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diff --git a/19449-8.txt b/19449-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8af6c20 --- /dev/null +++ b/19449-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8776 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The North American Indian by Edward S. +Curtis + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: The North American Indian + +Author: Edward S. Curtis + +Release Date: October 3, 2006 [Ebook #19449] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN*** + + + + + + [Illustration: The Pool - Apache] + + The Pool - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + + +The North American Indian + +Being A Series Of Volumes Picturing And Describing +The Indians Of The United States And Alaska + + + Written, Illustrated, And Published By Edward S. Curtis + + Edited By Frederick Webb Hodge + + Foreword By Theodore Roosevelt + + Field Research Conducted Under The Patronage Of J. Pierpont Morgan + + In Twenty Volumes This, The First Volume, Published In The Year Nineteen + Hundred And Seven + +JOHNSON REPRINT CORPORATION +111 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10003 + +JOHNSON REPRINT COMPANY LTD. +Berkeley Square House, London, W1X6BA + + + + + + Copyright 1907, by Edward S. Curtis + + _Landmarks in Anthropology_, a series of reprints in cultural + anthropology + _General Editor:_ Weston La Barre + + First reprinting 1970, Johnson Reprint Corporation + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +GENERAL INTRODUCTION +INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME ONE +THE APACHE + HISTORICAL SKETCH + HOMELAND AND LIFE + MYTHOLOGY - CREATION MYTH + MEDICINE AND MEDICINE-MEN + THE MESSIAH CRAZE + PUBERTY RITE + DANCE OF THE GODS +THE JICARILLAS + HOME AND GENERAL CUSTOMS + MYTHOLOGY - CREATION MYTH + MIRACLE PERFORMERS + ORIGIN OF FIRE +THE NAVAHO + HOME LIFE, ARTS, AND BELIEFS + HISTORY + MYTHOLOGY - CREATION MYTH + MIRACLE PERFORMERS + LEGEND OF THE HAPPINESS CHANT + LEGEND OF THE NIGHT CHANT + CEREMONIES--THE NIGHT CHANT + MATURITY CEREMONY + MARRIAGE +APPENDIX + TRIBAL SUMMARY - THE APACHE + THE JICARILLAS + THE NAVAHO +SOUTHERN ATHAPASCAN COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY +INDEX + + + + + +ALPHABET USED IN RECORDING INDIAN TERMS + + +[The consonants are as in English, except when otherwise noted] + +a as in father +a as in cat +â as _aw_ in awl +ai as in aisle +e as _ey_ in they +e as in net +i as in machine +i as in sit +o as in old +o as in not +ô as _ow_in how +oi as in oil +u as in ruin +u as in nut +ü as in German hütte +u as in push +h always aspirated +q as _qu_ in quick +th as in thaw +w as in wild +y as in year +ch as in church +sh as in shall, sash +n nasal, as in French dans +zh as _z_ in azure +' a pause + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +The Pool - Apache +_Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho +Illustration: Theodore Roosevelt +White River - Apache +By The Sycamore - Apache +The Fire Drill - Apache +A Noonday Halt - Navaho +Apache Camp +Typical Apache +_Ténokai_ - Apache +At The Ford - Apache +The Bathing Pool - Apache +_Alchisé_ - Apache +Mescal Hills - Apache +Primitive Apache Home +Cutting Mescal - Apache +Mescal - Apache +Filling the Pit - Apache +The Covered Pit - Apache +Apache Still Life +Among the Oaks - Apache +Mescal Camp - Apache +Sacred Buckskin - Apache +Apache Girl +The Ford - Apache +Apache Medicine-man +Maternity Belt - Apache +Medicine Cap and Fetish - Apache +_Das Lan_ - Apache +Apache Village +Sand Mosaic - Apache +Apache _Gaun_ +Apache Maiden +Lone Tree Lodge - Jicarilla +A Jicarilla +A Jicarilla Feast March +Jicarillas +Jeditoh - Navaho +Lake Lajara - Navaho +Into the Desert - Navaho +Nature's Mirror - Navaho +Canon _Hogan_ - Navaho +A Drink in the Desert - Navaho +Under the Cottonwoods - Navaho +Cornfields in Canon Del Muerto - Navaho +The Blanket Maker - Navaho +_Piké{~COMBINING BREVE~}hodiklad_ - Navaho +_Hástin Yázhe_ - Navaho +Navaho _Hogan_ +Navaho Still Life +Navaho Medicine-man +Through the Canon - Navaho +Evening in the Desert - Navaho +_Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_ - Navaho +_Haschógan_ - Navaho +Antelope Ruin - Canon del Muerto +_Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho +_Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_ - Navaho +_Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}zhini_ - Navaho +_Ga__n__askidi_ - Navaho +_Tónenili_ - Navaho +_Zahadolzhá_ - Navaho +_Haschebaád_ - Navaho +_Gá__n__ askidi. Zahadolzhá. Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_ - Navaho +_Tónenili, Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho +_Yébichai_ Sweat - Navaho +_Pikéhodiklad_ - Navaho +_Shilhné'ohli_ - Navaho +_Zahadolzhá_ - Navaho +_Yébichai Hogán_ - Navaho +_Yébichai_ Dancers - Navaho +Mescal Harvest - Apache +White River Valley - Apache +_Nalin Lage_ - Apache +Infant Burial - Apache +_Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_ - Navaho +_Ga__n__askidi_ - Navaho +_Zahadolzhá_ - Navaho +_Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_, _Haschebaád_, _Zahadolzhá_--Navaho +Navaho Women + + + + + +_Photogravures by John Andrew & Son, Boston._ + + + + + + [Illustration: _Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho] + + _Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + + +FOREWORD + + +_In Mr. Curtis we have both an artist and a trained observer, whose +pictures are pictures, not merely photographs; whose work has far more +than mere accuracy, because it is truthful. All serious students are to be +congratulated because he is putting his work in permanent form; for our +generation offers the last chance for doing what Mr. Curtis has done. The +Indian as he has hitherto been is on the point of passing away. His life +has been lived under conditions thru which our own race past so many ages +ago that not a vestige of their memory remains. It would be a veritable +calamity if a vivid and truthful record of these conditions were not kept. +No one man alone could preserve such a record in complete form. Others +have worked in the past, and are working in the present, to preserve parts +of the record; but Mr. Curtis, because of the singular combination of +qualities with which he has been blest, and because of his extraordinary +success in making and using his opportunities, has been able to do what no +other man ever has done; what, as far as we can see, no other man could +do. He is an artist who works out of doors and not in the closet. He is a +close observer, whose qualities of mind and body fit him to make his +observations out in the field, surrounded by the wild life he +commemorates. He has lived on intimate terms with many different tribes of +the mountains and the plains. He knows them as they hunt, as they travel, +as they go about their various avocations on the march and in the camp. He +knows their medicine men and sorcerers, their chiefs and warriors, their +young men and maidens. He has not only seen their vigorous outward +existence, but has caught glimpses, such as few white men ever catch, into +that strange spiritual and mental life of theirs; from whose innermost +recesses all white men are forever barred. Mr. Curtis in publishing this +book is rendering a real and great service; a service not only to our own +people, but to the world of scholarship everywhere._ + +THEODORE ROOSEVELT + +_October 1st, 1906._ + + [Illustration: Theodore Roosevelt] + + + + + + [Illustration: White River - Apache] + + White River - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + + +GENERAL INTRODUCTION + + +The task of recording the descriptive material embodied in these volumes, +and of preparing the photographs which accompany them, had its inception +in 1898. Since that time, during each year, months of arduous labor have +been spent in accumulating the data necessary to form a comprehensive and +permanent record of all the important tribes of the United States and +Alaska that still retain to a considerable degree their primitive customs +and traditions. The value of such a work, in great measure, will lie in +the breadth of its treatment, in its wealth of illustration, and in the +fact that it represents the result of personal study of a people who are +rapidly losing the traces of their aboriginal character and who are +destined ultimately to become assimilated with the "superior race." + +It has been the aim to picture all features of the Indian life and +environment--types of the young and the old, with their habitations, +industries, ceremonies, games, and everyday customs. Rather than being +designed for mere embellishment, the photographs are each an illustration +of an Indian character or of some vital phase in his existence. Yet the +fact that the Indian and his surroundings lend themselves to artistic +treatment has not been lost sight of, for in his country one may treat +limitless subjects of an ćsthetic character without in any way doing +injustice to scientific accuracy or neglecting the homelier phases of +aboriginal life. Indeed, in a work of this sort, to overlook those +marvellous touches that Nature has given to the Indian country, and for +the origin of which the native ever has a wonder-tale to relate, would be +to neglect a most important chapter in the story of an environment that +made the Indian much of what he is. Therefore, being directly from Nature, +the accompanying pictures show what actually exists or has recently +existed (for many of the subjects have already passed forever), not what +the artist in his studio may presume the Indian and his surroundings to +be. + +The task has not been an easy one, for although lightened at times by the +readiness of the Indians to impart their knowledge, it more often required +days and weeks of patient endeavor before my assistants and I succeeded in +overcoming the deep-rooted superstition, conservatism, and secretiveness +so characteristic of primitive people, who are ever loath to afford a +glimpse of their inner life to those who are not of their own. Once the +confidence of the Indians gained, the way led gradually through the +difficulties, but long and serious study was necessary before knowledge of +the esoteric rites and ceremonies could be gleaned. + +At times the undertaking was made congenial by our surroundings in +beautiful mountain wild, in the depths of primeval forest, in the +refreshing shade of cańon wall, or in the homes and sacred places of the +Indians themselves; while at others the broiling desert sun, the +sand-storm, the flood, the biting blast of winter, lent anything but +pleasure to the task. + +The word-story of this primitive life, like the pictures, must be drawn +direct from Nature. Nature tells the story, and in Nature's simple words I +can but place it before the reader. In great measure it must be written as +these lines are--while I am in close touch with the Indian life. + +At the moment I am seated by a beautiful brook that bounds through the +forests of Apacheland. Numberless birds are singing their songs of life +and love. Within my reach lies a tree, felled only last night by a beaver, +which even now darts out into the light, scans his surroundings, and +scampers back. A covey of mourning doves fly to the water's edge, slake +their thirst in their dainty way, and flutter off. By the brookside path +now and then wander prattling children; a youth and a maiden hand in hand +wend their way along the cool stream's brink. The words of the children +and the lovers are unknown to me, but the story of childhood and love +needs no interpreter. + + [Illustration: By The Sycamore - Apache] + + By The Sycamore - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +It is thus near to Nature that much of the life of the Indian still is; +hence its story, rather than being replete with statistics of commercial +conquests, is a record of the Indian's relations with and his dependence +on the phenomena of the universe--the trees and shrubs, the sun and stars, +the lightning and rain,--for these to him are animate creatures. Even more +than that, they are deified, therefore are revered and propitiated, since +upon them man must depend for his well-being. To the workaday man of our +own race the life of the Indian is just as incomprehensible as are the +complexities of civilization to the mind of the untutored savage. + +While primarily a photographer, I do not see or think photographically; +hence the story of Indian life will not be told in microscopic detail, but +rather will be presented as a broad and luminous picture. And I hope that +while our extended observations among these brown people have given no +shallow insight into their life and thought, neither the pictures nor the +descriptive matter will be found lacking in popular interest. + +Though the treatment accorded the Indians by those who lay claim to +civilization and Christianity has in many cases been worse than criminal, +a rehearsal of these wrongs does not properly find a place here. Whenever +it may be necessary to refer to some of the unfortunate relations that +have existed between the Indians and the white race, it will be done in +that unbiased manner becoming the student of history. As a body politic +recognizing no individual ownership of lands, each Indian tribe naturally +resented encroachment by another race, and found it impossible to +relinquish without a struggle that which belonged to their people from +time immemorial. On the other hand, the white man whose very own may have +been killed or captured by a party of hostiles forced to the warpath by +the machinations of some unscrupulous Government employé, can see nothing +that is good in the Indian. There are thus two sides to the story, and in +these volumes such questions must be treated with impartiality. + +Nor is it our purpose to theorize on the origin of the Indians--a problem +that has already resulted in the writing of a small library, and still +with no satisfactory solution. The object of the work is to record by word +and picture what the Indian is, not whence he came. Even with this in view +the years of a single life are insufficient for the task of treating in +minute detail all the intricacies of the social structure and the arts and +beliefs of many tribes. Nevertheless, by reaching beneath the surface +through a study of his creation myths, his legends and folklore, more than +a fair impression of the mode of thought of the Indian can be gained. In +each instance all such material has been gathered by the writer and his +assistants from the Indians direct, and confirmed, so far as is possible, +through repetition by other members of their tribe. + +Ever since the days of Columbus the assertion has been made repeatedly +that the Indian has no religion and no code of ethics, chiefly for the +reason that in his primitive state he recognizes no supreme God. Yet the +fact remains that no people have a more elaborate religious system than +our aborigines, and none are more devout in the performance of the duties +connected therewith. There is scarcely an act in the Indian's life that +does not involve some ceremonial performance or is not in itself a +religious act, sometimes so complicated that much time and study are +required to grasp even a part of its real meaning, for his myriad deities +must all be propitiated lest some dire disaster befall him. + +Likewise with their arts, which casual observers have sometimes denied the +Indians; yet, to note a single example, the so-called "Digger" Indians, +who have been characterized as in most respects the lowest type of all our +tribes, are makers of delicately woven baskets, embellished with symbolic +designs and so beautiful in form as to be works of art in themselves. + +The great changes in practically every phase of the Indian's life that +have taken place, especially within recent years, have been such that had +the time for collecting much of the material, both descriptive and +illustrative, herein recorded, been delayed, it would have been lost +forever. The passing of every old man or woman means the passing of some +tradition, some knowledge of sacred rites possessed by no other; +consequently the information that is to be gathered, for the benefit of +future generations, respecting the mode of life of one of the great races +of mankind, must be collected at once or the opportunity will be lost for +all time. It is this need that has inspired the present task. + + [Illustration: The Fire Drill - Apache] + + The Fire Drill - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +In treating the various tribes it has been deemed advisable that a +geographic rather than an ethnologic grouping be presented, but without +losing sight of tribal relationships, however remote the cognate tribes +may be one from another. To simplify the study and to afford ready +reference to the salient points respecting the several tribes, a summary +of the information pertaining to each is given in the appendices. + +In the spelling of the native terms throughout the text, as well as in the +brief vocabularies appended to each volume, the simplest form possible, +consistent with approximate accuracy, has been adopted. No attempt has +been made to differentiate sounds so much alike that the average student +fails to discern the distinction, for the words, where recorded, are +designed for the general reader rather than the philologist, and it has +been the endeavor to encourage their pronunciation rather than to make +them repellent by inverted and other arbitrary characters. + +I take this opportunity to express my deep appreciation to those who have +so generously lent encouragement during these years of my labor, from the +humblest dwellers in frontier cabins to the captains of industry in our +great commercial centres, and from the representatives of the most modest +institutions of learning to those whose fame is worldwide. Without this +encouragement the work could not have been accomplished. When the last +opportunity for study of the living tribes shall have passed with the +Indians themselves, and the day cannot be far off, my generous friends may +then feel that they have aided in a work the results of which, let it be +hoped, will grow more valuable as time goes on. + +EDWARD S. CURTIS. + + + + + + [Illustration: A Noonday Halt - Navaho] + + A Noonday Halt - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + + +INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME ONE + + +While it is the plan of this work to treat the tribes in the order of +their geographic distribution, rather than to group them in accordance +with their relationship one to another, we are fortunate, in the present +volume, to have for treatment two important southwestern Indian groups--the +Navaho and the Apache--which are not only connected linguistically but have +been more or less in proximity ever since they have been known to history. + +Because of his cunning, his fearlessness, and his long resistance to +subjection both by the missionary and by the governments under whose +dominion he has lived, but until recent times never recognized, the +Apache, in name at least, has become one of the best known of our tribal +groups. But, ever the scourge of the peaceable Indians that dwelt in +adjacent territory, and for about three hundred years a menace to the +brave colonists that dared settle within striking distance of him, the +Apache of Arizona and New Mexico occupied a region that long remained a +_terra incognita_, while the inner life of its occupants was a closed +book. + +There is little wonder, then, that we have known practically nothing of +the Apache and their customs beyond the meagre record of what has been +given us by a few army officers; consequently their study was entered into +with especial interest. Although much time was expended and much patience +consumed before the confidence of their elders was gained, the work was +finally successful, as will be seen particularly by the creation legend +and the accompanying mythologic picture-writing on deerskin, which give an +insight into the mode of thought of this people and a comprehensive idea +of the belief respecting their genesis. Not satisfied with the story as +first related by the medicine-men lest error perchance should have crept +in, it was repeated and verified by others until no doubt of its entire +accuracy remained. It is especially fortunate that the chief +investigations were made in the summer of 1906, when the new "messiah +craze" was at its height, thus affording exceptional opportunity for +observing an interesting wave of religious ecstasy sweep over this +primitive folk. + +The Navaho tribe, second only to the Sioux in numbers, have been the least +affected by civilizing influences. The Navaho is the American Bedouin, the +chief human touch in the great plateau-desert region of our Southwest, +acknowledging no superior, paying allegiance to no king in name of chief, +a keeper of flocks and herds who asks nothing of the Government but to be +unmolested in his pastoral life and in the religion of his forebears. +Although the mythology and ceremonials of this virile people would alone +furnish material for many volumes, it is believed that even with the +present comparatively brief treatment a comprehensive view of their +character and activities will be gained. + +It is with pleasure that I acknowledge the able assistance rendered by Mr. +W. W. Phillips and Mr. W. E. Myers during the last two years of field work +in collecting and arranging the material for this volume, and the aid of +Mr. A. F. Muhr in connection with the photographic work in the laboratory. + + EDWARD S. CURTIS + + + + + + + [Illustration: Apache Camp] + + Apache Camp + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + + + [Illustration: Typical Apache] + + Typical Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + + +THE APACHE + + + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH + + +The Indian and his history present innumerable problems to the student. +Facts seemingly contradict facts, well-founded theories contradict other +theories as well founded. Linguistically the Apache belong to the great +Athapascan family, which, according to the consensus of opinion, had its +origin in the far North, where many tribes of the family still live. Based +on the creation legends of the Navaho and on known historical events, the +advent of the southern branch of this linguistic group--the Navaho and the +Apache tribes--has been fixed in the general region in which they now have +their home, at about the time of the discovery of America. Contrary to +this conclusion, however, the legend of their genesis gives no hint of an +origin in other than their historical habitat. The history and the +legendary lore of the Indian are passed down from generation to +generation, so that it would seem hardly credible that all trace of this +migration from a distant region should have become lost within a period of +somewhat more than four hundred years. + +Again, judging by the similarity in language, the Apache and the Navaho in +prehistoric times were as nearly a single group as the present bands of +Apache are; and, likewise, there is sufficient similarity in the +underlying principles of their mythology to argue a common tribal origin. +The names as well as the functions of several of the mythic characters are +identical in both tribes, as, for example, the war gods Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani and +Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni. These miracle-performing twins in each case are the sons +of a woman (who occupies an almost identical position in both Navaho and +Apache mythology) and the sun and water respectively. Pollen also is +deified by each--as Hádintin Boy among the Apache and Táditin Boy among the +Navaho. If, therefore, we may concede that the Navaho and the Apache were +originally one tribe, as their language certainly indicates, we have many +arguments in favor of the theory of long residence in the South-west of +this branch of the Athapascan family, for the striking differences in the +details of their myths would seem to indicate that the tribal separation +was not a recent one, and that the mythology of the two tribes became +changed in the course of its natural development along different lines or +through accretion of other peoples since the original segregation. The +Apache story of their creation portrays human beings in their present +form, while in the Navaho genesis myth occurs the remarkable story, +unquestionably aboriginal, of the evolution of the lower animals through +successive underworlds until the present world is reached, then as spirit +people miraculously creating human life. + +The beautiful genesis myth of the Apache is complete; it does not reflect +an incipient primitive culture, but one developed by age. The mythology +and ceremonial of the Navaho exhibit unquestioned signs of being composite +in origin. Their ceremonials are perhaps the most elaborate of any Indians +except the Pueblos; indeed the very life of this people so teems with +ceremony as almost to pass comprehension. The Navaho ritual probably +reached its highest phase about the beginning of the nineteenth century. +It would seem impossible for a religion so highly developed as this to +have attained such a stage within a comparatively short time. + +Before the early years of the seventeenth century the Spanish chroniclers +give us nothing definite regarding the Apache of what is now Arizona and +New Mexico, but there are numerous accounts of their aggressiveness from +this time onward. + + [Illustration: _Ténokai_ - Apache] + + _Ténokai_ - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Father Francisco Garcés, who in 1775-76 journeyed from his mission of San +Xavier del Bac, in southern Arizona, to San Gabriel, California, thence to +the Hopi country, and back to his mission by way of the Colorado and the +Gila rivers, had sufficient knowledge of the Apache to keep well out of +their country, for they had ever been enemies of Garcés' peaceful +neophytes, the Papago and the Pima. To the warlike, marauding Apache +Garcés gave much thought, drawing up a plan for holding them in subjection +by the establishment of a cordon of presidios. To read his simple plan and +compare the ineffectual efforts of the Americans, who had the Apache +country virtually surrounded by military posts for many years, will +convince one that while Garcés held the Apache in justifiable fear, he +little knew the true character of those with whom he was reckoning. + +So far as diligent field research reveals, there was but one tribe or band +of Indians living within proximity of the Apache Indians of Arizona in +early times who ever affiliated with them, or associated with them in any +way save on terms of enmity. This tribe was the Apache-Mohave, of Yuman +stock, whose domain extended along the Rio Verde in central Arizona, +immediately adjacent to the territory over which the Apache proper held +undisputed sway. With these, affiliation practically became fusion, for in +outward semblance, characteristics, mode of living, and handicraft they +are typically Apache; but their mother tongue, though impaired, and +remnants of their native mythology are still adhered to. Through the +Apache-Mohave, allied with the Apache since early times, and resembling +them so closely as to have almost escaped segregation until recent years, +did the tribe now so widely known as Apache undoubtedly receive its name. + +The Apache-Mohave call themselves _Apátieh_, which means, simply, +"people." The Walapai, another Yuman tribe farther north, whose dialect +resembles that of the Apache-Mohave more closely than do the dialects of +the Mohave and the Yuma, also call themselves _Apátieh_. Although the +pronunciation of this word is indicated more nearly correctly by this +spelling than by "Apache," only a trained ear can distinguish the +difference in sound when the average Yuman Indian utters it. +Etymologically it comes from _apá_, "man," and the plural suffix -_tieh_. + +The mountain fastness of the Apache in Arizona permitted easiest approach +from the south and the west for all who wished to seek peace or revenge. +The Apache-Mohave, living as Apache in close affiliation, were on the +western border of this stronghold, whence they made raids upon several +other Yuman groups, north, west, and south, in company with the Apache. +They were also the first to be attacked by enemies waging offensive +warfare, hence any name by which they designated themselves might readily +have been transmitted to the whole Apache group. Early Spanish +missionaries alluded to the Apache-Mohave as true Apache. +Contradistinguished from the Apache proper, the Apache-Mohave are called +Yavapai and Yavapeh by their congeners of the Colorado river, a term that +has been employed by early writers, misled through the close association +of the Apache-Mohave with the Apache, to designate also the latter people. +It is further evident that the term Apache came to be applied to this +great division of the Athapascan family indirectly, as its component +tribes are not known by that name in any of the Indian languages of the +Southwest, and there is no evidence of its being of other than Indian +origin. + + [Illustration: At The Ford - Apache] + + At The Ford - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Since known to history, the many bands of Apache have occupied the +mountains and plains of southern Arizona and New Mexico, northern Sonora +and Chihuahua, and western Texas--an area greater than that of the states +of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, +Vermont, Maine, Ohio, North Carolina, South Carolina, and West Virginia. +They were always known as "wild" Indians, and indeed their early warfare +with all neighboring tribes, as well as their recent persistent hostility +toward our Government, which precipitated a "war of extermination," bear +out the appropriateness of the designation. An admission of fear of +anything is hard to elicit from the weakest of Indian tribes, but all who +lived within raiding distance of the Apache, save the Navaho, their +Athapascan cousins, freely admit that for generations before their +subjugation the Apache were constantly held in mortal terror. + +Through the constant depredations carried on against the Mexican +settlements in northern Sonora and Chihuahua, under the leadership of Juan +José, an Apache chief educated among the Mexicans, those two states were +led, in 1837, to offer a bounty for Apache scalps. The horror of this +policy lay in the fact that the scalp of a friendly Indian brought the +same reward as that of the fiercest warrior, and worse still, no exception +was made of women or children. Nothing could have been more effective than +this scalp bounty in arousing all the savagery in these untamed denizens +of the mountains, and both Mexico and the United States paid dearly in +lives for every Apache scalp taken under this barbarous system. Predatory +warfare continued unabated during the next forty years in spite of all the +Mexican government could do. With the consummation of the treaty of +Guadalupe Hidalgo, in 1848, the Apache problem became one to be solved by +the United States as well. + +In 1864, under General James H. Carleton, the "war of extermination" was +begun in a most systematic manner. On April 20 this officer communicated a +proposal of co-operation to Don Ignacio Pesqueira, Governor of Sonora, +saying: "If your excellency will put a few hundred men into the field on +the first day of next June, and keep them in hot pursuit of the Apaches of +Sonora, say for sixty or ninety days, we will either exterminate the +Indians or so diminish their numbers that they will cease their murdering +and robbing propensities and live at peace." + +This request was met. The settlers in Arizona, under agreement, placed a +force in the field provisioned with army supplies. Several hundred Pima, +Papago, and Maricopa Indians also were supplied with guns, ammunition, and +clothing, and pressed into service; but a year's effort netted the +combined forces little gain. Although two hundred Apache were killed and +many head of stolen stock recovered, practically no advance toward the +termination of hostilities was accomplished. + +In April, 1865, Inspector-General Davis arranged a conference at the +Copper Mines in New Mexico with Victorio, Nané, Acosta, and other chiefs, +among whom were Pasquin, Cassari, and Salvador, sons of Mangas Coloradas, +through which he learned of the existence of dire destitution among the +Apache and a desire for peace on condition that they be permitted to +occupy their native haunts. But the Government had adopted a policy of +removal by which the Arizona Apache desiring peace should join the +Mescaleros at the Bosque Redondo in New Mexico. To this they flatly +refused to agree, and the warfare continued. + + [Illustration: The Bathing Pool - Apache] + + The Bathing Pool - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Practically all the Apache were assembled in Arizona in 1865, and waged +hostilities with renewed energy for the next five years, being joined by +the Walapai in 1868. The close of this period found the situation quite as +unsettled as ever. + +On June 4, 1871, General George Crook was placed in command. Crook was not +an exterminator. In the fall of the same year he said: + +"I think that the Apache is painted in darker colors than he deserves, and +that his villainies arise more from a misconception of facts than from his +being worse than other Indians. Living in a country the natural products +of which will not support him, he has either to cultivate the soil or +steal, and as our vacillating policy satisfies him we are afraid of him, +he chooses the latter, also as requiring less labor and being more +congenial to his natural instincts. I am satisfied that a sharp, active +campaign against him would not only make him one of the best Indians in +the country, but it would also save millions of dollars to the Treasury, +and the lives of many innocent whites and Indians." + +Crook's policy was one of peace, but he made it plain to the Indians that +if they did not agree to peace when liberal terms were offered, they could +expect a campaign against them hitherto unequalled in vigor. It was thus +that by 1873 the Tontos, Coyoteros, and Apache-Mohave were subdued and the +backbone of Apache resistance broken. + +The Apache-Mohave and the Tontos were placed on a reservation on the Rio +Verde; the Coyoteros were taken to the White Mountain district near Fort +Apache; the Pinaleńos and parts of other bands surrendered and were +established at San Carlos; in all, approximately three thousand Apache had +been brought under control. About one thousand hostiles yet remained in +the mountains, but by 1874 they had become so nearly subjugated as to make +it seem advisable to transfer the Arizona reservations from the War +Department to the Office of Indian Affairs, which was done. The policy of +the Indian Office from the beginning had been to concentrate the various +bands upon one reservation at San Carlos. Disaffection arose between +different bands until this became a despicable place to nearly all, while +continued adherence to the removal policy drove the Chiricahua from their +southern Arizona reservation to seek refuge with the Ojo Caliente Apache +in southwestern New Mexico, in 1876, although they had been living in +comparative peace for four years. In 1877 these Chiricahua and the Ojo +Caliente band were forcibly removed to San Carlos, but while en route +Victorio and a party of forty warriors made their escape. In September of +the same year three hundred more fled from San Carlos and settler after +settler was murdered. In February, 1878, Victorio and his notorious band +surrendered at Ojo Caliente, but gave notice that they would die fighting +before submitting to removal to San Carlos. The major portion of the three +hundred Chiricahua who had left San Carlos surrendered at Fort Wingate, +New Mexico, shortly before. All these were taken to the Mescalero +reservation in New Mexico. + +Haunted by the dread of removal to San Carlos, the appearance of a party +of Grant County officials at the Mescalero agency on a hunting tour a few +months later caused Victorio and his band to flee with a number of +Chiricahua and Mescaleros to the mountains of southern New Mexico. + +For two years, until he met his death at the hands of Mexican troops in +the fall of 1880, Victorio spread carnage throughout the southern portions +of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, and the northern states of Mexico, +enlisting the aid of every willing renegade or refugee of whatever band or +tribe in that section. After him Nané, Chato, Juh, Geronimo, and other +doughty hostiles carried the fighting and raiding along until June, 1883, +when Crook, reassigned to the Arizona district, followed the Chiricahua +band under Geronimo into the Sierra Madre in Chihuahua, whence he brought +them back whipped and ready to accept offers of peace. The captives were +placed upon the San Carlos and White Mountain reservations, where, with +the various other Apache bands under military surveillance, and with Crook +in control, they took up agriculture with alacrity. But in 1885 Crook's +authority was curtailed, and through some cause, never quite clear, +Geronimo with many Chiricahua followers again took the warpath. Crook +being relieved at his own request, Gen. Nelson A. Miles was assigned the +task of finally subduing the Apache, which was consummated by the +recapture of Geronimo and his band in the Sierra Madre in September, 1886. +These hostiles were taken as prisoners to Florida, later to Alabama, and +thence to Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where, numbering 298, they still are, +living as farmers in peace and quiet, but still under the control of the +military authorities. + + [Illustration: _Alchisé_ - Apache] + + _Alchisé_ - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +One of the last hostile movements of note was the so-called Cibicu fight +in 1882. In the spring of that year an old medicine-man, Nabakélti, +Attacking The Enemy, better known as Doklíni, started a "medicine" craze +in the valley of the Cibicu on the White Mountain reservation. He had +already a considerable following, and now claimed divine revelation and +dictated forms of procedure in bringing the dead to life. As medicine +paraphernalia he made sixty large wheels of wood, painted symbolically, +and twelve sacred sticks, one of which, in the form of a cross, he +designated "chief of sticks." Then with sixty men he commenced his dance. + +One morning at dawn Nabakélti went to the grave of a man who had been +prominent in the tribe and who had recently died. He and his adherents +danced about the grave and then dug up the bones, around which they danced +four times in a circle. The dancing occupied the entire morning, and early +in the afternoon they went to another grave, where the performance was +repeated. In each instance the bones were left exposed; but later four +men, specially delegated, went to the graves and erected a brush hut over +the remains. + +Nabakélti told the people that they must pray each morning for four days, +at the end of which time the bleached bones would be found clothed with +flesh and alive again. By the end of the second day the Apache band on the +Cibicu became excited almost to the degree of frenzy. They watched the +little grave-houses constantly and gathered in groups about other graves. + +Some of the Apache employed as scouts with the detachment stationed at +Fort Apache heard of the craze and obtained leave of absence to +investigate. They returned and informed the commanding officer, then +acting as agent, that their people were going mad, whereupon a number of +scouts and troopers were sent to learn the cause of the trouble and to ask +Nabakélti to come to the fort for an interview. Though angered by the +message, the old man agreed to come in two days. Meanwhile he had the +little brush houses over the bones tightly sealed to keep out preying +animals and curious Indians. He then explained to his people that, owing +to the interruption by the whites, it was probable that the bones would +not come to life at the end of four days, as predicted, but that he would +make a new dance later and prove the efficacy of his creed. + +Then he started for the fort with his entire band of dancers, sixty-two in +number, each with his "sacred medicine"--wheels, sticks, and drums. They +journeyed afoot, stopping occasionally to dance, and reached the grounds +of the fort late in the afternoon of the second day. On they passed, +dancing in a spectacular manner, and camped that night on the flat a +little above the fort, where they waited for someone to come over to +interview them. The agent did not send for Nabakélti that night, so at +daybreak he started up White river with his band, passing by the present +agency site, and crossing into Bear Springs valley. Thence they took the +trail toward the Cibicu again, reaching the Carrizo in the evening, where +they camped for the night and performed another dance. The following +morning they took the trail for their home, which they reached rather +early in the day. + +As soon as the band had reached its destination, another summons was +delivered to Nabakélti to appear before the agent at the fort. This time +the old man sent back word that he would not come: he had gone once, and +if any had wished to see him, they had had their chance. + +On receipt of this reply, sixty mounted soldiers, armed and provisioned, +were sent over to the Cibicu to put a stop to the dancing. Apache scouts +had been stationed to watch the manoeuvres of the Indians and to keep the +officials informed. They met the troopers, who made a night ride to the +stream, and informed them where the old medicine-man was encamped. Early +in the morning the soldiers reached the Cibicu at a point about two miles +above Nabakélti's camp, whence a detachment was despatched to arrest the +medicine-man and bring him to the place where headquarters were being +established. It was the intention merely to arrest and hold him while the +troops rested for the day, preparatory to taking him back to the fort; but +it was deemed necessary to send a force sufficiently large to cope with +the Indians should they attempt resistance. + + [Illustration: Mescal Hills - Apache] + + Mescal Hills - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Nabakélti yielded without hesitation to the demands of the soldiers, and +forthwith rode up to headquarters. Everything seemed very quiet. There was +no demonstration against the soldiers, who stacked their arms and unloaded +the pack-trains. The mules were hobbled and turned loose, and the cavalry +horses tethered and fed. + +While this apparently peaceful condition prevailed, a brother of the +medicine-man, angered because of the arrest, dashed into camp on a pony +and shot and killed the captain in command. Instantly, hardly realizing +whence the shot had come, one of the troopers struck Nabakélti on the head +with a cudgel, killing him. Assured that a fight was imminent, the +soldiers receded to higher ground, a short distance back, where they +hurriedly made preparations for defence. + +On learning that Nabakélti had been killed, and deeming the soldiers +wholly to blame, a small party of Apache attacked the troopers while +retreating to the higher ground. Six of the soldiers were killed, the +mules stampeded, and the provisions burned, all within a short space of +time. The hostiles made their escape, practically all of them leaving the +valley. + +The Government probably never lost money faster in an Indian campaign than +it did as a result of its interference with Nabakélti's harmless medicine +craze. Had he been left alone his inevitable failure, already at hand, to +bring the dead to life would have lost him his following, and in all +probability his ill-success would have cost his life at the hands of one +of his tribesmen. As it was, the hostilities that followed extended over +several months, costing many lives and a vast sum of money. + + + + +HOMELAND AND LIFE + + +The present Apache population is approximately six thousand, including the +Jicarillas and Mescaleros of New Mexico. It is doubtful if the number ever +exceeded ten thousand. In population, therefore, the Apache seem almost +too insignificant to have kept the other tribes of the vast Southwest, as +well as two civilized nations, in constant dread for so long a period. + +At the present time the greater part of the Apache reside on the White +Mountain reservation, Arizona, comprising more than 3,500,000 acres, with +agency headquarters at Whiteriver and San Carlos. This reservation is a +part of the great tableland of southeastern Arizona, being a succession of +mountains and high, park-like mesas, broken here and there with valleys +and watered by limpid streams. The highlands are wooded with pine, cedar, +fir, juniper, oak, and other trees, while in the valleys are +mistletoe-laden cottonwood as well as willow, alder, and walnut, which, +with smaller growths, are interwoven with vines of grape, hop, and +columbine, in places forming a veritable jungle. On every hand, whether on +mountain or in valley, many varieties of cactus grow in profusion; and in +springtime cańon and vale, mountain-side and mesa, are all aglow with wild +flowers. + +In midsummer the temperature of the lower reaches seems as great as that +of a furnace. At the same season in the mountain and high mesa country, +especially in the shade of the beautiful forests, the atmosphere is ideal; +but in winter these higher levels are covered deep with snow, swept by +fierce winds that chill one to the very marrow. + +The typical Apache habitation, called _kówa_, consists of a framework of +poles loosely thatched with native grass, through which the smoke from the +central fire finds its outlet and the rain and snow sift in, rendering it +anything but a comfortable shelter in time of storm. The _kówa_ is erected +by the women, who are little more than drudges, and as an Apache may have +as many wives as he feels able to support, he may have as many homes as +circumstances require. The various wives are prone to be quarrelsome among +themselves, for which reason a man usually maintains one wife on one part +of the reservation and another wife perhaps many miles away. + + [Illustration: Primitive Apache Home] + + Primitive Apache Home + + _From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +In the good old days the radius of Apache wandering centred in the +mountains of what is now southeastern Arizona; this was their stronghold, +their lair, whence they raided to the south, well down into Sonora and +Chihuahua, westward to the Colorado river, northward into the Hopi and +Navaho country, and eastward as far at least as western Texas. From this +mountain rendezvous they swept down upon the Mexicans and Indians of +Sonora and Chihuahua, and on the Pueblo villages of the north, while in +later years they terrorized the white settlers of the entire Southwest. To +follow them was a fruitless task which often led to the destruction of the +pursuers. + +The primitive Apache was a true nomad, a wandering child of Nature, whose +birthright was a craving for the warpath, with courage and endurance +probably exceeded by no other people, and with cunning beyond reckoning. +Although his character is a strong mixture of courage and ferocity, the +Apache is gentle and affectionate toward those of his own flesh and blood, +particularly his children. Fear, to him, is unknown. Death he faces with +stolid indifference; yet Apache men have been known to grieve so deeply +over the loss of a friend as to end their troubles by self-destruction. + +No people could be better fitted than the Apache to conduct continuous +predatory warfare. Every form of plant and animal life pays him tribute. +An entirely naked Indian, without implements of any sort, would stop on a +mountain slope and in a few minutes be sitting by a cheerful fire +preparing a welcome meal. With a fragment of stone he would shape +fire-sticks from the dead stalk of a yucca. Sitting with the flattened +piece held firmly by his feet, a pinch of sand at the point of contact +between the two sticks, with a few deft whirls of the round stick over his +improvised hearth the lone traveller would soon have a fire kindled. Into +the blaze he would cast a few sections of green, juicy mescal(1) stalk +which, when cooked, would afford him both food and drink. This part of his +meal finished, the Apache might gather other dead yucca stalks, split +them, and often find within small stores of honey. + +Many plants furnish small seeds rich in nutriment. These are gathered in a +basket, ground on a metate, and the oily mass formed into a ball with the +hands. The Apache assert that a lump as large as one's two fists would +subsist a man for two days; but in addition he would eat wild greens of +various kinds, either cooked or raw. One of the principal vegetal foods of +the Apache is the mescal--in their language, _náta_. Nothing can give a +better idea of the economic life of these people than a description of one +of their annual mescal harvests. + +The mescal harvest occurs in the season of new life and growth, when the +call from the wild is strong in the blood, and like a class of +children--for they are but grown-up children--they pour out into the wilds. +From the camp where they have passed the winter they take to the trails +which lead to the mescal hills. + +For some hours after leaving the huts on White river the path leads across +the hot, dusty desert; then it reaches the rim of White river cańon and +follows its edge so closely that a pebble tossed from the saddle would +drop into the torrent more than a thousand feet below. How musical the +roar of the stream, and how cool its waters look! As the trail passes some +especially dizzy spot the Indian women lean away from the sheer edge in +fear. For miles the trail traverses the bluff. At times the river is out +of sight and hearing, then it emerges again and both eye and ear receive +its greeting. At the hour when the pińon trees stretch their long shadows +across the land the Indians urge their horses down a steep, winding trail +and arrive at the river's bank. Here they ford, follow the course of the +stream for a while, and then at a bend reach an open flat dotted here and +there with shapely live-oaks. In this park-like opening the long +straggling line comes to a halt. + + [Illustration: Cutting Mescal - Apache] + + Cutting Mescal - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +All the worldly possessions of the Apache woman are packed on the horse +which she and her children have ridden. The mother, with the youngest in +her arms, first clambers down, followed by the little girl four years of +age; she then removes the blankets that cover the pack, then the burden +basket containing her cooking utensils, next the water bottle, and from +across the saddle seat the large rawhide carryall that contains the family +supplies and extra clothing. A smaller rawhide bag holds those little +essentials necessary to the comfort of the family. The unloading finished, +the woman fills the water bottle at the stream and gathers fuel for +preparing the simple meal, which is soon over. If anything is more simple +than the cooking it is the preparation of the bed. A small circular spot +is cleared and an armful of grass, if any exists, is spread over it; the +blankets are laid on the grass, and the bed is made. The blankets may not +be clean, and certainly the pallet is not downy, but this matters little +to a people inured to hardship; they are happy. + +With a laugh the children tumble upon the blankets. Being dressed in a +single garment a little girl innocently exposes more of her body than +meets with her modest mother's approval. The scolding is full and +positive. Little Miss Apache, sitting in the middle of the blanket with +her knees drawn to her chin and with scant skirt now tucked carefully +about her feet, looks up with roguish smile, then down at her wiggling +toes in coquettish defiance. + +From far down the stream resound the splash of water and the merry +laughter of matrons and maidens bathing in the clear pools, and from above +the more boisterous shouts of men and boys. Surely he who says the +American Indian is morose, stolid, and devoid of humor never knew him in +the intimacy of his own home. + +With the coming of light the women are at work building the campfires, and +the rising sun finds them at their morning meal. The breaking of camp is a +brief task. To-day they are to cross the divide, ford Black river, and +continue on to the mountains where the mescal grows abundantly. Travel in +the cool morning hours is a delight, and seven o'clock finds the party +well on its way. The long cavalcade winds slowly over the mountain trail. +Just ahead is a mother with two children, a little girl astride behind her +and a two-year-old boy standing in her lap. The mourning dove sounds its +melancholy note from the forest, and the children take up the call. The +little boy is not very proficient in the imitation, and sister corrects +him time after time. Truly, in Indian-land, nature study begins early in +life. + +There is noticeable change in the vegetation. The giant yuccas appear +almost as a forest to-day; yesterday there was none. Soon the party gains +the summit of the range, before which winds the valley of the Black with +miles of placid stream in view. Quite different is this from White river, +which is ever hurrying, rushing along. The Black flows within its grassy +banks for long distances with scarcely a ripple; then a whirling rapid is +passed, beyond which glides another long stretch of almost silent water. + +However, mescal does not grow by cool streams, and the trail again leads +up into high mountains. On a broad slope well toward the summit the final +halt is made. Close by is the mescal pit, perhaps twenty feet in diameter +and three feet deep; it may have been used a hundred years or a thousand, +abandoned for a long period, and then brought into use again. Each time it +is employed it must first be cleaned of the refuse from the last burning; +this done, a large supply of fuel is gathered and thrown in, and over all +are piled great quantities of stones. + +Then begins the harvest of the mescal. With baskets on their backs the +women go out to gather the plants. Their implements consist of a stick +about two inches in diameter and three feet long, wedge-shaped and +sharpened at one end, and a broad hatchet-like knife. On reaching a plant, +the woman places the sharp end of the stick at its base and by a blow with +a stone severs the root and pries it up. Nothing could be more primitive. +The women of the Stone Age who gathered mescal on the same ground, and +perhaps used the same pit, thus far must have used identical tools. + + [Illustration: Mescal - Apache] + + Mescal - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +When the plant is cut from its root it is turned over and trimmed. For the +latter the women employ the hatchet-like knife, cutting off the outer ends +of the leaves. The plant now resembles a large head of cabbage and weighs +from five to twenty pounds. As fast as the plants are cut the women place +them in the burden baskets and carry them to the pit, load after load. To +make it possible for each woman to identify her mescal after the cooking, +each piece is branded with a distinguishing device--a property mark. The +gathering of the mescal continues for several days, an area covering a +radius of perhaps two miles being stripped of its budding plants, for such +only are harvested. + +The pit being ready and the mescal gathered, the work of cooking +commences. Just at daylight the old woman in charge takes her place at the +rim of the pit and prays that the cooking may be successful and that the +people may be in condition to partake of the food. In igniting the fuel +the old-fashioned fire-sticks must be employed; to use matches would bring +ill fortune. When the fuel in the pit becomes a blazing mass the women go +to prepare breakfast, but are soon at work again gathering brush and grass +to cover the mescal. Within four hours the fuel is entirely consumed and +the red-hot stones have settled to the bottom of the pit. When it is +certain that no fuel remains unburned, as even a small amount of smoke +would spoil the quality of the mescal, the head-woman says, "It is good," +and with great eagerness her followers begin to fill the pit. There is +need for haste in throwing in and covering the mescal, as the steam must +be confined to prevent the hot stones from scorching it. The covering +consists of alternate layers of green brush, grass, dry leaves, and +finally a layer of earth, about six inches in thickness. After forty-eight +hours of steaming the seething mass is uncovered and each woman removes +her portion. + +The greater part of the product of this cooking is now to be prepared for +winter use by pulling the leaves apart and pounding them into pulp. This +can be kneaded and handled much the same as dough, and while in this +plastic state is formed into large cakes two inches thick and perhaps +three feet long. These are dried in the sun, when they have all the +appearance of large slabs of India rubber, and are easily packed on horses +for the homeward journey. + +This dried mescal may be eaten without further preparation, but it is +generally made into a gruel by mixing with water. Alone it is very sweet, +and berries of the aromatic sumac, and frequently walnuts, are crushed +with it to give it flavor. + +The fruit of the opuntia, or prickly-pear cactus, which the Apache call +_hush_, is much used for food both in its fresh state and dried. It is +picked from the plant with pincers of split sticks. When the _tú{~COMBINING BREVE~}tza_, or +burden basket, is filled its contents are poured on the ground and the +fruit is brushed about with a small grass besom until the spines are worn +off. In preparing _hush_ the women grind seeds and pulp into a mass, thus +retaining the full food value of the fruit. + +Manzanita, pińon nuts, juniper berries, acorns of the scrub oak, fruit of +the yucca, wild potatoes, wild onions, mesquite pods, and many varieties +of fungi also furnish food. As a drink the Apache make a tea from the +green or dried inner bark of the pińon. + +The intoxicant and curse of their lives is _túlapai_, or _tizwin_ as it is +sometimes called. _Túlapai_ means "muddy or gray water." It is, in fact, a +yeast beer. In preparing it corn is first soaked in water. If it be winter +time the wet corn is placed under a sleeping blanket until the warmth of +the body causes it to sprout; if summer, it is deposited in a shallow +hole, covered with a wet blanket, and left until the sprouts appear, when +it is ground to pulp on a metate. Water and roots are added, and the +mixture is boiled and strained to remove the coarser roots and sprouts. At +this stage the liquid has the consistency of thin cream soup. It is now +set aside for twenty-four hours to cool and ferment, when it is fit for +drinking. As the _túlapai_ will spoil in twelve hours it must be drunk +quickly. Used in moderation it is not a bad beverage, but by no means a +pleasant one to the civilized palate. The Apache, however, knows no +moderation in his _túlapai_ drinking. He sometimes fasts for a day and +then drinks great quantities of it,--often a gallon or two--when for a time +he becomes a savage indeed. + + [Illustration: Filling the Pit - Apache] + + Filling the Pit - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Another intoxicant, more effective than _túlapai_, is made from the +mescal--not from the sap, according to the Mexican method, but from the +cooked plant, which is placed in a heated pit and left until fermentation +begins. It is then ground, mixed with water, roots added, and the whole +boiled and set aside to complete fermentation. The Indians say its taste +is sharp, like whiskey. A small quantity readily produces intoxication. + +Of game foods the Apache has deer, antelope, and wild turkey, with quail, +some water fowl, smaller birds, rabbits, and wood-rats. Fish and bear meat +are strictly tabooed. + +The graphic art of the Apache finds expression chiefly in ceremonial +paintings on deerskin, and in basketry. Only rarely have they made +pottery, their roving life requiring utensils of greater stability. Such +earthenware as they did make was practically the same as that of the +Navaho, mostly in the form of small cooking vessels. Usually the pictures +are painted on the entire deerskin, but sometimes the skin is cut square, +and at others ceremonial deerskin shirts are symbolically painted. +Occasionally the Apache attempts to picture the myth characters literally; +at other times only a symbolic representation of the character is made. In +addition to the mythic personages, certain symbols are employed to +represent the incident of the myth. These paintings are made under the +instruction of a medicine-man and are a part of the medicine +paraphernalia. On some skins the most sacred characters in Apache +mythology are represented symbolically--Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani, the War God; +Tubadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, his younger brother; Kúterastan, the Creator of All; +Stenátlihan, the chief goddess. In fact the symbolism on an elaborately +painted deerskin may cover every phase of Apache cosmology. + +In their basketry the Apache women display great taste in form, and in +their more superior work employ much symbolic decoration. Since the +beginning of the present "messiah craze" all baskets display the sacred +symbols believed to have been revealed to Das Lan by Chuganaái Skhin--a +combination of the cross and the crescent. There are many baskets, made +before this new religious wave swept over the tribe, into which the +symbolism has since been woven. + +The basket most used is the _tú{~COMBINING BREVE~}tza_, or burden basket, roughly and +loosely woven, ornamented with circular lines as often painted on as woven +in. Previous to a messiah craze, which had its origin with the Apache +about 1901, the designs in these baskets were purely decorative, without +attempt at symbolism; but now, by order of a crafty old medicine-man, +every _tú{~COMBINING BREVE~}tza_ must display the combined cross and crescent. + +The _tus_ is a water bottle, made invariably of withes of the aromatic +sumac, loosely woven, and coated inside and out with pińon gum. To use +material other than sumac would be considered very bad. In the Apache +deluge myth the people, instructed by Stenátlihan, built a monster _tus_ +of pińon branches in which they floated away. + +The _tsa-naskú{~COMBINING BREVE~}di_ is a bowl or tray-shaped basket of splendid form, with +symbolic decoration of intricate pattern. + +The most pretentious basket is the _tus-naskú{~COMBINING BREVE~}di_, in general form like +the _tus_, but much larger; it is used for the storage of grain. Its lines +are most beautiful, as are also its inwoven symbolic designs. + +Owing to the extremely secretive nature of the Apache, it is difficult for +the casual student to learn anything of the relations between their +mythology and the designs used in their basketry. Questioned, they will +perhaps say, "We don't know," or "To make it look pretty." But an +intelligent and trustworthy interpreter will tell you, "That woman knows, +but she will not tell." A law of the cult brought about by the recent +messiah religion is that every woman must have in readiness for use during +the migration to the future world a _tus_, a _tú{~COMBINING BREVE~}tza_, a _tsa-naskú{~COMBINING BREVE~}di_, +and a gourd drinking-cup, all decorated with the cross and crescent. These +are not used and are carefully preserved. + +The clan and gentile systems of the American Indians have been the bulwark +of their social structure, for by preventing intermarriage within the clan +or the gens the blood was kept at its best. Added to this were the +hardships of the Indian life, which resulted in the survival only of the +fittest and provided the foundation for a sturdy people. But with +advancing civilization one foresees the inevitable disintegration of their +tribal laws, and a consequent weakening of the entire social structure, +for the Indians seem to have absorbed all the evil, and to have embodied +little of the good, that civilized life teaches. + + [Illustration: The Covered Pit - Apache] + + The Covered Pit - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +The Coyoteros are divided into five bands, each consisting of a number of +clans, although in one band there are now survivors of a single clan only, +while in others as many as seven or eight clans are still to be found. +Descent among the Apache generally is reckoned through the mother; that +is, the children belong to their mother's clan. An exception to this rule +is said by "Peaches," an old Apache scout under Crook, to exist among the +Chiricahua, where the children take the gens of the father. Among the +Apache some of the younger generation are inclined to disregard tribal +laws respecting marriage, but in former times they were rigidly enforced, +marriage within the clan or the gens being regarded as incestuous. When +asked what would happen if a man and a woman belonging to the same clan +should marry, one old man answered that both would be quickly put to +death. + +In the Appendix are given the clan names of the Coyoteros, also of the +Arivaipa and the Chiricahua. Geronimo, Chato, and Cochise were members of +the Aiahán, People of the East, clan. Most of the clan names are derived +from localities in which the ancestors of the clan are supposed to have +first lived. + +With the Apache, as with other tribes, the clan organization has an +important bearing on property right. Regardless of what property either +spouse may hold or own at the time of marriage, the other immediately +becomes possessed of his or her moiety. Should the wife die, her husband +retains possession of the property held in common so long as he does not +remarry, but what might be termed the legal ownership of the wife's half +interest becomes vested in her clan. Should he attempt to dissipate the +property the members of the deceased wife's clan would at once interfere. +If the widower wishes to marry again and the woman of his choice belongs +to the clan of his former wife, then he and the new wife become owners in +common of all personal property held by him; but if the second wife +belongs to a different clan from that of the former wife, then the husband +must make actual transfer of half of the common property to the +clanspeople of the deceased woman, who inherited the legal interest in it +at their relative's death. The same tribal law applies in the case of a +widow. + +Much internal strife naturally results whenever an actual distribution of +property is made. In the first place the surviving spouse unwillingly +relinquishes the moiety of the property to the relatives of the deceased, +and the immediate relatives often disagree with the remainder of the clan. +In former times death of one or more members of contending clans often +resulted when the division of much property was made. Having no tribunal +for making an equitable division, the matter was left to mutual agreement, +resulting in disputes and frequently murder. + +With the breaking up of the clans, together with the rapid disintegration +of ancient customs and laws, this property law is fast becoming forgotten; +but so recently as 1906 such disputes as those mentioned occurred under +both the Fort Apache and San Carlos agencies, creating no little +ill-feeling. In one instance a man refused to deliver possession of half +of his little herd of horses to his deceased wife's clanspeople when +contemplating marriage with another woman, and appealed to the +missionaries for aid. He was compelled to make the division, however, +before he could remarry. + + + + +MYTHOLOGY - CREATION MYTH + + +There was a time when nothing existed to form the universe--no earth, no +sky, and no sun or moon to break the monotony of the illimitable darkness. +But as time rolled on, a spot, a thin circular disc no larger than the +hand, yellow on one side and white on the other, appeared in midair. +Inside the disc sat a bearded man but little larger than a frog, upon whom +was to fall the task of creating all things. Kúterastan, The One Who Lives +Above, is the name by which he is now known, though some call him +Yuádistan, Sky Man. + + [Illustration: Apache Still Life] + + Apache Still Life + + _From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Kúterastan, as if waking from a long sleep, sat up and rubbed his face and +eyes with both hands. Then bending forward, he looked up into the endless +darkness, and lo! light appeared everywhere above him. He then looked +down, and all below became a sea of light. A glance to the east created +yellow streaks of dawn, another to the west the saffron tints of the dying +day, both soon becoming obscured by numerous clouds of many hues, formed +by his looking around and about in all directions. + +Again with both hands Kúterastan wiped his eyes and sweating face and, +rubbing his hands together as if he were rolling a small pebble between +the palms, suddenly parted them with a quick downward fling, and there +before him on a shining, vaporless, mirage-like cloud sat a little girl no +larger than a doll. Kúterastan directed her to stand up, asking where she +intended to go, but she replied not. He cleared his vision once more with +his hands, then proffered his right hand to the girl, Stenátlihan, Woman +Without Parents, who grasped it, with the greeting "Whence came you?" + +For reply Kúterastan merely repeated her question, adding, "Look to the +east, it is light! There will be light in the south, in the west, and in +the north." And as she looked she saw light. He then came out upon the +cloud. + +"Where is the earth?" asked Stenátlihan, to which Kúterastan replied by +asking: + +"Where is the sky?" Then requesting that he be not disturbed, he began to +sing: "I am thinking, thinking, thinking, thinking what shall I do next." +Four times he thus sang, at the end of the fourth time brushing his face +with his hands, which he rubbed briskly together and parted quickly; and +there before him stood Chuganaái, the Sun. Raising his left hand to his +brow, from the sweat thereon, which he rolled in his hands as before, +Kúterastan let drop from his right palm a small boy, Hádintin Skhin. + +The four sat upon that still cloud for a time as if in reverie, the first +to break the silence being he who commenced the creation: "What shall we +do next? I do not like this cloud to live upon, but we are to rule and +must stay together. How dreary it is here! I wish we had some place to +go." And then he set to work again, creating Nacholécho, the Tarantula, +who was later to help in completing the earth, and Nôkusé, the Big Dipper, +whose duty it would be to befriend and to guide. The creation of +Nilchídilhkizn, the Wind, Ndídilhkizn, the Lightning Maker, and the clouds +in the west to house Ndísâgochan, Lightning Rumbler, whom he placed in +them at the same time, next occupied his attention. Then turning to +Stenátlihan, Kúterastan said, "Truly this is not a fit place in which to +live; let us make the earth." And so saying he at once began to sing, "I +am thinking of the earth, the earth, the earth; I am thinking of the +earth," which he repeated four times. As he ceased, Stenátlihan, +Chuganaái, and Hádintin Skhin each shook hands with him. Sweat from their +hands adhered to his. He at once began rubbing his palms, when suddenly +there slipped from between them a small brown body, no larger than a bean. +Kúterastan kicked it and it expanded; Stenátlihan then kicked it and its +size further increased; Chuganaái next gave it a severe blow with his foot +and it became larger still; a kick from Hádintin Skhin made it greater +yet. Nilchídilhkizn, the Wind, was told to go inside and blow outward in +all directions. This he did, greatly expanding the dimensions of that +body, now so wide that they could hardly see its edge. The Lightning was +next directed to exert his strength, so with a terrific flash and roar he +penetrated the body to its centre, spreading it still wider. Then +Tarantula was called on to assist, and accordingly he started off to the +east, spinning a strong black cord, on which he pulled with all his might; +another cord of blue was spun out to the south, a third of yellow to the +west, and a fourth of glistening white to the north. A mighty pull on each +of these stretched the surface of that dark brown body to almost +immeasurable size. Finally Kúterastan directed all to cover their eyes +with their hands, and when they opened them a moment later they beheld +Nigostú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, the Earth, complete in extent. No hills or mountains were there +in sight, nothing but a smooth, treeless, reddish-brown plain. + +Nilchídilhkizn, the Wind, scratched his chest and rubbed his fingers +together, when out from between them flew Dátilye, the Humming-bird. +Dátilye was told to make a circuit of the earth and report what he saw. He +started off toward the east, circled south, west, north, and back from the +east. All was well; the earth was most beautiful, very smooth, and covered +with water on the western side. + +But the Earth was not still; it kept shifting and rolling and dancing up +and down, so Kúterastan made four great posts--colored black, blue, yellow, +and white--to support it. Then he directed Stenátlihan to sing a song. She +sang, "The world is made and will soon sit still." These two then stood +and faced Chuganaái and Hádintin Skhin, when into their midst came +Nilchídilhkizn, who dashed away to the cardinal points with the four +posts, which he placed under the sides of the earth; and upon them it sat +and was still. This pleased Kúterastan, so he sang a song, repeating, "The +world is now made and sits still." + +Then Kúterastan began another song, referring to the sky. None existed as +yet, and he felt there ought to be one. Four times he chanted the song, at +the end of the fourth time spreading his hands wide before him, when lo! +there stood twenty-eight men and women ready to help make a sky to cover +the earth. He next chanted a song for the purpose of making chiefs for the +sky and the earth, and at its close sent Ndídilhkizn, the Lightning Maker, +to encircle the world. Ndídilhkizn departed at once, but returned in a +short time with three very uncouth persons, two girls and a boy, whom he +had found in the sky in a large turquoise bowl. Not one of them had eyes, +ears, hair, mouth, nose, or teeth, and though they had arms and legs, they +had neither fingers nor toes. + +Chuganaái at once sent for Doh, the Fly, to come and erect a _kaché{~COMBINING BREVE~}_, or +sweat-house. It took but a short time to put up the framework, which +Stenátlihan covered closely with four heavy clouds: a black cloud on the +east, a blue one on the south, a yellow one on the west, and a white one +on the north. Out in front of the doorway, at the east, she spread a soft +red cloud for a foot-blanket after the sweat. Twelve stones were heated in +a fire, and four of them placed in the _kaché{~COMBINING BREVE~}_. Kúterastan, Stenátlihan, +Chuganaái, and Hádintin Skhin each inspected the sweat-house and +pronounced it well made. The three newcomers were bidden to enter and were +followed by Chuganaái, Nilchídilhkizn, Ndídilhkizn, Nôkusé, and Doh. The +eight sang songs as their sweat began. Chuganaái led, singing four songs, +and each of the others followed in turn with the same number. They had had +a good sweat by the time the songs were finished, so Stenátlihan removed +the black cloud and all came out. She then placed the three strangers on +the red-cloud blanket, and under the direction of Kúterastan made for them +fingers, toes, mouth, eyes, ears, hair, and nose. Then Kúterastan bade +them welcome, making the boy, whom he called Yádilhkih Skhin, Sky Boy, +chief of the sky and its people. The second he named Nigostú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, +Earth Daughter, and placed her in charge of the earth and its crops; while +to the third, Hádinin Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, Pollen Girl, was assigned the care of the +health of the earth's people. This duty also devolved upon Hádintin Skhin, +but each looks more to the welfare of his own sex than to that of the +other. + + [Illustration: Among the Oaks - Apache] + + Among the Oaks - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +The earth was smooth, flat, and barren, so Kúterastan made a few animals, +birds, trees, and a hill. Then he sent Ágocho, the Pigeon, to see how the +world looked. Four days later Ágocho returned and said all was beautiful, +but that in four days more the water on the opposite side would rise and +flood the land. Kúterastan at once created a pińon tree. This Stenátlihan +skilfully tended until it grew to be of gigantic size at the end of four +days. Then with four great limbs as a framework she made a very large +water bottle, _tus_, covering it with gum from the pińon. When the water +appeared as predicted, Kúterastan went up on a cloud, taking his +twenty-eight helpers with him, while Stenátlihan summoned all the others +and put them into the _tus_, into which she climbed last, closing the +mouth at the top. + + [Illustration: Mescal Camp - Apache] + + Mescal Camp - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +The flood completely submerged the earth for twelve days. Then the waters +subsided, leaving the _tus_ on the summit of the hill Kúterastan had made. +The rush of the waters had changed the once smooth, level plain into +series of mountains, hills, rivers, and valleys, so that Stenátlihan +hardly knew where they were when she opened the _tus_ and came out. Tázhi, +the Turkey, and Gage, the Crow, were the first to make a tour of the land. +At the base of the hill they descended into a small muddy alkaline creek, +in which the Turkey got the tips of his tail-feathers whitened, and they +have been white ever since. On return they reported that all looked +beautiful as far as they had travelled. Stenátlihan then sent Ágocho to +make a complete circuit and let her know how things appeared on all sides. +He came back much elated, for he had seen trees, grass, mountains, and +beautiful lakes and rivers in every direction. + +Directing the others to remain where she left them, Stenátlihan summoned +Hádintin Skhin, Hádintin Naln, Ndídilhkizn, and Ágocho, and took them up +in a cloud, in which they drifted until they met Kúterastan and his band +of workers, who had completed the sky during the time of the flood. The +two clouds floated to the top of the hill on which stood the _tus_. All +descended to the valley below, where Stenátlihan marshalled them into +line, that Kúterastan might talk to them. He briefly told them that he was +going to leave them and wished each one to do his part toward making the +world perfect and happy. "You, Ndísâgochan, shall have charge of the +clouds and the water. You, Yádilhkih Skhin, I leave in charge of the sky. +Nigostú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, you are to look after the crops of our people; and you, +Hádintin Skhin, must care for their health and guide them." He then called +Stenátlihan to him and placed her in charge of all. + +The people stood in line facing their god, with hands extended as if in +supplication. Kúterastan and Stenátlihan stood facing each other. Each +rubbed their thighs with their hands, then cast their hands downward, and +there arose between them a great pile of wood. Stenátlihan knelt and +slipped a hand under it, and as she did so Kúterastan passed his hand over +the top. Great white billowy clouds of smoke at once issued forth, rising +straight skyward. Into these Kúterastan disappeared. All the other gods +and goddesses soon followed, leaving the twenty-eight whom Kúterastan had +made to build the sky to remain upon the earth and people it. Chuganaái +went east to travel with the sun; Stenátlihan departed westward to make +her home in clouds on the horizon, while Hádintin Skhin and Hádintí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n +Nalín sought homes among the clouds in the south, and Nôkusé may still be +seen in the northern sky at night. + +The Apache is inherently devoutly religious; his life is completely +moulded by his religious beliefs. From his morning prayer to the rising +sun, through the hours, the days, and months--throughout life itself--every +act has some religious significance. Animals, elements, every observable +thing of the solar system, all natural phenomena, are deified and revered. +Like all primitive people, not understanding the laws of nature, the +Apache ascribe to the supernatural all things passing their understanding. +The medicine-men consider disease evil, hence why try to treat evil with +drugs? Disease is of divine origin, so to the beneficent and healing gods +the Apache naturally make supplication for cure. + +The Apache, even if willing, could not directly impart their religious +beliefs or their philosophy. It is only by study of their myths, myth +songs, and medicine practices, and by close observance of their life, that +a comprehensive idea of such beliefs can be gained. + +A concise outline of the mythology of the Apache is given in the following +description of the painted medicine skin(2) shown in the accompanying +plate. + +A--The nucleus of the universe, called Chalhké{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh Nalíín, Night Girl. In +the beginning it was merely a spot of color in which, during the course of +time, a form appeared, and later emerged. This was Kúterastan, the +Creator. + +B--Kúterastan, the Creator of All, is standing on the clouds, his first +home, holding lightning in each hand. To his left is the _tus_, or water +bottle, in which the people of the earth took refuge from the flood +shortly after their creation. Above him are four clouds, those into which +he departed when leaving the earth for his celestial abode. He first +created several assistants, who in turn created others by rubbing sweat +and small particles of cuticle from the face and body. + +C--Stenátlihan, the chief goddess, first helper of Kúterastan, is seen +standing on the clouds. In her right hand is a pińon tree, from the +branches and gum of which the large _tus_ was made at the time of the +deluge. Above her flies Dátilye, the Humming-bird, who was sent as a +messenger about the world to note how its creation progressed. + +D--Chuganaái Skhin was the second person created by Kúterastan. He followed +Stenátlihan, and is therefore third in importance of the many deities. Not +only does he give light to the day, but he has the power to relieve and +cure disease with the aid of the first beams of his morning light. The +Apache ask his blessing before sunrise, generally imploring his +beneficence "as soon as you look upon me." The serrated circles typify the +abodes of these gods, which are protected by insurmountable barriers. + +E--Here the sun as first made by the great creator is pictured. As time +wore on, it grew to become the full round disc it now is. + +F--The moon as first made by Stenátlihan, at the behest of Kúterastan, who +asked that she make something to illumine the night. The streaks represent +catamenia, and the gradual growth of the moon is assumed to be parallel +with prenatal growth. + +G--This single symbol, a maltese cross, represents the four personages who +made the stars. They have to do with the stars only, and are not prayed to +as deities having power over the people on earth. + + [Illustration: Sacred Buckskin - Apache] + + Sacred Buckskin - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_ + + EXPLANATION OF PLATE + + A--Chalhké{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh Nalín, Night Girl + B--Kúterastan, The One Who Lives Above + C--Stenátlihan, Woman Without Parents + D--Chuganaái Skhin, Sun Boy + E--Chuganaái, The Sun + F--Kleganaái, The Moon + G--Yádilhkih Binálze, Sky Messengers + H--Nigostú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n Biká Binálze, Earth Messengers + I, J--Nasté{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh, Makers of Dreams and Visions + K--Hádilhkih, Lightning + + Disc L + 1--Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani, Slayer of Alien Gods + 2--Dutlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi Skhin, Turquoise Boy + 3--Yólkai Skhin, White-Shell Boy + 4--Hádintin Skhin, Pollen Boy + + Disc M + 1--Tubadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, Born From Water + 2--Yádilhkih Skhin, Sky Boy + 3--Yólkai Skhin, White-Shell Boy + 4--Hádintin Skhin, Pollen Boy + + Disc N + 1--Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, White-Shell Girl + 2--Dutlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, Turquoise Girl + 3--Enásho Dilú{~COMBINING BREVE~}hklí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shen, Black Alien Talker + 4--Hádintin Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, Pollen Girl + + Disc O + 1--Hádintin Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, Pollen Girl + 2--Nilchídilhkizn, The Wind + 3--Yólkai Nalíí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, White-Shell Girl + 4 --Yakósha Skhin, Frost Boy + + P--Gáuncho - Gods + Q--Gaunchiné{~COMBINING BREVE~} - Gods + R--Gáun - Gods + S--Gaunchí - Gods + + +H--Another maltese cross, symbolizing four spirits of the air, who act as +messengers of the gods. They are supposed to communicate with the +medicine-men, bringing to them words of wisdom from the several gods as +they sit and chant in ceremony, or when they are fasting. Their name, +Nigostú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n Biká Binálze, Earth Messengers, indicates that their powers +extend to both the earth and the sky. + +I and J symbolize spirits of the air who reveal to the medicine-men the +wonders they claim to know in a priestly way. Such revelations are made to +them in visions as they sit and drum and sing when endeavoring to discover +some new cure for an affliction, or to initiate new customs that might be +pleasing to the gods. The priests often take a medicine skin of this sort +and go out into the mountains, where they fast and sing over it for hours +at a time, awaiting the coming of the spirits. + +K--It is supposed that any of the various gods have the power of calling on +the lightning to carry messages from one to the other. Wherever shown in +the symbolism of the Apache, lightning lines are drawn to indicate +communication from one god to another. + +Disc L 1--Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani is the first son of Stenátlihan, who was made to +conceive by the sun's rays as she lay asleep on the eastern slope of a +mountain. He is the War God and miracle performer, the culture hero who in +parallel legends appears in many North American aboriginal cults. Great +monsters in the form of giant antelopes, rolling stones, and beasts of +hideous conception are supposed to have inhabited the earth for a time, +destroying its people. These monsters typify only the evils of this life; +in fact death itself is spoken of in many legends as one of the monsters, +in such form engaging in a long discussion with the miracle performer to +prove that he should not be destroyed; if he were, the earth would become +overpopulated. With his bow and arrow and turquoise lance Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani +banished these curses from earth. He himself was invulnerable as he +appeared before these monsters, for the reason that he always buried his +veins near a tree before attacking them. After he had killed them all, he +and his younger brother, Tubadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, quarrelled. The Bluebird revealed +to the latter the spot where Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani kept his veins buried, so he +sought them out and shot arrows into them, thus killing him. Other myths +relate how Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani was later resurrected, and he is still prayed to +as the chief War God. + + [Illustration: Apache Girl] + + Apache Girl + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +2--Dutlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi Skhin was created within the blue clouds at the time they were +made, and emerged from them. He took part in the creation, assisting +Kúterastan and Stenátlihan in finishing their work. At their direction he +made a few people and many birds and animals. + +3--To Yólkai Skhin is attributed the creation of all white things. He +himself was brought into existence in the white cloud, and on emerging +therefrom immediately began the work of making white rock and shells under +the direction of Kúterastan and Stenátlihan. + +4--Hádintin Skhin is the God of Disease and Health. It is he who causes +much sickness and he who can cure any disease, if he be so disposed. +Especial care is taken by the Apache not to arouse his displeasure, and he +is supplicated and propitiated whenever disease appears among them. + +Disc M 1--Tubadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, the second son of Stenátlihan, is the God of +Water, because his mother conceived as she slept one afternoon under a +ledge of rock from which drops of water trickled upon her. In the dance +for rain all prayers and songs are addressed to him. It was he who created +the ocean. + +2--Yádilhkih Skhin is Chief of the Sky. In the origin story the Lightning +was sent to encircle the earth to find how things appeared on all sides. +On his return he brought back with him a large turquoise bowl containing +three ill-formed persons, one of whom was Sky Boy. Later all three were +put through a sweat-bath and their bodies perfected. + +3--Yólkai Skhin, described above. + +4--Hádintin Skhin, described above. + + [Illustration: The Ford - Apache] + + The Ford - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Disc N 1--Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, one of the most venerated and greatly feared +personages in the Apache mythology. She is the Goddess of Death, or rather +of the after-life, for she controls all souls that pass on to the future +world. The road to this afterworld is supposed to cross her shoulders and +is symbolized by the Milky Way, a trail made by the departing spirits. The +Apache will not utter the name of a deceased person, because they say the +dead have gone on to Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n and are her people. If they talked of +them it might anger her, and when their death ensues she might refuse them +admittance to the eternal paradise. This goddess is supposed to preside +over the birth of children, hence supplications and offerings are made to +her immediately before childbirth. She is invoked at other times to +withhold her call, for it is believed that she can cause death. These +prayers are addressed to Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n through the medium of small white +shells and white stone beads. The white beads are symbolic of purity, and +through them Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n is asked to keep the minds of the people free +from evil thoughts or deeds. + +2--Dutlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, the Turquoise Girl, is the creator of all things +green. She has to do with the crops in the fields, and the devout Apache +prays to her every morning during the season of growth. + +3--Enásho Dilhklí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shen is the God of Intellect. He controls the minds of +the people, making their thoughts good or evil at will. It was he who +first talked to the people on earth. When a child is born its parents +often pray that Kúterastan will make it grow to be like Enásho +Dilhklí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shen, to whom prayers are addressed for aid when one must talk to +the people. In such case no offering of pollen is made unless the request +be presented to an image representing this god, when pollen is sprinkled +upon it. + +4--Hádintin Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n is Chieftainess of Pollen, because she causes pollen to +grow on the trees. The Indians know the function of pollen in plants and +pray that their corn and other products of the fields, as well as the nuts +and fruits that grow wild, may be fructified early in the season, to +insure good harvests. + +Disc O 1--Hádintin Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, described above. + +2--Nilchídilhkizn, Chief of the Winds. The Apache never complains of the +wind, for should he become impatient about them and give vent to +sacrilegious utterances he might anger the Wind God and thereby bring on +destructive storms. + +3--Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, described above. + +4--Yakósha Skhin, God of Moisture and also Controller of Rain. Since snow, +ice, hail, frost, dew, and fog are derived from the clouds, Yakósha Skhin +is sometimes termed Chief of the Clouds, but in general the clouds are +regarded as his workshop, for there is another who has direct charge and +control of them. + +P, Q, R, and S--These figures represent gods, or, in Apache, _gáun_, who +are supposed to have been made by the Sun for the purpose of curing people +stricken with bodily disease. Diseases of the body are regarded as +distinct from those of the mind. The _gáun_ live in the four cardinal +directions and are impersonated in medicine ceremonies by men wearing +stick masks, who always take stations at the four sides of the patient. +These doctors are not called in case of illness until after the four chief +deities have been supplicated, when, as a last resort, the medicine-man +prays to the _gáun_. If the _gáun_ cannot help, there is believed to be no +hope for the patient. In ancient times all animals could talk, and many +were used as beasts of burden. The bear and the deer were the horses of +that time. In the graphic representations of the Apache these four spirits +are often pictured riding deer and bear. + + + + +MEDICINE AND MEDICINE-MEN + + +The medicine-men of the Apache are most influential personages. They are +usually men of more than ordinary ability, claiming, through their many +deities and their knowledge of the occult and ominous, to have +supernatural power. In sickness any individual may make supplication to +the deities, but the prayers of the medicine-men are accepted as being +most efficacious. + + [Illustration: Apache Medicine-man] + + Apache Medicine-man + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Many of the medicine-men have some knowledge of the medicinal properties +of plants and generally make use of them in the treatment of disease, but +their treatment consists more of incantation than aught else. Even in +collecting the plants they invoke the deities, usually facing the cardinal +points in turn. In case the prescription calls for a combination of herbs +or other vegetal products, the number four is always strictly adhered to; +it might be a decoction made of four roots of one variety or of a single +root from each of four varieties of plants. + +Every Apache medicine-man has a medicine skin, his _epú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n ezchí_, +inscribed with the symbolism of the tribal mythology. With his prayer +wands he rehearses the symbolic figures, praying to the mythical +characters who are regarded as most efficacious in the particular ailment +under treatment. In his own little _kówa_, or dwelling, with the painted +deerskin spread before him, on which are delineated the symbolic +representations of a score of gods comprising the Apache pantheon, a +medicine-man will sit and croon songs and pray all day and all night in +the hope of hearing the voices of celestial messengers. + +Many of the prayers and songs of the Apache medicine-men are very +beautiful. The following is an example: + +1 _Stená pehí{~COMBINING BREVE~}nda nzhóni, tógonil ádahe bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}oishka__n__._ + +2 _Inaté{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh nzhóni bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}oishka__n__._ + +3 _Enudé{~COMBINING BREVE~}tsos nzhóni bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}oishka__n__._ + +4 _Inyátil nzhóni bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}oishka__n__._ + +5 _Bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}hnandahi inkéhi tógonil ádahe bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}oishka__n__._ + +6 _Indú{~COMBINING BREVE~}h binandáhe bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}oishka__n__._ + +7 _Beh nashálolezh nde; nashéyo shichí{~COMBINING TILDE~}sigo__n__ zhó__n__dolezh._ + +8 _Nde shinklóho beh sanandáhe bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}oishka__n__._ + +9 _Beh sanashádo bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}oishka__n__._ + +10 _No oskó__n__go adishní daházhi behnashádo ti nde ta nashéyo +go__n__zhódo._ + +11 _Shágocho paógo násha._ + +12 _Akúd nde sa nzhóni yé{~COMBINING BREVE~}sitchi yé{~COMBINING BREVE~}atido._ + +13 _Pídi yú{~COMBINING BREVE~}gga sa nzhóni yé{~COMBINING BREVE~}kissin shí{~COMBINING TILDE~}dil é{~COMBINING BREVE~}ndo._ + +14 _Shitú{~COMBINING BREVE~}h gozhó__n__dolezh pógo hádishndi._ + +1 _Stenátliha__n__, you are good, I pray for a long life._ + +2 _I pray for your good looks._ + +3 _I pray for good breath._ + +4 _I pray for good speech._ + +5 _I pray for feet like yours to carry me through a long life._ + +6 _I pray for a life like yours._ + +7 _I walk with people; ahead of me all is well._ + +8 _I pray for people to smile as long as I live._ + +9 _I pray to live long._ + +10 _I pray, I say, for a long life to live with you where the good people +are._ + +11 _I live in poverty._ + +12 _I wish the people there to speak of goodness and to talk to me._ + +13 _I wish you to divide your good things with me, as a brother._ + +14 _Ahead of me is goodness, lead me on._ + +While this prayer is worded as if uttered by the supplicant, it is in +reality offered by the medicine-man in his behalf. + +There are head medicine-men and medicine-men of lesser degree. The man who +becomes influential enough to be considered the head medicine-man of the +tribe is more of a politician than a doctor of diseases, and in important +cases only is he called to treat in a healing ceremony. It requires a +particularly capable Indian to attain the position of head medicine-man, +for to do so he must not only make the people subservient to his will, but +must wrest the leadership from some other and usually older medicine-man +who is himself an influential character. Unfortunately it is apt to be the +most crafty, scheming man who gains such power over his tribesmen. + +A case in point was the recent strife between Das Lan and Goshonné. For +some years the latter, an Indian of exceptional ability and withal +apparently an honest man in his treatment of diseases, was the head +medicine-man of the White Mountain Apache. Then it came to pass that the +crafty old Das Lan of the Cibicu had his vision, in which was revealed a +special message brought by Chuganaái Skhin from Kúterastan to the Apache +people. This was the beginning of the present so-called messiah craze. + + [Illustration: Maternity Belt - Apache] + + Maternity Belt - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +From the first there was promise of a battle to the end between Goshonné +and Das Lan. Goshonné well knew that if the new cult gained a firm footing +he would lose his influence and at best be but a mediocre medicine-man. +Das Lan, on the other hand, knew that he must break the power of such a +man as Goshonné, if he was to assume the leadership. Goshonné scoffed and +scorned, and would have none of the new belief. Still, he was an Indian, +and the prophecies of his rival gradually filled him with superstitious +fear, while his followers were either deserting him openly or were +secretly joining the ranks of the enemy. Death was predicted for the +members of Goshonné's own family, and well could Das Lan make such +prophecies, for Goshonné's two brothers were already stricken with +tuberculosis. First one died, then the other. Das Lan could now point to +him and say, "That is what Kúterastan does to those who do not believe!" +It was thus that Goshonné's power finally was broken and Das Lan became a +seer. + +Sacred pollen, _hádintin_, is used in all ceremonies, particularly in +those designed for healing. The principal source of _hádintin_ is the +tule, but much of it comes from the pińon. For prayers invoking an +abundance of corn, pollen is mixed with cornmeal. Not only do the +medicine-men use this powder, but each individual carries a small quantity +of it in a deerskin pouch somewhere about his person. In the pollen may be +small medicine trinkets--sometimes consisting of a few shell beads from +prehistoric ruins--and there is scarcely a person, old or young, who does +not have a small section of the candle cactus fastened somewhere about his +clothing. + +When childbirth approaches, the medicine-men are always summoned. Nothing +can give a better idea of the medicine rites on such an occasion, and of +the use of sacred pollen, than a description of a maternity belt procured +by the writer and here illustrated. So far as can be learned, this belt is +very old, so old that its painted symbolic figures have been three times +renewed. Belts of this kind are very rare, and are hired whenever their +use is required. The owner of this particular belt, a widow, did not care +to dispose of it; as she expressed it, "it is like a husband": the +remuneration from granting its use was sufficient to support her. + +The belt is made from skin of the mountain lion, the black-tail deer, the +white-tail deer, and the antelope--animals which give birth to their young +without trouble. Medicine-men are called in to pray to the spirits of +these animals when a woman approaching confinement puts on the belt. It is +worn for a day or so only, but constantly during the critical period, not +being removed until after the child is born. Prayers are made, first by a +mother or father for their daughter, then by a medicine-man, and lastly by +the patient to the gods and elements depicted on the belt. These figures +are all connected with lightning lines. The first one to the left is +Stenátlihan; on the same portion is the Snake Girl, Klishcho Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n; the +next is Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani, the third Tubadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, and the last Yólkai +Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n. The sharp points around the circular abodes of the two goddesses +represent barricades for protection. At the real homes of these deities, +none can pass through these barriers. + +Each of the gods from left to right is prayed to successively, and +_hádintin_ is sprinkled around them afterward. Stenátlihan is the first to +be addressed by the prospective mother: + +"We are your children. When you gave birth to your children, it caused you +no trouble. Make me like yourself, that my child, soon to be born, may +come into this world easily and quickly, without pain to me." + +Next the Snake Girl is prayed to: + +"Klí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shcho Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, you came into this life with ease. Do what you can for +me now, that my child may come in like manner." + +Then to Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani: + +"Help my babe, soon to be born, to come as you did--quickly, easily, and +without pain." + +The belt in Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani's left hand represents the one worn by his +mother, Stenátlihan, when he was born. There was a time when skirts, too, +having the same magic power the belt is supposed to possess, were worn by +women at childbirth. One such is shown in the hand of Tubadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, next +pictured, to whom the woman addresses a prayer much the same as the last. +The skirt also is the one worn by Stenátlihan when the two brothers were +born. + + [Illustration: Medicine Cap and Fetish - Apache] + + Medicine Cap and Fetish - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n is the favorite goddess from whom, in their belief, the +Apache women are endowed with great beneficence. She lives in the skies, +where all souls go. The prayer to her is, as to the others, "Save me from +pain and let my child come as you did." + +Clouds at the feet of Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani typify the bounties of the world into +which it is hoped and prayed the child will be happily born. + +The prayers finished, _hádintin_ is sifted over all the figures. Beginning +at the left, the lightning line is followed into Stenátlihan's abode, +which is then encircled, and the sacred powder is liberally sprinkled +around and over her body. Each figure is treated in like manner. + +The accompanying plate shows a medicine-cap made by Yotlú{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, a +medicine-man, about forty years ago, to cure a boy of lightning stroke +which had impaired his reason, and a small wooden image of a god recently +made to be carried by a girl troubled with nervousness. On both these +objects the gods and elements which cause afflictions and which alone can +give relief are symbolically represented. + +The central figure on the cap pictures Ndídilhkizn, Lightning Maker, with +lightning, _hádilhkih_, in zigzag lines above his head and beneath his +feet. The broad arch indicates clouds with rifts in them, out of which the +evil came and into which it may return. The cross of abalone, the small +white bead, and the eagle feather are media through which Tu Ntelh (Wide +Water), Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n (White-Shell Girl), and Itsád Ndé{~COMBINING BREVE~}yu (Eagle People) +are supplicated. + +The cap was worn at night by the boy, whose parents each morning at +sunrise prayed to the various gods and elements represented on it, +invoking them to take back that which they had left with the boy, and +adding: "Keep us even in temper and mild and clean in action. We do wrong +at times, but that is not our wish. If our minds are kept clean we will do +nothing bad. We wish to have good thoughts and to do good deeds. Keep our +minds clear that we may think them and do them." After each prayer +_hádinin_ was sifted upon the symbol representing the deity addressed. + +As the boy soon recovered, the virtue of the cap was attested, and +subsequently its owner often hired it to others. + +The little wooden image represents Hádinin Skhin, Pollen Boy, God of +Health. The painted figures on the skin pouch in which it is carried are +similar to those on the cap, and all are supplicated in the same manner. +The medicine-man who made the image and pouch received a horse from the +father of the patient in payment; but not the least interesting feature of +the case for which these objects were made is that the god of the natives +received all the credit for the efficient treatment given the afflicted +girl for a year by the reservation physician. + +Dry-paintings, or figures drawn upon the ground with colored earths, were +used in the Apache healing ceremonies, but never to a great extent, and of +late years they have been practically abandoned. These paintings, compared +with the beautiful, conventional productions of the Navaho, are crude; in +making them the Apache always attempt to picture the objects literally +rather than to represent them conventionally or symbolically. + +On the infrequent occasions when the dry-paintings are employed, the +medicine-man in charge of the ceremony directs his assistants, at +daylight, to begin the painting. When it is finished he takes his station +close to the easternmost figure of the painting, on its northern side. At +the right of the medicine-man sit twelve chosen singers with a drum. The +four masked _gáun_, or gods, at the same time take their places at the +cardinal points. The patient then enters from the east and sits down on +the head of the large figure in the centre of the dry-painting. As he does +so the medicine-man commences to sing, and is joined by the chorus at +once. They may sing the song four times, or sing four different songs, or +any multiple of four, at the pleasure of the medicine-man. When the songs +are finished the four masked personages scrape the colored earths into a +heap about the patient and rub them in handfuls over his body. If this +ceremony proves to be ineffectual, it is believed to be the will of the +gods that the patient be not cured. + + [Illustration: _Das Lan_ - Apache] + + _Das Lan_ - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + +THE MESSIAH CRAZE + + +Among the Apache, in the spring of 1906, the excessive use of a combined +cross and crescent symbol was noted. Men, women, and children had this +anchor-like design cut into wood, tin, and metal talismans, and also +tattooed on their faces and branded on their horses. It was used also as a +decorative device in much of the new basketry and worked in beads on their +moccasins, and new shirts and waists seldom failed to display a cross in +narrow yellow and black ribbon in front. + +Four years before this time a forceful old medicine-man living on the +Cibicu, in a remote corner of the Apache reservation, either through the +influence of a vision or other hallucination, or by a desire to become the +ruling spirit in the tribe, proclaimed the gospel of a messiah who, he +claimed, had appeared to him in the hills and would later return to the +deliverance of his tribespeople. + +In childhood this future prophet was given the name Das Lan, Hanging Up, +by which designation he is commonly known in familiar discourse among his +tribesmen; but on the census rolls of the White Mountain agency he is +recorded simply as "V-9." On becoming a medicine-man in his youth, in +accordance with tribal custom he adopted the name--what may be termed a +professional title--Dóni Tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi Nôiltánsh, which signifies Turquoise +Rolling Stone. + +As hitherto mentioned, the Apache is the personification of devoutness in +the performance of his religious duties, and no matter where circumstances +may place him, he manages always to have a small pouch of _hádintin_ +carefully secreted about his person for use in paying his devotions to +half a score of gods, at least once every four days. If occasion demands, +he may pray every day, or four times a day, or any multiple of four times. +This custom has a direct bearing on the story of the messiah, which is +this: + +Das Lan, in a spirit of more than usual devotion, began a series of +prayers to the gods of Life, Peace, and Plenty, delivered as usual just as +the sun appeared over the eastern mountains. On the fourth morning, with +offerings of _hádintin_, he invoked the benediction of Kúterastan, the +Creator, Hádintin Skhin, God of Health, Hádintin Nalín, Goddess of Crops, +and of Chuganaái himself, the All-seeing Sun. As the fourth pinch of +pollen wafted away on the breeze there appeared the vision, immediately +beneath the sun, of a small bearded dwarf, less than three feet in height, +who approached him, and said: + +"I am a messenger sent by Kúterastan to talk to you. The Sun is my father; +I have just left him to come to you. You are to inform all your people +that a change is about to be made in their lives and in the nature of the +whole world. In place of this life of strife and toil with little to eat, +all, the white man as well as the Indian, will be taken to a place where +all things grow without labor, and where there will be no rough, barren +mountains, but instead broad valleys filled with grass, trees, corn, +fruits, nuts, and all kinds of game in abundance. There, too, you will +meet all your fathers and mothers and brothers and sisters and children +who have gone before you from their homes, for they are now there. There +no sickness or death will visit anyone. The old and feeble will become +strong, the crooked straight, and the blind shall see. But to be taken, +all must have faith, believing as one, and observe these instructions I am +to leave with you. You are commissioned to instruct the people. Those who +believe must adopt the _dáiita ílhnaha_, the cross and crescent, as a +symbol of faith, for it represents the shape the new world will have and +the road all must travel to reach it, and any who start on the journey +without using this sign will be lost on the way. When the time comes to +depart, I will return to lead you. A great cloud, open in the centre, will +come down from above and surround us all, so that none shall see whither +he goes. Until then those who would go must do as you bid them. All males, +boys or men, must have caps of deerskin with the _dáiita ílhnaha_ marked +on them in beads on four sides, and two eagle feathers attached to the +top, ready to wear on the journey. They must also have new shirts, +leggings, and moccasins upon which this figure has been made in black and +white. + + [Illustration: Apache Village] + + Apache Village + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +"The girls and the women must likewise have new clothing, bearing the +sacred symbol, ever in readiness. All their water bottles, burden baskets, +and saddlebags must also bear the sign, and should any desire to ride +horses, only the best, fleet and strong, branded upon the left buttock +with the _dáiita ílhnaha_, may be taken. The permanent homes of all people +living in bands under a chief must no longer be scattered, but must be +built close together in long rows, that no time may be lost in assembling +when our Great Father wills that you depart from this life to go to that +where all is peace and plenty. Until that time, which is not far off, you +must conduct yourselves as I have directed, discarding also all old +medicine symbols for the new." + +The plain Greek cross and the crescent have been used by the Apache as +decorative and religious symbols from early times, but this recent +adaptation of the combined form came as a sudden wave. + +With an unusually strong personality, Das Lan had long been held in fear +by those who knew him best, and with his story of the new messiah he soon +became of great prominence in the tribe. Das Lan first made confidants of +the leading spirits in the various bands, who in turn converted others to +the new faith before public announcement was made. Having won the +strongest men in the tribe through personal appeal to their vanity, the +crafty Das Lan could now remain at home, enjoying the prosperous practice +that grew out of his new cult. + +Throughout the reservation those most deeply affected by the messiah +belief have been appointed spies over the others. If any persist in the +use of old medicine paraphernalia, they are reported at once and harassed +by threats of plague, sickness, ill-luck, disaster, and even death, which +Das Lan claims to be able to cause or to dispel at pleasure. Once the +threat is made, nothing unwelcome can happen to one under the ban that is +not immediately attributed, by all the medicine-man's disciples, to the +disfavor of the gods; and nothing more potent is necessary to convert the +unbeliever, for there is no Indian reared in the wilds who is not steeped +in the belief that his gods are all-powerful in both causing and +eradicating every ill. + +About two years ago, on the Cibicu, a woman murdered her husband. She did +not deny the act, but pleaded justification, alleging that her husband was +guilty of unfatherly conduct toward his daughter. The local authorities +were very sceptical of her defence, since the murdered man had always +borne an excellent reputation among both Indians and whites; but no +contradictory evidence could be adduced upon which to base an open trial, +so the matter became quieted. After time had cancelled the crime in the +mind of the guilty, it became known that the murder had been committed at +the instigation of the scheming Das Lan, who found the deceased an +obstacle to his prophetic assumptions, and under the guise of an order +from Kúterastan had him despatched. Naturally fierce, strong, and bold, +Das Lan has become more emboldened by his success as a prophet, and +indirect threats of further crafty murders are sometimes uttered by the +more fanatical members in each band when anyone presumes to defy his creed +and will. + +In 1903, throughout the White Mountain reservation, the Government farmers +found it difficult to persuade the Apache to plant the usual corn. The +following winter found them with a scant food supply, and Government aid +was neccessary to relieve suffering. The cause of the failure to plant, +none of the officials then knew; but to his tribesmen Das Lan had +prophesied the probable advent of the messiah at that time--so why plant +corn? + +Another effect of Das Lan's prophecy is noted in the fact that although a +few years ago the Apache houses were scattered far and wide, now there are +many villages consisting of long straight rows of grass-thatched huts, +bearing testimony to that deep-seated superstition which in the Apache +apparently will never be eradicated. + + [Illustration: Sand Mosaic - Apache] + + Sand Mosaic - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + + This pictures an Apache dry-painting employed in an attempt to cure a + paralytic about the year 1882. The several figures are crude + representations of masked deities--_gáun_. The wavy lines are lightning + symbols. The patient entered upon the central figure, when the colored +earths were gathered from about him and rubbed upon his body by masked men + personating the _gáun_. + + + + +PUBERTY RITE + + +The ceremonial celebration of the arrival of the period of puberty in +girls is more rigidly adhered to than any ancient religious rite or social +custom in vogue among the Apache. By this ceremony the social position of +the girl is established, and she is given assurance, on the eve of her +womanhood, of a long, happy, active life. At this critical period, if the +favor of the gods were not thus invoked in behalf of the girl, it might +augur ill for her in after life. + +This Nalín Bagúdzitash, or Girl Dance, is held always at dawn and is +brought to a close when the sun shines full upon the participants. The +ceremony is conducted by a woman selected from among the friends of the +girl's parents for her comeliness, activity, and good character. So far as +the performance of the successive parts of the ceremony is concerned, no +special knowledge on the part of the leader is required, as a medicine-man +is engaged to give the necessary directions and to sing the songs. The +girl lies on a blanket upon the ground, and her sponsor, so to speak, +straightens her arms and legs, rubs her joints, and otherwise simulates +remoulding and beautifying her body. The girl then sits up, and those +assembled dance and sing in a circle about her. An eagle feather and a +white-shell bead are tied in her hair, and sacred pollen is rubbed on her +face, in deference respectively to the bird of war and the god and goddess +of health and fructification--Hádintin Skhin and Hádintin Nalín. + +When the dancing is finished the sponsor takes a basket of corn prepared +for ceremonial use and deposits it fifty yards or more to the east of the +circle. The girl arises and runs around the basket, then back to the +blanket on the ground, followed by little boys and girls. The godmother +then moves the basket farther away, and the girl runs around it again, +followed by children as before. This performance is repeated four times at +the east of the circle, after which the basket is carried around to the +south and the girl runs around it four times again, then to the west, and +lastly to the north. When she returns from her fourth run at the north the +girl stops on the blanket as usual, where the basket of corn is emptied on +her head. A lively scramble for the corn follows on the part of all +present, for it is deemed good fortune to bear away a handful of the +consecrated kernels, which, if planted, are certain to be very prolific. + +The act of running out and back, followed by children, symbolically +attests that the young woman will be strong and active throughout life, +beloved by her offspring, who will always follow and obey her. That of +pouring corn upon her head is an invocation to the gods that she may be +blessed with fruitfulness. + +The girl wears her ceremonial raiment of whitened deerskin or new white +muslin, with a white feather, a stone bead, and a piece of shell in her +hair, for four days after the performance, abstaining during that time +from flesh and from food containing salt, being careful, too, not to +scratch herself with her fingers. At the end of this period she bathes, +dons her usual clothing, and partakes of the customary food. + + + + +DANCE OF THE GODS + + +The Gáun Bagúdzitash, or Dance of the Gods, is the one ceremony of the +Apache that bears any material resemblance to the many Yébichai dances or +"chants" of the Navaho, and even then the only feature common to the two +is that the men, typifying gods, wear elaborate masks. The Apache are not +unfamiliar with the making and employment of dry-paintings for the +treatment of the sick, as has been seen. Originally the dry-paintings and +the _gáun_, or gods, always appeared together, but in recent years the +Gáun dance has been conducted preliminary to and as a part of medicine, +puberty, and war ceremonies. Captain Bourke, in his "Medicine-men of the +Apache" (Ninth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1892), speaks of this as +the Spirit or Ghost dance. Though performed infrequently now, as compared +with other dances, on account of the expense and of disapproval by the +agents, the Gáun Bagúdzitash is unquestionably the most popular ceremony +conducted by the Apache. + + [Illustration: Apache _Gaun_] + + Apache _Gaun_ + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Four always, but generally five, deities are impersonated in this +dance--Gaunchiné{~COMBINING BREVE~} of the east, Gáuncho of the south, Gáun of the west, +Gaunchí of the north, and Gauneskí{~COMBINING BREVE~}de the fun-maker. These are arrayed in +short kilts, moccasins, and high stick hats supported upon tightly fitting +deerskin masks that cover the entire head. Each carries two flat sticks +about two feet in length, painted with zigzag lines representing +lightning. + +For the dance a circular plot of ground, fifty or sixty feet in diameter, +is cleared of stones and brush, and four small cedar trees are planted +about its edge, one at each of the cardinal points. All in attendance +assemble in a circle outside the trees, leaving an opening at the eastern +side. Unheralded the five masked personators march in from the east and +take position in front of the cedar trees, the fifth man standing behind +the fourth at the northern side. Four drummers with small drums and an +indefinite number of drummers around a large one, at a signal from the +medicine-man in charge, who sings, begin drumming. The personated gods +dance all about the circle, making motions with their sticks as if picking +up and throwing something away, followed by blowing with the breath for +the purpose of expelling evil spirits from their midst. While this is +going on the fifth masker, Gauneskíde, performs antics designed to amuse +the audience. When the songs are finished the dancers depart in an +eastwardly direction, whence they came, and all rest. + +The drummers begin the next period in the dance by beating their tomtoms. +As soon as they commence the _gáun_ again appear, coming from the east as +before, and stop in single file in front of the cedar tree on the eastern +side. There the spectators throw _hádintin_ upon them and offer prayers, +after which the five _gáun_ take the same positions as before in front of +the small trees. Upon the trees little wheels of cedar twigs have been +hung; these the dancers now take, and each dances toward the fire in the +centre of the circle and back four times. As the gods dance back and forth +the people assembled in the encircling line shift their positions, so that +all the women are on the north side and all the men on the south; then the +entire body dances, with brief intervals of rest, while twelve songs are +sung. The maskers next form in single file on the east, march around the +fire, through the flames of which each passes the ends of his two sacred +wands to destroy any lurking evil, then back around the eastern cedar +tree, again around the fire, then to the southern tree, and so on to each +of the four trees, when they take their leave. + +This much constitutes that part of the ceremony in which the _gáun_ are +the chief participants and which usually occupies half the night. The +remainder of the night is consumed by the performance of some ceremony +forming the principal objective--often the puberty rite above described. + + [Illustration: Apache Maiden] + + Apache Maiden + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + + +THE JICARILLAS + + + [Illustration: Lone Tree Lodge - Jicarilla] + + Lone Tree Lodge - Jicarilla + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + +HOME AND GENERAL CUSTOMS + + +The Jicarillas, or, as they are commonly called, "Jicarilla Apaches," +occupy a reservation of nearly four hundred and fifty square miles of +mountainous country in northern New Mexico. Linguistically the Jicarillas +are of the same stock as the Apache of Arizona; but here the relationship +ceases, for the two peoples have virtually no knowledge one of the other; +each, according to their respective genesis myths, had their origin in the +general region in which they live to-day, while the dialect, mythology, +legends, and medicine rites of the Jicarillas more closely resemble those +of the Navaho than any of the Apache groups. The designation "Jicarilla +Apaches" is an inheritance from the early Spaniards, who were wont to +designate as Apache any warlike tribe which had not been brought under +subjection. Such were the Apaches de Nabajú (Navaho), the Apaches del +Perrillo, the Apaches Gileńos, Apaches Tejuas, Apaches Vaqueros, Apaches +Faraones, Apaches Llaneros, Apaches Lipanes, and a host of others, of whom +the Spanish missionaries and colonists had little or no knowledge except +that derived, alas, from predatory raids on the peaceable Indians among +whom they were established. The name "Apache," therefore, was applied in +the Rio Grande country of New Mexico in much the same way as the term +"Yavapai" was given in the Rio Colorado region of Arizona, and, naturally +enough, it still survives. + + [Illustration: A Jicarilla] + + A Jicarilla + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Owing to their composite nature the Jicarillas are a peculiarly +interesting group. Too small in numbers to resist the cultural influence +of other tribes, and having been long in contact with the buffalo hunters +of the great plains as well as in close touch with the pueblo of Taos with +its great wealth of ceremony and ritual, it is not surprising that the +Jicarillas, in life and ceremony, have been deeply influenced by adjacent +tribes. As previously stated, the Jicarilla medicine rites are much like +those of the Navaho, but are far simpler in character. In dress the +Jicarillas resemble the Indians of the plains, even to the feather +headdress, which is never worn by the tribes to their south and west. +Features of an annual fiesta have been borrowed directly from the Pueblos. + +The typical habitation of the Jicarillas is a tipi, or lodge, called +_kozhán_, patterned after that of the Plains tribes. Formerly they hunted +the buffalo, making periodical excursions from their mountain home to the +plains and bringing back quantities of prepared meat and large numbers of +hides, which were fashioned into tents and used for many other purposes. +To all intents and purposes, therefore, the Jicarillas were a plains +tribe. Only within recent years have they grown crops of any kind. They +exhibit fair skill in basketry, this being their chief industry and source +of barter with neighboring tribes; indeed it was through this custom of +making "little baskets" that the Spaniards applied to them the name by +which they are popularly known. The Pueblos of the Rio Grande use many +baskets, which they obtain chiefly from the Jicarillas in exchange for +corn. During late years many of these _jicarillas_ have been disposed of +to traders. Like the Navaho they make but little pottery, and that only +for utilitarian purposes. + +The Jicarillas seem to have no system of clans or gentes. The tribe is +divided into two bands--commonly called by their Spanish names, _Olleros_ +(Potters) and _Llaneros_ (Plainsmen)--within which marriage is not +prohibited. In the days of the buffalo a part of the tribe, preferring the +prairie country, remained there for a short time and received the name +Kolhkahín, People of the Plains. The others returned to the mountains and +from the pottery they there made were called Sait Nde, Sand People, sand +being used in mixing the clay. In event of marriage between members of +different bands, sons born of the union belong to the father's band, while +daughters belong to the band of the mother. + +Generally speaking, chieftainship is hereditary, passing to the eldest +son, if there be such, otherwise to a brother, on the death of the +incumbent; but this rule might be set aside if public opinion were strong +enough to warrant it, and the chief be selected from another family. Each +band has a headman, chosen by reason of his personal bravery and +worthiness. The tribal chief, however, is the recognized leader, the two +band chiefs being little more than figureheads. + +The social customs of the Jicarillas are well defined. A young man wishing +to marry sends a near relation to procure the consent of the girl's +parents, with whose decision the wishes of the daughter have little +weight. If the young man meets their approval, he is sent out to hunt, and +the game which he kills is distributed among the girl's relations. The +following day his family build a _kozhán_ and place in it the personal +effects of the young couple, who, at night, enter with friends and +kinsfolk. A medicine-man prays to Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani, asking his beneficence +toward the new home. This ceremony lasts until midnight, when the visitors +depart and the marriage is consummated. Polygamy was common. Divorce is +effected without ceremony, the discontented one deserting the other and +leaving him or her in possession of the dwelling. + +Property right is governed by tribal laws. The wife's belongings are +inherited by her children or, if she should have none, by her parents, not +by the husband. On the death of the husband his property passes to the +children and the wife. + +The dead are buried in secret, only a few of the close relations having +knowledge of the place. Immediately after death the body is carried on +horseback to a high point, where it is placed on the ground and covered +with the personal possessions of the deceased, such as clothing, blankets, +saddles, and weapons, and over all are heaped brush and stones. Formerly a +man's horse was killed near his grave, and sometimes as many as three or +four horses were similarly sacrificed at different places. In former times +also the _kozhán_ was burned after the burial, and members of the family +cut their hair as a sign of mourning. The souls of the dead are believed +to rise skyward. In one portion of the sky, among vast herds of buffalo, +all those who have met death in battle assemble, rich and happy; in +another part, those who have succumbed to sickness and old age. The evil, +or those who have practised witchcraft, have a place apart from the rest. +Between the latter and the spirits of the good stands a high rock wall at +which the evil ones are condemned to dig for eternity in an effort to +reach the happier home. Spirits can work only in darkness, and the work of +the night is ever brought to naught by recurring daylight. + + [Illustration: A Jicarilla Feast March] + + A Jicarilla Feast March + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +The Jicarillas, like their kindred the Navaho and Apache, pay much +attention to religion and ceremony. Compared with the Navaho their life +seems almost lacking in ceremony, but when contrasted with the various +Yuman tribes on the Colorado and Gila rivers of Arizona it is fairly rich. +Their healing or medicine rites include a dance, called _Isáne_, that +occupies four days and four nights, and many one-day "sings," in all of +which dry-paintings are employed. Like the Apache the Jicarillas attach +much importance to the girls' puberty ceremony and still rigidly adhere to +it. + +A four-day medicine dance is founded on the following legend: + +Two maidens lived at the bottom of a deep pit. Many of the men wished to +marry them, but the girls were well content and refused to come out. The +Bear and the Snake formed a plan to carry them off and make them their +wives. A beautiful butterfly was sent fluttering down over the girls' +heads, but they paid little heed to its beauties. Another was sent, then +another, and yet a fourth, which was so beautiful that the girls reached +up to catch it, for they wished to copy its splendid colors on a large +basket they were weaving. But the butterfly escaped them and flew upward, +keeping ever out of reach as the girls followed to the mouth of the pit. +There the Bear and the Snake in waiting suddenly reached over, seized the +girls, and carried them away. The people, learning of this, asked them to +bring the girls back, but the Bear and the Snake refused, so an appeal was +made to Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani and Kobadjischíni. These two gods built a fence +around the world to keep the Bear and the Snake from escaping, and, +summoning all the people, compelled the Bear and the Snake to bring the +two young women back. The one the Bear had married had grown very fat and +coarse, like her master. "What have you done to make this girl so fat?" +demanded Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani in anger. "You must give her medicine to make her +comely again." So the Bear sang songs and made medicine until the girl was +herself again. Then came the Snake with the girl he had stolen. She had +become thin, like her master. "What have you done to make this girl so +thin?" cried Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani. "You must give her medicine to make her well +again." The Snake then sang his songs and made medicine until the girl +became again robust and beautiful. + +As already mentioned, the performance of this ceremony extends through a +period of four days and four nights. The day preceding is spent in +preparation: the head of the family of the sick person makes ready for a +feast, and helpers build a corral of pińon and spruce branches. This +corral is circular, about forty yards in diameter and six feet high, with +an opening at the east. To the west, close to the fence, is the medicine +_kozhán_. The latter part of each morning of the four days is spent by the +medicine-man and his assistants in the _kozhán_, where a dry-painting of +blue, black, yellow, and red earths is made in the shape of a snake lying +in a circle with a space between the head and the tail. The circle is +about six feet in diameter, and within it are represented numerous +animals: the bear, turkey, deer, eagle, buffalo, elk, badger, gopher, and +others. A decoction is mixed in an earthen bowl and the patient is +summoned. Sand from the various parts of the painting are sprinkled on the +corresponding parts of his body, and the medicine mixture is given him to +drink. + +The night portions of the ceremony begin shortly after dark. The +medicine-man and any persons who know the songs gather in the _kozhán_ and +sing, accompanied with a drum made of a basket inverted over a hole in the +ground and covered with a buffalo skin, the head toward the east. The hole +represents the pit in the legend, the basket the one the girls were +weaving, and a figure interwoven in the latter symbolizes the butterfly of +the story. The beating of the drum is varied at intervals by the use of a +leg-bone of a mountain sheep rasped quickly over a notched stick. Any men +of the tribe may enter the _kozhán_, and even a white man who is well +known. The songs consist of recitals of the powers of the medicine-man and +invocations to the various animals, as the bear, snake, and mountain +sheep. Some of the songs consist merely in naming the parts of the +animal's body, while others are supposed to be those used by the Bear and +the Snake in the legend. After singing these songs for about three hours, +with intervals of rest, the dancing begins. On each side of the enclosure +are three fires. Behind these on the north side are the men, on the south +the women; thus a large open space is bounded by the two lines of fires, +the _kozhán_, and the opening of the corral. Two women walk slowly into +this space, their heads modestly bent. They stop, and a young man +approaches to ascertain with whom they would dance. He then finds the +desired persons, takes each by the arm, and drags him out. The men always +feign unwillingness to go. In the meanwhile other pairs of women have come +out and other young men become busy finding partners for them. As a rule +they dance in groups of four, men and women facing each other and moving +backward and forward five or six steps. As the dance progresses the man is +likely to lay his hands upon the woman's shoulders, but modesty forbids +her a similar liberty. The same pair may remain dancing together +throughout the night, or they may cease when either desires. On the first +night the dancing continues until about midnight; the second, an hour or +two longer; the third, until well toward dawn; the fourth, until sunrise. + + [Illustration: Jicarillas] + + Jicarillas + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +On the last night the top of a small spruce tree, tipped with eagle down, +is planted near the door of the _kozhán_, and a new element in the dancing +is introduced. About midnight, before any dancing has been engaged in, the +ceremonial dancers enter from two dressing _kozhán_ some two hundred yards +east of the corral. These consist of two parties. The first, eight in +number, enter in single file, preceded and followed by a man in everyday +costume. These dancers, called _Tsa__n__natí{~COMBINING BREVE~}_, are nude, save for the +breech-cloth, with body and face painted in white and black, and the hair +hanging loose. Immediately following them are the _Cha__n__zhiní{~COMBINING BREVE~}_, six in +number, accompanied by four keepers, two in front and two behind. The six +are nude, the bodies painted solid white with six black stripes encircling +them. The hair is painted white and is done up into two long, stiff +braids, which project from the sides of the head like a pair of horns. The +faces are hideously made up to represent clowns, as indeed their name +signifies. In dancing, the Chanzhiní{~COMBINING BREVE~} and Tsannatí{~COMBINING BREVE~} do not take steps, but +shuffle sidewise, locomotion being effected by means of a sort of +exaggerated shivering of the legs. This movement is common to Plains +tribes in many of their dances. The whole line of dancers proceed with +their peculiar motion into the _kozhán_ and around the fire, passing +before the patient, the Chanzhiní{~COMBINING BREVE~} all the while uttering hoarse, +animal-like cries. Their utterances are always coarse and obscene, causing +much merriment, which is supposed to aid the patient in casting off his +illness. After passing through the _kozhán_ the Tsannatí{~COMBINING BREVE~} form in line +outside and with their feet keep time to the singing and drumming, while +the others break ranks and in a promiscuous throng pass before the +spectators, first on the men's side, then on the women's. Just before +their departure from the corral any woman who feels an indisposition may +crouch in their path near the gate, facing the west, and the Chanzhiní{~COMBINING BREVE~} +one by one leap over her, first from the east, then from the other three +directions, ever continuing their hoarse cries. + +These characters make their appearance four times during the course of the +night, the spectators dancing during the intervals. After their last exit +dancing continues until shortly before sunrise; then the medicine-man and +the singers arise, and, forming a circle about the fire in the centre of +the _kozhán_, sing a number of songs. A maiden is summoned from the +gathering to carry a basket of sacred meal, and the medicine-man, taking +up the top of the spruce tree, passes out of the enclosure toward the +rising sun, followed by the maiden, the patient, the singers, and any who +may be afflicted with a bodily ailment. At a distance of about a hundred +yards the medicine-man stops and plants the little spruce tip, to which +the disease is now supposed to have been transferred, under a tree, +sprinkling over it quantities of the sacred meal. Then each of the others, +the patient leading, steps forward, throws a pinch of the meal on the +tree, and passes on, always facing the east. When the last one has thus +passed, the procession stops, everybody holds his blanket ready, and on +signal from the medicine-man, just as the sun appears, gives it a shake +and runs at full speed to the _kozhán_ and around the fire. Thus is +disease shaken out and the pursuit of the evil spirits of sickness eluded. + + [Illustration: Jeditoh - Navaho] + + Jeditoh - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + +It is interesting to note the difference between the Apache of Arizona and + the Jicarillas in their assignment of colors to the cardinal directions. +The former invariably associate black with the east, blue with the south, + yellow with the west, and white with the north. + + + + +MYTHOLOGY - CREATION MYTH + + +In the beginning all people, birds, and beasts were far beneath this +earth, somewhere in the darkness; there was no sun, no moon. It was not a +good place in which to live, because of the darkness. After a time came +Chunnaái, the Sun, and Klenaái, the Moon. They directed the people to +leave the world of darkness, showing the way they were to go by passing up +through a rift in the sky. But the sky was so far above that the people +knew of no way to reach it, so they made a pile of sand in the form of a +mountain, and painted the east side white, the south blue, the west +yellow, and the north side all colors.[1] Then they gathered seeds from +all the plants they knew and placed them inside the little mountain. +Chunnaái sent back his messenger, Ánltsistn, the Whirlwind, to instruct +them how to make the mountain increase in size. + +Then all gathered about it and danced and sang, until after four days the +seeds sprouted and the mountain began to expand and to increase in height. +This continued for four days, at the end of which time the mountain seemed +almost to reach the sky; but suddenly its growth ceased, and none knew the +cause. From Chunnaái came Whirlwind to tell the inhabitants how two of +their maidens had entered the sacred space on the mountain top and had +wantonly broken and destroyed plants and fruits, thus causing the mountain +to cease growing. + +With two long poles and four buffalo horns, which then were straight, the +people made a ladder, which, when placed on the mountain top, reached the +sky. One of the four Great Whirlwinds, Níchitso, went up to see what this +new place was like. He put his head through the opening, and seeing that +the world was covered with water, at once descended the ladder. The four +Whirlwinds then went up; White Wind rolled the water to the east, but +still there was water at the south; Blue Wind rolled it away to the south, +but still there was water at the west; so Yellow Wind blew it away to the +west, and then there was water only at the north, which All-Color Wind +quickly blew away. Then the Winds blew over the earth for four days to dry +it; but they left some of the water, which flowed along in streams. + +When they returned and told what they had done, the people sent Ká{~COMBINING INVERTED BREVE~}ge, the +Crow, who was wise, to view the land. They waited long, but Ká{~COMBINING INVERTED BREVE~}ge did not +return. Then they sent Little Whirlwind, who found the Crow perched upon +some dead bodies, plucking out their eyes; and because of his wickedness +in forgetting the people, his feathers, once white, had turned black. Then +Nagánschitn, the Badger, was sent to see if the land was good, but just as +soon as he had crawled through he sank in the black mud and could go no +farther, so Little Whirlwind was despatched to succor him. To this day +Badger's legs are black. Next Keldinshé{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, the Skunk, was sent, because he +was light in weight; but even he sank in the mud and blackened his legs. +Then the people sent Cha, the Beaver, who travelled about for a long time, +and finding all the water running away in streams, built dams and thus +formed many lakes. He came back and told the people that the land was good +to live in, which pleased them greatly. Then they started up the ladder, +and when all had passed over, it was found that their weight had bent the +buffalo horns, which ever since have been curved. Thus all the people came +out upon this earth at a place in the north.(3) + +During the first days the Sun did not rise above the horizon, having been +held back in the east by a web that Mansché{~COMBINING BREVE~}, the Spider, had woven about +him. But the people succeeded in tearing the web away, and from that time +the Sun each day has travelled across the whole sky. + +On emerging from the underworld the inhabitants began moving in a great +circle, travelling from the north to the east, then to the south, then to +the west. When any found a spot that pleased them, they settled there, and +Chunnaái and Klenaái gave them a language of their own. Four times the +land was thus encircled, but each time the circle became smaller, and when +the people came the last time to the north, Haísndayin, the Jicarillas, +found their home in the mountains near the Rio Chama. + + + + +MIRACLE PERFORMERS + + +During the wanderings of the people a girl, Yólkai Estsán, became +separated from the rest. She would lie all day on a hillside in the +sunshine, and the Sun saw that no harm came to her. By and by she bore a +child, whose father was Chunnaái, the Sun, and the child was +Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani. Another girl, Estsán Nátleshin, was fond of lying asleep +under a rock, and by the trickling water that fell upon her Kobadjischíni +was begotten. + + [Illustration: Lake Lajara - Navaho] + + Lake Lajara - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +The two women and their sons lived together. To amuse the children the +mothers made them a wheel, but cautioned them never to roll it toward the +north. Whenever he heard the sound of water, Kobadjischíni, to seek its +source, would leap straight into any torrent, and his mother hoped that +the toy would deter him from falling into such danger. One day the two +boys became curious to know what was in the north, so they rolled the +wheel in that direction. It went straight on for a long time, then came to +a ladder leading up the steep side of a rock, up which it rolled. The boys +stopped in astonishment. The wheel rolled on down into a cave, where lived +Yíye, a monster Owl, who ate human flesh. A young girl, Yíye's slave, was +sent up to see who was outside. "Two young, fine-looking boys," she +reported. Yíye sent her to tell them to come into the cave, but this they +refused to do, even when he urged them himself, saying, "No! Give us our +wheel!" But at last the boys yielded to Yíye's persuasions and proceeded +up the ladder and down into the cave. Owl built a fire under a huge pot of +water, seized the boys, and put them into it. He boiled them a long time, +then lifted them out with a stick. They stood up and said, "Why do you not +give us our wheel and let us go home?" Then Yíye became angry and thrust +them into a great heap of hot ashes and built a fresh fire over them. +After a long time he took them out, but they were still unharmed, and only +asked, "Why do you not give us our wheel?" At this Owl became very angry +and, seizing them, cut them into small pieces, put them into the pot, and +boiled them again; but when he took them out they were alive and whole. +Owl said not a word, but gave them their wheel and motioned them to go. +All this time the mothers of the two boys knew from the Sun where they +were, and by a burning stick could tell when their children were in +danger; for if they were safe the flame burned high, but if in danger it +burned low. + +Because there were so many monsters on the earth that destroyed people, +the mothers of Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani and Kobadjischíni sent them on a visit to +Chunnaái to learn how to kill these evil beings. Chunnaái sent down the +rainbow, and up this the two boys climbed and went into the house of the +Sun. For Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani the Sun made a complete suit of turquoise--shirt, +leggings, and moccasins--and in his hair fastened a long eagle feather. He +gave him also huge arrows made of pine trees pointed with flint of white, +blue, yellow, and all-colors, and a bow made of a part of the rainbow. To +Kobadjischíni he gave a suit of flint of many colors and a long whip with +which to drive away sickness, and in his hair he tied a downy eagle +feather. Then he said to Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani, "Shoot down and see if you can +hit that tree." So Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani shot, and the arrow shattered the tree +like a bolt of lightning. + + [Illustration: Into the Desert - Navaho] + + Into the Desert - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +After his return from the home of the Sun, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani and his mother, +Yólkai Estsán, went over to the pueblo of Taos, where in a lake lived a +monster Turtle which had destroyed many people by dragging them beneath +the water. Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani went into the village and asked for food, but +the people refused him, not knowing who he was. In the night he sent worms +into their corn, spoiling it all; and in the morning, when they discovered +it, they were filled with fear, and said: + +"You must be some great man. In the west is a large lake, and in it a +being which has dragged many of our people into the water. Will you go and +kill it?" + +"I will kill it," replied Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani, "but first you must give me as +much turquoise as I now have in my suit." + +This they did, and Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani asked Chunnaái how he should kill this +creature. His father gave him four wheels--white, blue, yellow, and +all-colors. Then from the east he threw the white one into the middle of +the lake, and the water receded a little. From the south he threw the blue +wheel, from the west the yellow, from the north the wheel of all-colors, +and each time the water decreased a little more, until a ladder leading +downward was exposed. From the centre in four directions led rows of large +stones, upon which Turtle walked in going to his house. Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani +went out on one of these stone-trails and down the ladder. At the bottom +he found two mountain lions, which he quieted by giving them eagle +feathers. He went through a long passage and successively met two fierce +bears, two snakes, and two spotted wildcats, but each in turn was pacified +with eagle feathers. At the end of the passage was a door, which +Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani burst open, coming suddenly upon the great Turtle. The +monster tried in vain to seize and kill him, but Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani took out +his fire-stick, and said: + +"Release the people you have here, or I will destroy you with my fire!" + +"I have only one," said Turtle, "and you may take him." + +When the one came out Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani asked him if there were any more +captives in the house, and the man said there were many more. So again he +threatened Turtle, and other prisoners were released; but these were not +all, and he compelled Turtle to free still more. On the fourth demand, +however, the monster refused to give up any more of his prisoners, +whereupon Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani killed him with his fire and smoke. Then going +through the rooms he released all the people he found. There were two +young Turtles, whom he told not to grow any larger, nor to kill people or +animals; and small Turtles yet inhabit the land. + +Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani heard that to the east of the mountains of the Haísndayin +lived Tzes, the enormous Elk, in the midst of a great high plain, which no +one could approach unseen. So he journeyed thither, thinking to ascend the +eastern side; but Elk saw him, and he went no closer. Then he tried from +the south, the west, and the north, but always Elk saw him. At the +northern side of the plain Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani heard someone ask, "What are you +doing here?" + +It was Maínelin, the Gopher; and when he learned what Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani +wished to do, he promised his help. So he burrowed into the ground and +came up under the spot where Elk was lying, and just behind the shoulder +gnawed away the thick hair that protected the monster's heart. Elk felt +the gnawing, and cried out, "Who is doing that?" + +Gopher answered, "I need fur to make a nest for my little children." + +So Elk became quieted and Gopher went back into the ground, and from the +centre dug holes in four directions to the edge of the plain. +Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani then entered one from the east, and coming to the centre +looked up and saw Elk's heart beating. Drawing his flint-pointed arrow to +the head, he shot the monster through the heart, then quickly dropped down +into Gopher's burrow beneath four stones which, one below the other, +stopped the vertical channel. But first he made with his fire-stick a +dense white smoke at the end of the burrow that ran to the east. Elk +leaped down into the opening and rushed in the direction of the smoke, +seeking his enemy. Then in his rage he went to the centre, but in the +meantime Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani had made a cloud of blue smoke at the south, so +Elk ran thither. Successively Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani made yellow smoke at the west +and all-color smoke at the north, each time at the mouth of the burrow, +and each time Elk ran in the direction of the newly made smoke. All the +time blood was pouring from the wound in Tzes' heart. At last he espied +the hole blocked with four stone doors of white, blue, yellow, and +all-colors, which led straight down from the floor of the passage. With +his great antlers the monster broke through the first three doors, but at +the fourth he fell dead. Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani divided the meat with Gopher, and +taking the greater portion on his back, for by this time he was grown +large and strong, he started back to his mother, who was overjoyed by his +safe arrival and because he had brought such a quantity of meat. Near the +village he stopped to rest, and the weight of himself and of Elk's body +flattened the top of the hill on which he sat. Where Elk's blood soaked +into the ground the soil is still red. + + [Illustration: Nature's Mirror - Navaho] + + Nature's Mirror - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +From his father, Chunnaái, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani had knowledge of another evil +thing and how to destroy it. Cutting off a piece of Elk's intestine, he +filled it with blood and fastened it about his waist. Then he told his +mother to strip off the hide and while it was still soft sew it into a +suit that would cover him completely. When the suit was finished he put it +on, hid Elk's antlers under it, and departed westward in search of Itsá, +the Eagle, who every day killed a man. When Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani approached the +home of Eagle the latter swooped down from his high rock and four times +tried to seize him, but could not fasten his talons in the hardened hide. +At the fourth attempt Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani allowed Eagle to take hold of his +suit in the front, whereupon the bird carried him up and up, and from a +tremendous height dropped him upon the sharp rocks. Though unhurt, to +deceive Eagle he tore open the piece of intestine, allowing the blood to +gush out upon the rock. Itsá told his two children to go and eat, but when +they drew near Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani made a sound, "Sh!" and they stopped in +fright. Again they came near and again heard the sound "Sh!" So the +Eaglets went to their father, perched high on the point of the rock, and +said: + +"That body is not dead, it makes a noise 'Sh!'" + +"Never mind that; go and eat!" commanded the parent Eagle, who then flew +away for his day's hunting. + +When Itsá was gone, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani arose, took off the elk-skin suit, and +addressed the frightened Eagle children: + +"In what weather does your father come home?" + +"In a great storm of thunder and lightning," they answered. + +"And in what weather does your mother come home?" + +"When all the sky is clouded and a slow rain falls." + +Presently a great storm arose, and the Eaglets exclaimed, "Our father is +coming!" Soon the Eagle came rushing through the air, and from afar +Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani heard wailing, for Eagle had a man in his talons. From far +aloft, as was his wont, he dropped the man upon the rocks. Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani +took up one of Elk's antlers and just as the great bird was alighting on +his perch hurled it at him, striking him on the head. Listening, he heard +the body drop upon the rocks far below. Then a slow rain began to fall, +and the Eaglets cried, "Our mother is coming!" Soon the mother Eagle came. +She too had a man in her talons, and with the other horn Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani +killed her. Then he warned the Eagle children that they must not grow any +larger, or ever attempt to carry away people; and they promised to be +content with hunting animals. + +But Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani found that there was no way to get down from the rock, +for it was steep and very high, so high that it made him dizzy to look +over the edge. Chunnaái told him to wait there, for he would send someone +to bring him down safely. At last Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani saw somebody below, who +proved to be Bat. + +"Come, help me down!" he called. + + [Illustration: Canon _Hogan_ - Navaho] + + Canon _Hogan_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Bat came up, flying round and round the rock. On his back was a basket, +supported from his shoulders by two cords that looked like Spider's +thread. + +"That will not hold me!" exclaimed Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani. + +"But it will," answered Bat; "it will hold the biggest of mountain sheep!" +And to prove the truth of his assertion he filled the basket with stones +and jumped up and down, and the threads held. Then Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani was +satisfied and got in, and Bat began the descent. "Don't open your eyes!" +he commanded. After a long time, feeling that they must be near the +bottom, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani opened his eyes, but the sight made him dizzy, and +he almost fell out of the basket. Bat became angry at this, for the lurch +almost threw him from the rock. At last, however, they reached the ground +in safety. + +There they dragged the bodies of the two great Eagles together, plucked +them, and filled Bat's basket with the feathers, which Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani +wished to take home. "Don't go in the low places," he advised Bat, as the +latter started on ahead. But Bat forgot, and because the walking was +easier went across the low places, where the birds stole all the feathers +for their nests; so he had to return and fill the basket again. These he +carried safely to Yólkai Estsán, who gave many of them to the people of +the village. + +From Chunnaái, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani learned of one more monster on the earth, a +huge Rolling Stone, which lived in the south near the pueblo of Picuris; +so he and his mother went southward. They stopped in a cańon through which +Rolling Stone often passed on its way to and from the village, and by and +by it came crashing along, destroying everything in its path. Just as it +passed, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani shot with one of his great flint-pointed arrows and +shattered it, as he had shattered the tree when Chunnaái first gave him +his weapons; and the ground in that spot is still red from the blood that +flowed from Rolling Stone's heart. + + + + +ORIGIN OF FIRE + + +Black Man, Haschí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n Dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}lhili, was created by Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani to be his +helper in the task of making the earth a good dwelling-place for the +people. Haschí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n made the animals, mountains, trees, and rivers, gave the +people weapons and implements, and showed how they were to be used. When +all were supplied with houses to live in and weapons with which to protect +themselves and to kill game, he called Coyote, Tsilité{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, the Mimic. + +"Go to the Land of the Fireflies," he commanded, "and bring back their +fire, for the people have no fire with which to cook their food." + +Coyote started, and found the Land of the Fireflies. These beings lived at +the bottom of a deep, deep hole--an enormous cave in the solid rock. Its +sides were smooth and straight, and how to get down Coyote did not know. +He went to the edge of the pit, and there found growing Little Tree. + +"Help me down to the Land of the Fireflies," he said. So Little Tree sent +its roots down, down, down, until they extended quite to the bottom, and +Coyote descended. There he played with the little Firefly boys, romping +about, running back and forth, pretending to be thinking of nothing but +their amusement, for the Fireflies guarded their fire carefully and would +let no one touch it. + +On the tip of his tail Coyote had tied a tuft of cedar bark. Suddenly he +dashed through the great fire which always burned in the centre of the +village, and was off before the Firefly people knew what he had done. When +they discovered that he had stolen some of their fire, they set out in +pursuit; but Coyote was very swift of foot, and reached the wall of the +pit far ahead of them. + +"Little Tree, help me out!" he called. + +Little Tree drew its roots up, up, up, while Coyote held on and was drawn +safely out of the hole. Then he ran quickly about among the people, +lighting the piles of wood they had prepared, until every family was +supplied with fire. + + + + + +THE NAVAHO + + + [Illustration: A Drink in the Desert - Navaho] + + A Drink in the Desert - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + +HOME LIFE, ARTS, AND BELIEFS + + + [Illustration: Under the Cottonwoods - Navaho] + + Under the Cottonwoods - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +The Navaho are a pastoral, semi-nomadic people whose activities centre in +their flocks and small farms. Their reservation of more than fourteen +thousand square miles is the desert plateau region of northern Arizona and +New Mexico. Its mesas and low mountains are sparsely covered with pińon +and cedar, and on the higher levels are small but beautiful forests of +pine. Back and forth in all parts of this vast region the Navaho drive +their flocks. At the season when the slight rainfall produces even scant +pasturage on the desert plains the flocks are pastured there; but as the +grass becomes seared by the summer sun and exhausted from pasturing, the +flocks are taken into the mountains, where the shade of the pines lends +grateful coolness. Again, as the deep snows of winter come, the sheep and +goats are driven down to the wooded mesas, where there is little snow and +an abundance of fuel, of which there is none on the plains. And so, year +in, year out, the flocks slowly drift back and forth from plain to mesa +and from mesa to mountain. + +While the Navaho leads a wandering life, the zone of his movements is +surprisingly limited; indeed the average Navaho's personal knowledge of +his country is confined to a radius of not more than fifty miles. The +family usually has three homes, the situation of which is determined by +the necessities of life. Near their summer home they cultivate small crops +of corn and vegetables in narrow, sandy washes, where by deep planting +sufficient moisture is insured to mature the crop. In a few sections small +farming is conducted by means of irrigation. In Cańon de Chelly, which may +be termed the garden spot of the reservation, there are diminutive farms +and splendid peach orchards irrigated with freshet water. The cańon drains +an extensive region, and even a light rain causes the stream which flows +at the base of its lofty walls to become swollen. This water the natives +divert to their miniature cornfields and orchards, one or two freshets +assuring good crops. + + [Illustration: Cornfields in Canon Del Muerto - Navaho] + + Cornfields in Canon Del Muerto - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Owing to its lowness and its earth covering, the Navaho house, or _hogán_, +is the most inconspicuous of habitations. One might ride from morning till +night across the reservation and not observe either a hogán or an Indian, +although he has no doubt passed within a stone's throw of many of these +houses and been peered at by many more dark eyes from brush concealments. +At the end of a long day in the saddle the traveller may wonder where the +many thousands of Navaho reside; but his inquiry may be answered if he +will but climb to the summit of one of the many low mountains and view the +panorama as the long shadows of evening are creeping on. Here and there in +every direction the thin blue smoke of the campfire may be seen curling +upward as these desert people prepare their evening meal. In this clear, +rare atmosphere the far distant horizon is the only limit to his vision. +Just below, a mile or so away, may perhaps be seen the smoke from a group +of half a dozen hogáns. Miles beyond is another group, and still beyond +another, and so throughout the sweep of vision. These people and their +life are delightfully Indian, but slightly influenced by the white man's +ways. As the chief human touch of the great southwestern desert the Navaho +are the artist's joy, and as a subject for the ethnologist their +ceremonial life furnishes limitless material for study. + +The handicraft of the Navaho is seen at its best in their blanketry, which +is one of the most important industries of any Indians within our domain. +The greater portion of the wool from their hundreds of thousands of sheep +is used in weaving, and in addition a considerable quantity of commercial +yarn is employed for the same purpose. The origin of the textile art among +the Navaho is an open question. It is probable that they did not learn it +from anyone, but that it developed as a part of their domestic culture. It +is contended by some that the early Spanish missionaries taught the Navaho +to weave; but why should the white man be accredited with this art? The +mummies found in the prehistoric cliff-ruins of the Navaho country are +wrapped in cloth finer than any ever produced with a Navaho loom, and no +doubt now remains that Pueblo people were incorporated by the Navaho in +ancient times. + +The blankets made in earlier days, say from fifty to a hundred and fifty +years ago, are beautiful examples of primitive handicraft. The body of a +so-called bayeta blanket was woven of close-spun native wool, dyed dark +blue, while the red pattern was from the ravellings of Spanish bayeta. +Much of the beauty of the old blankets is due to the mellowing of the +native colors by age, but practically none of these rare examples are to +be found among the Navaho at the present time. The blankets of to-day may +be roughly divided into three classes: 1. Those made from the close-spun +native yarn dyed in the old colors and woven in the simple old patterns; +when aged they closely resemble the old bayeta blankets. 2. Blankets woven +in a great variety of designs from coarse, loose-spun yarn dyed with +commercial dyes of many shades; these are the Navaho blankets of commerce. +3. Those woven from commercial or "Germantown" yarn; they are of fine +texture and sometimes beautiful, but lack interest in that their material +is not of Indian production. Fortunately the decrease in the demand for +blankets woven of commercial yarn is discouraging their manufacture. + +The Navaho woman weaves her blanket not so much for profit as for love of +the work. It is her recreation, her means of expressing imagination and +her skill in execution. Civilized women may write books, paint pictures, +or deliver ringing addresses; these are unknown worlds to the Navaho +woman: but when after months of labor she finishes a blanket, her pride in +her work of art is indeed well justified. + +Because of their pastoral life the Navaho are not villagers. Their +dome-shaped, earth-covered hogáns are usually grouped two or three in the +same locality. The summer house is a rude brush shelter, usually made with +four corner posts, a flat top of brush, and a windbreak of the same +material as a protection against the hot desert siroccos. The hogán +proper, used for storage during the summer, affords a warm and comfortable +shelter to its occupants through the cold winters of their high altitude. +When a hogán is built it is ceremonially consecrated, and if an occupant +should die in it, it is forever deserted and is called _tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ndi hogán_, +"evil house." No Navaho will go near such a house or touch anything taken +from it. If a meal were cooked with decayed wood from a hogán a hundred +years deserted, a Navaho, even if starving, could not be induced to +partake of it. Thus strong are the religious beliefs of this primitive +people. + + [Illustration: The Blanket Maker - Navaho] + + The Blanket Maker - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +The domestic equipment of the Navaho is simplicity itself and reflects the +simple life of the tribe. Of household furniture there is none. The +bedding consists usually of a few sheepskins; cooking utensils are earthen +pots of their own making, and cups, knives, and spoons of civilization. +Plates they do not need, as the family eat directly from the pot in which +the food is cooked. The principal food is mutton, boiled, and corn +prepared in many ways. Considerable flour obtained from traders is +consumed; this is leavened slightly and made into small cakes, which are +cooked over the embers like Mexican tortillas. + +The women are an important factor in the Navaho tribe. The sheep usually, +and the house, with all that pertains to it, always are the property of +the wife. The independent spirit of the women, instilled by this +incontestable property right, manifests itself throughout the tribe, and +by reason of it the Navaho husband is not apt to seek an opportunity to +criticise his wife so long as she is in a position to say, "If I and the +hogán do not suit you, go elsewhere!" Polygamy is common, but as a rule +the wives of one man are sisters, an arrangement conducive to domestic +harmony. + +Many of the Navaho men are skilled silversmiths. Every well-to-do Navaho +possesses a silver belt consisting of a dozen or more wrought oval discs, +each about two by three inches, fastened to a leather strap. Such a belt, +weighing several pounds, is of course a valuable piece of property. The +wearer may also have a broad silver bracelet set with turquoise, a heavy +string of silver beads with a massive pendant of the same material, and a +pair of deerskin leggings with a row of silver buttons on the outer side. +Frequently their horses are gaily bedecked with bridles and saddles +heavily weighted with silver ornaments. The long strap over the shoulder, +from which the pouch of the medicine-man is suspended, is always studded +with silver buttons. Mexican coins, especially the peso, are the principal +source of all this silverwork, the Navaho preferring this coin to our own +dollar because it is heavier. Buttons and beads also are made from +American dimes and twenty-five cent pieces; the small beads from dimes, +and the larger ones from two coins of the same value. They learned +silversmithing from the Mexicans, but since their first lessons have +developed a high degree of individuality in the art. While the metal-work +of the Navaho at the present time is practically all in silver, only a few +copper objects being made, their earliest work in metal was with iron, and +occasionally an example of this is found. The silver and shell bead +jewelry of the Navaho is his savings bank. During times of prosperity he +becomes the possessor of all the jewelry his means afford, and when poor +crops or long winters threaten distress he pawns it at a trader's, so that +many of the traders often have thousands of dollars' worth of silverwork +and shell beads on hand at one time. The system seems to be a very fair +one, and in time of stress is certainly a boon to the impecunious Navaho. + +The little pottery made by this people is an undecorated ware for +utilitarian purposes only. For carrying water a gum-coated water bottle of +basketry is in general use. Few baskets are made, and these are of but a +single pattern--a flattish tray for use in ceremonies. Most of the baskets +used by the Navaho in their ceremonies, however, are purchased from +neighboring tribes, especially the Havasupai and the Paiute, who weave +them primarily for purposes of trade. Such baskets must be of a prescribed +pattern, with a break in the design at one side. When the basket is in use +this side is always placed toward the east. + +Most Navaho ceremonies are conducted, at least primarily, for the purpose +of healing disease; and while designated medicine ceremonies, they are, in +fact, ritualistic prayers. There are so many of these ceremonies that no +student has yet determined their number, which reaches into scores, while +the component ritual prayers of some number hundreds. The principal +ceremonies are those that require nine days and nine nights in their +performance. Of the many now known the names of nine are here given: Kléje +Hatál, Night Chant;(4) Tzilhkí{~COMBINING BREVE~}chi Hatál, Mountain Chant; Hozhóni Hatál, +Happiness Chant; Natói Hatál, Shooting Chant; Toi Hatál, Water Chant; +Atsósi Hatál, Feather Chant; Yoi Hatál, Bead Chant; Hochónchi Hatál, +Evil-Spirit Chant; Mai Hatál, Coyote Chant. Each is based on a mythic +story, and each has four dry-paintings, or so-called altars. Besides these +nine days' ceremonies there are others whose performance requires four +days, and many simpler ones requiring only a single day, each with its own +dry-painting. + + [Illustration: _Piké{~COMBINING BREVE~}hodiklad_ - Navaho] + + _Piké{~COMBINING BREVE~}hodiklad_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + +This, the first of the dry-paintings employed in the rites of the Mountain + Chant--a nine days' healing ceremony of the Navaho--as in the Night Chant, + is used on the fifth night, when the purpose of the performance is to + frighten the patient, and thus banish the evil within him. The name of + this painting, "Frighten Him On It," is identical with that of the one + used at the corresponding moment in the Night Chant. + +The whole represents the den of a hibernating bear. Inside the ceremonial +hogán is thrown up a bank of earth two or three feet high, with an opening + toward the doorway. Colored earths picture bear-tracks leading in; + bear-tracks and sunlight--sun dogs--are represented at the four quarters, +and the bear himself, streaked with sunlight, in the centre. The twigs at +the entrance of the bear den represent trees, behind which bears are wont + to dig their dens in the mountain side. Everything tends to make the + patient think of bears. He enters midst deep silence and takes his seat + upon the pictured animal. The play of his imagination has barely begun + when a man, painted and garbed as a bear, rushes in, uttering hideous +snarls and growls, in which all assembled join. Women patients seldom fail + to faint. + + +The figures shown in the dry-paintings are conventionalized +representations of the characters in Navaho mythology and of incidents in +the myth. With how many such paintings the Navaho medicine-men are +familiar is an unanswered question; but more than sixty have been noted, +some of them most elaborate. In making them, the ground within the +ceremonial hogán is evenly covered with fine brown earth, upon which the +figures are drawn with fine sands and earths of many colors allowed to +flow between the thumb and the first two fingers. The Navaho become so +skilled in this work that they can draw a line as fine as a broad pencil +mark. Many of the paintings are comparatively small, perhaps not more than +four feet in diameter; others are as large as the hogán permits, sometimes +twenty-four feet across. To make such a large painting requires the +assistance of all the men who can conveniently work at it from early +morning until mid-afternoon. + +The most elaborate ceremonies are conducted between the first frost of +autumn and the second moon following the winter solstice. While primarily +designed to restore the health of an individual, they are intended also to +benefit the entire tribe, many of the prayers being offered for the +general welfare of the people rather than for the patient under immediate +treatment. Nor, so far as the individual is concerned, is the ceremony +designed necessarily for the cure of an acute ailment, but is for the +treatment of long-standing chronic afflictions, mental or physical. +Especially peculiar is the Navaho belief that many illnesses are the +results of fright to which ancestors have been subjected during prenatal +life, and long and costly ceremonies are often performed to rid persons of +such baneful inheritance. In fact Indians physically normal have submitted +to prolonged treatment by their medicine-men when advised by them for such +imaginative reasons to submit to it. + +The medicine-men, who are termed singers, _hatáli_, are a dominant factor +in the Navaho life. Like all primitive people, the Navaho are intensely +religious, and the medicine-men, whose function it is to become versed in +the mysteries of religion, are ever prone to cultivate in the minds of the +people the belief that they are powerful not only in curing disease of +mind and body but of preventing it by their incantations. Anyone who +possesses the requisite ability may become a medicine-man, but owing to +the elaborate ceremonies connected with their practices it requires long +years of application ere one can attain sufficient knowledge to give him +standing among his tribesmen. To completely master the intricacies of any +one of the many nine days' ceremonies requires close application during +the major portion of a man's lifetime. The only way a novice has of +learning is by assisting the elders in the performance of the rites, and +as there is little probability that opportunity will be afforded him to +participate in more than two or three ceremonies in a year, his +instruction is necessarily slow. The medicine-men recognize the fact that +their ritual has been decadent for some time, and they regard it as +foreordained that when all the ceremonies are forgotten the world will +cease to exist. + + [Illustration: _Hástin Yázhe_ - Navaho] + + _Hástin Yázhe_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +The most pronounced dread manifested by the Navaho is that derived from +their belief respecting the spirits of the dead. It is thought that the +spirit leaves the body at death and travels to a place toward the north +where there is a pit whence the gods and the animals emerged from an +underworld before the first Navaho were created, and which the dead now +enter. Their myths tell of the disappearance of a beautiful daughter of +one of the animal chiefs on the fourth day after the gods and the animals +came up into this world; diligent search was unrewarded until two of the +searchers looked down through the hole and espied her sitting beside a +stream in the lower world combing her hair. Four days later death came to +these searchers, so that now the Navaho will go to any extreme to avoid +coming into contact with spirits of the dead, _tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ndi_, which they +believe travel anywhere and everywhere at will, often doing evil, but +never good. The body is prepared for burial previous to death, and is +never touched afterward if it can be avoided. + +To the end that the spirit may begin aright its journey to the afterworld, +the body is taken out of the hogán through an opening specially made in +the wall on the northern side, for the doorway always faces the east. The +immediate relatives of the deceased avoid looking at the corpse if +possible. Friends of the family or distant relations usually take charge +of the burial. A couple of men dig a grave on a hillside and carry the +body there wrapped in blankets. No monument is erected to mark the spot. +Before the body is taken out, the hogán is vacated and all necessary +utensils are carried away. The two men who bury the remains of the former +occupant carefully obliterate with a cedar bough all footprints that the +relations of the deceased may have made in the hogán, in order to conceal +from the departed spirit the direction in which they went should it return +to do them harm. The premises are completely abandoned and the house often +burned. Never will a Navaho occupy a _tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ndi hogán_, and when travelling +at night he will take a roundabout trail in order to avoid one. Formerly +horses were killed at the grave. So recently as 1906 a horse was +sacrificed within sight of a Catholic mission on the reservation, that its +spirit might accompany that of a dead woman to the afterworld. This horse +was the property of the woman, and her husband, fearing to retain it, yet +not daring to kill it himself, called upon another to do so. + + + + +HISTORY + + +Although raiders and plunderers since known to history, the Navaho cannot +be designated a warring tribe, for however courageous they may be, their +lack of political integrity has ever been an obstacle to military +organization. They never have had a tribal chief, properly so called, +while their many leading men could never command more than a small +following. Manuelito, who was acclaimed head-chief in 1855 at the +conference with Governor Meriwether for the purpose of negotiating a +treaty, probably had a greater following than any other Navaho in historic +times, but he could never have relied on a majority of the warriors of his +widely scattered tribe. Although divided into many bands, like the Apache, +the Navaho, unlike them, were not engaged in ceaseless depredation, their +sporadic raids having been conducted by small parties quite independent of +any organized tribal movement. They preferred rather to follow a pastoral +life. With their large population, had they possessed the Apache's +insatiable desire for war and a political organization that permitted +concerted action, the subjugation of the Southwest would have been far +more difficult than it proved to be. + +While the statement is made that the Navaho were never a warlike people, +it must not be presumed that they never caused our Government trouble. +Those familiar with the Navaho admire their energy, industry, +independence, and cheerful disposition, and their ability to attack the +problems of life in a way that no other wandering tribe has exercised. On +the other hand, cunning and trickery are among their characteristics, and +they are expert horse-thieves. With the Indian, as well as with civilized +man, honesty may be interpreted in various ways. If one should leave his +camp equipage unprotected in a tent, it would be entirely safe from all +except the renegade, already recognized by his people as a thief. But if +one should turn his back and later find that his horse had been run off by +a Navaho in the hope of being rewarded for returning it, the tribesmen of +the raider would regard him as one whose cunning should be emulated. + + [Illustration: Navaho _Hogan_] + + Navaho _Hogan_ + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +For a long period prior to the acquisition from Mexico of the territory +now forming the northern portion of Arizona and New Mexico, which, since +first known, has been occupied in part by the Navaho, the tribe had been +in the habit of making raids on the New Mexican Indian pueblos and the +white settlements along the Rio Grande, chiefly for the capture of +livestock, although both Indians and Mexicans also were taken and +enslaved. The Mexicans lost no opportunity to retaliate, with the result +that scattered throughout their villages in the valley of the Rio Grande +there were more captives of Navaho blood than there were Mexican prisoners +among the Navaho tribe; but in the matter of sheep, cattle, and horses, +the Navaho were far ahead in the game of thievery, and even boasted that +they could easily have exterminated the Mexicans had they not needed them +as herders of their stolen flocks. In consequence, bitter enmity early +arose between the Mexicans and the Navaho, which reached its height about +the time Col. Stephen W. Kearny took possession of the territory in behalf +of the United States in 1846. + +In the year named a military expedition was sent into the Navaho country +for the purpose of making a treaty of peace and friendship with this +marauding tribe; but this treaty, like several others that followed, was +soon broken, and the raids continued as before. In 1858 the troubles +arising from the plunderings became especially severe and led to several +other expeditions, but with little result. The problem became a serious +one in 1861, when the Civil War necessitated the withdrawal of troops from +the frontier, leaving the way open to the devastation of the country by +the Navaho and Mescaleros, until General Carleton, who assumed command of +the military forces in New Mexico in 1862, formulated a policy to +thoroughly subdue the Navaho and to transfer them to the Bosque Redondo, +on the Rio Pecos in New Mexico, where Fort Sumner had been established, +and there hold them as prisoners of war until some other plan could be +devised. His plan was successfully carried out. By the spring of 1863 four +hundred Mescaleros were under guard on the new reservation, and by the +close of that year about two hundred Navaho prisoners had either been +transferred thither or were on the way. Early in 1864 Col. Kit Carson led +his volunteers to the Cańon de Chelly, the Navaho stronghold, where in a +fight he succeeded in killing twenty-three, capturing thirty-four, and +compelling two hundred to surrender. The backbone of the hostility was now +broken, and before the beginning of 1865 about seven thousand, later +increased to 8491, were under military control within the new reservation. +But the Bosque Redondo proved unhealthful and disappointing as a +reservation, while its maintenance was costly to the Government. A treaty +was therefore made with the Navaho in 1868, one of the provisions of which +was the purchase of fifteen thousand sheep to replenish their exterminated +flocks. In July 7304 Navaho, the remainder having died or escaped, arrived +at Fort Wingate on the way to their old home, where they have since lived +in peace and prosperity. + + + + +MYTHOLOGY - CREATION MYTH + + +In the world below(5) there was no sun and no moon, and therefore no +light, yet vegetation in innumerable forms and the animal people thrived. +Among the latter were Gray Wolf people, Naklétso; Mountain Lion, +Nashtuítso; Badger, Naaschí{~COMBINING BREVE~}d; Locust, Wóneschidi; Pine Squirrel, +Klozeslskái and Klozeslzhí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni; Blue Fox, Mai-Dotlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi; Yellow Fox, +Mai-Iltsói; Owl, Náscha; Crow, Gage; Buzzard, Jésho; four different +varieties of the Hawk people, and many others. + + [Illustration: Navaho Still Life] + + Navaho Still Life + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Their world was small. At its eastern rim stood a large white mountain, +and at the south a blue one. These formed the home of Ástse Hástin, First +Man. A yellow mountain in the west and a black one in the north harbored +Ástse Estsán, First Woman.(6) Near the mountain in the east a large river +had its source and flowed toward the south. Along its western bank the +people lived in peace and plenty. There was game in abundance, much corn, +and many edible fruits and nuts. All were happy. The younger women ground +corn while the boys sang songs and played on flutes of the sunflower +stalk. The men and the women had each eight chiefs, four living toward +each cardinal point; the chiefs of the men lived in the east and south, +those of the women in the west and north. The chiefs of the east took +precedence over those of the south, as did those of the west over those of +the north. + +One day, led by their eight brave chiefs, all the men went off on a hunt. +It occurred to the head-chief when they had been gone but a short time +that the women should have been instructed to clean the camp thoroughly +and bake a quantity of bread while all the men were away; so he despatched +the youngest of the four chiefs of the south to the camp to make known his +wishes, but instead of doing as bidden, the young chief visited with the +head-chief's wife. The hunters were gone four days, at the end of which +time they returned with much game, weary and very hungry. To their +surprise they found the camp in a very unkempt condition and no bread +baked in anticipation of their return. The messenger was called before the +head-chief at once and questioned as to the directions he had given the +women. He explained that he had told the chief of the women what they were +expected to do, but she refused to listen to him, and he was powerless to +do more. Then the head-chief went to his wife and demanded to know why she +had refused to issue his orders to the women. She curtly replied that that +was her business and not his; as it was, the women did more work than the +men, for they tilled the fields, made the clothing, cared for the +children, and did the cooking, while the men did practically nothing, so +if they chose to spend a few days in idleness, it was nothing more than +they had a right to do and no one's concern but their own. The chief +became angry, and during a quarrel that ensued he was told that he and all +his followers might leave if they would, for the women could get along +better without them. + +Remonstrance and reasoning availed nothing; the chief of the women grew +more vehement as she argued, so the head-chief determined to put the women +to the test. The following morning he issued orders that all the men in +camp prepare to depart, for the women had declared they could live better +independently of them and were to be given an opportunity to do so. + +Having decided to cross the great river flowing from the east, work at +once began on four large cottonwood rafts to be used as ferries. Four days +it took to put all in readiness, and at dawn of the fifth day the crossing +of the stream began. Orders were issued that all food supplies, clothing, +and utensils be left with the women, save enough seed corn to plant crops +the next spring, and no males, infant or aged, were to be left behind. +Four _nú{~COMBINING BREVE~}tli_ (hermaphrodites) objected strongly at being taken from the +women, but were forced to join the men, as they were needed to care for +the babies. Four old cripples, too weak to move, were left behind, but +other than these not a male inhabitant remained in the old village at the +end of four days. After all had crossed the river, the rafts were fastened +securely to the bank in order that the women might not get them and +follow. + + [Illustration: Navaho Medicine-man] + + Navaho Medicine-man + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +As soon as the men had landed they began to work with zeal, for houses had +to be built, game caught, skins tanned, and land prepared for crops. They +suffered much from scarcity of food and clothing the first winter, but +managed to exist. The women, however, had bountiful crops, and all through +the late fall and winter could be heard revelling in great delight, +feasting daily and dancing much of the time to the music of songs sung by +the four old cripples. The following autumn found the men in much better +circumstances, for they had grown small crops; but the women were less +fortunate. Having none but themselves to work and provide for, they had +become negligent from the beginning, dissipating the contents of their +granaries and allowing their fields to grow fallow. By the end of the +second year clothing had become very scarce, and not knowing how to hunt, +they had no way to obtain more skins. The men, on the contrary, had grown +more prosperous; their well-tended farms yielded an ample supply of corn +for the winter, and the pelts of deer and antelope furnished a deal of +warm clothing and bedding. The third year found the men living in ease and +comfort, while the women had become reduced to absolute want, many having +fallen ill from self-neglect. They called across to the men, pleading to +be taken over and promising faithful allegiance, but the chief was +resolute and refused to forget how he had been wronged. + +Then it was that the youngest of the eight ruling men, in a moment of +compassion, confessed his guilt, admitting in a plea to the head-chief for +clemency that he was in fact responsible for the attitude his wife had +taken. This served only to renew the old chief's anger; he stoutly refused +to listen to further appeals and expressed his regret that the first seeds +of wrong should have been thus sown. No longer able to keep up the fight, +with starvation staring them in the face, and being in nakedness, at the +end of the fourth year the women attempted to swim the river in parties, +but the attempts resulted only in death, for the swift current would have +been too much even for the strongest men to buffet. Seeing this +self-sacrifice and realizing that the race would be ultimately +exterminated if the women continued it much longer, appeals were made +daily to the head-chief to permit the rescue of the remainder. Four times +was he sought to grant such permission before he consented, then at dawn +of the fifth morning he gave directions to loose the rafts and ferry the +women over. A miserable remnant they were, unclad, wan, and wasted; but a +return to the old habits of life soon restored them to their former +selves, and peace, happiness, and prosperity reigned again. + +The broad river that flowed from the east had its source in two very large +springs, a he-spring and a she-spring, in which lived two large Water +Monsters. These had a pair of youngsters who delighted in emerging from +the depths of the spring and swimming out across the meadows in the +shallow water where there was neither current nor river banks. Coyote +spied them one day, and being ever a meddler and trouble-maker--though +withal a fellow of polished mien--stole them, putting the two under the +folds of his jacket. + +Now there was no sun, moon, or stars to give light; but in the east every +morning appeared White Dawn four fingers high. The midday was lighted by +Blue Dawn in the south, and late afternoon by Yellow Dawn from the west. +The north remained always dark. On the morning following Coyote's return +from his trip to the east, ostensibly to discover, if possible, the source +of the dawn, the head-chief noticed that it was not so broad as usual--only +three fingers high, with a dark streak beneath. A Wolf man was sent to +learn what was wrong. He hurried off, returning at nightfall with the +report that all was well in the east. The next morning White Dawn was much +narrower and the darkness beneath had increased. A Mountain Lion messenger +was despatched to seek the cause. He reported everything in normal +condition, but those in camp noticed deer in the distance travelling +westward at a rapid pace. The third morning the belt of darkness was wider +than White Dawn, which now gave an alarmingly dim light. The chief then +sent White Hawk to investigate the trouble, under orders of haste. His +report, like that of each of the other messengers, was that nothing +unusual appeared in the east. More deer, antelope, and other game animals, +however, were seen running westward in apparent fright. + + [Illustration: Through the Canon - Navaho] + + Through the Canon - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +On the fourth morning White Dawn was entirely obscured; nothing but +darkness appeared in the east. Sparrow-hawk sped away, returning in a very +brief time with the report that water was fast rising in the two springs +at the head of the river and might soon spread westward in a great +devastating wave. Instantly the camp became a scene of commotion. Quickly +gathering together what corn and other seeds they could carry, the people +started in haste for the White Mountain in the east. On reaching the top +they saw the waters climbing rapidly up the eastern slope, so they +descended and ran to the Blue Mountain in the south, taking with them +handfuls of earth from its crest, and from its base a reed with twelve +sections, which a Wolf man carried. + +From the top of the Blue Mountain it was seen that the wave of water, fast +approaching, would submerge them, so snatching handfuls of earth from it +they hurried on to the Yellow Mountain in the west. The oncoming wave +seemed higher than ever, so again they ran on, this time toward the north, +where the Black Mountain stood, taking as before handfuls of earth and +another reed, entrusted to Mountain Lion. Here the water surrounded them +and slowly crept up the sides of the mountain. The female reed from the +west was planted on the western side near the top, the male reed from the +east on the eastern slope, and both at once began to shoot upward rapidly. +Into the twelve internodes of the female reed climbed all the women, while +the men made haste to get into theirs. Turkey being the last to get in, +the foamy waters caught his tail, whitening the tips of the feathers, +which are so to this day. + +The reeds grew very rapidly, but equally fast rose the waters around them. +Four days the reeds grew thus, at the end of the fourth day meeting at the +sky. This seemed an impenetrable barrier for a time, but Locust had taken +with him his bow of darkness and sacred arrows. With these he made a hole +in the sky and passed on into the world above--the present earth. + +The earth was small, devoid of vegetation of any kind, and covered in +greater part by water in which lived four Monsters with great blue horns. +These had their homes at the cardinal points, and just as soon as Locust +made his appearance arrows came whizzing at him from all quarters. Failing +to harm him with their arrows, which he dodged with ease, the Monsters +bade him leave at once, threatening immediate death if he tarried; adding +that visitors were not desired and were always destroyed at sight. + +Locust replied that he intended no harm, but would insist upon remaining +with them for a time, for he had many followers for whom he was seeking a +home. Seeing that Locust had no fear of them and had proved too agile to +be hit with arrows, the Monsters sought to kill him by trickery. Each took +two heavy arrows, swallowed them, and pulled them out through their +flanks, saying, "Do this and you may remain." Locust followed their +example, escaping unharmed. + +"Now," said he, "I did your trick, let me ask you to do one of mine." Then +taking four sacred arrows he passed them transversely through his chest, +back and forth, one at a time. As he pulled each arrow out the second time +he passed it to one of the four Monsters, saying, "If you can do this, my +people will not come; if not, then I shall send for them and we shall all +make this our home." Each placed an arrow to his chest and pushed, but +cringed with pain as soon as it penetrated the skin. Fearing the Monsters +might not proceed, Locust quickly blew toward each of the arrows, which +shot through their bodies, instantly killing them. In the east now flows +Red river, made red by the blood of these Monsters; and holes yet remain +through the thorax of the locust. + +Impatient at the delay in Locust's return, Badger climbed through the hole +in the sky and followed the tracks to where Locust had been in controversy +with the slain Monsters. Seeing their bodies lying out in the shallow +water, he thought he would go over and inspect them, but he sank into the +soft black mud, which made him retreat. The mud blackened his legs, which +have remained the same to this day. + + [Illustration: Evening in the Desert - Navaho] + + Evening in the Desert - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +With a large stone knife Locust cut off the horns of the Monsters one by +one. With those from the one toward the east he made a long sweep with his +arm in that direction, and in the distance sprang up an ocean. In like +manner he formed oceans to the south, west, and north with the horns of +the remaining three. The creation of rivers followed: with a wave of the +hand the Rio Grande, the San Juan, the Colorado, the Little Colorado, and +others were made. Hair pulled from the bodies of the Monsters was tossed +to the winds and from it sprang frogs, snakes, lizards, and reptiles of +every kind. + +While Locust was doing this the remainder of the people came up. They +stood about on the small bare spots of ground wondering what to do. Among +them were the four Winds (Ní{~COMBINING BREVE~}lchi), Black, Blue, Yellow, and White. Each +blew toward his respective cardinal point and soon much of the water dried +up, leaving a quantity of bare land. But not a sign of vegetation was +there at any hand; all was as barren as the desert sands. Luckily each had +brought seeds of many kinds from the world below. These they began +planting, finishing the task in four days. + +After the planting, First Man, First Woman, Wolf Chief, and Mountain Lion +Chief each made a speech advising the creation of a number of mountains +similar to the ones they had had in the lower world. This was agreeable to +all, and accordingly the work was begun. The handfuls of earth caught up +hurriedly from the tops of the mountains below as they were driven off by +the rising flood were taken to the cardinal points and deposited in the +same relative positions, an equal distance apart, as were the submerged +mountains from which the earth had been taken. First Sí{~COMBINING BREVE~}snajini, the White +Mountain, was made in the east; then Tsótzilh, the Blue Mountain, in the +south; next Dokóöslit, the Yellow Mountain, in the west, and lastly +Depé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nsa, the Black Mountain, in the north. Having yet portions of each +handful of earth remaining, two more mountains, called Chóili and +Tzilhnúhodihli, were made near the point of emergence in the middle of the +rectangle formed by the creation of the other four. To give each mountain +color, white shell, turquoise, abalone, and jet were used for those at the +cardinal points, while the middle two were colored with a mixture of all +these substances. + +When the mountains were finished and the people looked about, it was +proposed that a sky should be made to cover the earth. "But," said one, +"what of the earth itself; is it not too small to furnish food for the +people who shall later come to live upon it?" None had thought of this, +but reflection, followed by a discussion, brought them all to the one +opinion--they would enlarge the earth and at the same time spread the sky +above. Accordingly, the chief who had spoken asked if anyone had a piece +of turquoise weighing as much as a man, and the skin of a large male deer +which had been smothered to death in pollen. First Man answered that he +had. A large white shell and the skin of a doe which had been smothered in +pollen were next requested. First Woman responded with them. The two skins +were then placed on the ground, side by side, with their heads toward the +east. Upon the one was put the turquoise and a piece of abalone shell; on +the other the white shell and a pearl. First Man and First Woman then +called for Kósdilhkih, Black Cloud, and Ádilhkih, Black Fog. These came +and spread out over the skins four times each, lifting and settling each +time. When Fog lifted the last time it took up with it the skin with the +turquoise and abalone and began to expand, spreading wider and wider until +a blue film covered all, in the form of the sky. As the turquoise skin +expanded, so also did the white-shell skin, broadening the earth as it +grew. During this period of transition the people all travelled eastward, +and being Holy People, covered great distances each day. At the end of the +fourth day they stopped. Then also the sky and the earth ceased widening, +having reached their present dimensions. Since the two skins had been +placed with their heads toward the east, the heads of the sky and the +earth are now in that direction. + + [Illustration: _Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_ - Navaho] + + _Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + +This, the Talking God, is the chief character in Navaho mythology. In the + rites in which personated deities minister to a suffering patient this + character invariably leads, carrying a four-piece folding wand, _balíl_, + and uttering a peculiar cry. + + +As yet there was neither sun nor moon to shed light, only dawn, circling +the horizon in the four colors--white in the east, blue in the south, +yellow in the west, and black in the north. Deeming it necessary that they +should have light to brighten the world, and warmth for the corn and the +grass, on their return to the earth's centre one of the chiefs made a +speech advocating the creation of a sun and a moon. + +First Man and First Woman placed two sacred deerskins on the ground as +before. On the buckskin a shell of abalone was placed, on the doeskin a +bowl made of pearl. The shell contained a piece of clear quartz crystal, +and the bowl a moss agate. The objects were dressed respectively in +garments of white, blue, yellow, and black wind, and were carried to the +end of the land in the east by First Man and First Woman. With their +spirit power Ástse Hástin and Ástse Estsán sent both the shell and the +bowl far out over the ocean, giving life to the crystal and the agate as +they did so, directing that the one who would be known as Chehonaái, the +Sun, should journey homeward through the sky by day, shedding light and +warmth as he passed; the other, Klehonaái, the Moon, must travel the same +course by night. To each were given homes of turquoise in the east and +west, and none but the Winds and the gods, Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti and Haschógan, were +to visit them. + +Upon their return Ástse Hástin and Ástse Estsán were asked if they would +leave the sky in so plain a condition, or if they intended to beautify it +with jewels. They replied that it was their intention to dot it with many +bright stars. All those who had bits of white shell, turquoise, crystal, +pearl, or abalone were directed to contribute them for the making of the +stars. These were placed upon the two deerskins by First Man and First +Woman. The seven stars of the Great Dipper, Nôhokos Bakú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, were the first +to be set in the sky. Next, those of Nóhokos Baád, his female complement, +were placed in the blue dome. Then followed Eté{~COMBINING BREVE~}tso and Etetsózi, Sóntso +and Sontsózi, and Dílgehet, the Small Dipper, Sonhótsi and Klekái Stái, +the Milky Way. + +In each instance the arrangement of the stars in the constellation was +made when the fragments of precious stones were placed upon the skins, +where Ástse Hástin and Ástse Estsán imparted glowing light to them and +delivered them to the Winds to carry to the sky. Only a small portion of +the gems had been thus transformed and sent up, when a fine-looking, +well-dressed stranger came up to watch the proceedings. In reply to his +question as to what was being done, his attention was directed to the sun, +the moon, and the many stars already created, while more were soon to +follow. The man was Coyote, son of Darkness. He watched the work for a +time, when, seeing his chance, he caught the large deerskin containing the +pile of jewel fragments and flung it skyward, blowing into the bits four +times ere they could fall, scattering them all over the sky. Thus it is +that there are myriads of stars irregular in arrangement and without +names. As he strode off Coyote explained curtly that there were already +enough sacred things to worship. + +Then the Winds were stationed at the horizon to guard the earth, and at +the four sacred mountains in the east, south, west, and north, to act as +messengers for the Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti and Haschógan--Talking Gods and House +Gods--who had their abodes on them. On the same plane, one behind the +other, the Winds were ranged in streaks, White, Blue, Yellow, and Black. +Outside of all Coyote placed a streak of Red Wind. This forced itself to +the inside many years later and gave rise to disease and premature death, +for as the good Winds are life-breathing, so the evil Winds are +life-taking. Even now the Red Wind takes the lives of many children every +year. + + [Illustration: _Haschógan_ - Navaho] + + _Haschógan_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + Second in general importance only to Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti among Navaho deities is + the House God, here shown. His position among the gods is quite parallel + with that of peace chief among Indians in life. Like the majority of the + myth characters he has numerous counterparts in the various world + quarters. + + +The Digí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n made their homes near Chóili, close to the place of emergence. +It was there that all ceremonies took place. From their homes the people +saw a dark Cloud settle and cover the top of Chóili. For four days it kept +lowering until the mountain was completely shrouded in dark blue fog. They +did not know whether it portended good or evil, but realized that +something of moment was at hand. Ástse Hástin ascended the mountain +through the fog to learn what it meant, but found nothing unusual. As he +turned to descend, a faint, apparently distant cry reached his ears, but +he paid no heed. Ere long the same sound came to him again; then a third +and a fourth time, whereupon he turned and walked in the direction whence +it came. On the eastern slope he found a tiny baby, and wrapping it in +rays of sunbeams he carried it home to his wife. + +The Cloud that descended was a portion of the sky which had come to meet +the Earth; from the union of the two Yólkai Estsán, White-Shell Woman, was +born. In twelve days the baby had grown to maturity, subsisting on pollen +only. Ástse Hástin and Ástse Estsán sent messengers to all the Digín to +tell them of the marvel and to summon them to a ceremony which would be +held four days later. Word was sent also to the gods on the four sacred +mountains. + +Ástse Estsán dressed Yólkai Estsán in fine garments ornamented with +beautiful jewels. At the western side of her hogán she placed a sacred +deerskin and laid upon it several wool and cotton blankets, covering the +whole with a mountain-lion skin. These were arranged as the seat of honor +for White-Shell Woman, for whom was about to be held a ceremony +celebrating her maturity. + +On the appointed day all assembled. The first matter to decide was the +number of songs to be sung. Some wished fourteen, others thought twelve +sufficient. Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, Talking God, sang the songs and chose to sing +fourteen. When he had finished, each of the Holy People sang six songs, +making in all two hundred and eighty-two. An entire night was thus +consumed. At dawn Ástse Estsán came into the hogán with a white-shell bowl +containing yucca root, a black _tózus_, or water bottle, containing black +rain, and a blue one with blue rain. From each bottle she poured a little +water upon the yucca root and proceeded to wash Yólkai Estsán and all her +finery. That done, Yólkai Estsán was directed to run toward the rising sun +for a short distance and return. Many of the young people followed, a +chosen singer chanting eight songs during their absence. The ceremony +finished, the assemblage returned to their homes, each of the selected +singers taking one of the blankets from the seat in return for his +services. + +Although all the people then on earth were of the Digí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, only a few had +god-like powers, particularly First Man, First Woman, Yólkai Estsán, and +the Winds. The lesser Holy Ones worked much in clay, making pottery and +adobe houses. The designs they used in their earthenware, however, were of +a sacred nature, to be used only in ceremonials, and when the Fox, Wolf, +Badger, Bird, and many other people repeatedly employed sacred symbols to +adorn their cooking pots, First Man and his wife became very angry and +called a council, which, in addition to themselves, was attended by +Chehonaái, Yólkai Estsán, and Ní{~COMBINING BREVE~}lchi, the Wind People. + +The wicked people had homes throughout the land, many of which were built +of stone, upon the plains, and others in the cliffs. The councillors +decided that these people and their homes must be destroyed, but how to +effect this was a problem. + +First Woman and Chehonaái thought it would be wise to give birth to +demoniac monsters and let them devour the evil ones, but First Man +objected, and finally the council agreed that the Winds should perform the +task by bringing forth a devastating storm. The faithful were warned and +given time to seek refuge under the water, inside the sacred mountains, in +the higher cliffs, and in the sky. Then the Winds came. For four days +terrific storms raged, hurling men and trees and houses through the air +like leaves. When they abated hundreds of houses lay in ruins which may +yet be traced by heaps of stones scattered throughout the Navaho country. + + [Illustration: Antelope Ruin - Canon del Muerto] + + Antelope Ruin - Canon del Muerto + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +Soon another council of the same dictators was called, this time to +discuss how more people might be created. First Man sent Wind messengers +to bring Black Fog Boy and Black Cloud Girl, Precious Stone Boy and +Precious Stone Girl, White Corn Boy and Yellow Corn Girl, Blue Corn Boy +and All-Color Corn Girl, Pollen Boy and Cricket Girl, and Rain Boy and +Rain Girl. These twelve were laid side by side on four sacred deerskins +and covered with four others. The Spirit Winds of the west came and blew +between the skins; the Spirit Winds of the east came and blew also; then +came Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti from the east, with rainbows in his hand, calling +"Wu-hu-hu-hu-u"; and Haschógan from the south, with sunbeams in his hand. +They walked up and gently tapped the skins with their bows and beams. +Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti of the west and Haschógan of the north came next and gently +tapped the skins. Then the skins lifted, revealing twelve beautiful young +people perfectly formed. Ástse Hástin bade them arise and stand, and then +with Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti in the lead and Haschógan behind, they four times +encircled the sacred mountains Chóili and Tzilhnúhodihli, halting close to +the hole whence the Holy People emerged. There Ástse Hástin made them an +extended speech, telling them that they had been brought forth from the +elements to people the earth; that they must rear children and care for +them as kind fathers and mothers, teaching them to be good to one another; +and that it would be necessary for them to plant corn and other seeds at +once. The Digí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, First Man continued, were about to leave, to go into the +rivers, the oceans, the cliffs, the mountains, off to the horizon, and to +the sky, but they would ever keep watch over their people and would help +those who showed them respect and reverence in prayer and song. To Yólkai +Estsán was entrusted future guardianship of the people. It would be her +duty to furnish the he-rain and the she-rain, to fructify all crops, and +bring forth abundant grass and seeds. + +Then the Digí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n took their departure, vanishing the people knew not +whither. Yólkai Estsán turned westward to her whiteshell home on the +horizon, far out across the wide waters. Arriving there she determined to +make a few more people. Cuticle rubbed from her body, with bits of white +shell, turquoise, abalone, and jet, she placed between two sacred +deerskins, male and female, and called for the Spirit Winds of the east, +the Spirit Winds of the west, Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti and Haschógan, who came and +breathed upon and tapped the deerskins as once before, and lo! there arose +four pairs of people. + +Each pair was given a walking-stick--one of white shell to one, staffs of +turquoise, abalone, and jet respectively to the others. Black Fog and +Black Cloud came and spread out over the water. Upon these the new people +took up their journey eastward to join others like themselves. For four +days they travelled on Fog and Cloud, reaching the earth at the end of the +fourth day, where, on the following day, they were welcomed by Chehonaái, +the Sun. There, too, the Bear, the Wolf, the Great Snake, the Mountain +Lion, the Weasel, and the Porcupine met them at the direction of Yólkai +Estsán, to guard them on their long land journey. The Lightning also she +made, to protect them from above. + +They journeyed eastward, stopping to camp and rest at the end of the first +day. For water they had but to prod the earth with their walking-sticks +and a spring gushed forth. The first of the four, the man of White Shell, +stuck his staff into the ground and water came up at once. "The water is +close," he remarked, from which speech he took his name, for the others +henceforth called him To Aháni, Water Is Close. The following night the +Turquoise Woman brought water, but it was bitter, so she said, from which +fact she took her name of To Dichíni, Bitter Water. The man who tried for +water on the third night found only a muddy flow, so the others called him +Hashklí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shni, Mud. The fourth night they camped in sight of the Diné{~COMBINING BREVE~} +(Navaho) whom they had come to join. The woman of the fourth pair called +attention to the houses in the caves, after which they called her Kí{~COMBINING BREVE~}nya +Áni, Houses in the Cliffs.(7) + +The following day they were welcomed by the twelve who had been created +and given dominion over the land but a short time before, and from these +twenty have the pure-blood Navaho descended. + + + + +MIRACLE PERFORMERS + + + [Illustration: _Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho] + + _Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + Two of the most important characters in Navaho mythology are twin + miracle-performing sons of White-Shell Woman, Yólkai Estsán, chief +goddess. This plate pictures the leader of the two--the first conceived and + the first-born, whose father is the sun. His name means "Slayer of Alien + Gods," from _aná_, alien; _ye_, gods; _agáni_, to kill. By him, with the +assistance of Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, his twin brother, were killed numerous bird, +animal, rock, and human monsters, typifying evils, who wantonly destroyed + human life. + + +When the Spirit People came upon this earth from below they made six +sacred mountains, four on the distant horizon at the cardinal points and +two in the centre, Chóili and Tzilhnúhodiíhli. On the eastern slope of +Chóili, brought forth as the daughter of Earth and Sky, was born Yólkai +Estsán, White-Shell Woman. First Man took her to his home near +Tzilhnúhodihli, where she matured in twelve days into a beautiful woman +with supernatural powers. Later she lived in a home of her own at the foot +of this mountain. It was while there that she gave birth to twin boys who +became saviours of their people, slaying alien gods who were fast +depopulating the earth. + +Yólkai Estsán would often lie on the eastern slope of the mountain as the +sun rose through the morning, and when the day grew warm would seek the +shade of jutting rocks from which trickled shining drops of water. Quite +unknown to herself she had conceived one day from the sunbeams and the +dripping water. When she became aware that she was to become a mother +Yólkai Estsán was made very happy, for she did not enjoy living alone. +Soon she found herself the proud possessor of twin boys. The first-born +and the stronger came to be known in his youth as Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani, Slayer of +Alien Gods; the other was always known as Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, Born From Water. +Their prenatal life covered a period of only twelve days, and maturity was +attained in thirty-two days after passing through eight changes, one of +which came every four days. + +At that time the earth was infested with great giants, foreign gods, who +were rapidly destroying the people. Of these, Yéitso, Big God, as large as +a mountain, was the only one in human form. The others were Man-eating +Bird, Rolling Stone, that crushed all in its path, Tracking Bear, and +Antelope, who killed without mercy. Fearing lest some of these monsters +learn of the presence of her boys, Yólkai Estsán kept them hidden away on +the mountain side, but they chafed under confinement, so she made them +bows and arrows and let them play about, but admonished them not to stray +far from home. The boys promised to obey, but not long afterward, because +in reply to their questions their mother told them she did not know who +their father was, they became sulky and broke their promise, going off +toward the east. They would go and search for someone who knew. When on a +small knoll a long way from home they heard a whispered "Sh-h." + +"Are you afraid, my younger brother?" asked Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani. + +"No!" was the quick response. + +Four times they heard the whisper, and then two of the Wind People +appeared. "We saw you travelling eastward," said they, "and came to +caution you. The land is cursed with alien gods who kill for pleasure; +beware of them! Why do you journey thus alone without your father?" + +"Our father! Alas, we know nothing of him and are now starting on a search +to learn. Do you know who he is?" asked the boys. + +"Yes, the Sun is your father; but if you think to find him you will have +to travel far eastward and cross the wide, wide waters." + +Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani turned to his younger brother and said, "Sítsili, let us go." + +The Sun was then overhead. Being in fact of a holy nature, the boys +covered distance rapidly and by mid-afternoon had passed well beyond the +limits of their homeland. There they came upon an old woman sitting beside +a ladder projecting from a hole. She asked them who they were and whither +they were going. They told her to the Sun, whose sons they were, but whom +they had never seen. + + [Illustration: _Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_ - Navaho] + + _Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + +This is Born From Water, the second of the twin miracle-performing sons of + Yólkai Estsán, the White-Shell Woman. His brother is Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani. + + +"I pity you, my grandchildren," said the old woman; "come in here and rest +a moment before going on." She started down the ladder and the boys +followed. Twelve ladders were descended before her home was reached. The +old woman was Spider Woman, the little grandmother who belonged to the +Holy Ones. Her home was well kept, clean and comfortable, and the boys +were glad to rest. Said she, "My grandchildren, your journey is long and +many trials will beset you before you reach the end. Take these life +feathers; they will help you; if difficulties befall you, use them," and +she gave to each two feathers plucked from a living eagle. + +The boys took the feathers, thanked her, and resumed their journey. After +travelling a long way they came to a ridge of loose, yellow sand. It +afforded poor footing for an ascent, but the boys struggled to the top, +only to have the whole side of the ridge slide and carry them back. Three +times the bank gave way as they were about to reach its crest; on the +fourth trial they bethought themselves of the sacred feathers, and putting +them on their feet marched readily over. + +They travelled unimpeded then for quite a long distance, in time coming to +four rows of tall, thorny reeds with spiked branches. The reeds grew far +enough apart to permit travellers to pass into them, but closed whenever +the unwary allowed himself to be caught, and he never escaped. The boys +marched boldly up to the reeds and started in, then darted back quickly. +The reeds closed instantly, but did not catch them. Then they put the life +feathers on their feet again and jumped over all four rows. + +The next obstacle was a deep cańon with precipitous walls. This, however, +was not a serious impediment, for the life feathers, as before, helped +them to cross it in one bound. By nightfall the boys had arrived at a +broad, beautiful meadow where lived the Wósakidi, or Grasshopper People, +who received them kindly, giving them food and beds for the night. On +being asked whither they were bound, the boys replied that they were +journeying to the home of the Sun, their father, whom they had never seen. + +The Wósakidi cautioned the boys of dangers ahead, and as they were about +to depart in the morning gave them little balls of yellow sputum to put in +their mouths to prevent poisoning, should they find it necessary to eat or +smoke among hostile people, and two sacred wands of turquoise and white +shell. Two of the Wósakidi also accompanied them for a time as guides. + +They had not been long on their way when they came to a place where the +trail ran between two high, smooth-faced bowlders. "These," said their +Wósakidi companions, "are the Bumping Rocks. If you step into that narrow +passageway between them they will crash together and kill you." The boys +started as if to enter, but fell back. The huge rocks came violently +together, but did no harm. The feint was made three times, and each time +the rocks crashed together and bounded back. The fourth time the boys +entered they placed their sacred wands of turquoise and white shell across +the gap above their heads and passed through, for these held the bowlders +apart. As they emerged on the opposite side they saw the Sun rising from +his eastern home and he was yet far away. + +Soon a wide stretch of water was encountered; so far as they could see +there was nothing but water. Here again they used their life feathers and +were carried safely over. Four successive stretches of water and land were +crossed, and still a fifth sheet of water lay before them. Along its +shores paddled many varieties of animals. The boys looked out across the +deep and could discern away out in the centre a house of turquoise and +white shell, its roof glistening in the sunlight. Certain that it must be +the home of their father, they readjusted their life feathers to start +across, but found that they had lost control over them. They tried them +several times in different places, but to no avail. The thought of not +reaching their father's house when so near filled their hearts with bitter +disappointment. Seemingly there was naught that they could do, but they +sat and pondered. + + [Illustration: _Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}zhini_ - Navaho] + + _Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}zhini_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + Black God, the God of Fire. An important deity of the Navaho, but + appearing infrequently in their mythology and ceremonies. + + +As they sat there in silence, Snipe Man, a little old fellow, came to them +and asked, "Where do you go, my grandchildren?" + +"To the home of the Sun," the boys replied. + +"Do you know anyone there?" + +"Yes," said they, "the Sun is our father." Thereupon Snipe Man placed a +rainbow bridge across the water and told them to pass on, first warning +them against two large Bears, the Lightning, Snakes, and Wind, who guarded +the home of the Sun. They crossed over the rainbow bridge, which took them +almost to the door of the house, and there they were met by the Bears with +bristling coats. Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani spoke to them, saying, "I am the child of +Yólkai Estsán." They let him pass. Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni uttered the same words +and passed on also. The same words took the boys past the Lightning, the +Snakes, and the Wind, and they entered the house, going through four +doorways before coming to the living-rooms in the interior. + +There they found an elderly woman, radiantly beautiful, with two handsome +boys and girls, the like of whom they had never seen. They stood +transfixed as if in a dream until the voice of the beautiful woman, who +was the wife of the Sun, startled them, demanding to know how they dared +to enter a sacred place forbidden to all save the Digí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n. + +Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani replied, saying, "This is the end of our journey. We came to +see our father, the Sun and this we are told is his home." + +The wife raged with anger, making dire threats against her husband if what +the boys asserted were true, which she did not doubt since they had found +it possible to gain entrance to her home. Could it be that he was the +father of many of whom she knew nothing? She would find out. Surely he +must have smiled upon most ugly creatures if these two boys were his sons! + +It was about time for the Sun to return. As his wife thought of what he +might do to the boys, her anger turned to compassion, and she bade them +wrap themselves in the clouds that hung on the wall, and hide. Ere long a +great rattle was heard outside, and a moment later the Sun came striding +in and hung up his glistening shield. "What strangers are here?" he asked. +There was no answer. Again he asked the question, repeating it a third +time and a fourth, waxing angry. Then his wife began to scold. She told +him that two boys of his, the ugliest creatures she had ever looked upon, +had come to see their father, and demanded to know what it meant. "Where +are they?" asked the Sun; but his wife did not reply to the question; +instead she kept on scolding. The Sun looked about, and noting a change in +the clouds that hung upon the western wall, took them down and unfolded +them, until he discovered Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani and Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni. + +The Sun became angrier than ever and determined to have done with the +trouble at once by killing the boys. From the eastern wall of the room +projected numerous sharp spikes of white shell. There were turquoise +spikes in the southern, abalone in the western, and jet in the northern +walls. The boys were each hurled against the first of these, but dropped +to the floor unharmed; then against the second, the third, and the fourth, +with a like result. On the floor near the walls sat four large mortars +with heavy pestles in them. The boys were placed in each of these +successively and pounded, as their father thought, into fragments, but out +of this also they came unharmed. + +The Sun then waved them to a seat and brought forth four large pipes, two +of abalone and two of lignite. He handed two of each to the boys, saying, +"I wish you to have a good smoke." + +"Beware!" whispered the Wind. "His tobacco is poisoned!" + +The boys deftly sought the little balls they had received from the +Wósakidi, slipped them into their mouths, and began puffing. When the +first pipefuls were finished they laid the pipes on the floor and picked +up the other two, showing no sign of distress. + +Seeing that the poison tobacco was having no effect on the youthful +strangers, the Sun sent for Haschógan and Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}zhini, the House God and +the Fire God, to come and build a sweat-house and heat large stones as hot +as they could be made, so that they might burst into fragments and fill +the sweat-lodge with scalding steam when water was poured upon them. By +the time the boys had finished their second pipes, which proved as +harmless as the others, the little house and heated stones were ready. +Haschógan made the lodge of stone and covered it with earth, erecting +double walls on the northern side with a space between, into which he +provided an entrance from the inside, concealed with a flat stone slab. + + [Illustration: _Ga__n__ askidi_ - Navaho] + + _Ga__n__askidi_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + This is the personation of the Navaho God of Harvest. The name signifies + "Hunchback." He is represented always in a stooping posture, carrying a +staff to aid him in supporting a burden of corn, bean, pumpkin, and other + seeds which he carries upon his back. The personation is conventional, + rather than literal, in intent. + + +The Sun looked into the lodge, saw that it was tight, and told the boys to +enter. As they passed in Haschógan whispered, "Get behind the stone slab +on the north!" Then Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}zhini rolled in several red-hot bowlders and +closed the entrance tightly with heavy cloud blankets. White, blue, +yellow, and black water was then thrown in, and there followed the sounds +of the sizzling steam and bursting stones; fragments could be heard +striking the walls on all sides. After a short while the boys heard the +voice of their father call out from the east, "Are you warm?" They gave no +response. He called again from the south, but received no answer; then +from the west; all was silence. "Surely I am rid of them at last," thought +he. He called once again from the north, and to his great surprise +received a reply. The sweat-house had cooled enough to permit the boys to +emerge from their hiding-place, so their cheerful voices came from near +the doorway. + +"These must be my sons," thought the Sun, and throwing back the blankets +from the door he embraced them. "My children, whence came you and how did +you get here?" + +The story of their home at Tzilhnúhodihli, of their long journey across +land and water, and of the many obstacles encountered, was soon told. Then +the Sun directed his wife and daughters to remould the boys and make them +as handsome as themselves. When that was done all entered the house, where +on the walls hung many beautiful strings of turquoise, abalone, +white-shell, and jet beads, and plates of armor. These were offered to the +boys, but they refused them, saying they cared not for jewels, preferring +instead to have lightning arrows, strong bows, and heavy knives with which +to battle with the giant alien gods who were destroying people in all +parts of the earth. The Sun gave them the weapons desired, and when it +came time to resume his journey across the sky he took his newfound sons +with him. + +Near Tsótzilh, the sacred mountain of the south, lived Yéitso, the Big +God. The boys wished to try their skill on him first, so their father let +them down from the sky upon that mountain. The giant was drinking from a +lake and saw the reflection of his new enemies as they dropped upon the +mountain. He straightened up quickly and sent an arrow aimed for the body +of Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani, but the boy dodged quickly and responded with a bolt of +lightning which stripped the armor from Yéitso's feet. Three more shafts +of lightning struck the armor from the hips, body, and head of this +fiercest of giants, exposing his vitals to the attack of the boys, who +filled him with arrows, killing him instantly. The Big God's blood began +to flow down a cańon. Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani drew a line across its path with his +stone knife, and the blood ceased flowing onward, rising in a wall across +the cańon's head, over which now plunges a beautiful waterfall. + +The brothers then set off for home, taking the heart of their slain enemy +with them. Arriving at Tzilhnúhodihli they found their mother in tears, +for she was certain that her boys had been killed and devoured by +monsters. Though unchanged in size, so altered were they in appearance +that Yólkai Estsán could not believe them to be her own boys whom she was +mourning as dead, but the story of their adventures from the time they had +left home was soon told, and all rejoiced. + +In the days following, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani and Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni made incursions +into the lands of the alien gods, killing them all and freeing the earth +from the dread and curse of these man-killing monsters. The first to meet +destruction at their hands when they took up their deliberate search for +giants was Déilget, Giant Antelope, who had great blue horns upon which he +tossed people to death. The next accosted was Tse Naháli, the preying +Mountain Eagle, and soon after they sought and killed Tsetahídzilhtúhli, +Among The Rocks He Kicks Them Down The Mountain. Then Bináyeagani, Who +Kills With His Eyes, met death, followed shortly after by Tsé{~COMBINING BREVE~}agai, +Rolling Bowlder, and Sush Nalkái, Tracking Bear, the last to lose their +lives at the hands of the youthful warriors, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani and +Tobadzischíni, who have since remained the War Gods of the Navaho. + + + + +LEGEND OF THE HAPPINESS CHANT + + + [Illustration: _Tónenili_ - Navaho] + + _Tónenili_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + Tónenili, Water Sprinkler, is the Rain God of the Navaho. He it is who +sends the rain, the hail, and the snow, and causes thunder and lightning. + The personator of this god in the ceremonies assumes the additional + character of a clown and as such creates much merriment in the dances in +which he appears. His apparel consists principally of spruce boughs and a + mask. + + +The Hozhóni Hatál, or Happiness Chant, is a nine-days' chant held inside a +hogán, and like many of the Navaho ceremonies, it was derived from another +tribe. The myth relating to it tells of a renowned warrior who had two +beautiful sisters whom he wished to see married, but only to men who +should first prove their strength and valor in a feat of arms; so word was +sent to all the young men of the warrior's tribe to gather at his home on +a certain day, prepared for war, if they wished to enter a contest he +would then propose. The girls being coveted prizes, a goodly number of +warriors, painted and dressed in full war regalia, assembled on the +appointed day, among them being two old, white-haired brothers, of an +alien tribe, who had recently come to live near the Navaho people. The +young chief protested at the presence of the old men, declaring that they +would only sacrifice their lives in the first combat, for they could have +no possible hope of success. The two persisted, however, and were allowed +to remain in the van. + +Four-days journey from the Navaho country was a village of the Áya Kinné{~COMBINING BREVE~}, +Have Holes For Houses, enemies from early times. They also prided +themselves on having two very beautiful girls, upon whom many admiring +young men of the tribe bestowed valuable presents of turquoise, shell +beads, and other jewels. One of these wondrous beauties wore her hair +plaited always with rich strings of turquoise; the other with strings of +white shell. + +"To the two men," said the vaunting young Navaho, "who will fight their +way to the homes of these boasted beauties and bring to me their +jewel-plaited scalps, will I give my sisters." + +The band started, each man eager and hopeful, and on the fourth night +bivouacked in sight of the cliffs under which the hated Áya Kinné{~COMBINING BREVE~} had +their homes. At daybreak on the following morning they made their attack +on the pueblo, but the villagers, ever alert and well prepared for an +onslaught, offered desperate resistance, every man fighting bravely for +his life and his family. All day long the contest raged; arrow, lance, and +stone hammer dealing death on every hand. As nightfall shrouded the +combatants in darkness, the invaders, depleted in rank, slunk back to +their camp on the hill, where they found the two gray-haired brothers, +each bearing a jewelled scalp as his trophy. + +When the Navaho chief learned that the old men were the victors, he raged +with anger, condemning his tribesmen and vowing that his sisters should +never become the wives of unknown aliens, and accordingly declared a new +contest. The man who would win a beautiful wife must hit the blade of a +yucca plant with an arrow at forty paces. The long, narrow blade was hung +in the bark of a tree and the contest commenced. The younger men shot +first. One by one they twanged their bows, and one by one marched off in +sullen humor. At last it came the turn of the aged brothers. The first +shot his arrow, and the slender leaf was pierced; the second shot, and +again the leaf was pierced; but so soon as the second arrow had hit its +mark the Navaho declared a new feat, contending that this had not been +sufficient. A long race was then arranged, and once more the brothers came +off victorious. + +The chief became desperate. Some feat must be devised in which his own men +could prove the superior. In the wall of a high cliff not far distant was +a small hole, barely larger than a half-closed hand, and just above the +reach of the average man. The ones who could run past that hole, jump, and +thrust their hands into it as they did so, might claim the sisters. One by +one the young Navaho warriors leaped wildly and struck out for the hole in +the cliff, but none could thrust his hand into it. Then the elderly +brothers ran past, sprang lightly, and darted a hand each into the pocket. + + [Illustration: _Zahadolzhá_ - Navaho] + + _Zahadolzhá_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + These deific characters in Navaho mythology, though beneficent always, + have no special functions to perform. The name means "Fringe Mouth" and + has no ascertainable significance other than that these spirits, whose +abode is in the water, are supposed to have peculiar markings about their + mouths. Rescue from drowning invariably redounds to the glory of these + gods. + + +But for the third time the Navaho chief declared the test insufficient. +The cliff was high. They who would marry his sisters must shoot an arrow +over its rim; so a second contest in archery took place, but only the +feathered reeds of the white-haired brothers passed out of sight. + +Still the old men were refused the prizes they had fairly won so many +times. A dance was called. Finding no way to outdo the two brothers in +skill or strength, the young chief left the selection of husbands to his +sisters. They should join the men in the dance and go home with whom they +chose. The aliens did not join the dancers, preferring instead to remain +in their own little brush house half a mile distant, with its single-slant +roof, "For it is foolish," said one, "to think that two such handsome +young maidens as they are would ever look with favor upon our rags and +wrinkles. We would better lie here to-night and rest in sleep after our +busy day." Each then brought forth a sacred pipe and tobacco, which they +used only on rare occasions. One had a pipe of rich blue turquoise, and +the other one of fine, pure white shell. They filled them, smoking in +silence. From the distance the songs and laughter of the merry dancers +greeted their ears, but not as joyous sounds. Each smoked with apparent +resolution, blowing forth cloud after cloud of filmy whiteness, and lo! as +they smoked each noticed that the other had grown youthful in appearance! +Their tattered garments, too, as insensibly as the creeping shadows, +changed their forms, becoming fine shirts, leggings, and moccasins. + +At the dance the younger sister asked, "What is it that smells so sweet?" + +"I have noticed nothing," the other replied. + +"Come over here and face the breeze," said the first; and there, sure +enough, came wafts of air sweet and savory. Neither had ever before +scented anything so pleasing, and they determined to follow the aroma +against the breeze. The moon shed ample light to guide their footsteps, +and once locating the true direction whence the wind came, the two had no +difficulty in threading their way straight to the home of the brothers who +had vanquished so many rivals in so many feats. Knowing nothing of the +men, other than that they were strangers from an alien tribe, the girls +were somewhat startled at coming so boldly face to face with them; but a +moment's hesitation gave them assurance, for surely, they thought, such +finely dressed, handsome men could mean no harm. + +Said one: "What it was we did not know, so came to determine if we could; +but the most delicious odor we ever smelled seemed to fill the air about +us at the dance, coming always from this direction, and now we see that it +was the smoke of your tobacco. It must be a wonderful land, where you come +from, if tobacco like that grows there." + +"That you may see for yourselves," answered the elder brother, "for we +have come to take you there if you will but consent to go. Our land is +rich in jewels and possesses a soil that grows bountiful crops of many +kinds, some of which you have never seen. Marry us and you shall live +always in abundance." + +The girls consented, and at bedtime retired with their husbands for the +night, only to waken in the morning, however, to a sense of horror; for +whom should they find beside them but the two grim-visaged old men so +cordially hated by all their tribe! They dared not to display their fear +and horror before the men, who were quite awake, though feigning sleep, +but each read the other's feelings at a glance. Where were they? Where had +they been? Had they merely dreamed of meeting two handsome, well-clad +strangers in the night? Slowly their memories came back--the last shooting +contest, the preparation for the dance, the songs and feasting, the +enchanting perfumed breezes, and their quest--they remembered now. But how +this change in their companions? They were strangers, and unquestionably +magicians who could transform themselves or work spells on others! With +this thought the desire for vengeance increased with every pulse-beat. + + [Illustration: _Haschebaád_ - Navaho] + + _Haschebaád_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + In Navaho mythology there are numerous references to benevolent female + deities, who are personated in medicine rites by men wearing masks, as + shown in this plate. Haschebaád may be translated "female deity," or + "goddess." + + +The day wore on before the women had a chance to talk together apart from +their husbands, when they agreed that they would return to their home and +tell their brother of the evil worked upon them by the old men, whom they +would then soon see killed; but the Little Whirlwind whispered to them, +"Return not to your home; anger fills the hearts of all your people, and +it is you who would be killed with clubs and stones." Thwarted in this +plan, they determined to leave and search for a distant tribe of which +they had once heard, that lived in peace, and had never led the life of +marauders. There, surely, they might receive food and shelter and freedom +from the sorcery of their husbands. Each would take a separate course upon +starting, to meet at a wooded mountain in the east. + +All went well throughout the day; the old men rested and made ready for +the journey to their home-land, on which they planned to start at +daybreak. That night the women did not sleep. When their husbands became +wrapt in slumber, they quietly crawled out from their furs, snatched a +little food, and glided into the moonlight. They had been gone but a short +time when one of the old men arose to stir the fire, and in deep surprise +noted the absence of the women. He called his brother, and the two held a +hurried consultation. They circled the lodge, but in the dimness of the +light could discern no guiding footprint to tell the direction in which +their young wives had gone. Returning to the camp, they filled their +sacred pipes, and in silence sat and smoked. Soon a thin curl of smoke was +seen drifting southward, winding in and out among the pińons; then another +on the north side. These they followed, bearing eastward, smoking as they +went, and as the sun began to tint the higher hills and mountain crests +with yellow, bathing all else in purple shadows, they came upon their +wives in a little rocky cańon screened by thickly growing cedar and pińon. +The smoke foretold the women of their doom, so they were not taken by +surprise. + +Seeing no way to escape, the girls resigned themselves to fate, and meekly +followed the old men back to camp, whence they journeyed with them to the +west. + +At their home the brothers had wives and children, so they did not herald +their new consorts as such, but wedded them at once to their eldest sons. +This prospect pleased the two young women, and they entered into the +spirit of the new life with zest. They learned the songs and chants of the +rites of the Snake and the Bear people--the clans to which these younger +husbands belonged--and taught them to a young brother who came to visit +them. When the brother returned to the Navaho people, he told them that +his sisters were quite happy, and with the songs he had learned from them +he originated the Hozhóni Hatál, Happiness Chant. + + + + +LEGEND OF THE NIGHT CHANT + + +Long years ago three brothers--the eldest rich, the second a wayward, +roving gambler, and the youngest a mere boy--lived together among their +kind, the Diné{~COMBINING BREVE~} people. Their only sister was married, living apart with +her husband. The gambler often took property belonging to his brothers, +going to distant corners of the land to stake it on games of chance. On +returning, he never failed to relate a story of wonders he had seen--the +Holy People whom he had met, and who revealed many things to him. His +brothers never believed him, calling him Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, The Dreamer. + + [Illustration: _Gá__n__ askidi. Zahadolzhá. Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_ - Navaho] + + _Gá__n__ askidi. Zahadolzhá. Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + The personated deities pictured in this plate appear together in acts of +succor in the Night Chant in the order seen, the Talking God in the lead. + From left to right they are, respectively, the God of Harvest, Fringe + Mouth, and Talking God. + + +One day they wished to go hunting, but did not want The Dreamer to +accompany them, so, going to the home of their brother-in-law, they told +him of their purpose, and all three stole away. As the sun began its +descent on the fourth day, it occurred to Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni that he had been +tricked, so he started in search of the hunters, hoping to meet them +returning, that he might help them carry their game and be rewarded with a +pelt or two. He travelled far, but had not come upon them when the sun +passed behind the distant hills. Near by was a deep, rock-walled cańon, +from the depths of which many mingled voices could be heard. Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni +walked to its edge and peered over. Back and forth from side to side flew +countless crows, passing in and out of dark holes in opposite walls. From +below, when darkness had shrouded all, Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni heard a human voice +call in loud echoing tones, "They say, they say, they say, they say!" + +From the far side came the answer: "Yes, yes! What's the matter now? +What's the matter now?" + +"Two people were killed to-day," continued the voice just below. + +"Who were they? Who were they?" + +To which the first voice answered, "Anahailí{~COMBINING BREVE~}hi, killed at sunrise, and +Igákizhi, killed at dusk, by the People of the Earth. They went in search +of meat, and the hunters shot arrows into them. We are sorry, but they +were told to be careful and did not heed. It is too late to help them now; +let us go on with the chant." + +It had grown very dark, and Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni became greatly frightened, but +he stayed to listen and watch. Muffled strains of songs came from the deep +recesses in each cańon wall,--the gods were singing--and just within the +openings, discernible in the glow of a fire, could be seen many dancers +performing in unison as they kept time with rattles. Throughout the night +firelight flickered from wall to wall and singing and dancing continued. +At daylight the participants departed in all directions, so Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni +resumed the quest of the hunters. + +He had travelled but a short time when he came upon his brothers, resting +their heavy game packs on their journey homeward. + +"Here comes The Dreamer," spoke his elder brother. "I will wager he has +something marvellous to relate." + +Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni was greeted first by his brother-in-law. "You must have +slept near here last night, for you are too far out to have made this +distance since daylight." + +"I did," he replied, "near a cańon that is surely holy. A lot of people +had gathered to dance, the gods sang, and--" + +"There, I told you he would have some lie to tell," interrupted the eldest +brother, and started on. + +"Go ahead," urged the brother-in-law; "tell us the rest." + +"It's no use; no one cares to listen to me," said Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni. + +His younger brother, also incredulous, took up his burden and plodded off, +whereat Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni related all that he had seen and heard. + +"You men must have killed those people they spoke about," he accused. + +"No, it was none of us," his brother-in-law protested; "we have killed no +people. Yesterday morning one shot a crow, and last night we killed a +magpie, but there was no harm in that." + +"I fear there was; they were hunters like yourselves, in search of meat +for the Holy People, for the time disguised as birds," Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni +ventured. Then, dividing the pack, the two hurried on to overtake the +others. + +"Well," asked the youngest, "did you hear a fine story?" + +"It is not a lie," his brother-in-law retorted; "we killed a crow and a +magpie yesterday, and the Holy People talked about it in the cańon last +night. Look! There come four mountain sheep! Hurry, Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni and head +them off!" They had come upon the cańon where the strange voices had been +heard. Four sheep, among large bowlders near the rim, were carefully +threading their way out of it. The three dropped back, while Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni +ran ahead and concealed himself near the ascending trail. As the sheep +approached he drew his bow and aimed for the leader's heart, but his +fingers could not loose their grip upon the arrow, and the sheep passed by +unharmed. Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni scrambled up over the rim of the cańon and ran to +get ahead of them again, but the bowstring would not leave his fingers as +they passed. A third effort, and a fourth, to kill the game brought the +same result. Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni cursed himself and the sheep, but ceased +suddenly, for whom should he see but four gods, Yébichai, appear before +him, who had transformed themselves into sheep! Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, in the lead, +ran up to him and dropped his _balíl_--a rectangular, four-piece, folding +wand--over him, as he sat, and uttered a peculiar cry. Behind him came +Zahadolzhá, Haschebaád, and Gánaskidi; all were masked. + + [Illustration: _Tónenili, Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho] + + _Tónenili, Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + These three gods appear in the order shown when seen in the rites of the + Navaho Night Chant. + + +"Whence came you?" Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni asked them. + +"From Kinní{~COMBINING BREVE~}nikai," Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti answered. + +"Whither are you going?" + +"To Tsé{~COMBINING BREVE~}gyii, to hold another _hatál_ four days from now. You had better +come along." + +"No, I couldn't travel so far in four days." + +But after a little parleying Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni assented. He was told to +disrobe, and doing so Gánaskidi breathed upon him, and his raiment became +the same as that of the gods. Then all took four steps eastward, changing +into mountain sheep, and bounded away along the cańon's rim. + +The hunters in hiding became restless as The Dreamer did not return, so +ventured out where they could view the trail on which he was last seen. No +one was in sight. One went to the rock where Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni first hid near +the sheep and followed his tracks from hiding place to hiding place until +the fourth one was reached, and there he found his brother's old clothes +with his bow and arrows upon them. There he traced four human footsteps to +the east that merged into the trail of five mountain sheep. The eldest +brother cried in his remorse, for he saw that his brother was holy, and he +had always treated him with scorn. + +The gods and Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, transformed to mountain sheep, travelled very +far during their four days' journey, coming on the fourth day to a large +hogán. Inside were numerous Holy People, both gods and men. When Bilh +Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni entered with his four holy companions, a complaint at once arose +from those inside against an earthly odor, whereat Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti had their +charge taken out and washed with yucca-root suds. + +Inside the hogán stood four large jewel posts upon which the gods hung +their masks. The eastern post was of white shell, the southern of +turquoise, the western of abalone, and the northern of jet. Two jewel +pipes lay beside a god sitting on the western side of the hogán. These he +filled with tobacco and lighted, passing one each to his right and his +left. All assembled smoked, the last to receive the pipes being two large +Owls sitting one on each side of the entrance way at the east. They drew +in deep draughts of smoke and puffed them out violently. While the smoking +continued, people came in from all directions. At midnight lightning +flashed, followed by heavy thunder and rain, which Tónenili, Water +Sprinkler, sent in anger because he had not been apprised of the dance +before it was time to begin it; but a smoke with the assembled Holy People +appeased him. Soon after the chant began and continued until morning. + +Some of the gods had beautiful paintings on deerskins, resembling those +now made with colored sands. These they unfolded upon the floor of the +hogán during the successive days of the _hatál_. + +The last day of the dance was very largely attended, people coming from +all holy quarters. Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni through it all paid close attention to +the songs, prayers, paintings, and dance movements, and the forms of the +various sacred paraphernalia, and when the _hatál_ was over he had learned +the rite of Kléje Hatál. The gods permitted him to return to his people +long enough to perform it over his younger brother and teach him how to +conduct it for people afflicted with sickness or evil. This he did, +consuming nine days in its performance, after which he again joined the +gods at Tsé{~COMBINING BREVE~}gyii, where he now lives. His younger brother taught the +ceremony to his earthly brothers, the Navaho, who yet conduct it under the +name of Kléje Hatál, Night Chant, or Yébichai Hatál, The Chant of Paternal +Gods. + + + + +CEREMONIES--THE NIGHT CHANT + + + [Illustration: _Yébichai_ Sweat - Navaho] + + _Yébichai_ Sweat - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + Each morning during the first four days of the Navaho Yébichai healing +ceremony, or Night Chant, the patient is sweated--sometimes inside a small + sweat-lodge, oftener by being placed upon a spot previously heated by a +fire and covered with heavy blankets. The three figures are medicine-men, +or singers, chanting. The patient lies under the blankets surrounded by a + line of sacred meal in which turkey-feather prayer-sticks, _kedán_, are + implanted. + + +A description of the ritual and form of the Yébichai ceremony,--Kléje +Hatál, or Night Chant,--covering its nine days of performance, will give a +comprehensive idea of all Navaho nine-day ceremonies, which combine both +religious and medical observances. The myth characters personified in this +rite are termed Yébichai, Grandfather or Paternal Gods. Similar +personations appear in other ceremonies, but they figure less prominently. + +_First Day_: The ceremonial, or medicine, hogán is built some days in +advance of the rite. The first day's ceremony is brief, with few +participants. Well after dark the singer, assisted by two men, makes nine +little splint hoops--_tsipa__n__s yázhe kedán_--entwined with slip-cords, +and places them on the sacred meal in the meal basket. Following this, +three men remove their everyday clothing, take Yébichai masks, and leave +the hogán. These three masked figures are to represent the gods +Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, Talking God, Haschebaád, Goddess, and Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lapai, Gray God. +When they have gone and passed to the rear of the hogán, the patient comes +in, disrobes at the left of the centre, passes around the small fire +burning near the entrance of the hogán, and takes his seat in the centre, +immediately after which the singing begins. During the third song +Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti enters with his cross-sticks--_Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti balíl_--and opens and +places them over the patient's body, forcing them down as far toward the +ground as possible. The second time he places them not so far over the +body; the third, not lower than the shoulders; the fourth time, over the +head only, each time giving his peculiar call, _Wu-hu-hu-hu-u!_ Then +Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti takes up a shell with medicine and with it touches the +patient's feet, hands, chest, back, right shoulder, left shoulder, and top +of head,--this being the prescribed ceremonial order,--uttering his cry at +each placing of the medicine. He next places the shell of medicine to the +patient's lips four times and goes out, after which Haschebaád comes in, +takes one of the circle _kedán_, touches the patient's body in the same +ceremonial order, and finally the lips, at the same time giving the +slip-cord a quick pull. Next comes Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lapai, who performs the same +incantations with the _kedán_. Again Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti enters with the +cross-sticks, repeating the former order, after which he gives the patient +four swallows of medicine,--a potion different from that first given,--the +medicine-man himself drinking what remains in the shell. This closes the +ceremony of the first day. There will, perhaps, be considerable dancing +outside the hogán, but that is merely practice for the public dance to be +given on the ninth night. The singer and the patient sleep in the hogán +each night until the nine days are passed, keeping the masks and medicine +paraphernalia between them when they sleep. + +_Second Day_: Just at sunrise the patient is given the first ceremonial +sweat. This is probably given more as a spiritual purification than in +anticipation of any physical benefit. To the east of the hogán a shallow +hole is dug in the earth, in which are placed hot embers and +ashes,--covered with brush and weeds, and sprinkled with water,--upon which +the patient takes his place. He is then well covered with blankets. The +medicine-man, assisted by Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti and Haschebaád, places about the +patient a row of feathered _kedán_, and then commences to sing while the +patient squirms on the hot, steaming bed. After singing certain songs the +medicine-man lifts the blanket a little and gives the patient a drink of +medicine from a ceremonial basket. He is again covered, and the singing +goes on for a like time. Later the blankets are removed and Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti and +Haschebaád perform over the patient, after which he goes to the hogán. The +brush and weeds used for the bed are taken away and earth is scattered +over the coals. This sweating, begun on the second day, is repeated each +morning for four days: the first, as above noted, taking place east of the +hogán, and the others respectively to the south, west, and north. The +ceremonies of the second night are practically a repetition of those held +the first night. During the third song Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti enters with the +_Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti balíl_, placing it four times in the prescribed order and +giving his call; then he goes out, re-enters, and takes from the medicine +basket four sacred reed _kedán_. These he carries in ceremonial order to +the four cardinal points: first east, then south, next west, lastly north. +Next stick _kedán_ are taken out of the basket, which holds twelve each of +the four sacred colors. These also are carried to the four cardinal +points--white, east; blue, south; yellow, west; black, north. After all the +_kedán_ are taken out, Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti again enters with the _Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti +balíl_, using it in directional order and giving medicine as on the night +before. + + [Illustration: _Pikéhodiklad_ - Navaho] + + _Pikéhodiklad_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + +The first of the four dry-paintings used in conducting the Kléje Hatál, or +Night Chant, of the Navaho, being made on the fifth night. The purpose of + this night's acts is to frighten the patient; hence the name of the + painting, which signifies "Frighten Him On It." + + The encircling figure represents the rainbow, _aklólh_; the first on the + left Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, Talking God; the central, Haschebaád, + goddess--symbolically the patient--and the right-hand figure a male deity, + Haschebakú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n. + + The patient sits on the central figure at its waist line during the +night's performance. When the ceremony in connection with this painting is + concluded the colored sands are carefully collected, carried out toward + the north, and deposited under a tree. + + +_Third Day_: It is understood that the patient has been sweated in the +morning, as on the second day. On this night he is dressed in spruce +boughs by the assisting medicine-man, bound around the wrists, arms, +ankles, legs, and body, and fastened on the head in the form of a turban. +After several songs, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani and Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni cut the boughs from +the body, using a stone arrow-point as a knife. Then the boughs are cut +into fragments over the patient's head, after which the singer takes a +feather wand, points it toward the four cardinal points above the fire, +and brushes the patient, chanting meanwhile. At the end of the brushing he +points the wand out of the smoke-hole, at the same time blowing the dust +from it out into the open air. + +_Fourth Day_: The ceremonies this day do not begin until later than usual, +probably nine o'clock. Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti and Haschebaád dress and go out. The +patient disrobes and takes his place. The assisting medicine-man digs a +small hole just between the patient's feet, and encircles it with a line +of _táditin_, or pollen, leaving an opening to the east, after which the +patient dons a mask. Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti enters, followed by Haschebaád, who +carries a small spruce tree. The former puts sacred pollen in the hole +four times, each time giving his call; then Haschebaád plants the tree in +the hole and fastens its top to the patient's mask; the mask is then +pulled off the patient's head by his jerking quickly away from the tree. +This is the first night in which the ceremonies are continued until dawn. +After the unmasking, the singers take their place at one side of the back +of the hogán and begin singing to the accompaniment of a basket drum. A +youth and a maiden are required to sit in the hogán throughout the fourth +night, the ritual requiring that these be persons who have not had sexual +knowledge. + +_Fifth Day_: This is the last day of the sweating, and the day on which +the first dry-painting is made. Just at dark this painting, a small one, +is begun inside. In size it would square about four feet, and is placed +close to the back of the hogán. There are three figures in the painting: +the central one being the patient, the one to the left Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, the one +to the right Haschebakú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n. Around this painting, at all sides except the +eastern, feather wands, _ndiá_, are stuck in the ground; in this case +twelve in number. Foot-tracks are made in the sand with white meal. +Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti and Haschebakú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n dress ceremonially, mask, and go out, after +which the patient enters and takes his position on the central figure of +the dry-painting, facing the east. The effort this night is to frighten +the patient and thus banish the evil spirits from his body. The two +maskers come running in, uttering weird, unearthly howls, in which every +spectator in the hogán joins, feigning great fear. The masked figures make +four entries, each like the other. In many cases the patient either +actually faints from fright or feigns to do so. The patient then leaves +the dry-painting and it is destroyed. None of the sand or other pigments +used in this painting is applied to the patient's body, as is done with +that of later paintings. The next part of the fifth night's ceremony is +the initiation of new members into the Yébichai order. No one who is not a +member of the order is allowed to enter the ceremonial hogán. At the time +of the initiation Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti and Haschebakú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n are outside in the darkness. +The initiates enter and sit on the ground in a row--the males naked, the +women dressed in their ordinary mode. They dare not look up, for should +they see Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti before being initiated, they would become blind. One +at a time these novices take their place in the centre of the hogán and +the initiatory rite is performed over them. + + [Illustration: _Shilhné'ohli_ - Navaho] + + _Shilhné'ohli_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + + In this plate is pictured the second dry-painting employed in the Night + Chant, made on the sixth day of the ceremony. It represents crossed logs +which whirl around in a mythic lake. Upon them are alternately seated male + and female deities, singing. The light figures are goddesses, + _haschebaád_; the dark ones gods, _haschebakú{~COMBINING BREVE~}__n_. Their songs treat of + all life-giving plants, of which corn, beans, squashes, and tobacco, the +most important, are pictured as growing from the very centre of the lake, + the point of contact of the logs. + + Of the four marginal figures the one in white toward the east is + Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, Talking God, with his pine-squirrel pouch of sacred meal. + Opposite him stands Haschógan, House God. The other two are Gánaskí{~COMBINING BREVE~}dil, + Hunchbacks, Gods of Harvest, with seeds of the field in packs on their + backs. Around the whole is the personified rainbow. + +When the dry-painting is in actual use the patient enters upon it over the + feet of Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti and sits at the intersection of the logs. A man +personating a god then enters, places his hands upon the various parts of + the many deities represented in the picture, then upon the corresponding + parts of the patient's body. The whole picture is then destroyed and the + colored sands are carried off to the north in a blanket and strewn under + trees. + + +_Sixth Day_: This is the first day of the large dry-paintings. The +painting is commenced early in the morning, and is not finished until +mid-afternoon. The one on this day is the whirling log representation. +After it is finished, feathers are stuck in the ground around it, and +sacred meal is scattered on parts by some of the assisting singers. Others +scatter the meal promiscuously; one of the maskers uses a spruce twig and +medicine shell, applying meal to every figure and object in the painting. +Then the medicine-men all gather up portions of the sacred meal, putting +it in their medicine pouches. The patient soon enters and takes his seat +in the centre of the painting. The usual incantations are gone through, +after which the colored sands of the painting are applied to the +corresponding parts of the patient's body, then gathered up and carried +off to the north. During the day two sets of beggars go out to the +neighboring hogáns. These personate Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, Tónenili--Water Sprinkler, +the God of Water, who is really a clown--and as many Haschebaád as care to +go out. The beggars carry whips made of yucca leaves, and one who does not +respond to their appeals for gifts is whipped,--if he can be caught,--which +creates a great deal of amusement. The personators act like a company of +clowns, but at the same time they gather a large quantity of food. When +the day is thoroughly taken up with dry-painting and ceremonies, there is +less of the ceremonial at night. The medicine-men, to the accompaniment of +the basket drum, sing for a short time only on this sixth night, while +outside the late evening is spent in dancing by those who are later to +participate in the closing dance. + +_Seventh Day_: This day is practically consumed with the making of another +large dry-painting. The masked men go out on another begging tour, also, +and the medicine ceremonies and the destroying of the dry-painting are +practically the same as those of the day before, while during the evening +the medicine-men sing to the accompaniment of the drum. + +_Eighth Day_: The dry-painting is finished about three o'clock in the +afternoon. After its completion there is a large open-air initiation. To +become a full member of the Yébichai order one must first be initiated in +the hogán; the second initiation is a public one; the third, another +inside the hogán; the fourth, another in the open. These different +initiation ceremonies, the same in point of ritualism, may be carried over +several years. + +_Ninth and Final Day_: To the average person and to the Indians as a whole +the last day is the Yébichai dance. From a distance the Indians have been +gathering during the two previous days, and the hospitality of the +patient's family, as well as that of all the people living in the +neighboring hogáns, is taxed to the utmost. And from early morning until +dark the whole plain is dotted with horsemen coming singly and in groups. +Great crowds gather at the contests given half a mile from the hogán, +where horse-races, foot-races, groups of gamblers, and throngs of Indians +riding wildly from race-track to hogán fill the day with hilarity and +incidents memorable to all. Toward the end of the day preparation is made +for the closing part of the nine-day rite. Great quantities of fuel have +been brought from the distant plateau, and placed in many small piles at +each side of the smooth dance ground to the east of the hogán. As soon as +it is dark the fuel is ignited, making two long lines of camp-fires, +furnishing both light to see the dancers and warmth to the spectators, for +the Yébichai cannot be held until the autumn frosts begin, when the nights +have the sharp, keen air of the high altitudes. + + [Illustration: _Zahadolzhá_ - Navaho] + + _Zahadolzhá_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1907 by E.S. Curtis_ + + This is the last of the dry-paintings used in the Night Chant, being + destroyed on the night of the eighth day's ceremonies. It takes its name + from the fact that the principal characters represented in it, the dark + figures, are all Zahadolzhá, Fringe-mouth Gods. According to the myth +underlying the rite these gods made the first paintings of this sort used + among the spirit people, and were the ones who furnished succor to the + patients on the eighth day of the nine days' healing ceremony. The light + figures are female deities--haschebaád. In the centre is the cornstalk, a +life-giving symbol, and partially encircling the whole is the personified + light-giving rainbow, a female personage. + + During the ceremony a man masked as a Zahadolzhá places his hands first + upon a part of his likeness pictured in colored earths and then on the + corresponding part of the patient, as head, body, and limbs. Later the + colored earths or sands are carried away in a blanket and placed under + brush or trees toward the north. + + +With the gathering darkness the human tide flows toward the medicine +hogán, illuminated in the dusk by the long lines of camp-fires. All gather +about and close around the dance square, having to be kept back by those +in charge. Men, women, and children sit on the ground near the fires. Many +on horseback have ridden up, and form a veritable phalanx back of the +sitting spectators. The dance does not begin at once, and those assembled +spend the time telling stories, jesting, and gossiping. Belated arrivals +make coffee, or do hurried cooking around the fires. + +Some distance to the east of the dance ground is a brush enclosure where +the dancers prepare for their part in the rite. There, too, is a fire for +light and warmth. The men in preparation remove all clothing, save short +kilts, and paint their bodies with a mixture of water and white clay. +Anyone who may have experienced the enjoyment of a sponge bath out in the +open on a cold, windy night can appreciate the pleasure of the dance +preparation. The dancers are impersonators of Navaho myth characters, +twelve usually taking part. No qualifications are necessary other than +that the participant be conversant with the intricate ritual of the dance. +The dance continues throughout the entire night, one group of men being +followed by another. The first twelve men dance through four songs, +retiring to the dressing enclosure for a very brief rest after each. Then +they withdraw, and twelve others dance for a like period, and so on. The +first group sometimes returns again later, and the different groups vie +with one another in their efforts to give the most beautiful dance in +harmony of movement and song, but there is no change in the step. The +several sets have doubtless trained for weeks, and the most graceful take +great pride in being pronounced the best dancers. The first group of +grotesquely masked men is ready by nine or ten o'clock; they file into the +dance enclosure led by Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, their naked, clay-painted bodies +glinting in the firelight. While wearing masks the performers never speak +in words; they only sing or chant. To address one in conversation would +incur the displeasure of the gods and invite disaster. Time is kept by the +basket drum and the rhythm of the singing. + +The white visitor will get his best impression of the dance from a short +distance, and, if possible, a slight elevation. There he is in touch with +the stillness of the night under the starry sky, and sees before him, in +this little spot lighted out of the limitless desert, this strange +ceremonial of supplication and thanksgiving, showing slight, if any, +change from the same performance, held on perhaps the same spot by the +ancestors of these people ages ago. As the night wears on the best group +of dancers come out. They are, perhaps, from the Redrock country, or from +some other far-away district, and have been practising for weeks, that +they might excel in this dance. The most revered song of the Yébichai is +the Bluebird song, which is sung at the approach of day, and is the +closing act of the drama. With the last words, "_Dóla anyí, dóla anyí_," +the assembled multitude start for their homes, near and far, melting into +the gray of the desert morn, and by the time the sun breaks above the +horizon the spot which was alive with people a few hours before is wrapped +in death-like stillness, not a soul being within range of the eye. + + [Illustration: _Yébichai Hogán_ - Navaho] + + _Yébichai Hogán_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + +MATURITY CEREMONY + + +The ceremony celebrating maturity of girls among the Navaho is held +generally on the fourth night after the first evidence of the maiden's +entrance into womanhood. On the first morning following the moment of this +change in life the girl bathes and dresses in her finest clothes. Later +she stretches herself face downward on a blanket just outside the hogán, +with her head toward the door. A sister, aunt, or other female relation, +if any happen to be close at hand, or if not, a male relative other than +her father, then proceeds symbolically to remould her. Her arms and legs +are straightened, her joints smoothed, and muscles pressed to make her +truly shapely. After that the most industrious and energetic of the comely +women in the immediate neighborhood is called in to dress the girl's hair +in a particular form of knot and wrap it with deerskin strings, called +_tsiklólh_. Should there be any babies or little tots about the home, the +girl goes to them, and, placing a hand under each ear, successively lifts +them by the neck, to make them grow faster. Then she darts off toward the +east, running out for about a quarter of a mile and back. This she does +each morning until after the public ceremony. By so doing she is assured +of continuing strong, lithe, and active throughout womanhood. + +The four days preceding the night of the ceremony are days of abstinence; +only such foods as mush and bread made from corn-meal may be eaten, nor +may they contain any salt. To indulge in viands of a richer nature would +be to invite laziness and an ugly form at a comparatively early age. The +girl must also refrain from scratching her head or body, for marks made by +her nails during this period would surely become ill-looking scars. All +the women folk in the hogán begin grinding corn on the first day and +continue at irregular intervals until the night of the third, when the +meal is mixed into batter for a large corn-cake, which the mother bakes in +a sort of bean-hole outside the hogán. + +The ceremony proper consists of little more than songs. A medicine-man is +called upon to take charge, being compensated for his services with +blankets, robes, grain, or other articles of value. Friends and neighbors +having been notified, they assemble at the girl's hogán fairly early in +the evening. When dusk has settled, the medicine-man begins his songs, +singing first the twelve "hogán songs" of the Bahózhonchi. After he has +finished, anyone present who so desires may sing songs taken from the +ritual of the same order. This motley singing and hilarity continue until +well toward sunrise, when the mother brings in a bowl of yucca suds and +washes the girl's hair. Her head and hair are dried with corn-meal, after +which the girl takes her last run toward the east, this time followed by +many young children, symbolically attesting that she will be a kind +mother, whom her children will always follow. The _hatáli_, or medicine +singer, during her absence sings eight songs, generally termed the Racing +songs. On her return the great corn-cake is brought in, cut, and divided +among the assemblage, when all disperse, and the girl may once more loosen +her hair and partake of any food she pleases. + + + + +MARRIAGE + + + [Illustration: _Yébichai_ Dancers - Navaho] + + _Yébichai_ Dancers - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +The Navaho marriage ceremony is always held at the home of the girl. When +a young man wishes to marry the maid of his choice, he makes his desire +known to his parents, when the father goes to the girl's parents and +explains that his son would like to marry their daughter. The girl is then +consulted, and if she be willing to marry the young man, the parents of +the two open negotiations. A popular, pretty girl commands a considerably +higher price than a plain one, though few are married for a smaller bonus +than fourteen ponies and a silver belt. Horses, saddles, cattle, sheep and +goats, and turquoise-studded silver ornaments are the usual media of +exchange in matrimonial bargains. The arrangement of compensatory details, +particularly the date of delivery of the articles for payment, often +requires a considerable period of time and no little controversy. When +finally completed, the date is set for the wedding, which takes place +always at night. + +The girl's mother fills a wedding basket with corn-meal mush, which +figures prominently in the ceremony. About nine o'clock in the evening the +wedding party assembles. Anyone may attend, and usually a goodly number is +present. The young man and his bride take seats on the western side of the +hogán, facing the doorway. On their right the male spectators sit in rows; +on their left, the women. The girl's mother, however, does not enter, for +a mother-in-law, even in the making, must not look upon her newly acquired +son, nor he upon her, then or thereafter. To do so would occasion +blindness, and general ill luck to either one or both parties. + +The basket of mush and two wicker bottles of water are brought in and +placed before the couple, the bearer being careful to see that the side of +the basket on which the top coil terminates is toward the east. The girl's +father then steps forward, and from his pouch of _táditin_, or sacred +pollen, sifts several pinches on the basket of mush. Beginning at the end +of the coil on the eastern rim, he sifts straight across and back, then +follows the rim with the pollen around to the south side, sifts across and +back, and then drops a little in the centre. That done, the bride pours a +small quantity of water from the wicker bottle upon the young man's hands. +He washes and pours a little upon hers. Then from the side of the basket +toward the east he dips out a little mush with two fingers and eats. The +girl follows, dipping from the same place. This act is repeated at the +three remaining sides--the south, west, and north,--and then the basket is +passed to the assemblage, who finish eating its contents. The empty basket +becomes the property of the young man's mother, who retains it as a sort +of certificate of marriage. The washing of hands and the dipping of mush +from the same spot is a pledge that the girl will follow in her husband's +footsteps--doing as he does. + +When the ceremony is concluded, a supper is provided for all. General +conversation and levity while away the hours, the talk consisting +principally, however, of sage advice from relatives to both husband and +wife as to how they should conduct themselves in future. At dawn the party +disperses, the young man taking his bride with him. + + [Illustration: Mescal Harvest - Apache] + + Mescal Harvest - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + + +APPENDIX + + + [Illustration: White River Valley - Apache] + + White River Valley - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + +TRIBAL SUMMARY - THE APACHE + + +LANGUAGE--Athapascan. + +POPULATION--Fort Apache Agency, Arizona (White Mountain Apache), 2,072. +San Carlos Agency: San Carlos Apache, 1,066; Tonto Apache, 554; Coyoteros, +525. +Tonto Apache on Beaver Creek, 103. +Total Apache of Arizona (not including the so-called Mohave Apache and +Yuma Apache), 4,320. +Mescaleros in New Mexico, 460. Jicarillas in New Mexico, 784. +Chiricahua Apache at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, 298. Kiowa Apache in Oklahoma, +155. +Grand total of Apache tribes, 6,017. + +DRESS--The primitive dress of the men was deerskin shirt (_epuntltésis_), +leggings (_isklé{~COMBINING BREVE~}tlikai_), and moccasins (_epú{~COMBINING BREVE~}nke_). They were never +without the loin-cloth, the one absolutely necessary feature of Indian +dress. A deerskin cap (_cha_), with attractive symbolic ornamentation, was +worn; but for the greater part the headgear consisted of a band braided +from the long leaves of the yucca, which they placed rather low on the +head to keep the hair from the eyes. The dress of the Apache women +consisted of a short deerskin skirt, high boot-legged moccasins, and a +loose waist which extended to the hips and was worn outside the skirt. +Both skirt and waist were ornamented with deerskin fringe and latterly +with metal pendants. The men's hair always hangs loose; it is never +braided. At time of mourning the hair is cut horizontally just above the +shoulder line. Apache matrons, like the men, do not braid the hair, but +let it hang loosely over the shoulders. The maidens tie their hair in a +low long knot at the back of the head, to which is fastened a decorated +deerskin ornament, denoting maidenhood. So arranged it is called +_pitsivé{~COMBINING BREVE~}sti_, and the wrapping, _tsigé{~COMBINING BREVE~}_. + +DWELLINGS--The Apache dwelling consists of a dome-shaped frame of +cottonwood or other poles, thatched with grass. Average diameter at the +base, twelve feet. The house itself they term _kówa_; the grass thatch, +_pi__n_. Bear-grass, or what the Spanish term _palmillo_, is used +exclusively in thatching. Since the institution of the Messiah religion +the houses are built rather elongate in form, with a doorway in each end, +and all the houses of the village are arranged in long rows. Doorways are +termed _dáitin_, or _chogúnti_, interchangeably. Summer houses are +generally built at a distance from the winter houses, in fact wherever the +Apache would have occasion to stop, and are little more than brush +shelters to afford temporary shade. + +PRIMITIVE FOODS--No tribe is more capable of living on the natural products +of their pristine haunts than the Apache. Whether allowed to live +peacefully in the river valleys or driven in war to seek protection of +impenetrable mountains, nature provided amply for their support; for +practically all the flora and fauna indigenous to the Southwest are +considered food by the Apache. (See the list in the vocabulary.) + +ARTS AND INDUSTRIES--The art expression of the Apache is manifested chiefly +in their basketry, which shows much taste in form and decoration. The +_tus_, an urn-shaped water bottle, is loosely woven of the stems of +aromatic sumac, then coated inside and out with pińon gum. The flat tray +basket, called _tsa-naskú{~COMBINING BREVE~}di_, is much used in their domestic life. The +most pretentious basket is the immense _tus-naskú{~COMBINING BREVE~}di_, urn-shaped, like +the _tus_--whence its name--and used principally for the storage of grain. +No Apache home is without the burden basket, _tú{~COMBINING BREVE~}tza_, round and deep, +often somewhat conical in form, and invariably decorated with deerskin +fringe. + +POLITICAL ORGANIZATION--The Apache never had a very stable form of +government. Chiefs were elected, or chosen, and ruled so long as it +pleased their followers. If the son of a chief proved himself capable, he +would be accorded opportunity to rule, otherwise he received no special +recognition. Medicine-men were always more influential than the chiefs. +Social customs and habits and much of the government of the tribe are +guided by the medicine-men; but often they lose all influence by meeting +with failure in the treatment of disease. Like the chiefs, the +medicine-men depend on popular approval for their success. + +CLANS--The Coyoteros are divided into five bands, each consisting of a +number of clans. In one band there are survivors of one clan only; in +other bands as many as seven or eight clans are yet to be found. Descent +is reckoned through the mother; that is, the children belong to the +mother's clan, except among the Chiricahua, where, it is said, descent is +traced through the father. + + [Illustration: _Nalin Lage_ - Apache] + + _Nalin Lage_ - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +_Coyotero Clans_ + +BAND I + + 1. Tse Chin (Red Rocks). + 2. Glesh Chin (Red Clay). + 3. Des Káin (Cottonwood People). + 4. Nú{~COMBINING BREVE~}gwu Dilhkízn (Between Two Mountains). + 5. Des Lántin (Where the Cottonwoods Meet). + 6. Kai Hin Chin (Through the Willows). + 7. Kestéchi Nádakin (Ford between Sycamores). + +BAND II + + 1. Klúqa Di Káin (Many-reeds People). + 2. Il Chen Tián (Long Row of Pines). + 3. Chénche Chichíl Káin (Clump-of-oaks People). + 4. Tzilh Ádin (By the Mountain). + 5. Yakúi Káin (White-hill People). + +BAND III + + 1. Ia On Ye (In Black Brush). + 2. Ta Káin (Sand People). + 3. Tentolzú{~COMBINING BREVE~}ga (Juts into the Water). + 4. Dosh To An (Many Flies). + 5. Tse Des Káin (White-rock People). + 6. Tse Teú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n (Rocks in the River). + 7. Tu Dilhkí{~COMBINING BREVE~}h Shan (By the Black Water). + 8. Ke Shin Tián (Long Row of Sycamores). + +BAND IV + + 1. Nde Ndé{~COMBINING BREVE~}zn (Tall People). + +BAND V + + 1. Nádotz Ózn (By Sharp Mountains). + 2. Pis A Hón (Bank Caved In). + +_Arivaipa Clans_ + + 1. Glesh Chin (Red Clay). + 2. Des Zepú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n (Big Gray Cottonwoods). + 3. Tsez Zhuné{~COMBINING BREVE~} (By the Little Black Rocks). + 4. Tse Des Káin (White-rock People). + +_Chiricahua Clans_ + + 1. Aiahán (People of the East). + 2. Nde Ndái (Apache Half Mexican). + 3. Cho Kuné{~COMBINING BREVE~} (Ridge on the Mountain-side). + 4. Chan Han (Red People). + +MARRIAGE--Strictly speaking, barter for women at an agreed price was never +the custom among the Apache,--so the older of the present generation +contend,--personal choice on the part of the girl having always to be +considered. Nevertheless, payment for the bride is always made to her +parents in the form of grain, money, horses, saddles, blankets, or cattle. +The bride's consent is necessary, custom requiring the young man to prove +his moral strength, and ability to support a wife and himself, by erecting +a neat house and permitting the girl of his choice to occupy it with him +for four nights without being molested or having her presence observed. By +preparing his breakfast the morning following the fourth night the girl +acknowledges her willingness to marry, and the agreement as to the +definite payment her parents shall receive may be made any time later. She +then becomes the man's wife, though a month may sometimes elapse before +the agreement is sealed and the consequent payment made. + +GENESIS--In the unbroken darkness of the beginning of time appeared a small +spot, which grew as embryonic life and became a human figure, known in the +myth as Kúterastan, The One Who Lives Above. This creator then made light, +and next Stenátlihan, Woman Without Parents. Next he created Chuganaái, +The Sun, and following him Hádintin Skhin, Pollen Boy. The creator next +made the earth, and then the other gods of the Apache pantheon. Following +their creation he instructed the various gods in their respective duties, +and then disappeared into the sky through the smoke from a miraculous +fire. + +PERSON OF MIRACULOUS BIRTH--Stenátlihan, a goddess, is the mother of two +boys, who perform miracles and act as saviours of the people. The elder +brother, Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani, conceived by the Sun, is the more active and is +revered as the God of War. To Tubadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, conceived by Water, is +ascribed the making of the ocean as it now is, and he is supposed to have +much to do with water in the form of rain and snow. + +CEREMONIES--The ceremonies are invariably called "dances." Among these are: +a rain dance, a puberty rite, a harvest or good-crop dance, and a spirit +dance. The medicine dance is the creation of a medicine-man and varies +with his individual views. The ceremonial paraphernalia of the other four +dances may vary in accordance with the dictates of the medicine-man, but +for the greater part follows prescribed formula. The Apache are devoutly +religious and pray on many occasions and in various ways: sometimes with +the aid of little images representing gods, sometimes with painted +deerskins and caps, and sometimes by merely facing the cardinal points and +scattering pollen to the four winds for the gods from whom they seek +favor. Usually the plants employed by them as medicine are dug in a +ceremonial way, one notable exception being the gathering of pollen, no +prayers being offered at that time. In secluded spots in the hills and +mountains are found round cairns, with cedar and other twigs deposited +upon them. These are shrines at which the Apache make offerings to their +favorite gods. The medicine ceremonies are very numerous and vary with the +dreams and personal views of the medicine-man who conducts them. + +BURIAL--Everywhere throughout the hills and mountains of the reservation +one finds small heaps of stones. In most instances these mark Apache +graves. A favorite place of burial is a cleft in the rocks, in which the +body is placed by the deceased's relatives and covered with stones. These +small stones are always deposited one at a time, the Apache believing that +to put them on the body all at once would shorten the life of the one so +doing. Infants are usually placed on the upper branches of large cedar or +pińon trees. The child is wrapped in its carrier, or cradle-board, which +is left face up and covered with any sort of cloth, the belief being that +the souls of infants are not strong enough to come out through the stones, +should they be placed in the ground and covered therewith. + +AFTER-WORLD--Re-created in the human form, Apache spirits are supposed to +dwell in a land of peace and plenty, where there is neither disease nor +death. The Milky Way is the path of all souls to the after-world. Yólkai +Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n is the guardian goddess of this spirit land, and the spirits of the +dead are supposed to journey four days before reaching it. Formerly horses +were killed beside the grave of the dead, that they might use them in the +after-world. For the same reason wearing apparel was also placed at the +grave, together with available articles of adornment and accoutrement. + +NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES-- + +Apache - Nde (The People) + +Arivaipa Apache - Chulinné{~COMBINING BREVE~} + +Chiricahua Apache - Aiahán (People of the East) + +Coyotero Apache - Klinápaha (Many Travel Together) + +Havasupai - Dezhí{~COMBINING BREVE~}piklakulh (Women Dress in Bark) + +Hopi - Tsekulkinné{~COMBINING BREVE~} (Houses on the Rocks) + +Navaho - Yutahán (Live Far Up) + +Northern Indians - Nda Yutahán (White-man Navaho) + +Pima - Saikinné{~COMBINING BREVE~} (Sand Houses) + +Rio Grande Pueblos - Tu Tlú{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni (Much Water) + +San Carlos Apache - Tseénlin (Between Rocks) + +Tonto Apache - Dilzhá{~COMBINING BREVE~}n (Spatter-talkers), or Koún (Rough) + +Zuńi - Nashtizhé{~COMBINING BREVE~} (Blackened Eyebrows) + + [Illustration: Infant Burial - Apache] + + Infant Burial - Apache + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + + +THE JICARILLAS + + +LANGUAGE--Athapascan. + +POPULATION--784. + +DRESS--The Jicarillas in dress show the effect of their contact with the +Plains tribes, especially the Ute. The primitive dress of the men was a +deerskin shirt with sleeves, hip-leggings and moccasins, and the universal +loin-cloth. In winter a large loose deerskin coat was worn in addition. +The women wore a waist open at the sides under the arms, a deerskin skirt +falling below the knees, and legging-moccasins with very high tops. About +the waist the women now also wear a very broad leather belt, ten to +sixteen inches in width, extending well up under the arms. The men wear +their hair in braids hanging over the shoulders and wound with strips of +deerskin. Formerly they wore bangs in front on a line with the cheek-bones +and tied their hair in a knot at the back of the head, as the Navaho and +the Pueblo Indians do. The women part their hair down the middle, bring it +to the sides of the head, and tie it with strips of deerskin, cloth, or +yarn. + +DWELLINGS--The Jicarilla dwelling is the same as the tipi of the Plains +Indians, once made of five buffalo skins on the usual framework of poles, +with smoke-hole at the apex. Since the disappearance of the buffalo, +canvas has replaced the skins, and many log houses are also to be found on +the reservation. The native house is called _kozhán_. + +PRIMITIVE FOODS--The Jicarillas obtain corn from Rio Grande Pueblos in +exchange for baskets; but formerly they subsisted mainly by the chase, +killing buffalo, deer, antelope, and mountain sheep, besides many kinds of +small game and birds. Pińon nuts and acorns, with various wild fruits and +berries, were used. Bear and fish were never eaten. + +ARTS AND INDUSTRIES--The Jicarillas make a great many baskets of fair +quality, from which industry the tribe gained its popular Spanish name. +The most typical of their baskets is tray-shaped; this not only enters +largely into their domestic life, but was formerly the principal article +of barter with their Pueblo neighbors and Navaho kindred. Some pottery is +made, practically all of which is in the form of small cooking utensils. +The large clay water jar was not used, their wandering life necessitating +a water carrier of greater stability. + +ORGANIZATION--While the government of the Jicarillas is very loose, the +head-chief, selected from the family of his predecessor, exercises +considerable influence. The two bands into which the tribe is divided had +their origin when a part of the tribe remained for a period on the plains +after an annual buffalo hunt, and henceforth were called Kohlkahín, Plains +People; while those who returned to the mountains received the name Sait +Nde, Sand People, from the pottery they made. Each of the two bands has a +sub-chief. There are no clans. + +MARRIAGE--Marriage is consummated only by consent of the girl's parents. +The young man proves his worth by bringing to her family a quantity of +game, and by building a _kozhán_, which is consecrated on the night of the +wedding, by a medicine-man, with prayers to Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani. + +ORIGIN--People, existent with the beginning of time, are guided by +Chunnaái, the Sun God, and Klenaái, the Moon God, out of an under-world +into this, where the various tribes wander about and find their several +homes. + +PERSONS OF MIRACULOUS BIRTH--Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani, son of the virgin Yólkai +Estsán and the Sun, and Kobadjischíni, son of Estsán Nátleshin and Water, +perform many wonders in ridding the earth of its monsters. The former was +the more powerful and much mythology centres about him. + +CEREMONIES--The Girls' Maturity observance, an annual feast whose main +features are borrowed from the Pueblos, and a four-days medicine rite are +the principal ceremonies of the Jicarillas. Numerous less important +medicine chants are held. + +BURIAL--The dead, accompanied with their personal possessions, are taken to +elevated places and covered with brush and stones. Their situation is +known to only the few who bear the body away. Formerly the favorite horse +of the deceased was killed and the _kozhán_ burned, and relatives +frequently cut their hair and refrained for a time from personal +adornment. + +AFTER-WORLD--When the good die their spirits are believed to go to a home +of plenty in the sky, where they hunt among great herds of buffalo. Those +who have practised "bad medicine," or sorcery, go to another part of the +sky and spend eternity in vain effort to dig through the rock into the +land of the good. + +NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES-- + +Apache +Mohave +Yuma +Pima + + Chishín (Red Paint) + +Comanche +Arapaho +Kiowa and all Plains tribes + + Nda (Enemies) + +Jicarillas - Haísndayin (People Who Came from Below) + +Mescaleros - Natahí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n (Mescal) + +Navaho - Inltané{~COMBINING BREVE~} (Corn Planters) + +Pueblos - Chiáin (Have Burros) + +Ute - Yóta + + + + +THE NAVAHO + + + [Illustration: _Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_ - Navaho] + + _Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +LANGUAGE--Athapascan. + +POPULATION--About 17,000 (officially estimated at 20,600). + +DRESS--Primitively the men dressed in deerskin shirts, hip-leggings, +moccasins, and native blankets. These were superseded by what has been the +more universal costume during the present generation: close-fitting cotton +or velvet shirt, without collar, cut rather low about the neck and left +open under the arms; breeches fashioned from any pleasing, but usually +very thin, material, and extending below the knees, being left open at the +outer sides from the bottom to a little above the knees; deerskin +moccasins with rawhide soles, which come to a little above the ankles, and +brown deerskin leggings from moccasin-top to knee, held in place at the +knee by a woven garter wound several times around the leg and the end +tucked in. The hair is held back from the eyes by a head-band tied in a +knot at the back. In early times the women wore deerskin waist, skirt, +moccasins, and blanket, but these gradually gave place to the so-called +"squaw-dress," woven on the blanket loom, and consisting of two small +blankets laced together at the sides, leaving arm-holes, and without being +closed at top or bottom. The top then was laced together, leaving an +opening for the head, like a poncho. This blanket-dress was of plain dark +colors. To-day it has practically disappeared as an article of Navaho +costume, the typical "best" dress of the women now consisting of a velvet +or other cloth skirt reaching to the ankles, a velvet shirt-like waist cut +in practically the same manner as that of the men, and also left open +under the arms. Many silver and shell ornaments are worn by both sexes. +The women part their hair down the middle and tie it in a knot at the +back. + +DWELLINGS--Whatever its form or stability, the Navaho house is called +_hogán_. In its most substantial form it is constructed by first planting +four heavy crotch posts in the ground; cross logs are placed in the +crotches, and smaller ones are leaned from the ground to these, the corner +logs being longer, forming a circular framework, which is covered with +brush and a heavy coating of earth. The entrance is invariably at the +east. The building of a hogán and its first occupancy are attended with +ceremony and prayer. For the great nine-day rites hogáns like those used +as dwellings, but larger, are built. Generally they are used for the one +occasion only, but in localities where there are very few trees the same +ceremonial hogán may be used for a generation or more. For summer use a +brush shelter, usually supported by four corner posts and sometimes +protected by a windbreak, is invariably used, supplanting a once common +single slant shelter. + +PRIMITIVE FOODS--See the list in the vocabulary. + +ARTS AND INDUSTRIES--The Navaho are known the world over for their skill in +weaving. Practically every Navaho woman is a weaver, and the blanketry +produced is one of the most important handicrafts of any tribe of North +American Indians. A few baskets, of a single form, are made, and for +ceremonial use only, most so-called Navaho ceremonial baskets being +manufactured by neighboring tribes. The Navaho are also skilful +silversmiths, having learned the art of metal-working from the Spaniards. +Their first work of this character, however, was in iron, but this was +superseded by the more easily worked silver. Some pottery is made, but it +is rather crude in form, black in color, and without decoration. + +POLITICAL ORGANIZATION--The government of the Navaho is rather loose; +indeed, inasmuch as they have no head-chief strictly such, it may be said +that they have no _tribal_ government. Their code of ethics and morals is +governed almost entirely by their religious beliefs. There is always a man +who is denominated the head-chief, but his influence is seldom much +greater than that of any one of the many subordinate chiefs who are the +recognized heads of small groups only. + +CLANS--Descent is reckoned through the mother, and a man and a woman +belonging to the same clan may not marry. There are also related clans, +forming phratries, within which marriage is also prohibited by tribal +custom. In the Navaho creation myth it is related that four pairs of men +and women were made by Yólkai Estsán at her home beyond the western ocean, +whence they migrated eastward, far inland, joining others of their kind +created but a short time previously. Each parent pair was given a sacred +jewel wand with which to bring water from the earth if no springs were +found during the journey. The first man brought water with ease, +remarking, "The water is close," owing to which circumstance he came to be +termed To Aháni, Water Is Close. In a similar way the other three pairs +received the names of To Dichíni, Bitter Water; Hashklí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shni, Mud; and +Kinya Áni, Houses in the Cliffs. It required four days to make the journey +from the ocean to what was to be their homeland. On the first day children +were born to the several pairs; they matured by nightfall and camped apart +from the parents as though they were not of kin, and received in turn a +family name derived from their camp surroundings, from peculiarity of +dress or form, or from remarks they made. These in turn bore children on +the following day, who gave birth to others on the third. Thus were +produced three new generations from each parent pair. All these then +became clanship groups bearing names now applied to various Navaho clans. +The four generations, including the original pairs, formed phratries, +which have no names. The clans in each phratry in the order of generations +are as follows: + +To Aháni - Water Is Close +Tzilh Klaáni - Mountain Corner +Táne Záni - Scattered Mounds +Hóne Gáni - Goes Around + +To Dichíni - Bitter Water +Tsins Akáni - Under the Trees +Bin Betóni - Deer Spring +To Dákoshe - Salty Water + +Hashklí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shni - Mud +To Tsú{~COMBINING BREVE~}hni - Big Water +Bitáni - Folds her Arms +Hlúha Diné{~COMBINING BREVE~} - Reed People + +Kí{~COMBINING BREVE~}nya Áni - Houses in the Cliffs +Be Aáni - Fallen Leaves +Tzilh Tad - In Front of the Mountains +Kí{~COMBINING BREVE~}nya Áni - (An inferior clan of the same name as the first of this +group) + +Cliff people already occupying the country formed three clans: +Tsenijikinné{~COMBINING BREVE~}, In the Rock Houses; To Het Klí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, Where the Waters Come +Together; and Tzilhnúhodinli, Beside the Mountain. An old woman joined the +Navaho from the salt lakes to the south, heading the Ashihín clan. People +from Jemez formed the Mai Deshkís, or Coyote Pass, clan; Apache from the +Cibicu cańon, the Deschíni clan, or Red-light People, and families from +Zuńi the Nashtezhé{~COMBINING BREVE~}, Blackened Eyebrows, clan, and Tuh'chíni, Red Heads, +clan, so called from their painted faces and bodies. There are numerous +other clanship groups derived from adopted peoples now recognized as being +distinctly Navaho; the first sixteen clans here named are accepted in the +tribe as being strictly Navaho in origin. + +MARRIAGE--The girl's consent is necessary to marriage, but tribal custom +demands that the intended husband compensate her parents, the usual price +being fourteen horses and a silver belt. Indeed, the bringing of the +horses is a part of the ceremony. When a young man desires to marry, but +does not have the necessary number of horses, his friends aid him by +presenting horses until he has the required number. The marriage ceremony +takes place at night under the direction of a medicine-man. + + [Illustration: _Ga__n__askidi_ - Navaho] + + _Ga__n__askidi_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + +ORIGIN--Mythical First People produced from corn, rain, pollen, and +precious stones in a miraculous manner by four gods and the Winds. + +PERSONS OF MIRACULOUS BIRTH--Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani and Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni are the sons +of the Sun and Water respectively, and the virgin Yólkai Estsán, +White-Shell Woman. Man-destroying monsters, symbolic of earthly evils, +infested the earth until destroyed by these two miraculous personages. + +CEREMONIES--The Navaho life is particularly rich in ceremony and ritual, +second only to some of the Pueblo groups. Note is made of nine of their +great nine-day ceremonies for the treatment of ills, mental and physical. +There are also many less important ceremonies occupying four days, two +days, and one day in their performance. In these ceremonies many +dry-paintings, or "sand altars," are made, depicting the characters and +incidents of myths. Almost every act of their life--the building of the +hogán, the planting of crops, etc.--is ceremonial in nature, each being +attended with songs and prayers. + +BURIAL--The Navaho dead are buried by others than immediate relatives in +unmarked graves. No ceremonies are held, for the dead are considered evil +and are feared. The hogán in which death occurs is forever abandoned, +often burned. Sometimes a hogán is demolished over the dead and then left +to decay. + +AFTER-WORLD--An under-world whence came the spirit people who created man +and to which spirits return. + +NAMES FOR INDIAN TRIBES-- + +Acoma - Háqoni (An Acoma word) +Apache - Tzlih A Gón (On the Mountains) +Chiricahua - Klí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shni (Red War-paint) +Cochiti - To Gad (Cedar Water) +Comanche - Aná Tlú{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni (Many Enemies) +Havasupaí - Gohní{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni (A term borrowed from the Hopi) +Hopi - Ayá Kinné{~COMBINING BREVE~} (Hole Houses) +Isleta - Aná To Ho (Tribe by the Water) +Jemez - Mai Deshkís (Coyote Pass) +Laguna - To Tlú{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni (Have much Water) +Mohave, Pima, Maricopa, Yuma, Papago - Be Esá Ntsái (With large Jars) +Navaho - Diné{~COMBINING BREVE~} +Sandia - Kin Nodózi (Striped Houses) +San Felipe - To Háchele (Pull up Water) +San Ildefonso - Tse Tu Kinné{~COMBINING BREVE~} (Houses between Rocks) +San Juan - Kin Klechíni (Red-house People) +Santa Clara - Ána Sú{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi (Tribe like Bears--from skunkskin moccasins, first +thought to be of bearskin) +Santo Domingo - Kin Klekái Ni (White Houses) +Sia - Tlógi (Hairy) +Taos - To Wolh (Water Gurgles) +Zuńi - Nashtezhé{~COMBINING BREVE~} (Blackened Eyebrows) + + + + + +SOUTHERN ATHAPASCAN COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY + + + ANATOMICAL TERMS +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +ankle-joint ko-ká{~COMBINING BREVE~} ké{~COMBINING BREVE~}t-sin a-ké{~COMBINING BREVE~}ts-in + ilh-ru-nu-ni-wú +arm ko-gún gon a-gán +blood dilh tí{~COMBINING BREVE~}l-the dilh +bone its-í{~COMBINING BREVE~}n í{~COMBINING BREVE~}ts-in ts'in +chest i-tí{~COMBINING BREVE~}l ko-yé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-te a-je-í{~COMBINING BREVE~}ts-in +chin ko-yé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-dâ is-é{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tâ á{~COMBINING BREVE~}-yats-in +ear id-já id-já a-já +elbow ko-gún id-an-hlá osh-lé + ilh-ru-nu-ni-wú +eye in-dá{~COMBINING BREVE~} it-á an-án +face ko-ní in-ní an-ín +finger ko-lu-zhúzh in-la shi-la +finger-nail ko-lu-gún in-lâ-gó{~COMBINING BREVE~}n shi-lá{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-gân +foot ko-ké{~COMBINING BREVE~} i-ká ke +hair tsi-ra it-sé{~COMBINING BREVE~} tsi-ghá{~COMBINING BREVE~} +hand ko-gún u-lá shí-la +head kots-its-í{~COMBINING BREVE~}n í{~COMBINING BREVE~}ts-its-in sí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ts-its-in +heart kod-jí ko-chá a-je-id-í{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-jalh + did-jú-la +knee ko-qút i-kó a-whód +leg kod-jak i-jad a-jad +lip su-su-bâ-né{~COMBINING BREVE~} i-ta a-da +lungs kod-jí i-tâ-lé{~COMBINING BREVE~} a-jé +mouth ko-zá i-zé{~COMBINING BREVE~} si-zé +neck ko-gús i-kó{~COMBINING BREVE~}s ak-ás +nose ko-chí i-chín a-chí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n +nostril kó-ní{~COMBINING BREVE~} in-né{~COMBINING BREVE~} a-ní{~COMBINING BREVE~}n +shoulder ko-hwás ih-hwás a-hwás +toe ko-ke-zhúzh ih-ké{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh a-ké{~COMBINING BREVE~} +toe-nail ko-ke-gún ih-ké{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-gon a-ké{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-gân +tongue ko-zá ih-zá-te a-tsó +tooth ko-wú ih-gwó a-hwó + + ANIMALS (See also FOODS) +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +antelope já-ge tá-ga-te jú{~COMBINING BREVE~}-di +badger bu-nta-lé{~COMBINING BREVE~} ná-as-chid + na-gans-chi-tn +bat cha-bâ-né{~COMBINING BREVE~} cha-na-mi-ín jâ-a-bá-ni +bear sush shash sush +beaver cha cha cha +blue-bird rush-tá dó-lo dó-li + du-tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh +buffalo bi-shish-jík a-yán-de a-yá-ni +buzzard chi-shó-gi ta-chá-ze jé-sho +chipmunk gu-sus-sí in-se-zú-so tsid-í{~COMBINING BREVE~}t-í{~COMBINING BREVE~}-ni +coyote ban tsil-i-té{~COMBINING BREVE~}n mai +crow ga-ge ka-ge ga-ge +deer bin bin bin +eagle tsá-cho i-tsá a-tsá +elk bin-nal-dé{~COMBINING BREVE~} tzes tze +gopher na-ilh-tlí-gi ma-í-ne-lin na-a-zí-si +hawk it-sa it-sé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-so-ye + g'í{~COMBINING BREVE~}-ni +mountain lion ndú-chú en-tó-ye nash-tu-í-tso +mountain sheep de-bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-chu tse-tú{~COMBINING BREVE~}-de-be + zi-de-bé{~COMBINING BREVE~} +owl bu yí-ye nás-cha +rat (wood) klósh-chu klé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tso kle-é{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tso +skunk gu-lízh-i kel-din-shé{~COMBINING BREVE~}n + wo-lí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-zhi +spider na-alht-lo-lé{~COMBINING BREVE~} mans-ché{~COMBINING BREVE~} nash-jé'i +squirrel tse-skús-si na-jil-kái-i t'lá-zi +turkey tá-zhi ká-zhi tá-zhi +wolf ban-chú bai-é{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tso mai-í{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tso + + [Illustration: _Zahadolzhá_ - Navaho] + + _Zahadolzhá_ - Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + CARDINAL POINTS +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +north nâ-ak-ku-sé{~COMBINING BREVE~} ná-ko-su nó{~COMBINING INVERTED BREVE~}-ho-kos + bi-yâ-yó bi-ya-yé{~COMBINING BREVE~} +south nu-dit-ú{~COMBINING BREVE~} sha-tí ai-yé{~COMBINING BREVE~} shu-tu-ú{~COMBINING BREVE~} + bi-yâ-yó +east hu-nâ-it-ú{~COMBINING BREVE~}kh sha-há ai-yé{~COMBINING BREVE~} há-i + bi-yâ-yó +west on-ud-ú{~COMBINING BREVE~}kh sha-í ai-yé{~COMBINING BREVE~} i-yu-ú{~COMBINING BREVE~} + bi-yâ-yó +zenith nokh-gé{~COMBINING BREVE~}h-yo ya-alh-ní-gi +nadir nokh-tlúh-yo a-yá-i + des-á-i-gi + + COLORS +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +black dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh-kih dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh-i-li dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh-kih +blue du-tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-i dá-tlish do-tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-i +brown hish-tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}zh kli-pá dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-nil-zhin +gray qul-ba tne-ná-tlish kle-pá +green tloh-du-tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}zh-a ye-dá-tlish dó-tlish +red tli-chú kli-chí kle-chí +white tli-kái kli-kái kle-kái +yellow tli-tsó kli-tsó klé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tso + + FOODS (PRIMITIVE) +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +acorns chid-jí{~COMBINING BREVE~}l na-tó-ka-tse ché{~COMBINING BREVE~}-chil bi-ná +antelope já-ge ta-gá-te jú{~COMBINING BREVE~}-di +beans (native) bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}s-tsoz ná-o-hle-tsos-tet nú{~COMBINING BREVE~}-o-hli +cedar berries dil-tú-hla kal-tú-ste-ih dit-zé{~COMBINING BREVE~} + du-tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-i +corn na-tán na-tán na-tán +deer bin bi^{n) bin +elk bin nal-dé{~COMBINING BREVE~} tzes tze +grapes (wild) duh-tsá tut-zé{~COMBINING BREVE~} tut-zé{~COMBINING BREVE~} +juniper berries dil-tú-hla chil-há-zhe +mescal (agave) ná-ta ná-ta ná-ta +mountain sheep de-bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-chu tse-tú{~COMBINING BREVE~}-de-be + zi-de-bé{~COMBINING BREVE~} +pińon nuts o-bé{~COMBINING BREVE~} nes-chí nes-chí +potatoes (wild) ilh-tsú pi-ji-né{~COMBINING BREVE~} ná-ma-si + si-tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n-ni +prairie-dogs an klun klun +pumpkins belh-kún na-yí-ze na-yi-zi-chí +rabbits (jack) gah-chú gah-tsó gah-tsó +rabbits gah-chi-lé{~COMBINING BREVE~} gah-chi-shé{~COMBINING BREVE~} gah +(cottontail) +rats (wood) klosh-chú klé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tso kle-é{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tso +squash gó-chi belh-kún na-yí-ze na-yí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-zi +yucca fruit gu-skú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n kash-kán kush-kán + + HANDICRAFT +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +arrow-point besh-go-lí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n bé{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-te bes-est-á-gi +arrow-shaft tsi-ga ki-ish-tlu-zé{~COMBINING BREVE~} ts'ak-á{~COMBINING BREVE~} +basket (tray) tsâ-nas-kú{~COMBINING BREVE~}-di ts'â + i-tsa +basket (burden) tú{~COMBINING BREVE~}t-za i-tsâ-nas-ká tsi-zí{~COMBINING BREVE~}s +bow ilh-tí{~COMBINING BREVE~} it-kin-chái alht-hín +cap cha cha cha +deerskin e-pú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n e-pú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n e-pú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n +fire-sticks kóh-til-di t'te wolk-án +head-band tsi-nóz-de tsi-náz-de cha +house kó-wa ko-zhán ho-gán +leggings is-klé{~COMBINING BREVE~} tli-kái is-klé{~COMBINING BREVE~} e-pú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n is-klé{~COMBINING BREVE~} +loin-cloth chósh-ta tsa-á-te t'lests-ós +moccasins e-pú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n ke ké{~COMBINING BREVE~}'it-ze ke +pottery nulh-kí-de bi i-tsá{~COMBINING BREVE~} + i-dé{~COMBINING BREVE~} kush-tí{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh +shirt e-pun-tlé-sis é{~COMBINING BREVE~}'it-ze e-pun'é{~COMBINING BREVE~} +sweat-lodge ka-ché{~COMBINING BREVE~} ké{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh-cha ta-ché{~COMBINING BREVE~} +water bottle kún-che-e tó-zus +tus + + MONTHS (MOONS)(8) +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +January It-sá Bi-zhá{~COMBINING BREVE~}zh Ku-wan-dé{~COMBINING BREVE~} Yas Nlht'es +February Buh Is-chí{~COMBINING BREVE~}t Is-sai-zá A-tsá{~COMBINING BREVE~} Bi-yásh +March T'a Nu-chí{~COMBINING BREVE~}l It-á-na Chi-tái Wozhch'td +April T'a Nu-chú It-á-na Tso At-an Chil +May Shosh-ké{~COMBINING BREVE~} Ku-skí It-chí At-an Tso +June Bin-ni-tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~} Ta-ge It-chí Nesh-já Chíl-i + Dilh-tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}k +July Bin-ni-tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~} Bi It-chí Nesh-já Tso + Chi-é{~COMBINING BREVE~} +August Bi-ni-tún + Tsos-sé{~COMBINING BREVE~} + Ke-tle-pé{~COMBINING BREVE~} + Lak-tái-ke + Bint-an + Ts'án-si +September Bi-ni-t[ú.]n It-ha-sti-kí{~COMBINING BREVE~}h Bint-an Tso + Chu +October Ran-zhi Iz-té{~COMBINING BREVE~}-o-e Ghan-ji +November +Ka-rúh-nul-gus +Bin-zá-ki-a +Nlhch-i +Ts'an-si +December Sos-nalh-tús Bin-nai-a-shé{~COMBINING BREVE~} Nlhch-i Tsa + + [Illustration: _Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_, _Haschebaád_, _Zahadolzhá_--Navaho] + + _Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_, _Haschebaád_, _Zahadolzhá_--Navaho + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + NATURAL PHENOMENA +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +ashes ilh-chí kus-chí-ish hlesh-ch'ái +charcoal tli-té{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh kus-chí t'esh +cloud ya-kó{~COMBINING BREVE~}s kos kos +darkness chalh-ké{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh klin cha-halh-kélh +day dji djin jin +earth ni-go-stú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n ní-to-gus-an ní-ho-es-tsan +fire koh ku kun +ice ti i-lá tqin +lake tu-si-ka ko-zilh-ká to +light go-tí go-tíh a-dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n-din +lightning há-dilh-kih í-dilh-chil a-tsín-il-klish +Milky-way I-kú{~COMBINING BREVE~}tl bâ-há Tsós-pai Kle-kái stá-i +mist ât ku-be-zhá-zi i-dzí +moon kle-ga-na-ái kle-na-ái kle-ho-na-ái +mountain tzilh tzilh tzilh +night kle kli klé-je +Pleiades Nus-ka-o-u-hú Sons-chi-sté{~COMBINING BREVE~} Dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}l-ge-het +rain ná-il-ti na-golh-kín nit-sú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n +rainbow hi-tsâ-tlúl it-sun-to-lé{~COMBINING BREVE~} + nads-í-lid +river tu-ndlí ko-dlé{~COMBINING BREVE~} to +rock tse tsi tse +shooting-star titl-són-sé{~COMBINING BREVE~} sush-na-tsé{~COMBINING BREVE~} son-á{~COMBINING BREVE~}-dal-dsid +(meteor) nul-tú{~COMBINING BREVE~} +sky yá-dilh-kih ya yá-dilh-kih +smoke tlik kli hlid +snow sos zos yas +star titl-só{~COMBINING BREVE~}n-se sons son +sun chu-ga-na-ái chun-na-ái che-ho-na-ái +thunder i-dá-ndi i-dilh-ní í-ni +water tu ko to +wind ní{~COMBINING BREVE~}l-chi nl-chi ní{~COMBINING BREVE~}l-chi + + NUMERALS +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +one hlá-i hlá-i hlá-i +two ná-ki ná-ki ná-ki +three tá-gi ká-i ta +four dín-i dín-i din +five ash-tlá-i á{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-tle á{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-dla +six gus-tán kus-kú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n has-tán +seven gus-tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-gi kus-tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}t-i tsósts-ed +eight tsá-bi tsá-bi tsé-bi +nine ngus-tá-i nkus-tá-i nâas-dái +ten gú-nez-na kú-nez-ni né{~COMBINING BREVE~}z-na +eleven hla-zá-ta hla-i-zá hla-zá{~COMBINING BREVE~}-ta +twelve na-ki-zá-ta na-ki-zá na-ki-zá-ta +thirteen ta-zá-ta ka-zá ta-zá-ta +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +fourteen din-zá-ta din-zá din-za-ta +fifteen ash-tla-á-ta ash-tle-zá ash-dla-a-ta +sixteen gus-ta-á-ta kus-kun-zá has-tan-a-ta +seventeen gus-tsi-zá-ta kus-tsit-zá tsosts-ed-za-ta +eighteen tsa-bi-zá-ta tsa-bi-zá tse-bi-dza-ta +nineteen ngus-ta-dzá-ta nkus-ta-zá nâas-dai-dza-ta +twenty na-dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n na-tín na-dín +twenty-one na-dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n-hla na-tín-hla na-dín-hla +thirty ta-dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n ka-tín tá-din +forty dis-dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n dis-tín dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}s-din +fifty ash-tlá-din ash-tlé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tin á{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-dla-din +one hundred né{~COMBINING BREVE~}z-na-din +gú-nez-na-din +kú-nez-ni-tin + + PERSONAL TERMS +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +aunt ko-bá{~COMBINING BREVE~}-zhe ku-bá-zhe shi-bí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-zhi +baby me ô-ja-zí{~COMBINING BREVE~} a-wé{~COMBINING BREVE~} +boy skhin ish-ki-ín skhi +brother ku-i-zhá sí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-tsi-li +(younger) +ko-kí{~COMBINING BREVE~}zn +ko-ka-gé{~COMBINING BREVE~} +na-râ-hí{~COMBINING BREVE~} +brother (elder) ku-na-á shí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-nai +ko-kí{~COMBINING BREVE~}zn un +na-râ-hí{~COMBINING BREVE~} +child châ-rá-she ilh-chí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n shi-yá{~COMBINING BREVE~}zh +clan nde-áz-di-i i-chu-ge-dé{~COMBINING BREVE~} + di-né{~COMBINING BREVE~}-e +enemy e-ná ko-ndá a-ná +father ko-tá{~COMBINING BREVE~} ku-ka-i shi-zhé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-e +girl na-lí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n ish-té{~COMBINING BREVE~}tn at-é{~COMBINING BREVE~}d +man nde tin-dé{~COMBINING BREVE~} di-né{~COMBINING BREVE~} +medicine-man di-gí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n tin-dá-ko-ka-tlé{~COMBINING BREVE~} ha-tá-li +mother ko-ma ku-sí sha-mú{~COMBINING BREVE~} +people ko-kí she-tin-dé{~COMBINING BREVE~} di-né{~COMBINING BREVE~} +(tribesmen) +people tlúh-go ndé{~COMBINING BREVE~}-hi ta-á-tso a-ná +(strangers) +person tsilh-kí{~COMBINING BREVE~}dn ti-ní di-né{~COMBINING BREVE~} +sister ko-di-zhé{~COMBINING BREVE~} she-lá shi-dé-zhi +(younger) +sister (elder) ko-lú she-nda-té{~COMBINING BREVE~} shú{~COMBINING BREVE~}d-di +uncle ko-dâ-ú{~COMBINING BREVE~} she-ka-na-tlé{~COMBINING BREVE~}n shi-bí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-zhi +woman ist-só{~COMBINING BREVE~}n es-tsán es-tsán + + TREES +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +cedar gá-il-li kálh-te gad +cottonwood t'is tu-ás t'is +juniper dil-tút-hle-chi gad náz-si +oak chi-chí{~COMBINING BREVE~}l shun-chi-lé{~COMBINING BREVE~} ché{~COMBINING BREVE~}-chil +pine ndil-chí nus-chí ndish-chí +pińon o-be-tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n i-zen-chí chá{~COMBINING BREVE~}-olh +spruce dju-útlh kon-ske-lé{~COMBINING BREVE~} dishl-bái +willow gai kí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-i k'á-i + + [Illustration: Navaho Women] + + Navaho Women + + _From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_ + + + MISCELLANEOUS +_English_ _Apache_ _Jicarilla_ _Navaho_ +arm ko-gún gon a-gán +food chi-zú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n ai-tá-i chi-án +forest gud-nlh-chíl ku-don-chíl tsin +god ya-á-diz-tan bi-tsa-she-ndá-i + ye +jewels tse-ru-dé{~COMBINING BREVE~}n-lig-ge n'kliz +large n'chai n'tsai n'tsa +pollen há-din-tin tlâsh tá-di-tin +small al-chí{~COMBINING BREVE~}-se uns-tsé{~COMBINING BREVE~}s-te yá-zhe +spirits chidn kuts-áin tsi*n-di +spirit-land +chidn-túh-yo +bits-áin +be-ke-yá +tobacco tzilh-ná-to ná-to-te n'át'o +turquoise du-tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-i da-tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}sh-e dó-tlish + + + + + +INDEX + + +_Abalone_, cross of, on medicine cap, 40 +in Navaho myth, 91, 92, 97, 103, 104, 115 + +_Acoma_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_Acorns_ eaten by Apache, 19 + +_Acosta_, an Apache, conference with, 7 + +_Ádilhkih_ (Black Fog) of Navaho myth, 91, 96, 97 + +_After-world_ in Apache belief, 134 +in Jicarilla belief, 135 +in Navaho belief, 137 + +_Agave._ _See_ MESCAL + +_Ágocho._ _See_ PIGEON + +_Agriculture_ of the Navaho, 73 + +_Aháni clan_ of the Navaho, 137 + +_Aiahá__n__ clan_ of the Apache, 22 + +_Aklólh._ _See_ RAINBOW + +_Alabama_, Apache sent to, 10 + +_All-color Corn Girl_ of Navaho myth, 96 + +_Alphabet_ used for Indian terms, vi + +_Anatomical terms_, Athapascan, 139 + +_Animal chiefs_ in Navaho under-world, 80 + +_Animals_, Athapascan terms for, 139 +deified by Apache, 29 +in Apache myth, 27, 35 +represented in Jicarilla dry-painting, 57 +spirits of, prayers to, 39 + +_Ánltsistn_, a Jicarilla god, 60, 61 +_See_ WHIRLWIND + +_Antelope monster_ in Navaho myth, 99, 106 + +_Antelope skin_ used in maternity belt, 39 + +_Apache_, account of the, 1-49 +and Navaho compared, 81 +application of term, 53 +character of the, xix +Jicarilla name for, 135 +Navaho name for, 138 +people among Navaho, 137 +tribal summary of, 131-134 +vocabulary of, 139-144 + +_Apache-Mohave_ assigned to reservation, 8 +character of, 5-6 +subdued by Crook, 8 +_See_ MOHAVE + +_Apaches del Perrillo_ mentioned, 53 + +_Apaches de Nabajú_ mentioned, 53 + +_Apaches Faraones_ mentioned, 53 + +_Apaches Gileńos_ mentioned, 53 + +_Apaches Lipanes_ mentioned, 53 + +_Apaches Llaneros_ mentioned, 53 + +_Apaches Tejua_ mentioned, 53 + +_Apaches Vaqueros_ mentioned, 53 + +_Apátieh_, application of term, 5 + +_Arapaho_, Jicarilla name for, 135 + +_Arivaipa_, Apache name for, 134 +clans of the, 133 + +_Armor_ in Navaho myth, 104, 105 + +_Arrow-point_ as knife in ceremony, 118 + +_Arrows_ in Jicarilla myth, 63, 65, 68 +in Navaho myth, 89, 99, 105, 107-108, 114 + +_Art_, graphic, of the Apache, 20 +_See_ PAINTING + +_Arts_ of the Apache, 132 +of the Jicarillas, 135 +of the Navaho, 74, 136 +_See_ BASKETRY; HANDICRAFTS; INDUSTRIES; POTTERY; SILVER-WORK + +_Ástse Estsán_, First Woman of the Navaho, 84, 90-95 + +_Ástse Hástin_, First Man of the Navaho, 84, 90-96 + +_Atsósi Hatál._ _See_ FEATHER CHANT + +_Áya Kinné{~COMBINING BREVE~}_, a traditional people, 106-107 + +_Badger_ in Jicarilla mythology, 61 +in Navaho mythology, 90 + +_Badger People_ of the Navaho, 84, 95 + +_Bahózhonchi_, a Navaho priesthood, 83 +songs of the, 125 + +_Balíl_, sacred wand of the Navaho, 93, 114, 116, 118 + +_Basket_ in Jicarilla mythology, 68 +medicine, in Navaho Night Chant, 118 +wedding, of the Navaho, 126, 127 + +_Basket drum_ of the Jicarillas, 57 +in Navaho Night Chant, 119, 121 + +_Basketry_ of the Apache, 20-21, 42, 132 +of the Jicarillas, 54, 135 +of the Navaho, 77, 136 +sacred symbol prescribed for, 20, 21, 42, 44 +_See_ WATER BOTTLE + +_Baskets_, burden, used by Apache, 17, 19, 132 +Jicarilla, traded for corn, 134, 135 + +_Bat_ in Jicarilla mythology, 67-68 + +_Bathing_ by the Apache, 16 +following puberty rite, 47 +_See_ HAIR-WASHING; WASHING + +_Bead Chant_ of the Navaho, 78 + +_Beads_, cross and crescent worked in, 42 +of precious stones in Navaho myth, 104 +shell, in Navaho mythology, 106-107 +shell, mixed with pollen, 38 +silver, of the Navaho, 76, 77 +symbolic of prayer, 34 +used in puberty rite, 46, 47 +white, on medicine caps, 40 + +_Beans_ depicted in dry-painting, 121 + +_Bear People_ of Navaho mythology, 111 + +_Bears_ in Apache mythology, 35 +in Jicarilla mythology, 56, 58, 64 +in Navaho dry-painting, 79 +in Navaho mythology, 97, 102, 106 +tabooed as food by Apache, 20 +tabooed as food by Jicarillas, 135 + +_Bear Springs_ valley, 11 + +_Bear, Tracking_, a Navaho monster, 99, 106 + +_Beasts of burden_ in Apache myth, 35 + +_Beaver_ in Jicarilla mythology, 61 + +_Beds_ of the Apache, 16 + +_Begging ceremony_ of the Navaho, 120, 121 + +_Belts_, maternity, used by Apache, 38-39 +silver, of the Navaho, 76, 126, 137 + +_Big Dipper_ in Apache myth, 25, 27, 29 +in Navaho myth, 92 + +_Big God_ in Navaho myth, 98, 105 + +_Bilh Ahatí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_, a Navaho mythic character, 112-116 + +_Bináyeagani_, a Navaho monster, 106 + +_Bird People_ of Navaho mythology, 95 + +_Birds_, creation of, in Apache myth, 27 + +_Birth._ _See_ CHILDBIRTH + +_Black Cloud_ of Navaho myth, 91, 96, 97 +_See_ CLOUDS + +_Black Fog._ _See_ ÁDILHKIH + +_Black God_, the Navaho Fire God, 103-104 + +_Black Man._ _See_ HASCHÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}N DÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}LHILI + +_Black river_, Arizona, 17 + +_Blankets_ in Navaho mythology, 94, 95 +medicine-men compensated with, 125 +of the Navaho, 74-75, 136 +used in marriage settlement, 133 + +_Blindness_, fear of, by initiates, 120 +from looking upon mother-in-law, 126 + +_Blowing_ to expel spirits, 48 + +_Bluebird song_ of Yébichai ceremony, 124 + +_Blue Corn Boy_ of Navaho myth, 96 + +_Bosque Redondo_, Navaho removed to, 83 +plan to remove Apache to, 7 +_See_ MESCALERO RESERVATION + +_Bounty_ offered for scalps, 6 + +_Bourke_, John G., cited, 48 + +_Bowl_ of pearl in Navaho mythology, 92 +of shell used for medicine, 117, 120 +of turquoise in Apache myth, 33 + +_Bows._ _See_ ARROWS + +_Bracelets_, silver, of the Navaho, 76 + +_Breech-cloth._ _See_ CLOTHING; LOIN-CLOTH + +_Buckskin._ _See_ DEERSKIN + +_Buffalo_ hunted by Jicarillas, 54 +in Jicarilla after-world, 135 +horns, myth concerning, 61, 62 + +_Buffalo skin_, tipis of, of the Jicarillas, 134 +used in Jicarilla ceremony, 57 + +_Bumping Rocks_ of Navaho myth, 101 +_See_ ROLLING STONE + +_Burial._ _See_ Mortuary Customs + +_Butterfly_ in Jicarilla mythology, 56, 58 + +_Buttons_, silver, of the Navaho, 77 + +_Buzzard People_ of the Navaho, 84 + +_Cabezon mountain_, mythic creation of, 90 + +_Cactus_, fastened to Apache clothing, 38 +_See_ FOOD + +_Cairns_, Apache, 133 + +_Camp life_ of the Apache, 16 + +_Cańon de Chelly_, Navaho defeated in, 83 +Navaho farms in, 73 +_See_ TSÉ{~COMBINING BREVE~}GYII + +_Caps_ of the Apache, 131, 133 +sacred, prescribed in Messiah religion, 44 +_See_ CLOTHING; HEADDRESS; MEDICINE CAP + +_Cardinal points_ and Apache prayer, 133 +color symbolism of, 60, 61, 64, 66, 84, 87, 90-92, 103, 115, 118 +considered in dance circle, 48 +in Apache ceremony, 41 +in wedding ceremony, 126, 127 +prescribed order of, in Night Chant, 118 +represented by gods, 48 +terms for, 140 +_See_ ORIENTATION + +_Carleton_, Gen. J. H., in Apache campaign, 7 +Navaho subdued by, 83 + +_Carrizo_, stream in Apache-land, 11 + +_Carson_, Col. Kit, Navaho defeated by, 83 + +_Cassari_, conference with, 7 + +_Catamenia_, mythic significance of, 30 + +_Cedar_, use of, in dance, 48, 49 +used in effacing footprints, 80-81 + +_Ceremonies_, Apache, summary of, 133 +of the Jicarillas, 135 +of the Navaho, 4, 77-79, 116-127, 136, 138 +puberty, of Apache, 46, 133 +_See_ DANCE; MARRIAGE; PUBERTY CEREMONY + +_Chalhké{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n._ _See_ NIGHT GIRL + +_Cha__n__zhní{~COMBINING BREVE~}_, Jicarilla clowns, 59 + +_Chato_, raids by Apache under, 9 + +_Chehonaái_, the Sun of Navaho myth, 92, 95, 97 +_See_ CHUGANAÁI; CHUNNAÁI; SUN + +_Chiefs_ among the Jicarillas, 55 +among the Navaho, 81, 136 +of the Apache, 132 +of the Jicarillas, 135 + +_Chihuahua_, Apache raids into, 14 +scalp bounty offered by, 6 + +_Childbirth_, gods invoked at, 34 +medicine-men participate at, 38 + +_Children_, Apache affection toward, 14 +Apache, disposal of bodies of, 134 +Apache, early training of, 17 +participate in puberty rite, 46-47, 124-125 + +_Chiricahua Apache_ at Fort Sill, 131 +clans of the, 133 +descent among the, 22, 132 +flee to New Mexico in 1876, 9 +Navaho name for, 138 +raids by, 9, 10 +tribal name of, 134 + +_Chóili_, sacred mountain of the Navaho, 91, 94, 96, 98 + +_Chuganaái_, Apache Sun God, 24-27, 29-31, 38, 43, 133 +_See_ CHEHONAÁI; CHUNNAÁI; SUN + +_Chunnaái_, Jicarilla Sun God, 60-68, 135 + +_Cibicu fight_ in 1882, 10-12 + +_Civilization_, effect of, on Indians, 22 + +_Clan system_ of Indians, 21 + +_Clans_ absent among Jicarillas, 54, 135 +of the Apache, 22-23, 132 +of the Navaho, 97-98, 136-137 + +_Cliff-dwellers_ in Navaho clans, 137 +in Navaho mythology, 95, 97, 106-107, 137 +mummies of, 74-75 + +_Clothing_ decorated with cross and crescent, 42 +deposited with the dead, 134 +of flint in Jicarilla myth, 63 +of godly personators, 48 +of the Apache, 131 +of the Jicarillas, 54, 134 +of the Navaho, 136 +of turquoise in Jicarilla myth, 63 +_See_ CAPS; COSTUME; HAIR-DRESSING + +_Clouds_, Apache god of, 35 +in Apache mythology, 24, 26-30, 33 +in Navaho mythology, 94, 103, 104 +symbolized on maternity belt, 40 +symbolized on medicine cap, 40 +_See_ BLACK CLOUD + +_Clown_, Gauneskí{~COMBINING BREVE~}de functions as, 84 +in Navaho ceremony, 120-121 +of the Jicarillas, 59 + +_Cochiti_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_Colorado river_, mythic creation of, 90 + +_Colors_, Athapascan terms for, 140 +directional, of the Apache, 25-27, 60, 84 +directional, of the Jicarillas, 60, 61, 64, 66 +directional, of the Navaho, 84, 87, 90-92, 103, 115, 118 + +_Comanche_, Jicarilla name for, 135 +Navaho name for, 138 + +_Contests_ of skill in Navaho myth, 107-108 + +_Cooking_ of mescal by Apache, 17-18 +_See_ FOOD + +_Copper Mines_, conference with Apache at, 7 + +_Copper-working_ by the Navaho, 77 + +_Corn_ deities of Navaho myth, 96 +depicted in dry-painting, 121, 123 +man born of, in Navaho myth, 84 +prayers for, 38 +túlapai made from, 19 +used in puberty rite, 46-47, 125 +_See_ SEED + +_Corn-meal_, mush of, in Navaho marriage ceremony, 126 +sacred use of, 38 +used in drying hair, 125 +_See also_ MEAL + +_Cosmology._ _See_ GENESIS + +_Costume_ of girls during puberty rite, 47 +of Yébichai dancers, 122 +_See_ CLOTHING + +_Cotton_, blankets of, in Navaho mythology, 94 + +_Coyote_ in Jicarilla mythology, 69 +in Navaho mythology, 87, 93 + +_Coyote Chant_ of the Navaho, 78 + +_Coyoteros_, Apache name for, 134 +assigned to reservation, 8 +clans of the, 132 +organization of the, 22 +population of the, 131 +subdued by Crook, 8 + +_Cradle-board_ deposited with infant's remains, 134 + +_Creation._ _See_ GENESIS + +_Crescent._ _See_ Cross and Crescent + +_Cricket Girl_ of Navaho myth, 96 + +_Crook_, Gen. George, Apache campaign by, 8-10 + +_Crops_, fructification of, by Yólkai Estsán, 96 +Goddess of, of Apache, 34 +_See_ HARVESTS + +_Cross_ in Apache myth, 30, 32 +made by Apache, 10 +on Apache medicine cap, 40 + +_Cross and crescent_ in Apache religion, 42 +on Apache basketry, 21 +origin of, among Apache, 43, 44 + +_Crow_ in Apache mythology, 28 +in Jicarilla mythology, 61 +in Navaho mythology, 112 + +_Crow People_ of the Navaho, 84 + +_Crystal._ _See_ QUARTZ CRYSTAL + +_Cuticle_, people created from, 97 + +_Dance_ by Apache to revive dead, 10-11 +during puberty rites, 46 +for rain among Apache, 33 +Harvest, of the Apache, 133 +in Navaho myth, 108 +of the Jicarillas, 58, 59 +_See_ CEREMONIES; YÉBICHAI + +_Dance of the Gods_ of Apache, 47-49 + +_Das Lan_, Apache medicine-man, 21, 37, 38, 42-46 + +_Dátilye._ _See_ HUMMING-BIRD + +_Davis_, Inspector-General, confers with Apache, 7 + +_Dawn_ in Navaho mythology, 87 + +_Dead_, Apache attempt to revive, 10 +how regarded by Navaho, 80 +_See_ BURIAL; MORTUARY CUSTOMS + +_Death_, Apache conception of, 32 +controlled by Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, 34 +origin of, in Navaho myth, 93 + +_Death Goddess_ of the Apache, 34 + +_Deer_ in Apache myth, 35 + +_Deerskin_, Apache paintings on, 20 +in Navaho myth, 91, 92, 94, 96, 97 +masks of god personators, 48 +used in maternity belt, 39 + +_Déilget_, an Antelope monster, 99, 106 + +_Depé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nsa_, a Navaho sacred mountain, 91 + +_Descent_ among the Apache, 22, 132 +among the Navaho, 136 +_See_ INHERITANCE + +_Designs_, pottery, of Navaho gods, 95 +_See_ ORNAMENT + +_Digí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n._ _See_ HOLY PEOPLE + +_Diné{~COMBINING BREVE~}_, Navaho tribal name, 97, 138 + +_Directions._ _See_ CARDINAL POINTS + +_Disease_, how expelled by Jicarillas, 60 +how regarded by Apache, 29, 35 +origin of, in Navaho mythology, 93 +God of, of Apache, 33 +_See_ Medicine; Medicine-men; Tubadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni + +_Divorce_ among the Jicarillas, 55 +_See_ MARRIAGE + +_Doh._ _See_ FLY + +_Doklí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni._ _See_ NABAKÉLTI + +_Dokóoslit_, a Navaho sacred mountain, 91 + +_Dó__n__i Tlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi Nôiltá__n__sh._ _See_ DAS LAN + +_Dreamer._ _See_ BILH AHATÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NI + +_Dreams_, ceremonies affected by, 133 +God of, in Apache cosmology, 31 +_See_ VISIONS + +_Dress._ _See_ CLOTHING + +_Drowning_, rescue from, attributed to gods, 109 + +_Drum_, basket, of the Jicarillas, 57 +basket, used in Navaho Night Chant, 119, 121 +medicine, of Apache, 11 +used in Apache dance, 48 + +_Dry-paintings_ of the Apache, 41, 47 +of the Jicarillas, 56, 57 +of the Navaho, 78, 79, 115, 119-123, 138 + +_Dutlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n_, Turquoise Girl, 31, 34 +_See also_ TURQUOISE WOMAN + +_Dutlí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shi Skhin_, Turquoise Boy, 31, 33 + +_Dwellings_ of the Apache, 131 +of the Jicarillas, 54, 134 +of the Navaho, 74-76, 80-81, 136, 138 +_See_ HOGÁN; HOUSES; TIPIS + +_Eagle_, feathers of, in Jicarilla myth, 63-64, 68 +feathers of, in Navaho myth, 100 +feathers of, in puberty rite, 46 +giant, in Jicarilla myth, 66-68 +giant, in Navaho myth, 106 + +_Eagle People_, how supplicated, 40 + +_Earth_, creation of, in Apache myth, 26 + +_Earth Daughter_ of Apache mythology, 27, 28 + +_Earth God_ of Navaho mythology, 98 + +_Earth Messengers_ of Apache mythology, 31, 32 + +_Elk_ in Jicarilla mythology, 65 + +_Enásho Dilhklí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shen_, an Apache deity, 31, 34 + +_Estsán Nátleshin_, a Jicarilla deity, 62, 135 + +_Evil-spirit Chant_ of the Navaho, 78 + +_Evil spirits_ banished in Night Chant, 119-120 + +_Face-painting_ of Jicarilla dancers, 59 + +_Fasting_ by Apache medicine-men, 32 + +_Fear_ of Apache by other tribes, 6 +unknown to Apache, 14 + +_Feather Chant_ of the Navaho, 78 + +_Feathers_, eagle, in Jicarilla myth, 63-64, 68 +eagle, in Navaho myth, 100 +eagle, in puberty rite, 46 +employed in dry-painting, 120 +Jicarilla headdress of, 54 +turkey, prayer-sticks of, 117 + +_Feather wands_ in Night Chant, 118, 119 + +_Fermentation_ by Apache, 19-20 + +_Fire_, how made by Apache, 14, 18 +in Jicarilla mythology, 63, 64 +mythic origin of, 69 +used in God Dance, 49 +used in Jicarilla ceremony, 58 +used in Night-Chant ceremony, 116 +used at Yébichai Dance, 122 + +_Fireflies_ in Jicarilla mythology, 69 + +_Fire God_ of the Navaho, 103-104 + +_Fire-sticks_ in Jicarilla mythology, 64, 65 + +_First Man._ _See_ ÁSTSE HÁSTIN + +_First Woman._ _See_ ÁSTSE ESTSÁN + +_Fish_ tabooed by Apache, 20 +tabooed by Jicarillas, 135 + +_Flint_ clothing in Jicarilla myth, 63 + +_Flood_ in Apache myth, 27-28 +in Jicarilla mythology, 61 +in Navaho mythology, 88, 90 + +_Florida_, Apache prisoners sent to, 10 + +_Flutes_ mentioned in Navaho myth, 84 + +_Fly_ (Doh) in Apache myth, 26, 27 + +_Fog._ _See_ CLOUDS; RAIN + +_Food_ of the Apache, 14-16, 19, 20, 131, 140 +of the Jicarillas, 134, 140 +of the Navaho, 76, 140 +terms for, 139-140 +used during maturity rite, 125 +_See_ TABOO + +_Foot-racing_ at time of Night Chant, 122 +in Navaho myth, 107 + +_Fort Apache_, Apache scouts at, 10 +Coyoteros placed near, 8 + +_Fort Apache agency_, number of Apache at, 131 + +_Fort Sill_, Apache sent to, 10 +Chiricahua at, 131 + +_Fort Sumner_, New Mexico, 83 +_See_ BOSQUE REDONDO + +_Fort Wingate_, Apache surrender at, 9 +Navaho arrive at, 83 + +_Four_, an Apache sacred number, 36, 41-43 + +_Fox People_ of the Navaho, 84, 95 + +_Frightening_ the patient in Night Chant ceremony, 119 + +_Fringe Mouths_, Navaho deities, 109, 113, 114, 123 + +_Frogs_, creation of, in Navaho myth, 90 + +_Fungi_ eaten by Apache, 19 + +_Fun-maker._ _See_ CLOWN + +_Furniture_ of the Navaho, 76 + +_Gagé{~COMBINING BREVE~}._ _See_ CROW + +_Gambler_ in Navaho mythology, 111 + +_Gamblers_ present at Night Chant, 122 + +_Gá__n__askiái_, a Navaho god, 114 +represented in dry-painting, 121 + +_Garcés_, Francisco, on the Apache, 4 + +_Gáun_, Apache gods, 31, 35 + +_Genesis_ of Navaho clans, 137 +of the Apache, 23-35, 133 +of the Jicarillas, 60-62, 135 +of the Navaho, 83-98, 138 + +_Geronimo_, capture of, 10 +raids by Apache under, 9, 10 + +_Ghost Dance_ identified with Dance of Gods, 48 + +_Giants_ in Navaho mythology, 98, 105-106 +_See_ MONSTERS + +_Girl Dance_ among Apache, 46 + +_Goddesses_, how personated in Navaho ceremony, 111 + +_Gods_, Indian belief in power of, 45 +of the Apache, 31, 35 +personated in Apache ceremony, 41 +_See_ DANCE; HOLY PEOPLE; MYTHOLOGY; RELIGION + +_Gopher_ in Jicarilla mythology, 65, 66 + +_Goshonné_, Apache medicine-man, 37, 38 + +_Gourd_ drinking cups of Apache, 21 + +_Government_ of the Apache, 132 +of the Jicarillas, 135 +of the Navaho, 136 +_See_ CHIEFS; POLITICAL ORGANIZATION + +_Grasshopper People_ of Navaho myth, 100, 103 + +_Graves_ of the Apache, 133 +_See_ MORTUARY CUSTOMS + +_Gray God._ _See_ HASCHÉ{~COMBINING BREVE~}LAPAI + +_Great Dipper._ _See_ BIG DIPPER + +_Green things_ created by Turquoise Girl, 34 + +_Guadalupe Hidalgo_, treaty of, 7 + +_Habitat_ of the Apache, 14 + +_Habitations._ _See_ DWELLINGS; HOGÁN; HOUSES; TIPIS + +_Hádilhkih._ _See_ LIGHTNING + +_Hádintin Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n_, Pollen Girl, in Apache myth, 27-29, 31 +functions of, 34-35 +invoked by Apache, 43 + +_Hádintin Skhin_, Pollen Boy, in Apache myth, 3, 24-31, 96, 133 +function of, 33 +invoked by Apache, 43 +_See also_ POLLEN; TÁDITIN + +_Hair-cutting_ as a sign of mourning, 55, 135 + +_Hair-dressing_ of girls during maturity rite, 124 +of the Apache, 131 +of the Jicarillas, 59, 134 +of the Navaho, 136 + +_Hair-washing_ ceremony of the Navaho, 125 + +_Haísndayin_, Jicarilla tribal name, 62, 65, 135 + +_Handicrafts_, terms for, 141 +_See_ ARTS; BASKETRY; INDUSTRIES; POTTERY; SILVER-WORK + +_Happiness Chant_ of the Navaho, 78, 106-111 + +_Harvest Dance_ of the Apache, 133 + +_Harvest God_ of the Apache, 28 +of the Navaho, 105, 113, 121 +_See_ GÁNASKIDI + +_Harvests_ prayed for by Apache, 34 +_See_ CROPS + +_Haschebaád_, a Navaho goddess, 114 +personated in Night Chant, 116-120 +represented in dry-painting, 119, 121, 123 +significance of, 111 + +_Haschebakú{~COMBINING BREVE~}__n_ personated in Night Chant, 120 +represented in dry-painting, 119, 121 + +_Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lapai_ personated in Night Chant, 116 + +_Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_ in Navaho mythology, 92-94, 96, 97, 113, 115 +personated in Night Chant, 116-120 +represented in dry-painting, 119, 121 + +_Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}zhini_, Navaho Fire God, 103-104 + +_Haschí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n Dí{~COMBINING BREVE~}lhili_, a god of creation, 69 + +_Haschógan_, Navaho House Gods, 92-93, 95-97, 103-104, 121 + +_Háshke Ní{~COMBINING BREVE~}lnte_, Apache medicine-man, 29 + +_Hashklí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shni_ clan, origin of, 97, 137 + +_Havasupai_, Apache name for, 134 +baskets of, among Navaho, 77 +Navaho name for, 138 + +_Hawk People of the Navaho_, 84, 88 + +_Head-dress_ of the Apache, 131 +_See_ CAPS; HAIR-DRESSING; MEDICINE CAP + +_Healing rites._ _See_ MEDICINE + +_Health_, God and Goddess of, of Apache, 27, 28, 33 +_See_ HÁDINTIN SKHIN + +_Hermaphrodites_ in Navaho myth, 85 + +_Hills_, creation of, in Apache myth, 27, 28 +_See_ MOUNTAINS + +_History_ of the Apache, 3-23 +of the Navaho, 81-83 + +_Hochónchi Hatal._ See Evil-spirit Chant + +_Hogán_, the Navaho house, 74, 136 +_See_ DWELLINGS; HOUSES; TSÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NDI HOGÁN + +_Holy People_ of Navaho mythology, 83-84, 91, 94-96, 111-113, 115 + +_Home life_ of the Navaho, 76 + +_Honesty_, how regarded by the Navaho, 82 + +_Hopi_, Apache name for, 134 +Apache raids in country of, 14 +Navaho name for, 138 +visited by Garcés, 4 + +_Horse-racing_ at time of Night Chant, 122 + +_Horses_, accoutrement of, ornamented by Navaho, 77 +branded with sacred symbol, 42, 44 +sacrificed at graves, 55, 81, 134, 135 +used as doctors' fees, 41 +used in marriage settlement, 126, 133, 137-138 + +_Horse-thieving_ by the Navaho, 82 + +_Hostilities_ of the Apache, 6-23 +of the Navaho, 81-83 + +_House Gods._ _See_ HASCHÓGAN + +_Houses_, medicine, of the Jicarillas, 57 +of the Apache, 13-14, 44, 45 +of the dead burned by Jicarillas, 55 +owned by Navaho women, 76 +_See_ Dwellings; Hogán; Tipis + +_Hozhóni Hatál._ _See_ HAPPINESS CHANT + +_Humming-bird_ in Apache myth, 26, 30 + +_Hunchback gods_ of the Navaho, 105, 121 + +_Hunting_ by the Jicarillas, 54, 55, 134-135 + +_Images_ used by Apache, 40-41, 133 + +_Implements_, Jicarilla, origin of, 69 +of the Apache, 17 + +_Incantation_ used in treating disease, 36 + +_Indian Office_, policy of, regarding Apache, 8 + +_Industries_ of the Apache, 132 +of the Jicarillas, 135 +of the Navaho, 136 +_See_ ARTS; HANDICRAFTS + +_Inheritance_ among Apache, 22 +among Jicarillas, 55 +_See_ DESCENT + +_Initiation_ into Yébichai order, 120, 121 + +_Intellect_, Goddess of, of Apache, 34 + +_Intoxicants_ used by Apache, 19 + +_Iron-working_ by the Navaho, 77 + +_Irrigation_ practised by Navaho, 74 + +_Isleta_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_Itsá._ _See_ EAGLE + +_Itsád Ndé{~COMBINING BREVE~}yu._ _See_ EAGLE PEOPLE + +_Jemez_, Navaho name for, 138 +people among Navaho, 137 + +_Jet_ in Navaho mythology, 91, 97, 103, 104, 115 +_See_ LIGNITE + +_Jewelry_ of the Navaho, 76-77 + +_Jewels_ in Navaho mythology, 94, 115 +_See_ ABALONE; JET; MOSS AGATE; PEARL; QUARTZ CRYSTAL; SHELL; TURQUOISE + +_Jicarillas_, account of the, 51-69 +population of the, 131 +tribal summary of the, 134 +vocabulary of the, 139-144 + +_Juan José_, an Apache chief, 6 + +_Juh_, raids by Apache under, 9 + +_Juniper berries_ used by Apache, 19 + +_Kâge._ _See_ CROW + +_Kearny_, Col. S. W., cited, 82 + +_Kedán_, Navaho ceremonial paraphernalia, 116-118 + +_Keldi__n__shé{~COMBINING BREVE~}n._ _See_ SKUNK + +_Kinní{~COMBINING BREVE~}nikai_, a Navaho locality, 114 + +_Kí{~COMBINING BREVE~}nya Áni_ clan, origin of, 97, 137 + +_Kiowa_, Jicarilla name for, 135 + +_Kiowa Apache_, population of, 131 + +_Kleganaái_, the Moon, in Apache myth, 31 + +_Klehonaái_, the Moon, in Navaho myth, 92 +_See_ KLENAÁI; MOON + +_Kléje Hatál._ _See_ NIGHT CHANT + +_Klenaái_, the Moon, in Jicarilla myth, 60, 62, 135 +_See_ KLEGANAÁI; KLEHONAÁI; MOON + +_Klí{~COMBINING BREVE~}shcho Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n_, Snake Girl, symbolized on maternity belt, 39 + +_Knives_ in Navaho ceremony, 118 +in Navaho myth, 105 + +_Kobadjischíni_, a Jicarilla god, 56, 62-68, 135 +_See_ TOBADZISCHÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NI; TUBADZISCHÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NI + +_Kolhkahí__n_, a Jicarilla division, 54, 135 + +_Kósdilhkih._ _See_ BLACK CLOUD + +_Kówa_, the Apache house, 13-14, 44-45 +_See_ DWELLINGS + +_Kúterastan_, Apache creator, 20, 24-30, 32, 34, 38, 43, 45, 133 + +_Laguna_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_Language._ _See_ VOCABULARY + +_La Plata mountain_, mythic creation of, 91 + +_Leggings_, deerskin, of the Navaho, 77 +_See_ CLOTHING + +_Lightning_ in Apache myth, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30-33 +in Jicarilla myth, 67 +in Navaho myth, 97, 102, 107, 115 +represented in dry-paintings, 47 +symbolized on maternity belt, 39, 40 + +_Lightning arrows_ in Navaho myth, 105 + +_Lightning-stroke_, how treated by Apache, 40 + +_Lignite_ in Navaho myth, 103 +_See_ JET + +_Little Colorado river_, creation of, in Navaho myth, 90 + +_Lizards_, creation of, in Navaho myth, 90 + +_Llaneros_, a band of Jicarillas, 54 + +_Locust_ in Navaho mythology, 89, 90 + +_Locust People_ of the Navaho, 84 + +_Loin-cloth_ of the Apache, 131 + +_Magpie_ in Navaho myth, 113 + +_Maguey._ _See_ MESCAL + +_Mai Hatál._ _See_ COYOTE CHANT + +_Maíneli__n__._ _See_ GOPHER + +_Man-eating Bird_, a Navaho monster, 99 + +_Mangas Coloradas_, an Apache warrior, 7 + +_Ma__n__sché{~COMBINING BREVE~}._ _See_ SPIDER + +_Manuelito_, chief of the Navaho, 81 + +_Manzanita_ used by Apache, 19 + +_Maricopa_ in Apache war, 7 +Navaho name for, 138 + +_Marriage_ among the Apache, 133 +among the Jicarillas, 54, 135 +among the Navaho, 125-127, 136-137 +and property among Apache, 22-23 +restrictions among Apache, 22 +_See_ WOMEN + +_Masks_ of Apache dancers, 47, 48 +of Navaho gods, 111, 114, 115 +used in Night Chant, 116, 119-123 + +_Maternity belt_ of Apache, 38-39 + +_Maturity._ _See_ PUBERTY + +_Meal, sacred_, carried by Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, 121 +used in dry-painting, 119, 120 +used in Jicarilla ceremony, 59 +used in Night Chant, 117 +_See also_ CORN-MEAL + +_Medicine_, dry-paintings used in, 47 + +_Medicine cap_ used by Apache, 40 + +_Medicine ceremonies_, God Dance a part of, 48 +of the Jicarillas, 56, 57, 135 +of the Navaho, 77-79 +_See_ NIGHT CHANT + +_Medicine craze._ _See_ MESSIAH CRAZE + +_Medicine Dance_ of the Apache, 133 + +_Medicine hogán_ of the Navaho, 116 + +_Medicine-making_ in Jicarilla myth, 57 + +_Medicine-men_ and ceremonies, 133 +communicate with gods, 32 +employment of, in puberty rites, 46, 125 +marriage ceremony conducted by, 138 +Navaho, functions of, 79-80 +of the Apache, 35-42, 132 +participate in Night Chant, 116-124 + +_Medicine performance_ of the Jicarillas, 57 + +_Medicine plants_, how gathered, 133 + +_Medicine practices_ of the Apache, 35-42 + +_Medicine skin_ of the Apache, 29-36 + +_Meriwether_, Gov. David, treats with Navaho, 81 + +_Mescal_ harvest of the Apache, 15-19 +intoxicant made from, 20 + +_Mescalero reservation_, Chiricahua sent to, 9 +_See_ BOSQUE REDONDO + +_Mescaleros_ confined at Bosque Redondo, 83 +depredations by, 83 +flee from reservation, 9 +Jicarilla name for, 135 +plan to place Arizona Apache with, 7 +population of the, 131 + +_Mesquite pods_ eaten by Apache, 19 + +_Messiah craze_ among Apache, 10, 38, 42-46 +Apache houses affected by, 131 +basketry designs affected by, 20-21 + +_Metal-work_ of the Navaho, 76-77 + +_Mexican_ captives enslaved by Navaho, 82 +coins used in Navaho silver-work, 77 + +_Migration_, traditional, of the Jicarillas, 62 + +_Miles_, Gen. N. A., subdues Apache, 10 + +_Milky Way_ in Apache myth, 34, 134 +in Navaho myth, 93 + +_Miracle performers_ of Apache myth, 32 +of Jicarilla myth, 62-68 +of Navaho myth, 98 + +_Miraculous personages_ of Apache myth, 133 +of Jicarilla myth, 135 +of Navaho myth, 138 +_See_ GODS + +_Moccasins_, cross and crescent on, 42 +_See_ CLOTHING + +_Modesty_ of Apache women, 16 + +_Mohave_, Jicarilla name for, 135 +Navaho name for, 138 +_See_ APACHE-MOHAVE + +_Monsters_ in Apache mythology, 32 +in Jicarilla mythology, 63-68, 135 +in Navaho mythology, 89, 90, 138 +_See_ GIANTS; WATER MONSTERS + +_Months_, names of, 141 + +_Moon_, creation of, in Apache myth, 30, 31 +creation of, in Navaho myth, 92 + +_Moon God._ _See_ KLEGANAÁI; KLEHONAÁI; KLENAÁI + +_Moons_, names of, 141 + +_Mortars_ in Navaho myth, 103 + +_Mortuary customs_ of the Apache, 133 +of the Jicarillas, 55, 135 +of the Navaho, 80, 138 + +_Moss agate_ in Navaho mythology, 92 + +_Mother-in-law_, taboo of, among Navaho, 126 + +_Mountain Chant_ of the Navaho, 78, 79 + +_Mountain lion_, in Jicarilla myth, 64 +in Navaho myth, 97 +skin of, used in maternity belt, 39 + +_Mountain Lion People_ of the Navaho, 84, 87, 90 + +_Mountain sheep_ in Navaho myth, 113-114 + +_Mountains_, mythic creation of, 28, 90-91 +sacred, in Navaho myth, 84, 88, 90-91, 93, 94, 98 + +_Mourning_ by the Jicarillas, 55-56, 135 +_See_ MORTUARY CUSTOMS + +_Muhr_, A. F., acknowledgments to, xx + +_Mummies_ in cliff-ruins, 74-75 + +_Murder_ among the Apache, 45 + +_Musical instruments_ of the Jicarillas, 56-57 +_See_ DRUMS; FLUTES; RATTLES + +_Myers_, W. E., acknowledgments to, xx + +_Mythology_, Apache, basket designs and, 21 +of the Apache, 23-35 +of the Jicarillas, 56-57, 60-69 +of the Navaho, 83-106 +_See_ CEREMONIES; GENESIS; RELIGION + +_Nabakélti_, Apache medicine-man, 10-12 + +_Nacholécho._ _See_ TARANTULA + +_Names_ adopted by Apache, 42 +native, of Indian tribes, 134, 135, 138 +of dead tabooed, 34 +of the moons or months, 141 + +_Nané_, conference with, 7 +raids by Apache under, 9 + +_Nasté{~COMBINING BREVE~}lh_ in Apache myth, 31 + +_Natói Hatál._ _See_ SHOOTING CHANT + +_Natural phenomena_, terms for, 142 + +_Navaho_, account of the, 71-127 +and Apache paintings compared, 41 +and Apache relationship, 3 +and Jicarilla ceremony compared, 53, 54, 56 +Apache name for, 134 +character of ceremonies of, 4 +character of the, xx +hair-dress of the, 134 +Jicarilla name for, 135 +origin of the, 3 +trade of Jicarillas with, 135 +tribal summary of the, 136 +vocabulary of the, 139-144 + +_Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nayezgani_, a Jicarilla god, 55-57, 62-68, 135 + +_Nayé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_, Apache and Navaho deity, 3, 31, 133, 138 +birth and adventures of, 32, 98-106 +personated in Night Chant, 118 +represented in Apache painting, 20 +symbolized on maternity belt, 39 + +_Nde_, Apache tribal name, 134 + +_Ndídilhkizn_, Lightning Maker, in Apache myth, 25, 27, 28 +symbolized on medicine cap, 40 + +_Ndísâgocha__n_, Lightning Rumbler, in Apache myth, 25, 28 + +_Nervousness_ treated by Apache, 40 + +_New Mexico_, Chiricahua flee to, 9 +plan to remove Apache to, 7 + +_New Mexico_, raids by Victorio in, 9 + +_Night Chant_ of the Navaho, 78, 79, 111-124 + +_Night Girl_ of Apache myth, 30, 31 + +_Nigostú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n_, the Earth, in Apache myth, 26 + +_Nigostú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n Biká Binálze._ _See_ EARTH MESSENGERS + +_Nigostú{~COMBINING BREVE~}n Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n._ _See_ EARTH DAUGHTER + +_Ní{~COMBINING BREVE~}lchi._ _See_ WINDS + +_Nilchídilhkizn_, the Apache Wind God, 25, 27, 31, 35 + +_Níchitso_, a Jicarilla Whirlwind god, 61 + +_Nôkusé._ _See_ BIG DIPPER + +_Number_, sacred, of Apache, 36, 41-43 + +_Numerals_, Southern Athapascan, 142 + +_Obscenity_ of Jicarilla clowns, 59 + +_Ocean_, creation of, in Apache myth, 33, 133 +creation of, in Navaho myth, 90 + +_Ojo Caliente_, Apache of, 9 +Victorio surrenders at, 9 + +_Oklahoma_, Apache sent to, 10 +population of Apache in, 131 + +_Olleros_ band of Jicarillas, 54 + +_Onions_, wild, eaten by Apache, 19 + +_Opuntia._ _See_ PRICKLY PEAR + +_Orientation_ in sweating ceremony, 118 +of baskets in ceremony, 77 +of buffalo skin in ceremony, 57 +of Jicarilla ceremonial enclosure, 57 +of Navaho hogáns, 80, 136 +of sacred skins in Navaho myth, 92 +of wedding basket, 126 + +_Origin._ _See_ GENESIS + +_Ornamentation_ of Apache caps, 131, 133 + +_Ornaments_ of the Navaho, 136 + +_Ovens_, mescal, used by Apache, 17 + +_Owl_ in Jicarilla myth, 62 +in Navaho myth, 115 + +_Owl People_ of the Navaho, 84 + +_Painting_, Apache, on deerskin, 20 +of bodies by Yébichai dancers, 122 +of skins in Navaho myth, 115 +_See_ DRY-PAINTINGS; FACE-PAINTING + +_Paiute_, baskets of, among Navaho, 77 + +_Papago_, Garcés among the, 4 +in Apache war, 7 +Navaho name for, 138 + +_Paralysis_ treated by Apache, 47 + +_Pasquin_, conference with, 7 + +_Peaches_, an Apache man, 22 + +_Pearl_ in Navaho creation myth, 92 + +_Personal terms_, Southern Athapascan, 143 + +_Pesqueira_, Don Ignacio, coöperates against Apache, 7 + +_Pestles_ in Navaho myth, 103 + +_Phillips_, W. W., acknowledgments to, xx + +_Phratries_ among the Navaho, 136 + +_Picuris_ mentioned in Jicarilla myth, 68 + +_Pigeon_ in Apache myth, 27, 28 + +_Pima_, Apache name for, 134 +Garcés among the, 4 +in Apache war, 7 +Jicarilla name for, 135 +Navaho name for, 138 + +_Pinaleńos_ established at San Carlos, 8 + +_Pine Squirrel People_ of the Navaho, 84 + +_Pine-squirrel_ pouch of Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, 121 + +_Pińon_, creation of, in Apache myth, 27 +nuts of, eaten by Apache, 19 +pollen of, used by Apache, 38 +tea made from bark of, 19 +used in ceremonial enclosure, 57 +used for mythic water bottle, 21, 27, 30 +water bottles coated with gum of, 132 + +_Pipes_ in Navaho myth, 103, 108-110, 115 + +_Plains Indians_, Jicarilla name for, 135 + +_Plains People_, a Jicarilla band, 54 + +_Plants_ used in medicine, 36 + +_Poisoned tobacco_ in Navaho myth, 103 + +_Political organization_ of the Apache, 132 +of the Jicarillas, 135 +of the Navaho, 136 +_See_ CHIEFS; GOVERNMENT + +_Pollen_, deification of, 3 +gathering of, by Apache, 133 +god personators sprinkled with, 49 +in Navaho mythology, 84, 91, 94 +use of, by Apache, 34, 38-41, 43, 133 +used in childbirth, 39, 40 +used in marriage ceremony, 126 +used in Night Chant, 119 +used in puberty rite, 46 +_See_ HÁDINTIN NALÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}N; HÁDINTIN SKHIN; TÁDITIN + +_Polygamy_ among the Apache, 13-14 +among the Jicarillas, 55 +among the Navaho, 76 + +_Population_ of the Apache, 13, 131 +of the Jicarillas, 134 +of the Navaho, 136 + +_Porcupine_ in Navaho myth, 97 + +_Potatoes_, wild, eaten by Apache, 19 + +_Pottery_ made by Navaho gods, 95 +of the Apache, 20 +of the Jicarillas, 135 +of the Navaho, 76, 77, 136 + +_Pouch_ for image used by Apache, 41 +for meal used by Hasché{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti, 121 +for medicine used by Navaho, 77, 120 +for pollen among Apache, 38 + +_Prayers_, how symbolized by Apache, 3 +in Navaho ceremonies, 138 +Navaho, character of, 77-78 +of the Apache, 34-37, 133 +on erection of hogán, 136 +to animal spirits, 39 + +_Prayer-sticks_ of turkey feathers, 117 +_See_ KEDÁN + +_Precious Stone deities_ of the Navaho, 96 +_See_ JEWELS + +_Presidios_ established to check Apache, 5 + +_Prickly pears_ eaten by Apache, 19 + +_Property_ of women among Navaho, 76 + +_Property marks_ of Apache, 18 + +_Property right_ among Apache, 22 +among Jicarillas, 55 + +_Prophecies_ of Apache medicine-man, 45 +of death among Apache, 38, 45 + +_Puberty ceremony_, God Dance a part of, 48 +in Navaho mythology, 94-95 +of the Apache, 46, 133 +of the Jicarillas, 56, 135 +of the Navaho, 124-125 + +_Pueblos_, Apache name for, 134 +Apache raids against, 14 +baskets exchanged with, 54 +ceremonies of the, 4 +hair-dress of, 134 +incorporated by Navaho, 75, 137 +Jicarilla ceremony borrowed from, 54, 135 +Jicarilla name for, 135 +Jicarillas trade with, 134, 135 + +_Purity_ symbolized by Apache, 34 + +_Quartz crystal_ in Navaho creation myth, 92 + +_Races._ _See_ FOOT-RACING + +_Racing songs_ of the Navaho, 125 + +_Rafts_ mentioned in Navaho myth, 85 + +_Rain_ furnished by Yólkai Estsán, 96 +in Jicarilla mythology, 67 +man born of, in Navaho myth, 84 + +_Rainbow_ in Jicarilla mythology, 63 +in Navaho mythology, 96, 102 +represented in dry-painting, 119, 121, 123 + +_Rain Boy_ and Girl of Navaho myth, 96 + +_Rain Dance_ of the Apache, 33, 133 + +_Rain God_ of the Apache, 35 +of the Navaho, 107, 115, 120 +_See_ TÓNENILI + +_Rattles_ mentioned in Navaho myth, 112 + +_Red river_ of Navaho mythology, 89 + +_Reeds_, use of, in Navaho myth, 88, 100 + +_Religion_ of the Apache, 29, 42, 133 +_See_ AFTER-WORLD; CEREMONIES; MESSIAH CRAZE; MYTHOLOGY + +_Religious character_ of the Navaho, 79 + +_Reptiles_, creation of, in Navaho myth, 90 + +_Rio Grande_, creation of, in Navaho myth, 90 + +_Ritual._ _See_ CEREMONIES; MYTHOLOGY; RELIGION + +_Rivers_, creation of, in Apache myth, 28 +creation of, in Navaho myth, 90 + +_Rolling Stone_, a mythical monster, 68, 99, 106 +_See_ BUMPING ROCKS + +_Ruins_, pueblo, in Navaho mythology, 96 + +_Running_, symbolic in puberty rite, 47 + +_Sacrifice_ of property at death, 55, 81, 134, 135 + +_Saddle bags_, sacred symbol prescribed for, 44 + +_Sait Nde_, a Jicarilla division, 54, 135 + +_Salt_ tabooed during puberty rite, 47, 125 + +_Salvador_, an Apache, conference with, 7 + +_San Carlos_, Apache established at, 8, 9 +Apache flee from, 9 + +_San Carlos agency_, number of Apache under, 131 + +_San Carlos Apache_, native name of, 134 + +_San Carlos reservation_, property disputes on, 23 + +_Sand altars._ _See_ DRY-PAINTINGS + +_Sandia_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_Sand People_, a Jicarilla band, 54 + +_San Felipe_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_San Ildefonso_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_San Juan_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_San Juan river_, creation of, in Navaho myth, 90 + +_San Xavier del Bac_, mission of, 4 + +_Santa Clara_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_Santo Domingo_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_Scalp bounty_ offered, 6 + +_Scalping_ mentioned in Navaho myth, 107 + +_Scouts_, Apache, at Fort Apache, 10 + +_Scratching_ prohibited during maturity rite, 47, 125 + +_Seed planting_ in Navaho mythology, 85, 86, 90, 96 + +_Seeds_ borne by Gánaskidi, 121 +how prepared by Apache, 15 +_See_ CORN + +_Sheep_ of the Navaho, 73, 74 +purchased for Navaho, 83 +used in marriage settlement, 126 + +_Shell_ beads mixed with pollen, 38 +beads of the Navaho, 77 +ornaments of the Navaho, 136 +symbolic of prayer, 34 +used as medicine bowl, 117, 120 +used in puberty rite, 46, 47 +white, in Navaho myth, 84, 91, 92, 97, 101, 103, 104, 108, 115 +_See_ YÓLKAI ESTSÁN; YÓLKAI NALÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}N + +_Shield_ of Navaho Sun God, 103 + +_Shirts._ _See_ CLOTHING + +_Shooting Chant_ of the Navaho, 78 +contest in Navaho myth, 107, 108 + +_Shrines_ of the Apache, 133 + +_Sia_, Navaho name for, 138 + +_Sierra Madre_, Apache captured in, 10 + +_Silver_ ornaments used in marriage settlement, 126 + +_Silver-work_ of the Navaho, 76-77, 136 + +_Sí{~COMBINING BREVE~}snají{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_, a Navaho sacred mountain, 90 + +_Skin_, painted, of Apache, 29-35 +_See_ ANTELOPE SKIN; BUFFALO SKIN; DEERSKIN + +_Skirts_, sacred, used in childbirth, 39 +_See_ CLOTHING + +_Skunk_ in Jicarilla mythology, 61 + +_Sky_, creation of, in Apache myth, 27, 28 +creation of, in Navaho myth, 91 + +_Sky God_ of the Apache, 27, 28, 31, 33 +of the Navaho, 98 + +_Sky Messengers_ of Apache myth, 31, 32 + +_Slaves_ made of captives by Navaho, 82 + +_Small Dipper_, creation of, in Navaho myth, 93 + +_Smoking._ _See_ PIPES; TOBACCO + +_Snake Girl._ _See_ KLÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}SHCHO NALÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}N + +_Snake, Great_, in Navaho myth, 97 +in Jicarilla myth, 56, 58, 64 +in Navaho myth, 90, 102 +represented in Jicarilla dry-painting, 57 + +_Snake People_ in Navaho myth, 111 + +_Snipe Man_ in Navaho myth, 102 + +_Social customs_ of the Jicarillas, 55 +_See_ MARRIAGE; MORTUARY CUSTOMS; PUBERTY; WOMEN + +_Songs_ addressed to God of Health, 33 +employed in maturity rite, 46, 125 +in Apache ceremony, 41-42 +in Jicarilla myth, 57 +in Navaho ceremonies, 138 +in Navaho mythology, 84, 86, 94, 111, 112, 115 +in Night Chant, 118, 119, 121, 123, 124 +of Apache medicine-men, 32, 36 +of gods in Apache myth, 26, 27, 32 +of the Jicarillas, 58 + +_Sonora_, Apache raids into, 14 +scalp bounty offered by, 6 + +_Sorcery_, penalty for, among Jicarillas, 135 +_See_ WITCHCRAFT + +_Souls_, belief in, by Jicarillas, 56 + +_Spanish_ missionaries and the Apache, 4, 6 +origin of Navaho metal-work, 136 + +_Sparrow-hawk People_ in Navaho myth, 88 + +_Spider_ in Jicarilla myth, 62 + +_Spider Woman_ in Navaho myth, 100 + +_Spirit Dance_ of the Apache, 48, 133 + +_Spirits_, Navaho dread of, 80 +of the dead of the Apache, 134 + +_Spruce_ used in Jicarilla ceremony, 57-60 +used in Navaho Night Chant, 118-120 + +_Squashes_ represented in dry-painting, 121 + +_Squirrel._ _See_ PINE SQUIRREL + +_Stars_, creation of, in Apache myth, 30 +in Navaho myth, 92-93 + +_Stenátliha__n_, an Apache goddess, 20, 21, 24-33, 133 +represented in Apache painting, 20 +symbolized on maternity belt, 39, 40 + +_Storage baskets_ of the Apache, 21, 132 + +_Suicide_ among Apache, 14 + +_Sumac_, berries used by Apache, 19 +used in making water bottles, 132 + +_Sun_, creation of, in Apache myth, 30 +creation of, in Navaho myth, 92 +in Jicarilla mythology, 62 +the father of Twin Gods, 99 +_See also_ SUN GOD + +_Sunbeams_ in Navaho mythology, 96, 98 + +_Sun-dogs_ in Navaho dry-painting, 79 + +_Sunflower_, stalks of, used for flutes, 84 + +_Sun God_ in Navaho mythology, 98-106 +_See_ CHEHONAÁI; CHUGANAÁI; CHUNNAÁI + +_Sush Nalkái_, a Navaho mythic bear, 106 + +_Sweat_, mythic creation from, 24, 25 + +_Sweat-bath_ in Apache myth, 33 +in Night Chant ceremony, 117, 118 + +_Sweat-house_ in Apache myth, 26-27 +in Navaho myth, 104 + +_Symbol_ of faith among Apache, 43 + +_Symbolism_, ancient, discarded by Apache, 44, 45 +color, of the Apache, 84 +color, of the Jicarillas, 60, 61, 64, 66 +color, of the Navaho, 84, 87, 90-92, 103, 115, 118 +on Apache caps, 131 +on Apache maternity belt, 38-39 +on Apache medicine skin, 20, 30-36 + +_Taboo_ of bear and fish, 20, 135 +of conversation while masked, 123 +of flesh in puberty ceremony, 47 +of houses of the dead, 76 +of mother-in-law among Navaho, 126 +of names of the dead, 34 +of salt in puberty ceremony, 47, 125 +of scratching in puberty ceremony, 47, 125 +of _tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ndi hogán_ by Navaho, 81 + +_Tádtitin_, Navaho name for pollen, 119 +_See_ HÁDINTIN; POLLEN + +_Talking God._ _See_ HASCHÉ{~COMBINING BREVE~}LTI + +_Taos_, Jicarilla contact with, 53 +mentioned in Jicarilla myth, 64 +Navaho name for, 138 + +_Tarantula_ in Apache myth, 25 + +_Tattooing_ among Apache, 42 + +_Tázhí{~COMBINING BREVE~}._ _See_ TURKEY + +_Temperature_ of White Mountain reservation, 13 + +_Texas_, Apache raids into, 9, 14 + +_Tipis_ of the Jicarillas, 134 + +_Tizwin._ _See_ TÚLAPAI + +_To Aháni clan_, origin of, 97, 137 + +_Tobacco_ depicted in dry-painting, 121 +in Navaho myth, 103, 108-109, 115 + +_Tobadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_, a Navaho deity, 3, 138 +birth and adventures of, 98-106 +personated in Night Chant, 118 +_See also_ KOBADJISCHÍNI; TUBADZISCHÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NI + +_To Dichíni clan_, origin of, 97, 137 + +_Toi Hatál_. _See_ WATER CHANT + +_Tónenili_, Navaho Rain God, 107, 115 +personated in begging ceremony, 120 + +_Tontos_, Apache name for, 134 +assigned to reservation, 8 +population of, 131 +subdued by Crook, 8 + +_Tracking Bear_, a Navaho monster, 99 + +_Trade_ of the Jicarillas, 54 + +_Travelling_, Apache method of, 16, 17 + +_Treaties_ with the Navaho, 82-83 + +_Tree, Little_, in Jicarilla myth, 69 + +_Trees_, creation of, in Apache myth, 27 +terms for, 143 + +_Tsa__n__natí{~COMBINING BREVE~}_, Jicarilla clowns, 59 + +_Tsé{~COMBINING BREVE~}gyii_, a Navaho locality, 114, 116 +_See_ CAŃON DE CHELLY + +_Tsé{~COMBINING BREVE~}nagai._ _See_ ROLLING STONE + +_Tse Naháli_, preying Mountain Eagle, 106 + +_Tsetahí{~COMBINING BREVE~}dzilhtúhli_, a Navaho monster, 106 + +_Tsilité{~COMBINING BREVE~}n._ _See_ COYOTE + +_Tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ndi_, meaning of, 80 + +_Tsí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ndi hogán_ defined, 76 +taboo of, 81 +_See_ HOGÁN + +_Tsótzilh_, a Navaho sacred mountain, 91, 105 + +_Tubadziscí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_, an Apache deity, 31, 133 +function of, 33 +represented in Apache painting, 20 +symbolized on maternity belt, 39, 40 +_See also_ KOBADJISCHÍNI; TOBADZISCHÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NI + +_Túlapai_ drunk by the Apache, 19-20 + +_Tule_, pollen of, used by Apache, 38 + +_Tu Ntelh_, an Apache god, 40 + +_Turkey_ in Apache myth, 28 +in Navaho myth, 88 +prayer-sticks with feathers of, 117 + +_Turquoise_, bowl of, in Apache myth, 33 +clothing of, in Jicarilla myth, 63 +in Apache myth, 26 +in Jicarilla myth, 64 + +_Turquoise_ in Navaho myth, 91, 92, 97, 101, 103, 104, 106-107, 115 +jewelry of the Navaho, 76 +lance of Apache War God, 32 +man born of, in Navaho myth, 84 +pipe in Navaho myth, 108 + +_Turquoise Boy_ of Apache myth, 31, 33 + +_Turquoise Woman_ of Navaho myth, 97 +_See_ DUTLÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}SHÍ NALÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}N + +_Turtle monster_ in Jicarilla myth, 64-65 + +_Tus._ _See_ WATER BOTTLE + +_Twin Gods_ of the Navaho, 98 +_See_ NAYÉ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NEZOANI; TOBADZISCHÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NI + +_Tzes._ _See_ ELK + +_Tzilhkí{~COMBINING BREVE~}chi Hatál._ _See_ MOUNTAIN CHANT + +_Tzilhnúhodihli_, sacred mountain, created, 91, 96, 98, 104, 105 + +_Underworld_, Navaho origin in, 80, 83, 138 +_See_ GENESIS + +_Ute_, Jicarillas influenced by, 134 +Jicarilla name for, 135 + +_Valleys_, creation of, in Apache myth, 28 + +_Vegetation_ of White Mountain reservation, 13, 17 +_See_ TREES + +_Victorio_, conference with, 7 +surrender and death of, 9 + +_Visions_, God of, in Apache cosmology, 31 +knowledge gained through, 32 +medicine-men influenced by, 42, 43 + +_Vocabulary_, Southern Athapascan, 139-144 + +_Walapai_ join in Apache hostilities, 8 +tribal name of, 5 + +_Walnuts_ eaten by Apache, 19 + +_War_ ceremonies, God Dance a part of, 48 +of extermination against Apache, 6, 7 + +_War Gods_, Navaho. _See_ NAYÉ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NÉ{~COMBINING BREVE~}ZGANI; TOBADZISCHÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}NI + +_Washing_ of hands in marriage ceremony, 126, 127 +_See_ BATHING; HAIR-WASHING + +_Water_, miraculous creation of, 97, 137 +relation of Tubadzischí{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni with, 133 +Yólkai Estsán conceives from, 98 +_See_ YÓLKAI ESTSÁN + +_Water bottle_ in Apache myth, 27-28, 30 +in marriage ceremony, 126 +in Navaho myth, 94 +of the Apache, 16, 21, 132 +of the Navaho, 77 +sacred symbol prescribed for, 44 + +_Water Chant_ of the Navaho, 78 + +_Water God_ of the Apache, 33, 35 +_See_ RAIN GOD + +_Water Monsters_ in Navaho mythology, 87 + +_Water Sprinkler_, a Navaho Rain God, 107, 115, 120 + +_Weapons_, Jicarilla, origin of, 69 + +_Weasel_ in Navaho myth, 97 + +_Weaving._ _See_ BLANKETS + +_Wheels_ in Jicarilla mythology, 62, 64 +medicine, made by Apache, 10, 11 + +_Whips_, yucca, of the Navaho, 120-121 + +_Whirling log_ represented in dry-painting, 120-121 + +_Whirlwind_ in Navaho myth, 110 + +_Whirlwind God_ of the Jicarillas, 60, 61 +_See_ WINDS + +_White Corn Boy_ of Navaho myth, 96 + +_White Mountain Apache_, population of, 131 + +_White Mountain reservation_, Apache placed on, 9 +character and area of, 13 +"medicine" craze on, 10 +property disputes on, 23 + +_White objects_ created by Yólkai Skhin, 33 +symbolic of prayer, 34 + +_White river_, Arizona, 11, 15, 17 + +_White-Shell Boy_ of Apache myth, 31, 33 + +_White-Shell Girl._ _See_ YÓLKAI NALÍ{~COMBINING BREVE~}N + +_White-Shell Man_ of Navaho myth, 97 + +_White-Shell Woman._ _See_ YÓLKAI ESTSÁN + +_Wildcats_ in Jicarilla mythology, 64 + +_Wind People_ of Navaho mythology, 95, 99 + +_Winds_, function of, in Navaho belief, 93, 95 +how regarded by Apache, 35 +in Apache myth, 25, 26 +in Navaho mythology, 90, 93, 96, 97, 102, 110, 138 +participation of, in Jicarilla creation, 61 +pollen scattered to, 133 + +_Witchcraft_, penalty for, in future world, 56 +_See_ SORCERY + +_Wolf_ in Navaho myth, 97 + +_Wolf People_ of the Navaho, 84, 87, 90, 95 + +_Women_, Apache, descent traced through, 22 +Apache, dress of, 131 +Apache, houses built by, 13 +Apache, modesty of, 16 + +_Women_, Apache, property right of, 22 +Apache, status of, 13-14 +chiefs in Navaho mythology, 84 +how treated, in Jicarilla ceremony, 59 +Jicarilla, dress of, 134 +Jicarilla, hair-dressing of, 134 +Jicarilla, modesty of, 58 +Navaho, blanket weavers, 75 +Navaho, clothing of, 136 +Navaho, hair-dressing of, 136 +Navaho, status of, 76 +Navaho, work of, 85 +separated from men in Navaho myth, 85 +_See_ CHILDBIRTH; MARRIAGE; PUBERTY CEREMONY + +_Wool_ blankets, in Navaho myth of, 94 + +_Wósakidi._ _See_ GRASSHOPPER PEOPLE + +_Yádilhkih Binálzé{~COMBINING BREVE~}_, Sky Messengers, of Apache myth, 31 + +_Yádilhkih Skhin._ _See_ SKY GOD + +_Yakósha Skhin_, an Apache deity, 31, 35 +_See_ APACHE-MOHAVE + +_Yavapai_, application of name, 6, 53 + +_Yébichai_ and Apache dance compared, 47 +dance of the Navaho, 121 +gods of the Navaho, 114 +order, initiation into, 120, 121 +signification of, 116 + +_Yéitso_, Big God of the Navaho, 98, 105 + +_Yellow-Corn Girl_ of Navaho myth, 96 + +_Yíye._ _See_ OWL + +_Yoi Hatál._ See Bead Chant + +_Yólkai Estsán_, a Jicarilla goddess, 62, 64, 68, 135 +a Navaho goddess, 94-96, 98, 99, 105, 137, 138 + +_Yólkai Nalí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n_, an Apache goddess, 31 +function of, 34, 35 +guardian of spirit-land, 134 +how supplicated, 40 + +_Yólkai Skhin_, White-Shell Boy, of Apache, 31, 33 + +_Yuádiistan_, an Apache god, 24 + +_Yucca_ fruit eaten by Apache, 19 +root in Navaho mythology, 94 +root, washing with, 115, 125 +used for head-band, 131 +whips made of, 120-121 + +_Yuma_, Jicarilla name for, 135 +Navaho name for, 138 + +_Yuman_ and Apache relations, 5 +and Jicarilla ceremony compared, 56 + +_Zahadolzhá_, Fringe-mouth gods of Navaho, 109, 113, 114, 123 + +_Zuńi_, Apache name for the, 134 +Navaho name for, 138 +people among Navaho, 137 + + + + + +THE END OF VOLUME I + +The University Press, Cambridge, U.S.A. + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 The agave or maguey plant, locally called mescal, for which reason + the latter term is here employed. + + 2 This medicine skin was owned by Háshke Ní{~COMBINING BREVE~}lnte and was considered + one of the most potent belonging to any of the medicine-men. During + the lifetime of Háshke Ní{~COMBINING BREVE~}lnte it was impossible for any white man + even to look upon this wonderful "medicine." After reaching extreme + age he was killed, presumably by his wife, from whom this valuable + and sacred object was procured. + + 3 Possibly a legendary reminiscence of a home in the far north and the + subsequent migration to the south. + + 4 The myth and ritual of this ceremony are given on pages 111-116. + + 5 Versions differ as to the number of worlds through which the + progenitors of the Navaho passed. Some give three before this one, + others but one. The version adopted by the Bahozhonchí, a religious + order or medicine society whose rites and ceremonies are the oldest + and most widely known of any in the tribe, treats of two worlds + only: the one below, from which the Digí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n, or Holy People, migrated + in the form of insects, birds, and beasts, and to which the dead + return; and the present, into which was born man in his present + image, created of pollen, corn, white shell, turquoise, and rain by + the Digí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n. These Digí{~COMBINING BREVE~}n were the animals which never assumed + absolute material form on this earth, and the gods who perfected the + creation. The creation of the world below, together with all food + products, plant life, and animals known to the Navaho, is credited + to First Man and First Woman, Ástse Hástin and Ástse Estsán; but the + myth does not go back to that creation, nor, save for the plant and + animal life and a little earth used in making mountains, does it + assume the use of any part of the underworld in the making or + completion of this. So far as the inhabitants now found in the image + of man are concerned, they were made, and first existed, on this + earth, and did not develop from a lower order. + + 6 The Navaho sometimes vary the assignment of their directional colors + by relating, like the Apache of Arizona, black to the east and white + to the north. + + 7 These four names still survive among the Navaho, applied to as many + clans. + + 8 Our months, of course, only approximate the moons of the Indians. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN*** + + + +CREDITS + + +October 2006 + + Project Gutenberg Edition + Joshua Hutchinson + Suzanne Shell + Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 19449-8.txt or 19449-8.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/4/19449/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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