, had borrowed no less a sum than +four hundred thousand crowns, which he had sent over to England to +be distributed in bribes and pensions among the members: a pernicious +practice, of which there had not hitherto been any instance in England. +And not to give the public any alarm with regard to the church lands, +the queen, notwithstanding her bigotry, resumed her title of supreme +head of the church, which she had dropped three months before. Gardiner, +the chancellor, opened the session by a speech; in which he asserted the +queen’s hereditary title to the crown; maintained her right of choosing +a husband for herself; observed how proper a use she had made of that +right, by giving the preference to an old ally, descended from the house +of Burgundy; and remarked the failure of Henry VIII.’s posterity, of +whom there now remained none but the queen and the lady Elizabeth. He +added, that, in order to obviate the inconveniencies which might arise +from different pretenders, it was necessary to invest the queen, by law, +with a power of disposing of the crown, and of appointing her successor: +a power, he said, which was not to be thought unprecedented in England, +since it had formerly been conferred on Henry VIII.[*] + + * Dépêches de Noailles. + +The parliament was much disposed to gratify the queen in all her +desires; but when the liberty, independency, and very being of the +nation were in such visible danger, they could not by any means be +brought to compliance. They knew both the inveterate hatred which she +bore to the lady Elizabeth, and her devoted attachment to the house of +Austria: they were acquainted with her extreme bigotry, which would lead +her to postpone all considerations of justice or national interest to +the establishment of the Catholic religion: they remarked, that +Gardiner had carefully avoided in his speech the giving to Elizabeth +the appellation of the queen’s sister; and they thence concluded that a +design was formed of excluding her as illegitimate: they expected that +Mary, if invested with such a power as she required, would make a will +in her husband’s favor, and thereby render England forever a province +to the Spanish monarchy; and they were the more alarmed with these +projects, as they heard that Philip’s descent from the house of +Lancaster was carefully insisted on, and that he was publicly +represented as the true and only heir by right of inheritance. + +The parliament, therefore, aware of their danger, were determined to +keep at a distance from the precipice which lay before them. They could +not avoid ratifying the articles of marriage,[*] which were drawn very +favorable for England; but they declined the passing of any such law as +the chancellor pointed out to them: they would not so much as declare it +treason to imagine or attempt the death of the queen’s husband while she +was alive; and a bill introduced for that purpose was laid aside after +the first reading. The more effectually to cut off Philip’s hopes of +possessing any authority in England, they passed a law in which they +declared, “that her majesty, as their only queen, should solely, and as +a sole queen, enjoy the crown and sovereignty of her realms, with all +the preëminences, dignities, and rights thereto belonging, in as large +and ample a manner after her marriage as before, without any title or +claim accruing to the prince of Spain, either as tenant by courtesy of +the realm, or by any other means.”[**] + +A law passed in this parliament for reërecting the bishopric of Durham, +which had been dissolved by the last parliament of Edward.[***] +The queen had already, by an exertion of her power, put Tonstal in +possession of that see: but though it was usual at that time for the +crown to assume authority which might seem entirely legislative, it +was always deemed more safe and satisfactory to procure the sanction +of parliament. Bills were introduced for suppressing heterodox opinions +contained in books, and for reviving the law of the six articles, +together with those against the Lollards, and against heresy and +erroneous preaching; but none of these laws could pass the two houses: +a proof that the parliament had reserves even in their concessions with +regard to religion; about which they seem to have been less scrupulous. +The queen, therefore, finding that they would not serve all her +purposes, finished the session by dissolving them. + + * I Mar. Parl. 2, cap. 2. + + ** I Mar. Parl. 2. cap. 1. + + *** I Mar. Parl. 2, cap. 3. + +Mary’s thoughts were now entirely employed about receiving Don Philip, +whose arrival she hourly expected. This princess, who had lived so many +years in a very reserved and private manner, without any prospect or +hopes of a husband, was so smitten with affection for her young consort, +whom she had never seen, that she waited with the utmost impatience for +the completion of the marriage; and every obstacle was to her a source +of anxiety and discontent.[*] She complained of Philip’s delays as +affected; and she could not conceal her vexation, that, though she +brought him a kingdom as her dowry, he treated her with such neglect +that he had never yet favored her with a single letter.[**] Her fondness +was but the more increased by this supercilious treatment; and when she +found that her subjects had entertained the greatest aversion for the +event to which she directed her fondest wishes, she made the whole +English nation the object of her resentment. A squadron, under the +command of Lord Effingham, had been fitted out to convoy Philip from +Spain, where he then resided; but the admiral informing her that the +discontents ran very high among the seamen, and that it was not safe +for Philip to intrust himself in their hands, she gave orders to dismiss +them.[***] She then dreaded lest the French fleet, being masters of the +sea, might intercept her husband; and every rumor of danger, every blast +of wind, threw her into panics and convulsions. Her health, and even her +understanding, were visibly hurt by this extreme impatience; and she +was struck with a new apprehension lest her person, impaired by time and +blasted by sickness, should prove disagreeable to her future consort. +Her glass discovered to her how haggard she was become; and when she +remarked the decay of her beauty, she knew not whether she ought more to +desire or apprehend the arrival of Philip.[****] + + * Strype, vol. iii. p. 125. + + ** Dépêches de Noailles, vol. iii. p. 248. + + *** Dépêches de Noailles, vol. iii. p. 220. + + **** Dépêches de Noailles, vol. iii. p. 222, 252, 253. + +At last came the moment so impatiently expected; and news was brought +the queen of Philip’s arrival at Southampton.[*] A few days after +they were married in Westminster; and having made a pompous entry into +London, where Philip displayed his wealth with great ostentation, she +carried him to Windsor, the palace in which they afterwards resided. The +prince’s behavior was ill calculated to remove the prejudices which the +English nation had entertained against him. He was distant and +reserved in his address; took no notice of the salutes even of the most +considerable noblemen; and so intrenched himself in form and ceremony +that he was in a manner inaccessible:[**] but this circumstance rendered +him the more acceptable to the queen, who desired to have no company but +her husband’s, and who was impatient when she met with any interruption +to her fondness. The shortest absence gave her vexation; and, when he +showed civilities to any other woman, she could not conceal her jealousy +and resentment. + +Mary soon found that Philip’s ruling passion was ambition, and that the +only method of gratifying him and securing his affections was to render +him master of England. The interest and liberty of her people were +considerations of small moment in comparison of her obtaining this +favorite point. She summoned a new parliament, in hopes of finding them +entirely compliant; and, that she might acquire the greater authority +over them, she imitated the precedent of the former reign, and wrote +circular letters, directing a proper choice of members.[***] The zeal of +the Catholics, the influence of Spanish gold, the powers of prerogative, +the discouragement of the gentry, particularly of the Protestants; all +these causes, seconding the intrigues of Gardiner, had procured her a +house of commons which was in a great measure to her satisfaction; and +it was thought, from the disposition of the nation, that she might now +safely omit, on her assembling the parliament, the title of “supreme +head of the church,” though inseparably annexed by law to the crown +of England.[****] Cardinal Pole had arrived in Flanders, invested with +legatine powers from the pope: in order to prepare the way for his +arrival in England, the parliament passed an act reversing his attainder +and restoring his blood; and the queen, dispensing with the old statute +of provisors, granted him permission to act as legate. The cardinal came +over, and, after being introduced to the king and queen, he invited the +parliament to reconcile themselves and the kingdom to the apostolic see, +from which they had been so long and so unhappily divided. + + * Fox, vol. iii. p. 99. Heylin, p. 39. Burnet, vol. iii. p. + 392. Godwin, p. 345. We are told by Sir William Monson, p. + 225, that the admiral of England fired at the Spanish navy + when Philip was on board, because they had not lowered their + topsails, as a mark of deference, to the English navy in the + narrow seas: a very spirited behavior, and very unlike those + times. + + ** Baker, p. 320. + + *** Mem. of Cranm. p. 344. Strype’s Eccl. Mem., vol. iii. p. + 154, 155*[**missing period] + + **** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 291. Strype, vol. iii. p. 155. + +This message was taken in good part; and both houses voted an address +to Philip and Mary, acknowledging that they had been guilty of a most +horrible defection from the true church; professing a sincere repentance +of their past transgressions; declaring their resolution to repeal +all laws enacted in prejudice of the church of Rome; and praying their +majesties, that, since they were happily uninfected with that criminal +schism, they would intercede with the holy father for the absolution +and forgiveness of their penitent subjects.[*] The request was easily +granted. The legate, in the name of his holiness, gave the parliament +and kingdom absolution, freed them from all censures, and received them +again into the bosom of the church. The pope, then Julius III., being +informed of these transactions, said that it was an unexampled instance +of his felicity to receive thanks from the English for allowing them to +do what he ought to give them thanks for performing.[**] + +Notwithstanding the extreme zeal of those times for and against popery, +the object always uppermost with the nobility and gentry was their money +and estates: they were not brought to make these concessions in favor of +Rome till they had received repeated assurances, from the pope as well +as the queen, that the plunder which they had made on the ecclesiastics +should never be inquired into; and that the abbey and church lands +should remain with the present possessors.[***] But not trusting +altogether to these promises, the parliament took care, in the law +itself[****] by which they repealed the former statutes enacted against +the pope’s authority, to insert a clause, in which, besides bestowing +validity on all marriages celebrated during the schism, and fixing +the right of incumbents to their benefices, they gave security to +the possessors of church lands, and freed them from all danger of +ecclesiastical censures. The convocation also, in order to remove +apprehensions on that head, were induced to present a petition to the +same purpose;[v] and the legate, in his master’s name, ratified all +these transactions. It now appeared that, notwithstanding the efforts of +the queen and king, the power of the papacy was effectually suppressed +in England, and invincible barriers fixed against its reëstablishment. +For though the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastics was for the present +restored, their property, on which their power much depended, was +irretrievably lost, and no hopes remained of recovering it. + + * Fox, vol. iii. p. 3. Heylin, p. 42. Burnet, vol. ii. p. + 293. Godwin, p. 247. + + ** Father Paul, lib. iv. + + *** Heylin, p. 41. + + **** I and 2 Phil. and Mar. c. 8. + + v Heylin, p. 43. I and 2 Phil, and Mar. c. 8. Strype, + vol. iii. p. 159. + +Even these arbitrary, powerful, and bigoted princes, while the +transactions were yet recent, could not regain to the church her +possessions so lately ravished from her; and no expedients were left to +the clergy for enriching themselves but those which they had at first +practised, and which had required many ages of ignorance, barbarism, and +superstition to produce their effect on mankind.[*] [21] + +The parliament, having secured their own possessions, were more +indifferent with regard to religion, or even to the lives of their +fellow-citizens: they revived the old sanguinary laws against +heretics,[**] which had been rejected in the former parliament: they +also enacted several statutes against seditious words and rumors;[***] +and they made it treason to imagine or attempt the death of Philip +during his marriage with the queen.[****] Each parliament hitherto had +been induced to go a step farther than their predecessors; but none of +them had entirely lost all regard to national interests. Their +hatred against the Spaniards, as well as their suspicion of Philip’s +pretensions, still prevailed; and though the queen attempted to get +her husband declared presumptive heir of the crown, and to have the +administration put into his hands, she failed in all her endeavors, +and could not so much as procure the parliament’s consent to his +coronation.[v] All attempts likewise to obtain subsidies from the +commons, in order to support the emperor in his war against France, +proved fruitless: the usual animosity and jealousy of the English +against that kingdom seemed to have given place, for the present, to +like passions against Spain. Philip, sensible of the prepossessions +entertained against him, endeavored to acquire popularity by procuring +the release of several prisoners of distinction; Lord Henry Dudley, Sir +George Harper, Sir Nicholas Throgmorton, Sir Edmond Warner, Sir William +St. Lo, Sir Nicholas Arnold, Harrington, Tremaine, who had been confined +from the suspicions or resentment of the court.[v*] But nothing was more +agreeable to the nation than his protecting the lady Elizabeth from +the spite and malice of the queen, and restoring her to liberty. This +measure was not the effect of any generosity in Philip, a sentiment of +which he was wholly destitute; but of a refined policy, which made him +foresee that, if that princess were put to death, the next lawful heir +was the queen of Scots, whose succession would forever annex England +to the crown of France. The earl of Devonshire also reaped some benefit +from Philip’s affectation of popularity, and recovered his liberty: but +that nobleman, finding himself exposed to suspicion, begged permission +to travel;[v**] and he soon after died at Padua, from poison, as is +pretended, given him by the imperialists. He was the eleventh and last +earl of Devonshire of that noble family, one of the most illustrious in +Europe. + + * See note U, at the end of the volume. + + ** 1 and 2 Phil. and Mar. c. 6. + + *** 1 and 2 Phil. and Mar. c. 3, 9. + + **** 1 and 2 Phil. and Mar. c. 10. + + v Godwin, p. 348. Baker, p. 322. + + v* Heylin, p. 39. Burnet, vol. ii. p. 287. Stowe, p. 626. + Dépêches de Noailles, vol. iv. p. 146, 147. + + v** Heylin, p. 40. Godwin, p. 349. + +The queen’s extreme desire of having issue had made her fondly +give credit to any appearance of pregnancy; and when the legate was +introduced to her, she fancied that she felt the embryo stir in her +womb.[*] Her flatterers compared this motion of the infant to that of +John the Baptist, who, leaped in his mother’s belly at the salutation +of the Virgin.[**] Despatches were immediately sent to inform foreign +courts of this event: orders were issued to give public thanks: great +rejoicings were made: the family of the young prince was already +settled;[***] for the Catholics held themselves assured that the child +was to be a male: and Bonner, bishop of London, made public prayers be +said, that Heaven would please to render him beautiful, vigorous, and +witty. But the nation still remained somewhat incredulous; and men were +persuaded that the queen labored under infirmities which rendered her +incapable of having children. Her infant proved only the commencement of +a dropsy, which the disordered state of her health had brought upon her. +The belief, however, of her pregnancy was upheld with all possible care; +and was one artifice by which Philip endeavored to support his authority +in the kingdom. + + * Dépêches de Noailles, vol. iv. p. 25. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 292. Godwin, p. 348. + + *** Heylin, p. 46. + + +{1555.} The parliament passed a law, which, in case of the queen’s +demise, appointed him protector during the minority; and the king +and queen, finding they could obtain no further concessions, came +unexpectedly to Westminster and dissolved them. + +There happened an incident this session which must not be passed over +in silence. Several members of the lower house, dissatisfied with the +measures of the parliament, but finding themselves unable to prevent +them, made a secession, in order to show their disapprobation, and +refused any longer to attend the house.[*] For this instance of +contumacy they were indicted in the king’s bench, after the dissolution +of parliament: six of them submitted to the mercy of the court, and paid +their fines: the rest traversed; and the queen died before the affair +was brought to an issue. Judging of the matter by the subsequent claims +of the house of commons, and, indeed, by the true principles of free +government, this attempt of the queen’s ministers must be regarded as +a breach of privilege; but it gave little umbrage at the time, and was +never called in question by any house of commons which afterwards sat +during this reign. The count of Noailles, the French ambassador, says +that the queen threw several members into prison for their freedom of +speech.[**] + + * Coke’s Institutes, part iii. p. 17. Strype’s Memor. vol. + i.p.165 + + ** Vol. v. p. 296. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + + + + +MARY. + +{1555.} THE success which Gardiner, from his cautious and prudent +conduct, had met with in governing the parliament, and engaging them +to concur both in the Spanish match and in the reëstablishment of the +ancient religion,--two points to which, it was believed, they bore an +extreme aversion,--had so raised his character for wisdom and policy +that his opinion was received as an oracle in the council; and his +authority, as it was always great in his own party, no longer suffered +any opposition or control. Cardinal Pole himself, though more beloved +on account of his virtue and candor, and though superior in birth and +station, had not equal weight in public deliberations; and while +his learning, piety, and humanity were extremely respected, he was +represented more as a good man than a great minister. A very important +question was frequently debated before the queen and council by these +two ecclesiastics; whether the laws lately revived against heretics +should be put in execution, or should only be employed to restrain by +terror the bold attempts of these zealots. Pole was very sincere in +his religious principles; and though his moderation had made him be +suspected at Rome of a tendency towards Lutheranism, he was seriously +persuaded of the Catholic doctrines, and thought that no consideration +of human policy ought ever to come in competition with such important +interests. Gardiner, on the contrary, had always made his religion +subservient to his schemes of safety or advancement; and by his +unlimited complaisance to Henry, he had shown that, had he not been +pushed to extremity under the late minority, he was sufficiently +disposed to make a sacrifice of his principles to the established +theology. This was the well-known character of these two great +counsellors; yet such is the prevalence of temper above system, that +the benevolent disposition of Pole led him to advise a toleration of +the heretical tenets which he highly blamed; while the severe manners of +Gardiner inclined him to support by persecution that religion which, at +the bottom, he regarded with great indifference.[*] This circumstance of +public conduct was of the highest importance; and from being the object +of deliberation in the council, it soon became the subject of discourse +throughout the nation. We shall relate, in a few words, the topics by +which each side supported, or might have supported, their scheme of +policy; and shall display the opposite reasons which have been employed, +with regard to an argument that ever has been, and ever will be, so much +canvassed. + + * Heylin, p. 47. + +The practice of persecution, said the defenders of Pole’s opinion, is +the scandal of all religion; and the theological animosity, so fierce +and violent, far from being an argument of men’s conviction in their +opposite sects, is a certain proof that they have never reached any +serious persuasion with regard to these remote and sublime subjects. +Even those who are the most impatient of contradiction in other +controversies, are mild and moderate in comparison of polemical divines; +and wherever a man’s knowledge and experience give him a perfect +assurance in his own opinion, he regards with contempt, rather than +anger, the opposition and mistakes of others. But while men zealously +maintain what they neither clearly comprehend nor entirely believe, they +are shaken in their imagined faith by the opposite persuasion, or even +doubts, of other men; and vent on their antagonists that impatience +which is the natural result of so disagreeable a state of the +understanding. They then easily embrace any pretense for representing +opponents as impious and profane; and if they can also find a color for +connecting this violence with the interests of civil government, they +can no longer be restrained from giving uncontrolled scope to vengeance +and resentment. But surely never enterprise was more unfortunate than +that of founding persecution upon policy, or endeavoring, for the sake +of peace, to settle an entire uniformity of opinion in questions which, +of all others, are least subjected to the criterion of human reason. +The universal and uncontradicted prevalence of one opinion in religious +subjects can be owing, at first, to the stupid ignorance alone and +barbarism of the people, who never indulge themselves in any speculation +or inquiry; and there is no expedient for maintaining that uniformity +so fondly sought after, but by banishing forever all curiosity, and +all improvement in science and cultivation. It may not indeed appear +difficult to check, by a steady severity, the first beginnings of +controversy; but besides that this policy exposes forever the people +to all the abject terrors of superstition, and the magistrate to the +endless encroachments of ecclesiastics, it also renders men so delicate +that they can never endure to hear of opposition; and they will some +time pay dearly for that false tranquillity in which they have been so +long indulged. As healthful bodies are ruined by too nice a regimen, and +are thereby rendered incapable of bearing the unavoidable incidents +of human life, a people who never were allowed to imagine that their +principles could be contested fly out into the most outrageous violence +when any event (and such events are common) produces a faction among +their clergy, and gives rise to any difference in tenet or opinion. But +whatever may be said in favor of suppressing, by persecution, the first +beginnings of heresy, no solid argument can be alleged for extending +severity towards multitudes, or endeavoring, by capital punishments, to +extirpate an opinion which has diffused itself among men of every +rank and station. Besides the extreme barbarity of such an attempt, it +commonly proves ineffectual to the purpose intended, and serves only to +make men more obstinate in their persuasion, and to increase the number +of their proselytes. The melancholy with which the fear of death, +torture, and persecution inspires the sectaries, is the proper +disposition for fostering religious zeal: the prospect of eternal +rewards, when brought near, overpowers the dread of temporal +punishments: the glory of martyrdom stimulates all the more furious +zealots, especially the leaders and preachers: where a violent animosity +is excited by oppression, men naturally pass from hating the persons of +their tyrants to a more violent abhorrence of their doctrines: and the +spectators, moved with pity towards the supposed martyrs, are easily +seduced to embrace those principles which can inspire men with a +constancy that appears almost supernatural. Open the door to toleration, +mutual hatred relaxes among the sectaries, their attachment to their +particular modes of religion decays; the common occupations and +pleasures of life succeed to the acrimony of disputation; and the same +man who, in other circumstances, would have braved flames and tortures, +is induced to change his sect from the smallest prospect of favor +and advancement, or even from the frivolous hope of becoming more +fashionable in his principles. If any exception can be admitted to this +maxim of toleration, it will only be where a theology altogether new, +nowise connected with the ancient religion of the state, is imported +from foreign countries, and may easily, at one blow, be eradicated, +without leaving the seeds of future innovation. But as this exception +would imply some apology for the ancient pagan persecutions, or for +the extirpation of Christianity in China and Japan, it ought surely, +on account of this detested consequence, to be rather buried in eternal +silence and oblivion. + +Though these arguments appear entirely satisfactory, yet such is the +subtlety of human wit, that Gardiner and the other enemies to toleration +were not reduced to silence; and they still found topics on which +to maintain the controversy. The doctrine, said they, of liberty of +conscience, is founded on the most flagrant impiety, and supposes such +an indifference among all religions, such an obscurity in theological +doctrines, as to render the church and magistrate incapable of +distinguishing with certainty the dictates of Heaven from the mere +fictions of human imagination. If the Divinity reveals principles +to mankind, he will surely give a criterion by which they may be +ascertained; and a prince who knowingly allows these principles to be +perverted or adulterated, is infinitely more criminal than if he gave +permission for the vending of poison, under the shape of food, to all +his subjects. Persecution may, indeed, seem better calculated to make +hypocrites than converts; but experience teaches us, that the habits of +hypocrisy often turn into reality; and the children, at least, ignorant +of the dissimulation of their parents, may happily be educated in more +orthodox tenets. It is absurd, in opposition to considerations of such +unspeakable importance, to plead the temporal and frivolous interests +of civil society; and if matters be thoroughly examined, even that topic +will not appear so universally certain in favor of toleration as by some +it is represented. Where sects arise whose fundamental principle on all +sides is to execrate, and abhor, and damn, and extirpate each other, +what choice has the magistrate left but to take part, and by rendering +one sect entirely prevalent, restore, at least for a time, the public +tranquillity? The political body, being here sickly, must not be treated +as if it were in a state of sound health; and an affected neutrality in +the prince, or even a cool preference, may serve only to encourage the +hopes of all the sects, and keep alive their animosity. The Protestants, +far from tolerating the religion of their ancestors, regard it as an +impious and detestable idolatry; and during the late minority, when they +were entirely masters, they enacted very severe, though not capital, +punishments against all exercise of the Catholic worship, and +even against such as barely abstained from their profane rites and +sacraments. Nor are instances wanting of their endeavors to secure an +imagined orthodoxy by the most rigorous executions: Calvin has burned +Servetus at Geneva; Cranmer brought Arians and Anabaptists to the stake; +and if persecution of any kind be admitted, the most bloody and violent +will surely be allowed the most justifiable, as the most effectual. +Imprisonments, fines, confiscations, whippings, serve only to irritate +the sects, without disabling them from resistance: but the stake, +the wheel, and the gibbet, must soon terminate in the extirpation or +banishment of all the heretics inclined to give disturbance, and in the +entire silence and submission of the rest. + +The arguments of Gardiner, being more agreeable to the cruel bigotry of +Mary and Philip, were better received; and though Pole pleaded, as +is affirmed,[*] the advice of the emperor, who recommended it to his +daughter-in-law not to exercise violence against the Protestants, and +desired her to consider his own example, who, after endeavoring through +his whole life to extirpate heresy, had in the end reaped nothing but +confusion and disappointment, the scheme of toleration was entirely +rejected. It was determined to let loose the laws in their full vigor +against the reformed religion; and England was soon filled with scenes +of horror, which have ever since rendered the Catholic religion the +object of general detestation and which prove, that no human depravity +can equal revenge and cruelty covered with the mantle of religion. + + * Burnet, vol. ii. Heylin, p. 47. It is not likely, however, + that Charles gave any such advice; for he himself was, at + this very time, proceeding with great violence in + persecuting the reformed in Flanders. Bentivoglio, part i, + lib. i. + +The persecutors began with Rogers, prebendary of St. Paul’s, a man +eminent in his party for virtue as well as for learning. Gardiner’s plan +was first to attack men of that character, whom, he hoped, terror +would bend to submission, and whose example, either of punishment or +recantation, would naturally have influence on the multitude: but he +found a perseverance and courage in Rogers, which it may seem strange +to find in human nature, and of which all ages and all sects do +nevertheless furnish many examples. Rogers, beside the care of his own +preservation, lay under other powerful temptations to compliance: he +had a wife whom he tenderly loved, and ten children; yet such was his +serenity after his condemnation, that the jailers, it is said, waked +him from a sound sleep when the hour of his execution approached. He had +desired to see his wife before he died; but Gardiner told him that he +was a priest, and could not possibly have a wife; thus joining insult to +cruelty. Rogers was burned in Smithfield.[*] + +Hooper, bishop of Glocester, had been tried at the same time +with Rogers; but was sent to his own diocese to be executed. This +circumstance was contrived to strike the greater terror into his flock; +but it was a source of consolation to Hooper, who rejoiced in giving +testimony, by his death, to that doctrine which he had formerly preached +among them. When he was tied to the stake, a stool was set before him, +and the queen’s pardon laid upon it, which it was still in his power to +merit by a recantation; but he ordered it to be removed, and cheerfully +prepared himself for that dreadful punishment to which he was sentenced. +He suffered it in its full severity: the wind, which was violent, blew +the flame of the reeds from his body: the fagots were green, and did not +kindle easily: all his lower parts were consumed before his vitals were +attacked: one of his hands dropped off: with the other he continued to +beat his breast: he was heard to pray, and to exhort the people; till +his tongue, swollen with the violence of his agony, could no longer +permit him utterance. He was three quarters of an hour in torture, which +he bore with inflexible constancy.[**] + + * Fox, vol. iii. p. 119. Burnet, vol. ii. p. 302. + + ** Fox, vol. iii. p. 145, etc. Burnet, vol. ii p. 302, + Heylin, p. 48, 49. Godwin, p. 349. + + +Sanders was burned at Coventry: a pardon was also offered him; but +he rejected it, and embraced the stake, saying, “Welcome the cross +of Christ; welcome everlasting life.” Taylor, parson of Hadley, was +punished by fire in that place, surrounded by his ancient friends and +parishioners. When tied to the stake, he rehearsed a psalm in English: +one of his guards struck him on the mouth, and bade him speak Latin: +another, in a rage, gave him a blow on the head with his halbert, which +happily put an end to his torments. + +There was one Philpot, archdeacon of Winchester, inflamed with such zeal +for orthodoxy, that having been engaged in dispute with an Arian, he +spit in his adversary’s face, to show the great detestation which he +had entertained against that heresy. He afterwards wrote a treatise to +justify this unmannerly expression of zeal: he said, that he was led to +it in order to relieve the sorrow conceived from such horrid blasphemy, +and to signify how unworthy such a miscreant was of being admitted into +the society of any Christian.[*] Philpot was a Protestant; and falling +now into the hands of people as zealous as himself, but more powerful, +he was condemned to the flames, and suffered at Smithfield. It seems to +be almost a general rule, that in all religions, except the true, no +man will suffer martyrdom who would not also inflict it willingly on +all that differ from him. The same zeal for speculative opinions is the +cause of both. + +The crime for which almost all the Protestants were condemned, was +their refusal to acknowledge the real presence. Gardiner, who had vainly +expected that a few examples would strike a terror into the reformers, +finding the work daily multiply upon him, devolved the invidious office +on others, chiefly on Bonner, a man of profligate manners, and of a +brutal character, who seemed to rejoice in the torments of the unhappy +sufferers.[**] He sometimes whipped the prisoners with his own hands, +till he was tired with the violence of the exercise: he tore out the +beard of a weaver who refused to relinquish his religion; and that he +might give him a specimen of burning, he held his hand to the candle +till the sinews and veins shrunk and burst.[***] + + * Strype, vol iii. p. 261, and Coll. No. 58. + + ** Heylin, p. 47, 48. + + *** Fox, vol. iii. p. 187. + +It is needless to be particular in enumerating all the cruelties +practised in England during the course of three years that these +persecutions lasted: the savage barbarity on the one hand, and the +patient constancy on the other, are so similar in all those martyrdoms, +that the narrative, little agreeable in itself, would never be relieved +by any variety. Human nature appears not on any occasion so detestable, +and at the same time so absurd, as in these religious persecutions, +which sink men below infernal spirits in wickedness, and below the +beasts in folly. A few instances only may be worth preserving, in order, +if possible, to warn zealous bigots forever to avoid such odious and +such fruitless barbarity. + +Ferrar, bishop of St. David’s, was burned in his own diocese and his +appeal to Cardinal Pole was not attended to.[*] Ridley, bishop of +London, and Latimer, formerly bishop of Worcester, two prelates +celebrated for learning and virtue, perished together in the same +flames at Oxford, and supported each other’s constancy by their mutual +exhortations. Latimer, when tied to the stake, called to his companion, +“Be of good cheer, brother; we shall this day kindle such a torch +in England, as, I trust in God, shall never be extinguished.” The +executioners had been so merciful (for that clemency may more naturally +be ascribed to them than to the religious zealots) as to tie bags of +gunpowder about these prelates, in order to put a speedy period to their +tortures: the explosion immediately killed Latimer, who was in extreme +old age; Ridley continued alive during some time in the midst of the +flames.[**] + +One Hunter, a young man of nineteen, an apprentice, having been seduced +by a priest into a dispute, had unwarily denied the real presence. +Sensible of his danger, he immediately absconded; but Bonner, laying +hold of his father, threatened him with the greatest severities if he +did not produce the young man to stand his trial. Hunter, hearing of +the vexations to which his father was exposed, voluntarily surrendered +himself to Bonner, and was condemned to the flames by that barbarous +prelate. + +Thomas Haukes, when conducted to the stake, agreed with his friends, +that, if he found the torture tolerable, he would make them a signal to +that purpose in the midst of the flames. His zeal for the cause in which +he suffered so supported him that he stretched out his arms, the signal +agreed on; and in that posture he expired.[***] This example, with many +others of like constancy, encouraged multitudes not only to suffer, but +even to court and aspire to martyrdom. + + * Fox, vol. iii. p. 216. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 318. Heylin, p. 52. + + *** Fox, vol. iii. p. 265. + +The tender sex itself, as they have commonly greater propensity to +religion, produced many examples of the most inflexible courage in +supporting the profession of it against all the fury of the persecutors. +One execution in particular was attended with circumstances which, even +at that time, excited astonishment by reason of their unusual barbarity. +A woman in Guernsey, being near the time of her labor when brought to +the stake, was thrown into such agitation by the torture, that her belly +burst, and she was delivered in the midst of the flames. One of the +guards immediately snatched the infant from the fire, and attempted to +save it; but a magistrate who stood by ordered it to be thrown back: +being determined, he said, that nothing should survive which-sprang from +so obstinate and heretical a parent.[*] + +The persons condemned to these punishments were not convicted of +teaching, or dogmatizing, contrary to the established religion: they +were seized merely on suspicion; and articles being offered them to +subscribe, they were immediately, upon their refusal, condemned to the +flames.[**] These instances of barbarity, so unusual in the nation, +excited horror; the constancy of the martyrs was the object of +admiration; and as men have a principle of equity engraven in their +minds, which even false religion is not able totally to obliterate, they +were shocked to see persons of probity, of honor, of pious dispositions, +exposed to punishments more severe than were inflicted on the greatest +ruffians for crimes subversive of civil society. To exterminate the +whole Protestant party was known to be impossible; and nothing +could appear more iniquitous, than to subject to torture the most +conscientious and courageous among them, and allow the cowards and +hypocrites to escape. Each martyrdom, therefore, was equivalent to +a hundred sermons against Popery; and men either avoided such horrid +spectacles, or returned from them full of a violent, though secret, +indignation against the persecutors. Repeated orders were sent from the +council to quicken the diligence of the magistrates in searching out +heretics; and in some places the gentry were constrained to countenance +by their presence those barbarous executions. These acts of violence +tended only to render the Spanish government daily more odious; and +Philip, sensible of the hatred which he incurred, endeavored to remove +the reproach from himself by a very gross artifice: he ordered his +confessor to deliver, in his presence, a sermon in favor of toleration; +a doctrine somewhat extraordinary in the mouth of a Spanish friar.[***] +But the court, finding that Bonner, however shameless and savage, +would not bear alone the whole infamy, soon threw off the mask; and +the unrelenting temper of the queen, as well as of the king, appeared +without control. A bold step was even taken towards introducing the +inquisition into England. As the bishops’ courts, though extremely +arbitrary, and not confined by any ordinary forms of law, appeared not +to be invested with sufficient power, a commission was appointed, by +authority of the queen’s prerogative, more effectually to extirpate +heresy. + + * Fox, vol. iii. p. 747. Heylin, p. 57. Burnet, vol. ii. p. + 337. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 306. + + *** Heylin, p. 56. + +Twenty-one persons were named; but any three were armed with the powers +of the whole. The commission runs in these terms: “That since many false +rumors were published among the subjects, and many heretical opinions +were also spread among them, the commissioners were to inquire into +those, either by presentments, by witnesses, or any other political way +they could devise, and to search after all heresies; the bringers in, +the sellers, the readers of all heretical books: they were to examine +and punish all misbehaviors or negligences in any church or chapel; and +to try all priests that did not preach the sacrament of the altar; +all persons that did not hear mass, or come to their parish church to +service, that would not go in processions, or did not take holy bread or +holy water; and if they found any that did obstinately persist in such +heresies, they were to put them into the hands of their ordinaries, to +be punished according to the spiritual laws; giving the commissioners +full power to proceed as their discretions and consciences should direct +them, and to use all such means as they would invent for the searching +of the premises; empowering them also to call before them such witnesses +as they pleased, and to force them to make oath of such things as might +discover what they sought after.”[*] Some civil powers were also given +the commissioners to punish vagabonds and quarrelsome persons. + +To bring the methods of proceeding in England still nearer to the +practice of the inquisition, letters were written to Lord North and +others, enjoining them “to put to the torture such obstinate persons as +would not confess, and there to order them at their discretion.”[**] + + * Burnet, vol. ii. Coll. 32. + + ** Burnet, vol. iii. p. 243. + +Secret spies, also, and informers were employed, according to the +practice of that iniquitous tribunal. Instructions were given to the +justices of peace--that they should call secretly before them one or two +honest persons within their limits, or more, at their discretion, and +command them by oath, or otherwise, that they shall secretly learn and +search out such persons as shall evil behave themselves in church, +or idly, or shall despise openly by words the king’s or queen’s +proceedings, or go about to make any commotion, or tell any seditious +tales or news. And also that the same persons, so to be appointed, +shall declare to the same justices of peace the ill behavior of lewd +disordered persons, whether it shall be for using unlawful games, and +such other light behavior of such suspected persons; and that the +same information shall be given secretly to the justices; and the same +justices shall call such accused persons before them, and examine them, +without declaring by whom they were accused. And that the same justices +shall, upon their examination, punish the offenders according as their +offences shall appear, upon the accusement and examination, by their +discretion, either by open punishment or “by good abearing.”[*] In some +respects this tyrannical edict even exceeded the oppression of the +inquisition, by introducing into every part of government the same +iniquities which that tribunal practises for the extirpation of heresy +only, and which are in some measure necessary, wherever that end is +earnestly pursued. + +But the court had devised a more expeditious and summary method of +supporting orthodoxy than even the inquisition itself. They issued +a proclamation against books of heresy treason, and sedition, and +declared, “that whosoever had any of these books, and did not presently +burn them, without reading them or showing them to any other person, +should be esteemed rebels, and without any further delay be executed by +martial law.”[**] From the state of the English government during that +period, it is not so much the illegality of these proceedings, as their +violence and their pernicious tendency, which ought to be the object of +our censure. + + * Burnet, vol. iii. p. 246, 247. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 363. Heylin, p. 79. + +We have thrown together almost all the proceedings against heretics, +though carried on during a course of three years, that we may be +obliged as little as possible to return to such shocking violences +and barbarities. It is computed that in that time two hundred and +seventy-seven persons were brought to the stake, besides those who were +punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who +suffered by fire were five bishops, twenty-one clergymen, eight lay +gentlemen, eighty-four tradesmen, one hundred husbandmen, servants, and +laborers, fifty-five women, and four children. This persevering cruelty +appears astonishing; yet is it much inferior to what has been practised +in other countries. A great author[*] computes that, in the Netherlands +alone, from the time that the edict of Charles V. was promulgated +against the reformers, there had been fifty thousand persons hanged, +beheaded, buried alive, or burnt, on account of religion; and that in +France the number had also been considerable. Yet in both countries, as +the same author subjoins, the progress of the new opinions instead of +being checked, was rather forwarded by these persecutions. + +The burning of heretics was a very natural method of reconciling the +kingdom to the Romish communion; and little solicitation was requisite +to engage the pope to receive the strayed flock, from which he reaped +such considerable profit; yet was there a solemn embassy sent to Rome, +consisting of Sir Anthony Brown, created Viscount Montacute, the bishop +of Ely, and Sir Edward Carne, in order to carry the submissions of +England, and beg to be readmitted into the bosom of the Catholic +church.[**] Paul IV., after a short interval, now filled the papal +chair; the most haughty pontiff that during several ages had been +elevated to that dignity. He was offended that Mary still retained among +her titles that of queen of Ireland; and he affirmed that it belonged to +him alone, as he saw cause, either to erect new kingdoms or abolish the +old; but to avoid all dispute with the new converts, he thought proper +to erect Ireland into a kingdom, and he then admitted the title, as if +it had been assumed from his concession. This was a usual artifice of +the popes, to give allowance to what they could not prevent,[***] and +afterwards pretend that princes, while they exercised their own powers, +were only acting by authority from the papacy. And though Paul had at +first intended to oblige Mary formally to recede from this title before +he would bestow it upon her, he found it prudent to proceed in a less +haughty manner.[****] + + * Father Paul, lib. v. + + ** Heylin, p. 45. + + *** Heylin, p. 45. Father Paul, lib, v. + + **** Father Paul, lib. v. + +Another point in discussion between the pope and the English ambassadors +was not so easily terminated. Paul insisted that the property and +possessions of the church should be restored to the uttermost farthing; +that whatever belonged to God could never, by any law, be converted to +profane uses; and every person who detained such possessions was in a +state of eternal damnation; that he would willingly, in consideration +of the humble submissions of the English, make them a present of these +ecclesiastical revenues; but such a concession exceeded his power, and +the people might be certain that so great a profanation of holy things +would be a perpetual anathema upon them, and would blast all their +future felicity; that if they would truly show their filial piety, they +must restore all the privileges and emoluments of the Romish church, and +Peter’s pence among the rest; nor could they expect that this apostle +would open to them the gates of paradise, while they detained from him +his patrimony on earth.[*] These earnest remonstrances being transmitted +to England, though they had little influence on the nation, operated +powerfully on the queen, who was determined, in order to ease her +conscience, to restore all the church lands which were still in the +possession of the crown; and the more to display her zeal, she erected +anew some convents and monasteries, notwithstanding the low condition +of the exchequer.[**] When this measure was debated in council, some +members objected, that if such a considerable part of the revenue were +dismembered, the dignity of the crown would fall to decay; but the +queen replied, that she preferred the salvation of her soul to ten such +kingdoms as England.[***] These imprudent measures would not probably +have taken place so easily, had it not been for the death of Gardiner, +which happened about this time; the great seal was given to Heathe, +archbishop of York, that an ecclesiastic might still be possessed of +that high office, and be better enabled by his authority to forward the +persecutions against the reformed. + +These persecutions were now become extremely odious to the nation; and +the effects of the public discontent appeared in the new parliament, +summoned to meet at Westminster.[****] A bill[v] was passed restoring to +the church the tenths and first-fruits, and all the impropriations which +remained in the hands of the crown; but though this matter directly +concerned none but the queen herself, great opposition was made to the +bill in the house of commons. + + * Father Paul, lib. v. Heylin, p. 45. + + ** Dépêches de Noailles, vol. iv. p. 312. + + *** Heylin, p. 53, 65. Holingshed, p. 1127. Speed, p. 826. + + **** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 322. + + v 2 and 3. Phil, and Mar. cap. 4. + +An application being made for a subsidy during two years, and for two +fifteenths, the latter was refused by the commons; and many members +said, that while the crown was thus despoiling itself of its revenue, it +was in vain to bestow riches upon it. The parliament rejected a bill for +obliging the exiles to return under certain penalties, and another for +incapacitating such as were remiss in the prosecution of heresy from +being justices of peace. The queen, finding the intractable humor of the +commons, thought proper to dissolve the parliament. + +The spirit of opposition which began to prevail in parliament was the +more likely to be vexatious to Mary, as she was otherwise in very bad +humor on account of her husband’s absence, who, tired of her importunate +love and jealousy, and finding his authority extremely limited in +England, had laid hold of the first opportunity to leave her, and had +gone over last summer to the emperor in Flanders. The indifference +and neglect of Philip, added to the disappointment in her imagined +pregnancy, threw her into deep melancholy; and she gave vent to her +spleen by daily enforcing the persecutions against the Protestants, and +even by expressions of rage against all her subjects; by whom she +knew herself to be hated, and whose opposition, in refusing an entire +compliance with Philip was the cause, she believed, why he had alienated +his affections from her, and afforded her so little of his company.[*] + + * Dépêches de Noailles, vol. v. p. 370, 562. + +The less return her love met with, the more it increased; and she passed +most of her time in solitude, where she gave vent to her passion, either +in tears, or in writing fond epistles to Philip, who seldom returned +her any answer, and scarcely deigned to pretend any sentiment of love or +even of gratitude towards her. The chief part of government to which +she attended, was the extorting of money from her people, in order to +satisfy his demands; and as the parliament had granted her but a scanty +supply, she had recourse to expedients very violent and irregular. She +levied a loan of sixty thousand pounds upon a thousand persons, of whose +compliance, either on account of their riches or their affections to +her, she held herself best assured: but that sum not sufficing, she +exacted a general loan on every one who possessed twenty pounds a year. +This imposition lay heavy on the gentry, who were obliged, many of +them, to retrench their expenses and dismiss their servants, in order +to enable them to comply with her demands: and as these servants, +accustomed to idleness, and having no means of subsistence, commonly +betook themselves to theft and robbery, the queen published a +proclamation, by which she obliged their former masters to take them +back to their service. She levied sixty thousand marks on seven thousand +yeomen who had not contributed to the former loan; and she exacted +thirty-six thousand pounds more from the merchants. In order to engage +some Londoners to comply more willingly with her multiplied extortions, +she passed an edict prohibiting for four months the exporting of +any English cloths or kerseys to the Netherlands; an expedient which +procured a good market for such as had already sent any quantity of +cloth thither. Her rapaciousness engaged her to give endless disturbance +and interruption to commerce. The English company settled in Antwerp +having refused her a loan of forty thousand pounds, she dissembled +her resentment till she found that they had bought and shipped great +quantities of cloth for Antwerp fair, which was approaching: she then +laid an embargo on the ships, and obliged the merchants to grant her a +loan of the forty thousand pounds at first demanded, to engage for the +payment of twenty thousand pounds more at a limited time, and to submit +to an arbitrary imposition of twenty shillings on each piece. Some time +after, she was informed that the Italian merchants had shipped above +forty thousand pieces of cloth for the Levant, for which they were to +pay her a crown a piece, the usual imposition: she struck a bargain +with the merchant adventurers in London; prohibited the foreigners from +making any exportation; and received from the English merchants, in +consideration of this iniquity, the sum of fifty thousand pounds, and +an imposition of four crowns on each piece of cloth which they should +export. She attempted to borrow great sums abroad; but her credit was +so low, that though she offered fourteen per cent to the city of Antwerp +for a loan of thirty thousand pounds, she could not obtain it till she +compelled the city of London to be surety for her.[*] All these violent +expedients were employed while she herself was in profound peace with +all the world, and had visibly no occasion for money but to supply the +demands of a husband who gave attention only to his own convenience, and +showed himself entirely indifferent about her interests. + + * Godwin, p. 359. Cowper’s Chronicle. Burnet, vol. ii. p. + 359. Carte, p. 330, 333, 337, 341. Strype’s Memor vol. iii. + p. 428, 558. Annals vol. i. p. 15. + +Philip was now become master of all the wealth of the new world, and +of the richest and most extensive dominions in Europe, by the voluntary +resignation of the emperor Charles V.; who, though still in the vigor of +his age, had taken a disgust to the world, and was determined to seek, +in the tranquillity of retreat, for that happiness which he had in vain +pursued amidst the tumults of war and the restless projects of ambition. +He summoned the states of the Low Countries and seating himself on the +throne for the last time, explained to his subjects the reasons of his +resignation, absolved them from all oaths of allegiance, and, devolving +his authority on Philip, told him, that his paternal tenderness made him +weep when he reflected on the burden which he imposed upon him.[*] He +inculcated on him the great and only duty of a prince, the study of his +people’s happiness; and represented how much preferable it was to +govern by affection, rather than by fear, the nations subjected to +his dominion. The cool reflections of age now discovered to him the +emptiness of his former pursuits; and he found that the vain schemes +of extending his empire had been the source of endless opposition and +disappointment, and kept himself, his neighbors, and his subjects, in +perpetual inquietude, and had frustrated the sole end of government, +the felicity of the nations committed to his care; an object which meets +with less opposition, and which, if steadily pursued, can alone convey a +lasting and solid satisfaction. + + * Thuan. lib. xvi. c. 20. + +{1556.} A few months after, he resigned to Philip his other dominions; +and embarking on board a fleet, sailed to Spain, and took his journey to +St. Just, a monastery in Estremadura, which, being situated in a happy +climate, and amidst the greatest beauties of nature, he had chosen for +the place of his retreat. When he arrived at Burgos, he found, by the +thinness of his court, and the negligent attendance of the Spanish +grandees, that he was no longer emperor; and though this observation +might convince him still more of the vanity of the world, and make him +more heartily despise what he had renounced, he sighed to find that all +former adulation and obeisance had been paid to his fortune, not to his +person. With better reason was he struck with the ingratitude of his son +Philip, who obliged him to wait a long time for the payment of the small +pension which he had reserved, and this disappointment in his domestic +enjoyments gave him a sensible concern. He pursued, however, his +resolution with inflexible constancy; and shutting himself up in his +retreat, he exerted such self-command, that he restrained even his +curiosity from any inquiry concerning the transactions of the world +which he had entirely abandoned. The fencing against the pains and +infirmities under which he labored occupied a great part of his time; +and during the intervals he employed his leisure, either in examining +the controversies of theology, with which his age had been so much +agitated, and which he had hitherto considered only in a political +light, or in imitating the works of renowned artists, particularly in +mechanics, of which he had always been a great admirer and encourager. +He is said to have here discovered a propensity to the new doctrines, +and to have frequently dropped hints of this unexpected alteration in +his sentiments. Having amused himself with the construction of clocks +and watches, he thence remarked, how impracticable the object was in +which he had so much employed himself during his grandeur; and how +impossible that he, who never could frame two machines that would go +exactly alike, could ever be able to make all mankind concur in the same +belief and opinion. He survived his retreat two years. + +The emperor Charles had very early in the beginning of his reign found +the difficulty of governing such distant dominions; and he had made +his brother Ferdinand be elected king of the Romans, with a view to his +inheriting the imperial dignity, as well as his German dominions. But +having afterwards enlarged his schemes, and formed plans of aggrandizing +his family, he regretted that he must dismember such considerable states +and he endeavored to engage Ferdinand, by the most tempting offers, +and most earnest solicitations, to yield up his pretensions in favor +of Philip. Finding his attempts fruitless, he had resigned the imperial +crown with his other dignities; and Ferdinand, according to common form, +applied to the pope for his coronation. The arrogant pontiff refused +the demand; and pretended that, though on the death of an emperor he was +obliged to crown the prince elected, yet, in the case of a resignation, +the right devolved to the holy see, and it belonged to the pope alone to +appoint an emperor. The conduct of Paul was in every thing conformable +to these lofty pretensions. He thundered always in the ears of all +ambassadors, that he stood in no need of the assistance of any prince; +that he was above all potentates on the earth; that he would not +accustom monarchs to pretend to a familiarity or equality with him; that +it belonged to him to alter and regulate kingdoms; that he was successor +of those who had deposed kings and emperors; and that, rather than +submit to anything below his dignity, he would set fire to the four +corners of the world. He went so far as, at table, in the presence of +many persons, and even openly, in a public consistory, to say, that +he would not admit any kings for his companions; they were all his +subjects, and he would hold them under these feet: so saying, he +stamped on the ground with his old and infirm limbs: for he was now past +fourscore years of age.[*] + + * Father Paul, lib. v. + +The world could not forbear making a comparison between Charles V., +a prince who, though educated amidst wars and intrigues of state, had +prevented the decline of age, and had descended from the throne, in +order to set apart an interval for thought and reflection; and a priest +who, in the extremity of old age, exulted in his dominion, and from +restless ambition and revenge was throwing all nations into combustion. +Paul had entertained the most inveterate animosity against the house +of Austria; and though a truce of five years had been concluded between +France and Spain, he excited Henry by his solicitations to break it, and +promised to assist him in recovering Naples, and the dominions to which +he laid claim in Italy; a project which had ever proved hurtful to the +predecessors of that monarch. He himself engaged in hostilities with +the duke of Alva, viceroy of Naples; and Guise being sent with forces +to support him, the renewal of war between the two crowns seemed almost +inevitable. Philip, though less warlike than his father, was no less +ambitious; and he trusted that, by the intrigues of the cabinet, +where, he believed, his caution, and secrecy, and prudence gave him the +superiority, he should be able to subdue all his enemies, and extend his +authority and dominion. For this reason, as well as from the desire of +settling his new empire, he wished to maintain peace with France; but +when he found that, without sacrificing his honor, it was impossible for +him to overlook the hostile attempts of Henry, he prepared for war with +great industry. In order to give himself the more advantage, he was +desirous of embarking England in the quarrel; and though the queen was +of herself extremely averse to that measure, he hoped that the devoted +fondness which, notwithstanding repeated instances of his indifference, +she still bore to him, would effectually second his applications. Had +the matter indeed depended solely on her, she was incapable of resisting +her husband’s commands; but she had little weight with her council, +still less with her people; and her government, which was every day +becoming more odious, seemed unable to maintain itself, even during the +most profound tranquillity, much more if a war were kindled with France, +and, what seemed an inevitable consequence, with Scotland, supported by +that powerful kingdom. + +An act of barbarity was this year exercised in England, which, added to +many other instances of the same kind, tended to render the government +extremely unpopular. Cranmer had long been detained prisoner; but the +queen now determined to bring him to punishment; and in order the more +fully to satiate her vengeance, she resolved to punish him for heresy, +rather than for treason. He was cited by the pope to stand his trial at +Rome; and though he was known to be kept in close custody at Oxford, he +was, upon his not appearing, condemned as contumacious. Bonner, bishop +of London, and Thirleby of Ely, were sent to degrade him; and the former +executed the melancholy ceremony with all the joy and exultation which +suited his savage nature.[*] The implacable spirit of the queen, not +satisfied with the eternal damnation of Cranmer, which she believed +inevitable, and with the execution of that dreadful sentence to which he +was condemned, prompted her also to seek the ruin of his honor and the +infamy of his name. Persons were employed to attack him, not in the +way of disputation, against which he was sufficiently armed, but by +flattery, insinuation, and address, by representing the dignities to +which his character still entitled him, if he would merit them by a +recantation; by giving hopes of long enjoying those powerful friends, +whom his beneficent disposition had attached to him during the course of +his prosperity.[*] + + * Mem. of Cranm. p. 375. + + ** Heylin, p. 55. Mem. p. 383. + +Overcome by the fond love of life, terrified by the prospect of those +tortures which awaited him, he allowed, in an unguarded hour, the +sentiments of nature to prevail over his resolution, and he agreed to +subscribe the doctrines of the papal supremacy and of the real presence. +The court, equally perfidious and cruel, were determined that this +recantation should avail him nothing; and they sent orders that he +should be required to acknowledge his errors in church before the whole +people, and that he should thence be immediately carried to execution. +Cranmer, whether that he had received a secret intimation of their +design, or had repented of his weakness, surprised the audience by +a contrary declaration. He said, that he was well apprised of the +obedience which he owed to his sovereign and the laws; but this duly +extended no further than to submit patiently to their commands, and to +bear without resistance whatever hardships they should impose upon him: +that a superior duty, the duty which he owed to his Maker, obliged +him to speak truth on all occasions, and not to relinquish, by a base +denial, the holy doctrine which the Supreme Being had revealed to +mankind: that there was one miscarriage in his life, of which, above +all others, he severely repented; the insincere declaration of faith, to +which he had the weakness to consent, and which the fear of death alone +had extorted from him: that he took this opportunity of atoning for his +error, by a sincere and open recantation; and was willing to seal with +his blood that doctrine which he firmly believed to be communicated from +Heaven; and that as his hand had erred by betraying his heart, it should +first be punished by a severe but just doom, and should first pay the +forfeit of its offences. He was thence led to the stake amidst the +insults of the Catholics; and having now summoned up all the force of +his mind, he bore their scorn, as well as the torture of his punishment, +with singular fortitude. He stretched out his hand, and without +betraying, either by his countenance or motions, the least sign of +weakness, or even of feeling, he held it in the flames till it was +entirely consumed. His thoughts seemed wholly occupied with reflections +on his former fault; and he called aloud several times, “This hand has +offended.” Satisfied with that atonement, he then discovered a serenity +in his countenance, and when the fire attacked his body, he seemed to be +quite insensible of his outward sufferings, and by the force of hope and +resolution to have collected his mind altogether within itself, and to +repel the fury of the flames. It is pretended, that after his body was +consumed, his heart was found entire and untouched amidst the ashes; an +event which, as it was the emblem of his constancy, was fondly believed +by the zealous Protestants. + +He was undoubtedly a man of merit; possessed of learning and capacity, +and adorned with candor, sincerity, and beneficence, and all those +virtues which were fitted to render him useful and amiable in society. +His moral qualities procured him universal respect; and the courage of +his martyrdom, though he fell short of the rigid inflexibility observed +in many, made him the hero of the Protestant party.[*] + +After Cranmer’s death, Cardinal Pole, who had now taken priest’s orders, +was installed in the see of Canterbury; and was thus, by this office, as +well as by his commission of legate, placed at the head of the church +of England. But though he was averse to all sanguinary methods of +converting heretics, and deemed the reformation of the clergy the more +effectual, as the more laudable expedient for that purpose,[**] he found +his authority too weak to oppose the barbarous and bigoted disposition +of the queen and of her counsellors. He himself, he knew, had been +suspected of Lutheranism; and as Paul, the reigning pope, was a furious +persecutor, and his personal enemy, he was prompted, by the modesty of +his disposition, to reserve his credit for other occasions, in which he +had a greater probability of success.[***] + + * Burnet, vol. ii. p. 331, 332, etc. Godwin, p. 352. + + ** Burnet, vol. ii. p. 324, 325. + + *** Heylin, p. 68, 69. Burnet, vol. ii. p. 327 + +{1557.} The great object of the queen was to engage the nation in the +war which was kindled between France and Spain; and Cardinal Pole, +with many other counsellors, openly and zealously opposed this measure. +Besides insisting on the marriage articles, which provided against such +an attempt, they represented the violence of the domestic factions in +England, and the disordered state of the finances; and they foreboded, +that the tendency of all these measures was to reduce the kingdom to +a total dependence on Spanish counsels. Philip had come to London, in +order to support his partisans; and he told the queen that, if he were +not gratified in so reasonable a request, he never more would set foot +in England. This declaration extremely heightened her zeal for promoting +his interests, and overcoming the inflexibility of her council. After +employing other menaces of a more violent nature, she threatened to +dismiss all of them, and to appoint counsellors more obsequious; yet +could she not procure a vote for declaring war with France. At length, +one Stafford, and some other conspirators, were detected in a design of +surprising Scarborough;[*] and a confession being extorted from them, +that they had been encouraged by Henry in the attempt, the queen’s +importunity prevailed; and it was determined to make this act of +hostility, with others of a like secret and doubtful nature, the +ground of the quarrel. War was accordingly declared against France; and +preparations were every where made for attacking that kingdom. + +The revenue of England at that time little exceeded three hundred +thousand pounds.[**] Any considerable supplies could scarcely be +expected from parliament, considering the present disposition of the +nation; and as the war would sensibly diminish that branch arising from +the customs, the finances, it was foreseen, would fall short even of the +ordinary charges of government, and must still more prove unequal to +the expenses of war. But though the queen owed great arrears to all +her servants, besides the loans extorted from her subjects, these +considerations had no influence with her; and in order to support her +warlike preparations, she continued to levy money in the same arbitrary +and violent manner which she had formerly practised. She obliged the +city of London to supply her with sixty thousand pounds on her husband’s +entry; she levied before the legal time the second year’s subsidy voted +by parliament; she issued anew many privy seals, by which she procured +loans from her people; and having equipped a fleet, which she could not +victual by reason of the dearness of provisions, she seized all the corn +she could find in Suffolk and Norfolk, without paying any price to the +owners. By all these expedients, assisted by the power of pressing, +she levied an army of ten thousand men, which she sent over to the Low +Countries, under the command of the earl of Pembroke. Meanwhile, in +order to prevent any disturbance at home, many of the most considerable +gentry were thrown into the Tower; and lest they should be known, the +Spanish practice was followed: they either were carried thither in the +night-time, or were hoodwinked and muffled by the guards who conducted +them.[***] + + * Heylin, p. 72. Burnet, vol. ii. p. 351. Sir James Melvil’s + Memoirs. + + ** Rossi, Successi d’Inghilterra. + + *** Strype’s Eccles. Memorials, vol. iii. 377 + +The king of Spain had assembled an army, which, after the junction +of the English, amounted to above sixty thousand men, conducted by +Philibert, duke of Savoy, one of the greatest captains of the age. The +constable Montmorency, who commanded the French army, had not half the +number to oppose to him. The duke of Savoy, after menacing Mariembourgh +and Rocroy, suddenly sat down before St. Quintin: and as the place was +weak, and ill provided with a garrison, he expected in a few days to +become master of it. But Admiral Coligny, governor of the province, +thinking his honor interested to save so important a fortress, threw +himself into St. Quintin, with some troops of French and Scottish +gensdarmery; and by his exhortations and example animated the +soldiers to a vigorous defence. He despatched a messenger to his uncle +Montmorency, desiring a supply of men; and the constable approached the +place with his whole army, in order to facilitate the entry of these +succors. But the duke of Savoy, falling on the reënforcement, did such +execution upon them, that not above five hundred got into the place. +He next made an attack on the French army, and put them to total +rout, killing four thousand men, and dispersing the remainder. In this +unfortunate action many of the chief nobility of France were either +slain or taken prisoners: among the latter was the old constable +himself, who, fighting valiantly, and resolute to die rather than +survive his defeat, was surrounded by the enemy, and thus fell +alive into their hands. The whole kingdom of France was thrown into +consternation: Paris was attempted to be fortified in a hurry: and had +the Spaniards presently marched thither, it could not have failed to +fall into their hands. But Philip was of a cautious temper; and he +determined first to take St. Quintin, in order to secure a communication +with his own dominions. A very little time, it was expected, would +finish this enterprise; but the bravery of Coligny still prolonged the +siege seventeen days, which proved the safety of France. Some troops +were levied and assembled. Couriers were sent to recall the duke of +Guise and his army from Italy: and the French, having recovered from +their first panic, put themselves in a posture of defence. Philip, after +taking Ham and Catelet, found the season so far advanced, that he could +attempt no other enterprise: he broke up his camp, and retired to winter +quarters. + +But the vigilant activity of Guise, not satisfied with securing the +frontiers, prompted him, in the depth of winter, to plan an enterprise +which France, during her greatest successes, had always regarded as +impracticable, and had never thought of undertaking. Calais was in +that age deemed an impregnable fortress; and as it was known to be the +favorite of the English nation, by whom it could easily be succored, the +recovery of that place by France was considered as totally desperate. +But Coligny had remarked, that as the town of Calais was surrounded with +marshes, which during the winter were impassable, except over a dike +guarded by two castles, St. Agatha and Newnam Bridge, the English were +of late accustomed, on account of the lowness of their finances, to +dismiss a great part of the garrison at the end of autumn, and to recall +them in the spring, at which time alone they judged their attendance +necessary. On this circumstance he had founded the design of making a +sudden attack on Calais; he had caused the place to be secretly viewed +by some engineers; and a plan of the whole enterprise being found among +his papers, it served, though he himself was made prisoner on the taking +of St. Quintin, to suggest the project of that undertaking, and to +direct the measures of the duke of Guise. + +Several bodies of troops defiled towards the frontiers on various +pretences; and the whole, being suddenly assembled, formed an army, with +which Guise made an unexpected march towards Calais. At the same time, +a great number of French ships, being ordered into the Channel, under +color of cruising on the English, composed a fleet which made an attack +by sea on the fortifications. The French assaulted St. Agatha with three +thousand arquebusiers; and the garrison, though they made a vigorous +defence, were soon obliged to abandon the place, and retreat to Newnam +Bridge. The siege of this latter place was immediately undertaken, +and at the same time the fleet battered the risbank, which guarded +the entrance of the harbor; and both these castles seemed exposed to +imminent danger. The governor, Lord Wentworth, was a brave officer; but +finding that the greater part of his weak garrison was enclosed in the +castle of Newnam Bridge and the risbank, he ordered them to capitulate, +and to join him in Calais, which, without their assistance, he was +utterly unable to defend. The garrison of Newnam Bridge was so happy as +to effect this purpose; but that of the risbank could not obtain such +favorable conditions, and were obliged to surrender at discretion. + +{1558.} The duke of Guise, now holding Calais blockaded by sea and land, +thought himself secure of succeeding in his enterprise; but in order to +prevent all accident, be delayed not a moment the attack of the place. +He planted his batteries against the castle, where he made a large +breach; and having ordered Andelot, Coligny’s brother, to drain the +fossée, he commanded an assault, which succeeded; and the French made a +lodgement in the castle. On the night following, Wentworth attempted to +recover this post; but having lost two hundred men in a furious attack +which he made upon it,[*] he found his garrison so weak, that he was +obliged to capitulate. Ham and Guisnes fell soon after; and thus the +duke of Guise, in eight days, during the depth of winter, made himself +master of this strong fortress, that had cost Edward III. a siege of +eleven months, at the head of a numerous army, which had that very year +been victorious in the battle of Crecy. The English had held it above +two hundred years; and as it gave them an easy entrance into France, it +was regarded as the most important possession belonging to the crown. +The joy of the French was extreme, as well as the glory acquired by +Guise; who, at the time when all Europe imagined France to be sunk +by the unfortunate battle of St. Quintin, had, in opposition to the +English, and their allies the Spaniards, acquired possession of a place +which no former king of France, even during the distractions of the +civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, had ever ventured +to attempt. The English, on the other hand, bereaved of this valuable +fortress, murmured loudly against the improvidence of the queen and her +council; who, after engaging in a fruitless war for the sake of foreign +interests, had thus exposed the nation to so severe a disgrace. A +treasury exhausted by expenses, and burdened with debts; a people +divided and dejected; a sovereign negligent of her people’s welfare; +were circumstances which, notwithstanding the fair offers and promises +of Philip, gave them small hopes of recovering Calais. And as the Scots, +instigated by French counsels, began to move on the borders, they were +now necessitated rather to look to their defence at home, than to think +of foreign conquests. + + * Thuan. lib. xx. cap. 2. + +After the peace which, in consequence of King Edward’s treaty with +Henry, took place between Scotland and England, the queen dowager, on +pretence of visiting her daughter and her relations, made a journey to +France; and she carried along with her the earls of Huntley, Sutherland, +Marischal, and many of the principal nobility. Her secret design was, +to take measures for engaging the earl of Arran to resign to her the +government of the kingdom; and as her brothers, the duke of Guise, the +cardinal of Lorraine, and the duke of Aumale, had uncontrolled influence +in the court of France, she easily persuaded Henry, and by his authority +the Scottish nobles, to enter into her measures. Having also gained +Carnegy of Kinnaird, Panter, bishop of Ross, and Gavin Hamilton, +commendator of Kilwinning, three creatures of the governor’s, she +persuaded him, by their means, to consent to this resignation;[*] and +when every thing was thus prepared for her purpose, she took a journey +to Scotland, and passed through England in her way thither. Edward +received her with great respect and civility; though he could not +forbear attempting to renew the old treaty for his marriage with +her daughter; a marriage, he said, so happily calculated for the +tranquillity, interest, and security of both kingdoms, and the only +means of insuring a durable peace between them. For his part, he added, +he never could entertain a cordial amity for any other husband whom she +should choose; nor was it easy for him to forgive a man who, at the same +time that he disappointed so natural an alliance, had bereaved him of +a bride to whom his affections, from his earliest infancy, had been +entirely engaged. The queen dowager eluded these applications, by +telling him, that if any measures had been taken disagreeable to him, +they were entirely owing to the imprudence of the duke of Somerset, who, +instead of employing courtesy, caresses, and gentle offices, the +proper means of gaining a young princess, had had recourse to arms +and violence, and had constrained the Scottish nobility to send their +sovereign into France, in order to interest that kingdom in protecting +their liberty and independence.[**] + + * Buchanan, lib. xiv. Keith, p. 56. Spotswood, p. 92. + + ** Keith, p. 59. + +When the queen dowager arrived in Scotland, she found the governor very +unwilling to fulfil his engagements; and it was not till after many +delays that he could be persuaded to resign his authority. But finding +that the majority of the young princess was approaching, and that the +queen dowager had gained the affections of all the principal nobility, +he thought it more prudent to submit; and having stipulated that he +should be declared next heir to the crown, and should be freed from +giving any account of his past administration, he placed her in +possession of the power, and she thenceforth assumed the name of +regent.[*] It was a usual saying of this princess, that, provided she +could render her friends happy, and could insure to herself a good +reputation, she was entirely indifferent what befell her; and though +this sentiment is greatly censured by the zealous reformers,[**] as +being founded wholly on secular motives, it discovers a mind well +calculated for the government of kingdoms. D’Oisel, a Frenchman, +celebrated for capacity, had attended her as ambassador from Henry, but +in reality to assist her with his counsels in so delicate an undertaking +as the administration of Scotland; and this man had formed a scheme +for laying a general tax on the kingdom, in order to support a standing +military force, which might at once repel the inroads of foreign +enemies, and check the turbulence of the Scottish nobles. But though +some of the courtiers were gained over to this project, it gave great +and general discontent to the nation; and the queen regent, after +ingenuously confessing that it would prove pernicious to the kingdom, +had the prudence to desist from it, and to trust entirely for her +security to the good will and affections of her subjects.[***] + +This laudable purpose seemed to be the chief object of her +administration; yet was she sometimes drawn from it by her connections +with France, and by the influence which her brothers had acquired +over her. When Mary commenced hostilities against that kingdom, Henry +required the queen regent to take part in the quarrel; and she summoned +a convention of states at Newbottle, and requested them to concur in a +declaration of war against England. The Scottish nobles, who were become +as jealous of French as the English were of Spanish influence, refused +their assent; and the queen was obliged to have recourse to stratagem +in order to effect her purpose. She ordered D’Oisel to begin some +fortifications at Eyemouth, a place which had been dismantled by the +last treaty with Edward; and when the garrison of Berwick, as she +foresaw, made an inroad to prevent the undertaking, she effectually +employed this pretence to inflame the Scottish nation, and to engage +them in hostilities against England.[****] + + * 12th April, 1554. + + ** Knox, p. 89. + + *** Keith, p. 70. Buchanan, lib. xvi. + + **** Buchanan, lib. xvi. Thuan. lib. xix. c. 7. + +The enterprises however, of the Scots proceeded no farther than some +inroads on the borders: when D’Oisel of himself conducted artillery +and troops to besiege the Castle of Werke, he was recalled, and sharply +rebuked by the council.[*] + + * Knox. p. 93. + +In order to connect Scotland more closely with France, and to increase +the influence of the latter kingdom, it was thought proper by Henry to +celebrate the marriage between the young queen and the dauphin; and +a deputation was sent by the Scottish parliament to assist at the +ceremony, and to settle the terms of the contract. + +The close alliance between France and Scotland threatened very nearly +the repose and security of Mary; and it was foreseen, that though the +factions and disorders which might naturally be expected in the Scottish +government during the absence of the sovereign, would make its power +less formidable, that kingdom would at least afford to the French a +means of invading England. The queen, therefore, found it necessary +to summon a parliament, and to demand of them some supplies to her +exhausted exchequer. As such an emergency usually gives great advantage +to the people; and as the parliaments during this reign had shown that, +where the liberty and independency of the kingdom were menaced with +imminent danger, they were not entirely overawed by the court; we shall +naturally expect that the late arbitrary methods of extorting money +should at least be censured, and perhaps some remedy be for the +future provided against them. The commons, however, without making any +reflections on the past, voted, besides a fifteenth, a subsidy of four +shillings in the pound on land, and two shillings and eightpence on +goods. The clergy granted eight shillings in the pound, payable, as was +also the subsidy of the laity, in four years by equal portions. + +The parliament also passed an act, confirming all the sales and grants +of crown lands, which either were already made by the queen, or should +be made during the seven ensuing years. It was easy to foresee that, in +Mary’s present disposition and situation, this power would be followed +by a great alienation of the royal demesnes; and nothing could be more +contrary to the principles of good government, than to establish a +prince with very extensive authority, yet permit him to be reduced +to beggary. This act met with opposition in the house of commons. One +Copely expressed his fears lest the queen, under color of the power +there granted, might alter the succession, and alienate the crown from +the lawful heir; but his words were thought “irreverent” to her majesty: +he was committed to the custody of the serjeant at arms, and though he +expressed sorrow for his offence, he was not released till the queen was +applied to for his pardon. + +The English nation, during this whole reign, were under great +apprehensions with regard not only to the succession, but the life of +the lady Elizabeth. The violent hatred which the queen bore to her broke +out on every occasion; and it required all the authority of Philip, as +well as her own great prudence, to prevent the fatal effects of it. The +princess retired into the country, and knowing that she was surrounded +with spies, she passed her time wholly in reading and study, +intermeddled in no business, and saw very little company. While she +remained in this situation, which for the present was melancholy, but +which prepared her mind for those great actions by which her life was +afterwards so much distinguished, proposals of marriage were made to her +by the Swedish Ambassador, in his master’s name. As her first question +was, whether the queen had been informed of these proposals, the +ambassador told her, that his master thought, as he was a gentleman, it +was his duty first to make his addresses to herself, and having obtained +her consent, he would next, as a king, apply to her sister. But the +princess would allow him to proceed no further; and the queen, after +thanking her for this instance of duty, desired to know how she stood +affected to the Swedish proposals. Elizabeth, though exposed to many +present dangers and mortifications, had the magnanimity to reserve +herself for better fortune; and she covered her refusal with professions +of a passionate attachment to a single life, which, she said, she +infinitely preferred before any other.[*] The princess showed like +prudence in concealing her sentiments of religion, in complying with the +present modes of worship, and in eluding all questions with regard to +that delicate subject.[**] + + * Burnet, vol. ii. Coll. No. 37. + + ** The common net at that time, says Sir Richard Baker, for + catching of Protestants, was the real presence; and this net + was used to catch the lady Elizabeth; for being asked, one + time, what she thought of the words of Christ. “This is my + body,” whether she thought it the true body of Christ that + was in the sacrament, it is said that, after some pausing, + she thus answered:-- + + “Christ was the word that spake it; + He took the bread and brake it; + And what the word did make it, + That I believe, and take it.” + + Which, though it may seem but a slight expression, yet hath + it more solidness than at first sight appears; at least, it + served her turn, at that time, to escape the net, which, by + a direct answer, she could not have done. Baker’s Chronicle, + p. 320. + + +The money granted by parliament enabled the queen to fit out a fleet of +a hundred and forty sail, which, being joined by thirty Flemish ships, +and carrying six thousand land forces on board, was sent to make an +attempt on the coast of Brittany. The fleet was commanded by Lord +Clinton; the land forces by the earls of Huntingdon and Rutland. But +the equipment of the fleet and army was so dilatory that the French +got intelligence of the design, and were prepared to receive them. The +English found Brest so well guarded as to render an attempt on that +place impracticable; but, landing at Conquet, they plundered and burnt +the town, with some adjacent villages, and were proceeding to commit +greater disorders, when Kersimon, a Breton gentleman, at the head of +some militia, fell upon them, put them to rout, and drove them to their +ships with considerable loss. But a small squadron of ten English ships +had an opportunity of amply revenging this disgrace upon the French. +The mareschal de Thermes, governor of Calais, had made an irruption into +Flanders, with an army of fourteen thousand men, and, having forced a +passage over the River Aa, had taken Dunkirk and Berg St. Winoc, and had +advanced as far as Newport; but Count Egmont coming suddenly upon him +with superior forces, he was obliged to retreat; and being overtaken by +the Spaniards near Gravelines, and finding a battle inevitable, he chose +very skilfully his ground for the engagement. He fortified his left wing +with all the precautions possible, and posted his right along the River +Aa, which, he reasonably thought, gave him full security from that +quarter. But the English ships, which were accidently on the coast, +being drawn by the noise of the firing, sailed up the river, and, +flanking the French, did such execution by their artillery that they put +them to flight, and the Spaniards gained a complete victory.[*] + + * Holigshed, p. 1150. + +Meanwhile the principal army of France under the duke of Guise, and that +of Spain under the duke of Savoy, approached each other on the frontiers +of Picardy; and as the two kings had come into their respective camps, +attended by the flower of their nobility, men expected that some great +and important event would follow from the emulation of these warlike +nations. But Philip, though actuated by the ambition, possessed not the +enterprising genius of a conqueror; and he was willing, notwithstanding +the superiority of his numbers, and the two great victories which he +had gained at St. Quintin and Gravelines, to put a period to the war +by treaty. Negotiations were entered into for that purpose; and as the +terms offered by the two monarchs were somewhat wide of each other, +the armies were put into winter quarters till the princes could come to +better agreement. Among other conditions, Henry demanded the restitution +of Navarre to its lawful owner; Philip, that of Calais and its territory +to England; but in the midst of these negotiations, news arrived of the +death of Mary; and Philip, no longer connected with England, began +to relax in his firmness on that capital article. This was the only +circumstance that could have made the death of that princess be +regretted by the nation. + +Mary had long been in a declining state of health; and having mistaken +her dropsy for a pregnancy, she had made use of an improper regimen, +and her malady daily augmented. Every reflection now tormented her. +The consciousness of being hated by her subjects, the prospect of +Elizabeth’s succession, apprehensions of the danger to which the +Catholic religion stood exposed, dejection for the loss of Calais, +concern for the ill state of her affairs, and, above all, anxiety for +the absence of her husband, who, she knew, intended soon to depart for +Spain, and to settle there during the remainder of his life,--all +these melancholy reflections preyed upon her mind, and threw her into a +lingering fever, of which she died, after a short and unfortunate reign +of five years four months and eleven days. + +It is not necessary to employ many words in drawing the character of +this princess. She possessed few qualities either estimable or amiable; +and her person was as little engaging as her behavior and address. +Obstinacy, bigotry, violence, cruelty, malignity, revenge, tyranny; +every circumstance of her character took a tincture from her bad temper +and narrow understanding. And amidst that complication of vices which +entered into her composition, we shall scarcely find any virtue but +sincerity; a quality which she seems to have maintained throughout her +whole life; except in the beginning of her reign, when the necessity of +her affairs obliged her to make some promises to the Protestants, which +she certainly never intended to perform. But in these cases a weak, +bigoted woman, under the government of priests, easily finds casuistry +sufficient to justify to herself the violation of a promise. She +appears, also, as well as her father, to have been susceptible of some +attachments of friendship; and that without the caprice and inconstancy +which were so remarkable in the conduct of that monarch. To which we +may add, that in many circumstances of her life she gave indications +of resolution and vigor of mind, a quality which seems to have been +inherent in her family. + +Cardinal Pole had long been sickly from an intermitting fever; and he +died the same day with the queen, about sixteen hours after her. The +benign character of this prelate, the modesty and humanity of his +deportment, made him be universally beloved; insomuch that in a nation +where the most furious persecution was carried on, and where the most +violent religious factions prevailed, entire justice, even by most of +the reformers, has been done to his merit. The haughty pontiff, Paul +IV., had entertained some prejudices against him; and when England +declared war against Henry, the ally of that pope, he seized the +opportunity of revenge; and revoking Pole’s legatine commission, +appointed in his room Cardinal Peyto, an Observantine friar, and +confessor to the queen. But Mary would never permit the new legate to +act upon the commission; and Paul was afterwards obliged to restore +Cardinal Pole to his authority. + +There occur few general remarks, besides what have already been made +in the course of our narration, with regard to the general state of +the kingdom during this reign. The naval power of England was then +so inconsiderable, that fourteen thousand pounds being ordered to be +applied to the fleet, both for repairing and victualling it, it was +computed that ten thousand pounds a year would afterwards answer all +necessary charges.[*] + + * Burnet, vol. iii. p. 259. + +The arbitrary proceedings of the queen above mentioned, joined to many +monopolies granted by this princess, as well as by her father, checked +the growth of commerce; and so much the more, as all other princes +in Europe either were not permitted, or did not find it necessary, to +proceed in so tyrannical a manner. Acts of parliament, both in the last +reign and in the beginning of the present, had laid the same impositions +on the merchants of the still-yard as on other aliens; yet the queen, +immediately after her marriage, complied with the solicitations of the +emperor, and by her prerogative suspended those laws.[*] Nobody in that +age pretended to question this exercise of prerogative. The historians +are entirely silent with regard to it; and it is only by the collection +of public papers that it is handed down to us. + +An absurd law had been made in the preceding reign, by which every one +was prohibited from making cloth unless he had served an apprenticeship +of seven years. The law was repealed in the first year of the queen; and +this plain reason given, that it had occasioned the decay of the woollen +manufacture, and had ruined several towns.[**] It is strange that +Edward’s law should have been revived during the reign of Elizabeth; and +still more strange that it should still subsist. + +A passage to Archangel had been discovered by the English during the +last reign; and a beneficial trade with Muscovy had been established. A +solemn embassy was sent by the czar to Queen Mary. The ambassadors were +shipwrecked on the coast of Scotland; but being hospitably entertained +there, they proceeded on the journey, and were received at London +with great pomp and solemnity.[***] This seems to have been the first +intercourse which that empire had with any of the western potentates of +Europe. + +A law was passed in this reign,[****] by which the number of horses, +arms and furniture, was fixed which each person, according to the extent +of his property, should be provided with for the defence of the kingdom. +A man of a thousand pounds a year, for instance, was obliged to maintain +at his own charge six horses fit for demi-lances, of which three at +least to be furnished with sufficient harness, steel saddles, and +weapons proper for the demi-lances; and ten horses fit for light +horsemen, with furniture and weapons proper for them: he was obliged +to have forty corselets furnished; fifty almain revets, or, instead of +them, forty coats of plate, corse, etc. or brigandines furnished; forty +pikes, thirty long bows, thirty sheafs of arrows, thirty steel caps or +skulls, twenty black bills or halberts, twenty harquebuts, and twenty +morions or sallets. We may remark that a man of a thousand marks of +stock was rated equal to one of two hundred pounds a year; a proof that +few or none at that time lived on their stock in money, and that great +profits were made by the merchants in the course of trade. There is no +class above a thousand pounds a year. + + * Rymer, vol. xv. p. 364. + + ** 1 Mar. Parl. 2, cap, 7. + + *** Holingshed, p. 732. Heylin, p. 71. + + **** 4 and 5 Phil. and Mar. cap. 2. + +We pay form a notion of the little progress made in arts and refinement +about this time, from one circumstance; a man of no less rank than the +comptroller of Edward VI.’s household paid only thirty shillings a year +of our present money for his house in Channel Row;[*] yet labor and +provisons, and consequently houses, were only about a third of the +present price. Erasmus ascribes the frequent plagues in England to the +nastiness, and dirt, and slovenly habits among the people. “The floors,” + says he, “are commonly of clay, strewed with rushes, under which lies +unmolested an ancient collection of beer, grease, fragments, bones, +spittle, excrements of dogs and cats, and every thing that is +nasty.”[**] + +Holingshed, who lived in Queen Elizabeth’s reign, gives a very curious +account of the plain, or rather rude way of living of the preceding +generation. There scarcely was a chimney to the houses, even in +considerable towns; the fire was kindled by the wall, and the smoke +sought its way out at the roof, or door, or windows: the houses were +nothing but watling plastered over with clay; the people slept on straw +pallets, and had a good round log under their head for a pillow; and +almost all the furniture and utensils were of wood.[***] [22] + +In this reign we find the first general law with regard to highways, +which were appointed to be repaired by parish duty all over +England.[****] + + * Nicholson’s Historical Library. + + ** Erasm. Epist. 482. + + *** See note V, at the end of the volume. + + **** 2 and 3 Phil. and Mar. cap. 8. + + + + +NOTES. + +[Footnote 1: NOTE A, p. 58. Stowe, Baker, Speed, Biondi, Holingshed, +Bacon. Some late writers, particularly Mr. Carte, have doubted whether +Perkin were an impostor, and have even asserted him to be the true +Plantagenet. But to refute this opinion, we need only reflect on the +following particulars: (1.) Though the circumstances of the wars between +the two roses be in general involved in great obscurity, yet is there a +most luminous ray thrown on all the transactions during the usurpation +of Richard, and the murder of the two young princes, by the narrative of +Sir Thomas More, whose singular magnanimity, probity, and judgment, make +him an evidence beyond all exception. No historian, either of ancient +or modern times, can possibly have more weight: he may also be justly +esteemed a contemporary with regard to the murder of the two princes; +for though he was but five years of age when that event happened, he +lived and was educated among the chief actors during the period of +Richard; and it is plain from this narrative itself, which is often +extremely circumstantial, that he had the particulars from the +eyewitnesses themselves. His authority, therefore, is irresistible, and +sufficient to overbalance a hundred little doubts, and scruples, +and objections. For in reality his narrative is liable to no solid +objection, nor is there any mistake detected in it. He says, indeed, +that the protector’s partisans, particularly Dr. Shaw, spread abroad +rumors of Edward IV.’s pre-contract with Elizabeth Lucy; whereas it now +appears from record, that the parliament afterwards declared the king’s +children illegitimate, on pretence of his pre-contract with lady Eleanor +Talbot. But it must be remarked, that neither of these pre-contracts +was ever so much as attempted to be proved; and why might not the +protector’s flatterers and partisans have made use sometimes of one +false rumor, sometimes of another? Sir Thomas More mentions the one +rumor as well as the other, and treats them both lightly, as they +deserved. It is also thought incredible by Mr. Carte, that Dr. Shaw +should have been encouraged by Richard to calumniate openly his mother +the duchess of York, with whom that prince lived in good terms. But if +there be any difficulty in this supposition, we need only suppose, that +Dr. Shaw might have concerted in general his sermon with the protector +or his ministers, and yet have chosen himself the particular topics, and +chosen them very foolishly. This appears, indeed, to have been the case, +by the disgrace into which he fell afterwards, and by the protector’s +neglect of him. (2.) If Sir Thomas’s quality of contemporary be disputed +with regard to the duke of Glocester’s protectorate, it cannot possibly +be disputed with regard to Perkin’s imposture: he was then a man, and +had a full opportunity of knowing and examining and judging of the +truth. In asserting that the duke of York was murdered by his uncle, +he certainly asserts, in the most express terms, that Perkin, who +personated him, was an impostor. (3.) There is another great genius who +has carefully treated this point of history; so great a genius, as to +be esteemed with justice one of the chief ornaments of the nation, +and indeed one of the most sublime writers that any age or nation has +produced. It is Lord Bacon I mean, who has related at full length, and +without the least doubt or hesitation, all the impostures of Perkin +Warbeck. If it be objected, that Lord Bacon was no contemporary, and +that we have the same materials as he upon which to form our judgment; +it must be remarked, the lord Bacon plainly composed his elaborate and +exact history from many records and papers which are now lost, and that +consequently he is always to be cited as an original historian. It were +very strange, if Mr. Carte’s opinion were just, that, among all the +papers which Lord Bacon perused, he never found any reascn to suspect +Perkin to be the true Plantagenet. There was at that time no interest +in defaming Richard III. Bacon, besides, is a very unbiased historian, +nowise partial to Henry; we know the detail of that prince’s oppressive +government from him alone. It may only be thought that, in summing up +his character, he has laid the colors of blame more faintly than the +very facts he mentions seem to require. Let me remark, in passing, as +a singularity, how much English history has been beholden to four great +men who have possessed the highest dignity in the law, More, Bacon, +Clarendon, and Whitlocke. (4.) But if contemporary evidence be so much +sought after, there may in this case be produced the strongest and +most undeniable in the world. The queen dowager, her son the marquis +of Dorset, a man of excellent understanding Sir Edward Woodville, her +brother, Sir Thomas St. Leger, who had married the king’s sister, Sir +John Bourchier, Sir Robert Willoughby, Sir Giles Daubeney, Sir Thomas +Arundel, the Courtneys, the Cheyneys, the Talbots, the Stanleys, and, +in a word, all the partisans of the house of York, that is, the men of +chief dignity in the nation; all these great persons were so assured +of the murder of the two princes, that they applied to the earl of +Richmond, the mortal enemy of their party and family; they projected to +set him on the throne, which must have been utter ruin to them if the +princes were alive; and they stipulated to marry him to the princess +Elizabeth, as heir to the crown, who in that case was no heir at all. +Had each of those persons written the memoirs of his own times, would he +not have said that Richard murdered his nephews? Or would their pen be +a better declaration than their actions, of their real sentiments? (5.) +But we have another contemporary authority, still better than even +those great persons, so much interested to know the truth: it is that +of Richard himself. He projected to marry his niece, a very unusual +alliance in England, in order to unite her title with his own. He +knew, therefore, her title to be good: for as to the declaration of her +illegitimacy, as it went upon no proof, or even pretence of proof, it +was always regarded with the utmost contempt by the nation, and it was +considered as one of those parliamentary transactions, so frequent in +that period, which were scandalous in themselves, and had no manner +of authority. It was even so much despised, as not to be reversed by +parliament after Henry and Elizabeth were on the throne. (6.) We have +also, as contemporary evidence, the universal established opinion of +the age, both abroad and at home. This point was regarded as so +uncontroverted, that when Richard notified his accession to the court of +France, that court was struck with horror at his abominable parricide +in murdering both his nephews, as Philip de Comines tells us; and this +sentiment went to such an unusual height, that, as we learn from the +same author, the court would not make the least reply to him. (7.) The +same reasons which convinced that age of the parricide still subsist, +and ought to carry the most undoubted evidence to us; namely, the very +circumstance of the sudden disappearance of the princes from the Tower, +and their appearance nowhere else. Every one said, “They have not +escaped from their uncle, for he makes no search after them: he has not +conveyed them elsewhere; for it is his business to declare so, in +order to remove the imputation of murder from himself. He never would +needlessly subject himself to the infamy and danger of being esteemed +a parricide, without acquiring the security attending that crime. They +were in his custody. He is answerable for them. If he gives no account +of them, as he has a plain interest in their death, he must, by +every rule of common sense, be regarded as the murderer. His flagrant +usurpation, as well as his other treacherous and cruel actions, makes +no better be expected from him. He could not say, with Cain, that he was +not his nephews’ keeper.” This reasoning, which was irrefragable at the +very first, became every day stronger from Richard’s continued silence, +and the general and total ignorance of the place of these princes’ +abode. Richard’s reign lasted about two years beyond this period; and +surely he could not have found a better expedient for disappointing the +earl of Richmond’s projects, as well as justifying his own character, +than the producing of his nephews. (8.) If it were necessary, amidst +this blaze of evidence, to produce proofs which, in any other case, +would have been regarded as considerable, and would have carried great +validity with them, I might mention Dighton and Tyrrel’s account of the +murder. This last gentleman especially was not likely to subject himself +to the reproach of so great a crime, by an imposture which, it appears, +did not acquire him the favor of Henry. (9.) The duke of York, being +a boy of nine years of age, could not have made his escape without the +assistance of some elder persons. Would it not have been their chief +concern instantly to convey intelligence of so great an event to his +mother, the queen dowager, to his aunt, the duchess of Burgundy, and to +the other friends of the family. The duchess protected Simnel; a project +which, had it been successful, must have ended in the crowning of +Warwick and the exclusion of the duke of York. This, among many other +proofs, evinces that she was ignorant of the escape of that prince, +which is impossible had it been real. (10.) The total silence with +regard to the persons who aided him in his escape, as also with regard +to the place of his abode during more than eight years, is a sufficient +proof of the imposture. (11.) Perkin’s own account of his escape is +incredible and absurd. He said, that murderers were employed by his +uncle to kill him and his brother; they perpetrated the crime against +his brother, but took compassion on him, and allowed him to escape. This +account is contained in all the historians of that age. (12.) Perkin +himself made a full confession of his imposture no less than three +times; once when he surrendered himself prisoner, a second time when he +was set in the stocks at Cheapside and Westminster, and a third time, +which carries undoubted evidence, at the foot of the gibbet on which +he was hanged. Not the least surmise that the confession had ever been +procured by torture; and surely the last time he had nothing further +to fear. (13.) Had not Henry been assured that Perkin was a ridiculous +impostor, disavowed by the whole nation, he never would have allowed him +to live an hour after he came into his power, much less would he have +twice pardoned him. His treatment of the innocent earl of Warwick, who, +in reality, had no title to the crown, is a sufficient confirmation of +this reasoning. (14.) We know with certainty whence the whole imposture +came, namely, from the intrigues of the duchess of Burgundy. She had +before acknowledged and supported Lambert Simnel, an avowed imposter. +It is remarkable that Mr. Carte, in order to preserve the weight of +the duchess’s testimony in favor of Perkin, suppresses entirely this +material fact: a strong effect of party prejudices, and this author’s +desire of blackening Henry VII., whose hereditary title to the crown was +defective. (15.) There never was, at that time, any evidence or shadow +of evidence produced of Perkin’s identity with Richard Plantagenet. +Richard had disappeared when near nine years of age, and Perkin did not +appear till he was a man. Could any one from his aspect pretend then to +be sure of the identity? He had got some stories concerning Richard’s +childhood, and the court of England; but all that it was necessary for +a boy of nine to remark or remember, was easily suggested to him by the +duchess of Burgundy, or Frion, Henry’s secretary, or by any body that +had ever lived at court. It is true, many persons of note were at +first deceived; but the discontents against Henry’s government, and the +general enthusiasm for the house of York, account sufficiently for this +temporary delusion. Everybody’s eyes were opened long before Perkin’s +death. (16.) The circumstance of finding the two dead bodies in the +reign of Charles II. is not surely indifferent. They were found in the +very place which More, Bacon, and other ancient authors, had assigned as +the place of interment of the young princes; the bones corresponded by +their size to the age of the princes; the secret and irregular place of +their interment, not being in holy ground, proves that the boys had +been secretly murdered; and in the Tower no boys but those who are very +nearly related to the crown can be exposed to a violent death. If we +compare all these circumstances, we shall find that the inference is +just and strong, that they were the bodies of Edward V. and his brother, +the very inference that was drawn at the time of the discovery. + +Since the publication of this History, Mr. Walpole has published his +Historic Doubts concerning Richard III. Nothing can be a stronger proof +how ingenious and agreeable that gentleman’s pen is, than his being +able to make an inquiry concerning a remote point of English history, an +object of general conversation. The foregoing note has been enlarged on +account of that performance.] + + +[Footnote 2: NOTE B, p. 69. Rot. Parl. 3 Henry VII. n. 17. The preamble +is remarkable, and shows the state of the nation at that time. +“The king, our sovereign lord, remembereth how, by our unlawful +maintainances, giving of liveries, signs, and tokens, retainders by +indentures, promises, oaths, writings, and other embraceries of his +subjects, untrue demeanings of sheriffs in making panels, and untrue +returns by taking money, by juries, etc. the policy of this nation is +most subdued.” It must indeed be confessed, that such a state of the +country required great discretionary power in the sovereign; nor will +the same maxims of government suit such a rude people, that may be +proper in a more advanced stage of society. The establishment of the +star-chamber, or the enlargement of its power, in the reign of Henry +VII., might have been as wise as the abolition of it in that of Charles +I.] + + +[Footnote 3: NOTE C, p. 72. The duke of Northumberland has lately +printed a household book of an old earl of that family, who lived at +this time. The author has been favored with the perusal of it; and it +contains many curious particulars, which mark the manners and way of +living in that rude, not to say barbarous, age; as well as the prices of +commodities. I have extracted a few of them from that piece, which +gives a true picture of ancient manners, and is one of the most singular +monuments that English antiquity affords us; for we may be confident, +however rude the strokes, that no baron’s family was on a nobler or +more splendid footing. The family consists of one hundred and sixty-six +persons, masters and servants. Fifty-seven strangers are reckoned +upon every day; on the whole, two hundred and twenty-three. Twopence +halfpenny are supposed to be the daily expense of each for meat, drink, +and firing. This would make a groat of our present money. Supposing +provisions between three and four times cheaper, it would be equivalent +to fourteenpence: no great sum for a nobleman’s housekeeping; especially +considering that the chief expense of a family at that time consisted +in meat and drink; for the sum allotted by the earl for his whole +annual expense is one thousand one hundred and eighteen pounds seventeen +shillings and eightpence; meat, drink, and firing cost seven hundred and +ninety-six pounds eleven shillings and twopence, more than two thirds +of the whole; in a modern family it is not above a third, (p. 157, +158, 159.) The whole expense of the earl’s family is managed with an +exactness that is very rigid, and, if we make no allowance for ancient +manners, such as may seem to border on an extreme; insomuch that the +number of pieces which must be cut out of every quarter of beef, mutton, +pork, veal, nay, stock-fish and salmon, are determined, and must be +entered and accounted for by the different clerks appointed for that +purpose. If a servant be absent a day, his mess is struck off. If he go +on my lord’s business, board-wages are allowed him, eightpence a day for +his journey in winter, fivepence in summer. When he stays in any place, +twopence a day are allowed him, besides the maintenance of his horse. +Somewhat above a quarter of wheat is allowed for every mouth throughout +the year; and the wheat is estimated at five shillings and eightpence +a quarter. Two hundred and fifty quarters of malt are allowed, at four +shillings a quarter. Two hogsheads are to be made of a quarter, which +amounts to about a bottle and a third of beer a day to each person, +(p.4,) and the beer will not be very strong One hundred and nine fat +beeves are to be bought at Allhallow-tide, at thirteen shillings and +fourpence apiece; and twenty-four lean beeves to be bought at St. +Helens, at eight shillings apiece. These are to be put into the pastures +to feed; and are to serve from Mid-summer to Michaelmas; which is +consequently the only time that the family eats fresh beef. During all +the rest of the year they live on salted meat. (p.5.) One hundred and +sixty gallons of mustard are allowed in a year, which seems indeed +requisite for the salt beef, (p.18.) Six hundred and forty-seven sheep +are allowed, at twentypence apiece; and these seem also to be all eat +salted, except between Lammas and Michaelmas, (p.5.) Only twenty-five +hogs are allowed at two shillings apiece; twenty-eight veals, at +twentypence; forty lambs, at tenpence or a shilling, (p. 7.) These +seem to be reserved for my lord’s table, or that of the upper servants, +called the knights’ table. The other servants, as they eat salted meat +almost through the whole year, and with few or no vegetables, had a very +bad and unhealthy diet; so that there cannot be any thing more erroneous +than the magnificent ideas formed of “the roast beef of old England.” We +must entertain as mean an idea of its cleanliness. Only seventy ells of +linen, at eightpence an ell, are annually allowed for this great family. +No sheets were used. This linen was made into eight table-cloths for my +lord’s table, and one table-cloth for the knights, (p.16.) This last, I +suppose, was washed only once a month. Only forty shillings are allowed +for washing throughout the whole year; and most of it seems expended on +the linen belonging to the chapel. The drinking, however, was tolerable, +namely, ten tuns and two hogsheads of Gascogny wine, at the rate of four +pounds thirteen shillings and fourpence a tun. (p.6.) Only ninety-one +dozen of candles for the whole year. (p.14.) The family rose at six +in the morning, dined at ten, and supped at four in the afternoon. The +gates were all shut at nine, and no further ingress or egress permitted, +(p. 314, 318.) My lord and lady have set on their table for breakfast at +seven o’clock in the morning a quart of beer, as much wine; two pieces +of salt fish, six red herrings, four white ones, or a dish of sprats. +In flesh days, half a chine of mutton, or a chine of beef boiled, (p.73, +75.) Mass is ordered to be said at six o’clock, in order, says the +household book that all my lord’s servants may rise early, (p.170.) Only +twenty-four fires are allowed, beside the kitchen and hall, and most +of these have only a peck of coals a day allowed them. (p.99.) After +Lady-day, no fires permitted in the rooms, except half-fires in my +lord’s and lady’s, and lord Piercy’s and the nursery, (p.101.) It is +to be observed, that my lord kept house in Yorkshire, where there is +certainly much cold weather after Lady-day. Eighty chalders of coals, +at four shillings and twopence a chalder, suffices throughout the whole +year; and because coal will not burn without wood, says the household +book, sixty-four loads of great wood are also allowed, at twelvepence a +load.(p.22.) This is a proof that grates were not the used. Here is an +article. “It is devised that from henceforth no capons to be bought but +only for my lord’s own mess, and that the said capons shall be +bought for twopence apiece, lean, and fed in the poultry; and master +chamberlain and the stewards be fed with capons, if there be strangers +sitting with them.” (p. 102.) Pigs are to be bought at threepence or a +groat a piece; geese at the same price; chickens at a halfpenny; hens +at twopence, and only for the abovementioned tables. Here is another +article. “Item, it is thought* good that no plovers be bought at no +season but only in Christmas* and principal feasts, and my lord to be +served therewith and his board-*end, and none other, and to be bought +for a penny apiece, or a penny halfpenny at most.” (p. 103.) Woodcocks +are to be bought at the same price. Partridges at twopence, (p. 104, +105.) Pheasants a shilling; peacocks, the same. (p. 100.) My lord keeps +only twenty-seven horses in his stable at his own charge. His upper +servants have allowance for maintaining their own horses, (p. 126.) +These horses are six gentle horses, as they are called, at hay and hard +meat throughout the whole year, four palfreys, three hobbies and nags +three sumpter horses, six horses for those servants to whom my lord +furnishes a horse, two sumpter horses more, and three mill horses two +for carrying the corn, and one for grinding it; whence we may infer that +mills, either water or windmills, were then unknown, at least very rare; +besides these, there are seven great trotting horses for the chariot or +wagon. He allows a peck of oats a day, besides loaves made of beans, +for his principal horses; the oats at twentypence, the beans at two +shillings a quarter. The load of hay is at two shillings and eightpence. +When my lord is on a journey, he carries thirty-six horsemen along with +him; together with bed and other accommodation. (p. 157.) The inns, it +seems, could afford nothing tolerable. My lord passes the year in three +country seats, all in Yorkshire; Wrysel, Leckenfield, and Topclyiffe; +but he has furniture only for one. He carries every thing along with +him, beds, tables, chairs, kitchen utensils, all which, we may conclude, +were so coarse, that they could not be spoilt by the carriage; yet +seventeen carts and one wagon suffice for the whole. (p. 391.) One cart +suffices for all his kitchen utensils, cooks’ beds, etc. (p. 388.) One +remarkable circumstance is, that he has eleven priests in his house, +besides seventeen persons, chanters, musicians, etc. belonging to +his chapel; yet he has only two cooks for a family of two hundred and +twenty-three persons. (p. 325.)[*] + + * In another place mention is made of four cooks. (p. 388.) + But I suppose that the two servants, called in p. 325 groom + of the larder and child of the scullery, are on p. 368, + comprehended in the number of cooks. + +Their meals were certainly dressed on the slovenly manner of a ship’s +company. It is amusing to observe the pompous and even royal style +assumed by this Tartar chief. He does not give any orders, though +only for the right making of mustard, but it is introduced with this +preamble: “It seemeth good to us and our council.” If we consider the +magnificent and elegant manner in which the Venetian and other +Italian noblemen then lived, with the progress made by the Italians in +literature and the fine arts, we shall not wonder that they considered +the ultramontane nations as barbarous. The Flemish also seem to have +much excelled the English and even the French. Yet the earl is sometimes +not deficient in generosity; he pays, for instance, an annual pension of +a groat a year to my lady of Walsingham, for her interest in heaven: the +same sum to the holy blood at Hales. (p. 337.) No mention is anywhere +made of plate; but only of the hiring of pewter vessels. The servants +seem all to have bought their own clothes from their wages.] + + +[Footnote 4: NOTE D, p. 132. Protestant writers have imagined, that +because a man could purchase for a shilling an indulgence for the most +enormous and unheard-of crimes, there must necessarily have ensued a +total dissolution of morality, and consequently of civil society, from +the practices of the Romish church. They do not consider, that after all +these indulgences were promulgated, there still remained (besides hell +fire) the punishment by the civil magistrate, the infamy of the world, +and secret remorses of conscience, which are the great motives that +operate on mankind. The philosophy of Cicero, who allowed of an Elysium, +but rejected all Tartarus, was a much more universal indulgence than +that preached by Arcemboldi or Tetzel; yet nobody will suspect Cicero +of any design to promote immorality. The sale of indulgences seems, +therefore, no more criminal than any other cheat of the church of Rome, +or of any other church. The reformers, by entirely abolishing purgatory, +did really, instead of partial indulgences sold by the pope, give, +gratis, a general indulgence of a similar nature, for all crimes and +offences, without exception or distinction. The souls once consigned +to hell were never supposed to be redeemable by any price. There is on +record only one instance of a damned soul that was saved, and that by +the special intercession of the Virgin. See Pascal’s Provincial Letters. +An indulgence saved the person who purchased it from purgatory only.] + + +[Footnote 5: NOTE E, p. 142. It is said, that when Henry heard that the +commons made a great difficulty of granting the required supply, he was +so provoked that he sent for Edward Montague, one of the members, who +had a considerable influence on the house; and he being introduced to +his majesty, had the mortification to hear him speak in these words: +“Ho! man: will they not suffer my bill to pass?” And laying his hand +on Montague’s head, who was then on his knees before him, “Get my bill +passed by to-morrow, or else to-morrow this head of yours shall be off.” + This cavalier manner of Henry succeeded; for next day the bill passed. +Collins’s British Peerage. Grove’s Life of Wolsey. We are told by Hall, +(fol. 38,) that Cardinal Wolsey endeavored to terrify the citizens of +London into the general loan exacted in 1525, and told them plainly, +that “it were better that some should suffer indigence than that the +king at this time should lack and therefore beware and resist not, nor +ruffle not in this case, for it may fortune to cost some people their +heads.” Such was the style employed by this king and his ministers.] + + +[Footnote 6: NOTE F, p. 177. The first article of the charge against the +cardinal is his procuring the legatine power, which, however, as it was +certainly done with the king’s consent and permission, could be nowise +criminal. Many of the other articles also regard the mere exercise of +that power. Some articles impute to him, as crimes, particular actions +which were natural or unavoidable to any man that was prime minister +with so unlimited an authority; such as receiving first all letters from +the king’s ministers abroad, receiving first all visits from foreign +ministers, desiring that all applications should be made through him. He +was also accused of naming himself with the king, as if he had been his +fellow--“the king and I.” It is reported that sometimes he even put +his own name before the king’s--“ego et rex meus.” But this mode of +expression is justified by the Latin idiom. It is remarkable, that +his whispering in the king’s ear, knowing himself to be affected with +venereal distempers, is an article against him. Many of the charges are +general, and incapable of proof. Lord Herbert goes so far as to affirm, +that no man ever fell from so high a station who had so few real crimes +objected to him. This opinion is perhaps a little too favorable to the +cardinal. Yet the refutation of the articles by Cromwell, and their +being rejected by a house of commons, even in this arbitrary reign, +is almost a demonstration of Wolsey’s innocence. Henry was, no +doubt, entirely bent on his destruction, when, on his failure by +a parliamentary impeachment, he attacked him upon the statute of +provisors, which afforded him so little just hold on that minister. For +that this indictment was subsequent to the attack in parliament, appears +by Cavendish’s Life of Wolsey, and Stowe, (p. 551,) and more certainly +by the very articles of impeachment themselves. Parliamentary History, +vol. iii. p. 42, article 7. Coke’s Inst. part iv. fol. 89.] + + +[Footnote 7: NOTE G, p. 183. Even judging of this question by the +Scripture, to which the appeal was every moment made, the arguments for +the king’s cause appear but lame and imperfect. Marriage in the degree +of affinity which had place between Henry and Catharine, is, indeed, +prohibited in Leviticus; but it is natural to interpret that prohibition +as a part of the Jewish ceremonial or municipal law; and though it is +there said, in the conclusion, that the Gentile nations, by violating +those degrees of consanguinity, had incurred the divine displeasure; +the extension of this maxim to every precise case before specified, +is supposing the Scriptures to be composed with a minute accuracy and +precision, to which, we know with certainty, the sacred penmen did not +think proper to confine themselves. The descent of mankind from one +common father obliged them, in the first generation, to marry in the +nearest degrees of consanguinity. Instances of a like nature occur among +the patriarchs; and the marriage of a brother’s widow was, in certain +cases, not only permitted, but even enjoined as a positive precept, +by the Mosaical law. It is in vain to say that this precept was an +exception to the rule, and an exception confined merely to the Jewish +nation. The inference is still just, that such a marriage can contain +no natural or moral turpitude; otherwise God, who is the author of all +purity, would never, in any case, have enjoined it.] + + +[Footnote 8: NOTE H, p. 191. Bishop Burnet has given us an account of +the number of bulls requisite for Cranmer’s installation. By one bull, +directed to the king, he is, upon the royal nomination, made archbishop +of Canterbury. By a second, directed to himself, he is also made +archbishop. By a third, he is absolved from all censures. A fourth is +directed to the suffragans, requiring them to receive and acknowledge +him as archbishop. A fifth to the dean and chapter, to the same purpose. +A sixth to the clergy of Canterbury. A seventh to all the laity in his +see. An eighth to all that held lands of it. By a ninth he was ordered +to be consecrated, taking the oath that was in the pontifical. By a +tenth the pall was sent him. By an eleventh the archbishop of York and +the bishop of London were required to put it on him. These were so +many devices to draw fees to offices which the popes had erected, and +disposed of for money. It may be worth observing, that Cranmer, before +he took the oath to the pope, made a protestation, that he did not +intend thereby to restrain himself from any thing that he was bound +to, either by his duty to God, the king, or the country; and that he +renounced every thing in it that was contrary to any of these. This was +the invention of some casuist, and not very compatible with that +strict sincerity, and that scrupulous conscience, of which Cranmer made +profession. Collier, vol. ii. in Coll No. 22. Burnet, vol. i. p. 128, +129.] + + +[Footnote 9: NOTE I, p. 203. Here are the terms in which the king’s +minister expressed himself to the pope. “An non, inquam, sanctitas +vestra plerosque habet quibuscum arcanum aliquid crediderit, putet id +non minus celatum esse quam si uno tantum pectore contineretur; quod +multo magis serenissimo Angliæ regi evenire debet, cui singuli in +suo regno sunt subjecti, neque etiam velint, possunt regi non esse +fidelissimi. Væ namque illis, si vel parvo momento ab illius voluntate +recederent”. Le Grand, tom. iii. p. 113. The king once said +publicly before the council, that if any one spoke of him or his actions +in terms which became them not, he would let them know that he was +master. “Et qu’il n’y auroit si belle tête qu’il ne fit voler.” Id. p. +218.] + + +[Footnote 11: NOTE K. p 226. This letter contains so much nature, and +even elegance, as to deserve to be transmitted to posterity, without any +alteration in the expression. It is as follows:-- + +“Sir, your grace’s displeasure and my imprisonment are things so strange +unto me, as what to write, or what to excuse, I am altogether ignorant. +Whereas you send unto me (willing me to confess a truth and so obtain +your favor) by such an one whom you know to be mine ancient professed +enemy, I no sooner received this message by him, than I rightly +conceived your meaning; and if, as you say, confessing a truth indeed +may procure my safety, I shall with all willingness and duty perform +your command. + +“But let not your grace ever imagine that your poor wife will ever be +brought to acknowledge a fault where not so much as a thought thereof +preceded. And, to speak a truth, never prince had wife more loyal in +all duty, and in all true affection, than you have ever found in Anne +Boleyn; with which name and place I could willingly have contented +myself, if God and your grace’s pleasure had been so pleased. Neither +did I at any time so far forget myself in my exaltation or received +queenship, but that I always looked for such an alteration as I now +find; for the ground of my preferment being on no surer foundation than +your grace’s fancy, the least alteration I knew was fit and sufficient +to draw that fancy to some other object. You have chosen me from a low +estate to be your queen and companion, far beyond my desert or desire. +If then you found me worthy of such honor, good your grace let not any +light fancy, or bad counsel of mine enemies withdraw your princely favor +from me; neither let that stain, that unworthy stain, of a disloyal +heart towards your good grace, ever cast so foul a blot on your most +dutiful wife, and the infant princess your daughter. Try me, good king, +but let me have a lawful trial, and let not my sworn enemies sit as my +accusers and judges; yea, let me receive an open trial, for my truth +shall fear no open shame; then shall you see either mine innocence +cleared, your suspicion and conscience satisfied, the ignominy and +slander of the world stopped, or my guilt openly declared. So that +whatsoever God or you may determine of me, your grace may be freed from +an open censure; and mine offence being so lawfully proved, your grace +is at liberty, both before God and man, not only to execute worthy +punishment on me as an unlawful wife, but to follow your affection, +already settled on that party for whose sake I am now as I am, whose +name I could some good while since have pointed unto, your grace not +being ignorant of my suspicion therein. + +“But if you have already determined of me, and that not only my death, +but an infamous slander, must bring you the enjoying of your desired +happiness; then I desire of God, that he will pardon your great sin +therein, and likewise mine enemies, the instruments thereof; and that +he will not call you to a strict account for your unprincely and cruel +usage of me, at his general judgment-seat, where both you and myself +must shortly appear, and in whose judgment, I doubt not, (whatsoever +the world may think of me,) mine innocence shall be openly known and +sufficiently cleared. + +“My last and only request shall be, that myself may only bear the burden +of your grace’s displeasure, and that it may not touch the innocent +souls of those poor gentlemen, who (as I understand,) are likewise in +strait imprisonment for my sake. If ever I have found favor in your +sight, if ever the name of Anne Boleyn hath been pleasing in your ears, +then let me obtain this request; and I will so leave to trouble your +grace any further, with mine earnest prayers to the Trinity to have your +grace in his good keeping, and to direct you In all your actions. From +my doleful prison in the Tower, this sixth of May. + +“Your most loyal and ever faithful wife, + +“ANNE BOLEYN.”] + + +[Footnote 12: NOTE L, p. 234. A proposal had formerly been made in the +convocation for the abolition of the lesser monasteries; and had been +much opposed by Bishop Fisher, who was then alive. He told his brethren, +that this was fairly showing the king the way how he might come at the +greater monasteries. “An axe,” said he, “which wanted a handle, came upon +a time into the wood, making his moan to the great trees, that he wanted +a handle to work withal, and for that cause he was constrained to sit +idle; therefore he made it his request to them, that they would be +pleased to grant him one of their small saplings within the wood to +make him a handle; who, mistrusting no guile, granted him one of their +smaller trees to make him a handle. But now becoming a complete axe, he +fell so to work within the same wood, that in process of time, there was +neither great nor small trees to be found in the place where the +wood stood. And so, my lords, if you grant the king these smaller +monasteries, you do but make him a handle, whereby, at his own pleasure, +he may cut down all the cedars within your Lebanons.” Dr. Bailie’s Life +of Bishop Fisher, p. 108.] + + +[Footnote 13: NOTE M, p. 244. There is a curious passage with regard +to the suppression of monasteries to be found in Coke’s Institutes, 4th +Inst. chap. i. p. 44. It is worth transcribing, as it shows the ideas of +the English government, entertained during the reign of Henry VIII., and +even in the time of Sir Edward Coke, when he wrote his Institutes. It +clearly appears, that the people had then little notion of being jealous +of their liberties, were desirous of making the crown quite independent, +and wished only to remove from themselves, as much as possible, the +burdens of government. A large standing army, and a fixed revenue, +would, on these conditions, have been regarded as great blessings; and +it was owing entirely to the prodigality of Henry, and to his little +suspicion that the power of the crown could ever fail, that the English +owe all their present liberty. The title of the chapter in Coke, is, +“Advice concerning new and plausible Projects and Offers in Parliament.” + “When any plausible project,” says he, “is made in parliament, to draw +the lords and commons to assent to any act, (especially in matters of +weight and importance,) if both houses do give upon the matter projected +and promised their consent, it shall be most necessary, they being +trusted for the commonwealth, to have the matter projected and promised +(which moved the houses to consent) to be established in the same act, +lest the benefit of the act be taken, and the matter projected and +promised never performed, and so the houses of parliament perform not +the trust reposed in them, as it fell out (taking one example for many) +in the reign of Henry VIII. On the king’s behalf, the members of both +houses were informed in parliament, that no king or kingdom was safe but +where the king had three abilities: 1. To live of his own, and able to +defend his kingdom upon any sudden invasion or insurrection. 2. To aid +his confederates, otherwise they would never assist him. 3. To +reward his well-deserving servants. Now, the project was, that if the +parliament would give unto him all the abbeys, priories, friaries, +nunneries, and other monasteries, that, forever in time then to come, he +would take order that the same should not be converted to private uses; +but first, that his exchequer for the purposes aforesaid, should be +enriched; secondly, the kingdom strengthened by a continual maintenance +of forty thousand well-trained soldiers, with skilful captains and +commanders; thirdly, for the benefit and ease of the subject, who never +afterwards, (as was projected,) in any time to come, should be charged +with subsidies, fifteenths, loans, or other common aids; fourthly, lest +the honor of the realm should receive any diminution of honor by the +dissolution of the said monasteries, there being twenty-nine lords +of parliament of the abbots and priors, (that held of the king ‘pet +baroniam,’ whereof more in the next leaf,) that the king would create a +number of nobles, which we omit. The said monasteries were given to the +king by authority of divers ants of parliament, but no provision was +therein made for the said project, or any part thereof!”] + + +[Footnote 14: NOTE N, p. 252., Collier, in his Ecclesiastical History, +(vol. ii. p. 152,) has preserved an account which Cromwell gave of this +conference, in a letter to Sir Thomas Wyat, the king’s ambassador in +Germany. “The king’s majesty,” says Cromwell, “for the reverence of +the holy sacrament of the altar, did sit openly in his hall, and there +presided at the disputation, process, and judgment of a miserable +heretic sacramentary, who was burned the twentieth of November. It was a +wonder to see how princely, with how excellent gravity, and inestimable +majesty, his highness exercised there the very office of supreme head +of the church of England. How benignly his grace essayed to convert +the miserable man; how strong and manifest reasons his highness alleged +against him. I wish the princes and potentates of Christendom to have +had a meet place to have seen it. Undoubtedly they should have much +marvelled at his majesty’s most high wisdom and judgment, and reputed +him no otherwise after the same, than in a manner the mirror and +light of all other kings and princes in Christendom.” It was by such +flatteries that Henry was engaged to make his sentiments the standard to +all mankind; and was determined to enforce, by the severest penalties, +his “strong” and “manifest” reasons for transubstantiation.] + + +[Footnote 15: NOTE O, p. 254. There is a story, that the duke of +Norfolk, meeting, soon after this act was passed, one of his chaplains, +who was suspected of favoring the reformation, said to him, “Now, sir, +what think you of the law to hinder priests from having wives?” “Yes, my +lord,” replies the chaplain, “you have done that; but I will answer for +it you cannot hinder men’s wives from having priests.”] + + +[Footnote 16: NOTE P, p. 265. To show how much Henry sported with +law and common sense, how servilely the parliament followed all his +caprices, and how much both of them were lost to all sense of shame, an +act was passed this session, declaring that a precontract should be no +ground for annulling a marriage; as if that pretext had not been made +use of both in the case of Anne Boleyn and Anne of Cleves. But the +king’s intention in this law is said to be a design of restoring the +princess Elizabeth to her right of legitimacy; and it was his character +never to look farther than the present object, without regarding the +inconsistency of his conduct. The parliament made it high treason to +deny the dissolution of Henry’s marriage with Anne of Cleves. Herbert.] + + +[Footnote 17: NOTE Q, p. 274. It was enacted by this parliament, that +there should be trial of treason in any county where the king should +appoint by commission. The statutes of treason had been extremely +multiplied in this reign; and such an expedient saved trouble and +charges in trying that crime. The same parliament erected Ireland into +a kingdom; and Henry henceforth annexed the title of king of Ireland to +his other titles. This session the commons first began the practice of +freeing any of their members who were arrested, by a writ issued by +the speaker. Formerly it was usual for them to apply for a writ from +chancery to that purpose. This precedent increased the authority of the +commons, and had afterwards important consequences. Holingshed, p. 955, +956. Baker, p. 289.] + + +[Footnote 18: NOTE R, p. 281. The persecutions exercised during James’s +reign are not to be ascribed to his bigotry, a vice of which he seems to +have been as free as Francis I. or the emperor Charles, both of whom, +as well as James, showed, in different periods of their lives, even an +inclination to the new doctrines. The extremities to which all these +princes were carried, proceeded entirely from the situation of affairs +during that age, which rendered it impossible for them to act with +greater temper or moderation, after they had embraced the resolution of +supporting the ancient establishments. So violent was the propensity +of the times towards innovation, that a bare toleration of the new +preachers was equivalent to a formed design of changing the national +religion.] + + +[Footnote 19: NOTE S, p. 331. Spotswood, p. 75. The same author (p. 92) +tells us a story which confirms this character of the Popish clergy in +Scotland. It became a great dispute in the university of St. Andrew’s, +whether the pater should be said to God or the saints. The friars, who +knew in general that the reformers neglected the saints, were determined +to maintain their honor with great obstinacy; but they knew not upon +what topics to found their doctrine. Some held that the pater was +said to God formaliter, and to saints materialiter; others, to God +principaliter, and to saints minus principaliter; others would have +it ultimate and non ultimate: but the majority seemed to hold that the +pater was said to God capiendo stricte, and to saints capiendo large. A +simple fellow, who served the sub-prior, thinking there was some great +matter in hand that made the doctors hold so many conferences together, +asked him one day what the matter was: the sub-prior answering, “Tom,” + (that was the fellow’s name,) “we cannot agree to whom the pater-noster +should be said.” He suddenly replied, “To whom, sir, should it be said, +but unto God?” Then said the sub-prior, “What shall we do with the +saints?” He answered, “Give them aves and creeds enow, in the devil’s +name; for that may suffice them.” The answer going abroad, many said, +“that he had given a wiser decision than all the doctors had done, with +all their distinctions.”] + + +[Footnote 20: NOTE T, p. 351. Another act, passed this session, takes +notice, in the preamble, that the city of York, formerly well inhabited, +was now much decayed; insomuch that many of the cures could not afford +a competent maintenance to the incumbents. To remedy this inconvenience, +the magistrates were empowered to unite as many parishes as they thought +proper. An ecclesiastical historian (Collier, vol. ii. p. 230) thinks +that this decay of York is chiefly to be ascribed to the dissolution of +monasteries, by which the revenues fell into the hands of persons who +lived at a distance. + +A very grievous tax was imposed this session upon the whole stock and +moneyed interest of the kingdom, and even upon its industry. It was a +shilling in the pound yearly, during three years, on every person worth +ten pounds or upwards; the double on aliens and denizens. These last, if +above twelve years of age, and if worth less than twenty shillings, were +to pay eightpence yearly. Every wether was to pay twopence yearly; every +ewe, threepence. The woollen manufactures were to pay eightpence a pound +on the value of all the cloth they made. These exorbitant taxes on money +are a proof that few people lived on money lent at interest; for this +tax amounts to half of the yearly income of all money-holders, during +three years, estimating their interest at the rate allowed by law; and +was too grievous to be borne, if many persons had been affected by it. +It is remarkable, that no tax at all was laid upon land this session. +The profits of merchandise were commonly so high, that it was supposed +it could bear this imposition. The most absurd part of the laws seems +to be the tax upon the woollen manufactures. See 2 and 3 Edward VI. +cap. 36. The subsequent parliament repealed the tax on sheep and woollen +cloth. 3 and 4 Edward VI. cap. 23. But they continued the other tax a +year longer. Ibid. + +The clergy taxed themselves at six shillings in the pound, to be paid +in three years. This taxation was ratified in parliament, which had been +the common practice since the reformation, implying that the clergy have +no legislative power, even over themselves. See 2 and 3 Edward VI. cap. +35.] + + +[Footnote 21: NOTE U, p. 412. The pope at first gave Cardinal Pole +powers to transact only with regard to the past fruits of the church +lands; but being admonished of the danger attending any attempt towards +a resumption of the lands, he enlarged the cardinal’s powers, and +granted him authority to insure the future possession of the church +lands to the present proprietors. There was only one clause in the +cardinal’s powers that has given occasion for some speculation. An +exception was made of such cases as Pole should think important enough +to merit the being communicated to the holy see. But Pole simply +ratified the possession of all the church lands; and his commission had +given him full powers to that purpose. See Harleian Miscellany, vol. +vii. p. 264, 266. It is true, some councils have declared, that it +exceeds even the power of the pope to alienate any church lands; and the +pope, according to his convenience or power, may either adhere to, or +recede from, this declaration. But every year gave solidity to the right +of the proprietors of church lands, and diminished the authority of +the popes; so that men’s dread of popery in subsequent times was more +founded on party or religious zeal, than on very solid reasons.] + + +[Footnote 22: NOTE V, p. 448. The passage of Holingshed, in the +Discourse prefixed to his History, and which some ascribe to Harrison, +is as follows. Speaking of the increase of luxury: “Neither do I speak +this in reproach, of any man, God is my judge; but to show that I do +rejoice rather to see how God has blessed us with his good gifts, and to +behold how that in a time wherein all things are grown to most excessive +prices, we do yet find the means to obtain and archive such furniture +as heretofore has been impossible. There are old men yet dwelling in the +village where I remain, which have noted three things to be marvellously +altered in England, within their sound remembrance. One is, the +multitude of chimnies lately erected; whereas in their young days, there +were not above two or three, if so many, in most uplandish towns of +the realm; (the religious houses and manor-places of their lords always +excepted, and peradventure some great personage;) but each made his fire +against a reredosse in the hall where he dined and dressed his meat. The +second is, the great amendment of lodging; for, said they, our fathers +and we ourselves have lain full oft upon straw pallettes covered only +with a sheet under coverlets made of dagswaine or hopharlots, (I use +their own terms,) and a good round log under their head instead of a +bolster. If it were so, that the father or the goodman of the house had +a matrass or flock-bed, and thereto a sack of chaff to rest his head +upon, he thought himself to be as well lodged as the lord of the town, +so well were they contented. Pillows, said they, were thought meet only +for women in childbed. As for servants, if they had any sheet above +them, it was well; for seldom had they any under their bodies to keep +them from the prickling straws, that ran oft through the canvass, +and razed their hardened hydes. The third thing they tell of is, the +exchange of treene platers (so called, I suppose, from tree or wood) +into pewter, and wooden spoons into silver or tin. For so common were +all sorts of treene vessels in old time, that a man should hardly find +four pieces of pewter (of which one was peradventure a salt) in a good +farmer’s house.” Description of Britain, chap. x. Again, in chap. xvi.: +“In times past, men were contented to dwell in houses builded of sallow, +willow, etc.; so that the use of the oak was in a manner dedicated +wholly unto churches, religious houses, princes’ palaces, navigation, +etc., but now sallow, etc., are rejected, and nothing but oak any where +regarded. And yet see the change; for when our houses were builded of +willow, then had we oaken men; but now that our houses are come to +be made of oak, our men are not only become willow, but a great many +altogether of straw, which is a sore alteration. In these the courage of +the owner was a sufficient defence to keep the house in safety; but now +the assurance of the timber must defend the men from robbing. Now have +we many chimnies; and yet out tender**** complain of rheums, catarrhs, +and poses; then had we none but reredosses, and our heads did never +ache. For as the smoke in those days was supposed to be a sufficient +hardening for the timber of the house, so it was reputed a far better +medicine to keep the good man and his family from the quacke or pose, +wherewith, as then, very few were acquainted.” Again, in chap. xviii.: +“Our pewterers in time past employed the use of pewter only upon dishes +and pots, and a few other trifles for service; whereas now, they are +grown into such exquisite cunning, that they can in manner imitate by +infusion any form or fashion of cup, dish, salt, or bowl or goblet, +which is made by goldsmith’s craft, though they be never so curious, and +very artificially forged. In some places beyond the sea, a garnish of +good flat English pewter (I say flat, because dishes and platers in +my time begin to be made deep, and like basons, and are indeed more +convenient, both for sauce and keeping the meat warm) is almost esteemed +so precious as the like number of vessels that are made of fine silver.” + If the reader is curious to know the hour of meals in Queen Elizabeth’s +reign, he may learn it from the same author. “With us the nobility, +gentry, and students, do ordinarily go to dinner at eleven before +noon, and to supper at five, or between five and six at afternoon. The +merchants dine and sup seldom before twelve at noon and six at night, +especially in London. The husbandmen dine also at high noon, as they +call it, and sup at seven or eight; but out of term in our universities +the scholars dine at ten.” + +Froissart mentions waiting on the duke of Lancaster at five o’clock in +the afternoon, when he had supped. These hours are still more early. +It is hard to tell, why, all over the world, as the age becomes more +luxurious, the hours become later. Is it the crowd of amusements that +push on the hours gradually? or are the people of fashion better pleased +with the secrecy and silence of nocturnal hours, when the industrious +vulgar are all gone to rest? In rude ages, men have few amusements or +occupations but what daylight affords them.} + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of England in Three +Volumes, Vol.I., Part C., by David Hume + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ENGLAND *** + +***** This file should be named 19213-0.txt or 19213-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/2/1/19213/ + +Produced by David Widger and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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