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diff --git a/19463-8.txt b/19463-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7759516 --- /dev/null +++ b/19463-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9399 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of James Fenimore Cooper, by Thomas R. Lounsbury + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: James Fenimore Cooper + American Men of Letters + +Author: Thomas R. Lounsbury + +Release Date: October 4, 2006 [EBook #19463] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAMES FENIMORE COOPER *** + + + + +Produced by Christine P. Travers and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + +[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected. +The original spelling has been retained.] + + + + + AMERICAN MEN OF LETTERS. + + Edited By + + CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER. + + + + + [Illustration: J. Fenimore Cooper] + + + + + AMERICAN MEN OF LETTERS. + + JAMES FENIMORE COOPER. + + By + + THOMAS R. LOUNSBURY, + Professor Of English In The Sheffield Scientific School, + Yale College. + + + + + BOSTON: + HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY. + New York: 11 East Seventeenth Street. + The Riverside Press, Cambridge. + 1884. + + + + Copyright, 1882, + By THOMAS R. LOUNSBURY + + _All rights reserved._ + + _The Riverside Press, Cambridge_: + Electrotyped and Printed by H. O. Houghton & Co. + + + + +PREFATORY NOTE. + + +When Cooper lay on his death-bed he enjoined his family to permit no +authorized account of his life to be prepared. A wish even, that was +uttered at such a time, would have had the weight of a command; and +from that day to this pious affection has carried out in the spirit as +well as to the letter the desire of the dying man. No biography of +Cooper has, in consequence, ever appeared. Nor is it unjust to say +that the sketches of his career, which are found either in magazines +or cyclopædias, are not only unsatisfactory on account of their +incompleteness, but are all in greater or less degree untrustworthy in +their details. + +It is a necessary result of this dying injunction that the direct and +authoritative sources of information contained in family papers are +closed to the biographer. Still it is believed that no facts of +importance in the record of an eventful and extraordinary career have +been omitted or have even been passed over slightingly. A large part +of the matter contained in this volume has never been given to the +public in any form: and for that reason among others no pains have +been spared to make this narrative absolutely accurate, so far as it +goes. Correction of any errors, if such are found, will be gratefully +welcomed. + + + + +JAMES FENIMORE COOPER. (p. 001) + + + + +Chapter I. + +1789-1820. + + +In one of the interior counties of New York, less than one hundred and +fifty miles in a direct line from the commercial capital of the Union, +lies the village of Cooperstown. The place is not and probably never +will be an important one; but in its situation and surroundings nature +has given it much that wealth cannot furnish or art create. It stands +on the southeastern shore of Otsego Lake, just at the point where the +Susquehanna pours out from it on its long journey to the Chesapeake. +The river runs here in a rapid current through a narrow valley, shut +in by parallel ranges of lofty hills. The lake, not more than nine +miles in length, is twelve hundred feet above tide-water. Low and +wooded points of land and sweeping bays give to its shores the +attraction of continuous diversity. About it, on every side, stand +hills, which slope gradually or rise sharply to heights varying from +two to five hundred feet. Lake, forest, and stream unite to form a +scene of quiet but picturesque beauty, that hardly needs the +additional charm of romantic association which has been imparted to +it. + +Though it was here that the days of Cooper's childhood were (p. 002) +passed, it was not here that he was born. When that event took place +the village had hardly even an existence on paper. Cooper's father, a +resident of Burlington, New Jersey, had come, shortly after the close +of the Revolutionary War, into the possession of vast tracts of land, +embracing many thousands of acres, along the head-waters of the +Susquehanna. In 1786 he began the settlement of the spot, and in 1788 +laid out the plot of the village which bears his name, and built for +himself a dwelling-house. On the 10th of November, 1790, his whole +family--consisting, with the servants, of fifteen persons--reached the +place. The future novelist was then a little less than thirteen months +old, for he had been born at Burlington on the 15th of September of +the year before. His father had determined to make the new settlement +his permanent home. He accordingly began in 1796, and in 1799 +completed, the erection of a mansion which bore the name of Otsego +Hall. It was then and remained for a long time afterward the largest +private residence in that portion of the State. When in 1834 it came +into the hands of the son, it still continued to be the principal +dwelling in the flourishing village that had grown up about it. + +On his father's side Cooper was of Quaker descent. The original +emigrant ancestor had come over in 1679, and had made extensive +purchases of land in the province of New Jersey. In that colony or in +Pennsylvania his descendants for a long time remained. Cooper himself +was the first one, of the direct line certainly, that ever even +revisited the mother-country. These facts are of slight importance in +themselves. In the general disbelief, however, which fifty years ago +prevailed in Great Britain, that anything good could come out of (p. 003) +this western Nazareth. Cooper was immediately furnished with an +English nativity as soon as he had won reputation. The same process +that gave to Irving a birthplace in Devonshire, furnished one also to +him in the Isle of Man. When this fiction was exploded, the fact of +emigration was pushed merely a little further back. It was transferred +to the father, who was represented as having gone from Buckinghamshire +to America. This latter assertion is still to be found in authorities +that are generally trustworthy. But the original one served a useful +purpose during its day. This assumed birthplace in the Isle of Man +enabled the English journalists that were offended with Cooper's +strictures upon their country to speak of him, as at one time they +often did, as an English renegade. + +His mother's maiden name was Elizabeth Fenimore, and the family to +which she belonged was of Swedish descent. Cooper himself was the +eleventh of twelve children. Most of his brothers and sisters died +long before him, five of them in infancy. His own name was at first +simply James Cooper, and in this way he wrote it until 1826. But in +April of that year the Legislature of New York passed an act changing +the family name to Fenimore-Cooper. This was done in accordance with +the wish of his grandmother, whose descendants in the direct male line +had died out. But he seldom employed the hyphen in writing, and +finally gave up the use of it altogether. + +The early childhood of Cooper was mainly passed in the wilderness at +the very time when the first wave of civilization was beginning to +break against its hills. There was everything in what he saw and heard +to impress the mind of the growing boy. He was on the border, if (p. 004) +indeed he could not justly be said to be in the midst of mighty and +seemingly interminable woods which stretched for hundreds of miles to +the westward. Isolated clearings alone broke this vast expanse of +foliage, which, covering the valleys and clinging to the sides and +crowning the summits of the hills, seemed to rise and fall like the +waves of the sea. The settler's axe had as yet scarcely dispelled the +perpetual twilight of the primeval forest. The little lake lay +enclosed in a border of gigantic trees. Over its waters hung the +interlacing branches of mighty oaks and beeches and pines. Its surface +was frequented by flocks of wild, aquatic birds,--the duck, the gull, +and the loon. In this lofty valley among the hills were also to be +found, then as now, in fullest perfection, the clear atmosphere, the +cloudless skies, and the brilliant light of midsummer suns, that +characterize everywhere the American highlands. More even than the +beauty and majesty of nature that lay open to the sight was the +mystery that constantly appealed to the imagination in what might lie +hidden in the depths of a wilderness that swept far beyond glance of +eye or reach of foot. This, indeed, may have affected the feelings of +only a few, but there were numerous interests and anxieties which all +had in common. The little village had early gone through many of the +trials which mark the history of most of the settlements in regions to +which few travelers found their way and commerce seldom came. Remote +from sources of supply, and difficult of access, it had known the time +when its population, scanty as it was, suffered from the scarcity of +food. Sullivan's successful expedition against the Six Nations did not +suffice to keep it from the alarm of savage attack that never came. +The immense forest shutting in the hamlet on every side had (p. 005) +terrors to some as real as were its attractions to others. Its +recesses were still the refuge of the deer; but they were also the +haunt of the wildcat, the wolf, and the bear. All these characteristics +of his early home made deep impression upon a nature fond of +adventure, and keenly susceptible to the charm of scenery. When +afterward in the first flush of his fame Cooper set out to revive the +memory of the days of the pioneers, he said that he might have chosen +for his subject happier periods, more interesting events, and possibly +more beauteous scenes, but he could not have taken any that would lie +so close to his heart. The man, indeed, never forgot what had been +dear to the boy; and to the spot where his earliest years were spent +he returned to pass the latter part of his life. + +The original settlement, moreover, was composed of a more than usually +singular mixture of the motley crowd that always throngs to the +American frontier. The shock of convulsions in lands far distant +reached even to the highland valley shut in by the Otsego hills. +Representatives of almost every nationality in Christendom and +believers in almost every creed, found in it an asylum or a home. Into +this secluded haven drifted men whose lives had been wrecked in the +political storms that were then shaking Europe. Frenchmen, Dutchmen, +Germans, and Poles, came and tarried for a longer or shorter time. +Here Talleyrand, then an exile, spent several days with Cooper's +father, and, true to national instinct, wrote, according to local +tradition, complimentary verses, still preserved, on Cooper's sister. +An ex-captain of the British army was one of the original merchants of +the place. An ex-governor of Martinique was for a time the village (p. 006) +grocer. But the prevailing element in the population were the men of +New England, born levelers of the forest, the greatest wielders of the +axe the world has ever known. Over the somewhat wild and turbulent +democracy, made up of materials so diverse, the original proprietor +reigned a sort of feudal lord, rather by moral qualities than by any +conceded right. + +Cooper's early instruction was received in the village school, carried +on in a building erected in 1795, and rejoicing in the somewhat +pretentious name of the Academy. The country at that time, however, +furnished few facilities for higher education anywhere; on the +frontier there were necessarily none. Accordingly Cooper was early +sent to Albany. There he entered the family of the rector of St. +Peter's Church, and became, with three or four other boys, one of his +private pupils. This gentleman, the son of an English clergyman, and +himself a graduate of an English university, had made his ways to +these western wilds with a fair amount of classical learning, with +thorough methods of study, and as it afterwards turned out, Cooper +tells us, with another man's wife. This did not, however, prevent him +from insisting upon the immense superiority of the mother-country in +morals as well as manners. A man of ability and marked character, he +clearly exerted over the impressionable mind of his pupil a greater +influence than the latter ever realized. He was in many respects, +indeed, a typical Englishman of the educated class of that time. He +had the profoundest contempt for republics and republican institutions. +The American Revolution he looked upon as only a little less monstrous +than the French, which was the sum of all iniquities. Connection with +any other church than his own was to be shunned, not at all (p. 007) +because it was unchristian, but because it was ungentlemanly and low. +But whatever his opinions and prejudices were, in the almost absolute +dearth then existing in this country of even respectable scholarship, +the opportunity to be under his instruction was a singular advantage. +Unfortunately it did not continue as long as it was desirable. In 1802 +he died. It had been the intention to fit Cooper to enter the junior +class of Yale College; that project had now to be abandoned. +Accordingly he became, at the beginning of the second term of its +freshman year, a member of the class which was graduated in 1806. He +was then but a mere boy of thirteen, and with the exception of the +poet Hillhouse, two weeks his junior, was the youngest student in the +college. + +Cooper himself informs us that he played all his first year, and +implies that he did little study during those which followed. To a +certain extent the comparative excellence of his preparation turned +out a disadvantage; the rigid training he had received enabled him to +accomplish without effort what his fellow-students found difficult. +Scholarship was at so low an ebb that the ability to scan Latin was +looked upon as a high accomplishment; and he himself asserts that the +class to which he belonged was the first in Yale College that had ever +tried it. This may be questioned; but we need not feel any distrust of +his declaration, that little learning of any kind found its way into +his head. Least of all will he be inclined to doubt it whom extended +experience in the class-room has taught to view with profoundest +respect the infinite capability of the human mind to resist the +introduction of knowledge. + +Far better than study, Cooper liked to take solitary walks about (p. 008) +the wooded hills surrounding New Haven, and the shores of the bay upon +which it lies. These nursed the fondness for outdoor life and scenery +which his early associations had inspired. In these communings with +nature, he was unconsciously storing his mind with impressions and +images, in the representation and delineation of which he was afterward +to attain surpassing excellence. But the study of scenery, however +desirable in itself, cannot easily be included in a college +curriculum. No proficiency in it can well compensate for failure in +studies of perhaps less intrinsic importance. The neglect of these +latter had no tendency to recommend him to the regard of those in +authority. Positive faults were in course of time added to negative. A +frolic in which he was engaged during his third year was attended by +consequences more serious than disfavor. It led to his dismissal. The +father took the boy's side, and the usual struggle followed between +the parents and those who, according to a pretty well worn-out +educational theory, stand to the student in place of parents. In this +particular case the latter triumphed, and Cooper left Yale. In spite +of his dismissal he retained pleasant recollections of some of his old +instructors; and with one of them, Professor Silliman, he kept up in +later years friendly personal relations and occasional correspondence. + +It had been a misfortune for the future author to lose the severe if +somewhat wooden drill of his preparatory instructor. It was an +additional misfortune to lose the education, scanty and defective as +it then was, which was imparted by the college. It might not and +probably would not have contributed anything to Cooper's intellectual +development in the way of accuracy of thought or of statement. It (p. 009) +would not in all probability have added materially to his stock of +knowledge. But with all its inefficiency and inadequacy, it would very +certainly have had the effect of teaching him to aim far more than he +did at perfection of form. He possibly gained more than he lost by +being transferred at so early an age to other scenes. But the lack of +certain qualities in his writings, which educated men are perhaps the +only ones to notice, can be traced pretty directly to this lack of +preliminary intellectual drill. + +His academical career having been thus suddenly cut short, he entered +in a little while upon one better suited to his adventurous nature. +Boys are sent to sea, he tells us in one of his later novels, for the +cure of their ethical ailings. This renovating influence of ocean life +he had at any rate a speedy opportunity to try. It was decided that he +should enter the navy. The position of his father, who had been for +several years a representative in Congress, and was a leading member +of the Federalist party, naturally held out assurances that the son +would receive all the advancement to which he would be legitimately +entitled. At that time no naval school existed. It was the custom, in +consequence, for boys purposing to fit themselves for the position of +officers to serve a sort of apprenticeship in the merchant marine. +Accordingly in the autumn of 1806, Cooper was placed on board a vessel +that was to sail from the port of New York with a freight of flour to +Cowes and a market. The ship was named the Sterling, and was commanded +by Captain John Johnston, of Wiscasset, Maine, who was also part owner. +Cooper's position and prospects were well known; but he was employed +regularly before the mast and was never admitted to the cabin. The (p. 010) +vessel cleared from the port of New York on the 16th of October. The +passage was a long and stormy one; forty days went by before land was +seen after it had once been left behind. The ship reached the other +side just at the time when the British Channel was alive with vessels +of war in consequence of one of the periodical anticipations of +invasions from France. It went to London, and stayed for some time +there discharging its cargo and taking in new. Cooper embraced the +opportunity to see all the sights he could of the great metropolis. +"He had a rum time of it in his sailor rig," said afterward one of his +shipmates, "but hoisted in a wonderful deal of gibberish, according to +his own account of the cruise." + +The Sterling sailed with freight in January, 1807, for the Straits of +Gibraltar. It took on board a cargo of barilla at Aguilas and Almeria, +and returned to England, reaching the Thames in May. Both going and +coming the voyage was a stormy one, and during it several of the +incidents occurred that Cooper worked up afterward into powerful +passages in his sea novels. In London the vessel lay several weeks, +discharging its cargo and taking in more, which this time consisted of +dry goods. Towards the end of July, it left London for America, and +reached Philadelphia on the 18th of September, after another long and +stormy passage of fifty-two days. + +This was Cooper's introduction to sea life. During the year he had +spent in the merchant vessel he had seen a good deal of hard service. +His preparatory studies having been completed after a fashion, he now +regularly entered the navy. His commission as midshipman bears (p. 011) +date the 1st of January, 1808. On the 24th of the following February +he was ordered to report to the commanding naval officer at New York. +But the records of the government give little information as to the +duties to which he was assigned during the years he remained in its +service. The knowledge we have of his movements comes mainly from what +he himself incidentally discloses in published works or letters of a +later period. The facts we learn from all sources together, are but +few. He served for a while on board the Vesuvius in 1808. During that +year it seemed as if the United States and Great Britain were about to +drift into war. Preparations of various kinds were made; and one of +the things ordered was the dispatch to Lake Ontario of a party, of +which Cooper was one, under the command of Lieutenant Woolsey. The +intention was to build a brig of sixteen guns to command that inland +water; and the port of Oswego, then a mere hamlet of some twenty +houses, was the place selected for its construction. Around it lay a +wilderness, thirty or forty miles in depth. Here the party spent the +following winter, and during it the Oneida, as the brig was called, +was finished. Early in the spring of 1809 it was launched. By that +time, however, the war-cloud had blown over, and the vessel was not +then used for the purpose for which it had been constructed. More +permanent results, however, were accomplished than the building of a +ship. The knowledge and experience which Cooper then gained was +something beyond and above what belonged to his profession. It is to +his residence on the shores of that inland sea that we owe the vivid +picture drawn of Lake Ontario in "The Pathfinder" and of the +wilderness which then surrounded it on every side. + +After the completion of the Oneida, Cooper accompanied Lieutenant (p. 012) +Woolsey on a visit to Niagara Falls. The navy records show that on the +10th of June, 1809, he was left by his commander in charge of the +gunboats on Lake Champlain. They further reveal the fact that on the +27th of September of this same year he was granted a furlough to make +a European voyage. This project for some reason was given up, as on +the 13th of November, 1809, he was ordered to the Wasp, then under the +command of Lawrence, who afterwards fell in the engagement between the +Shannon and the Chesapeake. To this officer, like himself a native of +Burlington, he was very warmly attached. The next notice of him +contained in the official records is to the effect that on the 9th of +May, 1810, permission was granted him to go on furlough for twelve +months. Whether he availed himself of it is not known. An event soon +occurred, however, that put an end to his naval career as effectively +as one had previously been put to his collegiate. An attachment had +sprung up some time before between him and a Miss DeLancey. On the 1st +of January, 1811, the couple were married at Mamaroneck, Westchester +County, New York. Cooper was then a little more than twenty-one years +old; the bride lacked very little of being nineteen. + +His wife belonged to a Huguenot family, which towards the end of the +seventeenth century had fled from France, and had finally settled in +Westchester. During the Revolutionary War the DeLanceys had taken the +side of the crown against the colonies. Several of them held positions +in the British army. John Peter DeLancey, whose daughter Cooper had +married, had been himself a captain in that service. After the +recognition of American independence he went to England, but, (p. 013) +having resigned his commission, returned in 1789 to this country, and +spent the remainder of his life at his home in Mamaroneck. The fact +that his kinsmen by marriage had belonged to the defeated party in the +Revolutionary struggle led Cooper in his writings to treat the Tories, +as they were called, with a fairness and generosity which in that day +few were disposed to show, at least in print. This tenderness is +plainly to be seen in "The Spy," written at the beginning of his +career; it is still more marked in "Wyandotte," produced in the latter +part of it, when circumstances had made him profoundly dissatisfied +with much that he saw about him. One of the last, though least heated, +of the many controversies in which he was engaged was in regard to the +conduct on a particular occasion of General Oliver DeLancey, a cousin +of his wife's father. This officer was charged unjustly, as Cooper +believed, with the brutal treatment of the American General Woodhull, +who had fallen into his hands. The discussion in regard to this point +was carried on in the "New York Home Journal" in the early part of +1848. + +It seldom falls to the lot of the biographer to record a home life +more serene and happy than that which fell to the share of the man +whose literary life is the stormiest to be found in the history of +American men of letters. Cooper, like many persons of fiery temperament +and strong will, was very easily managed through his affections. In +theory he maintained the headship of man in the household in the +extremest form. He gives in several of his works no uncertain +indication of his views on that point. This only serves to make more +conspicuous the fact, which forces itself repeatedly upon the +attention, that his movements were largely, if not mainly, (p. 014) +by his wife. This becomes noticeable at the very beginning of their +union. She was unwilling to undergo the long and frequent separations +from her husband that the profession of a naval officer would demand. +Accordingly, he abandoned the idea of continuing in it. The acceptance +of his resignation bears date the 6th of May, 1811. He had then been +regularly in the service a little less than three years and a half. + +After quitting the navy Cooper led for a long time a somewhat unsettled +life. For about a year and a half he resided at Heathcote Hall, +Mamaroneck, the residence of his wife's father. He then rented a small +cottage in the neighborhood, and in this remained about a year. His +early home, however, was the spot to which his heart turned. To +Cooperstown, in consequence, he went back in 1814, taking up his +residence at a place outside the village limits, called Fenimore. He +purposed to devote his attention to agriculture, and accordingly began +at this spot the building of a large stone farm house. While it was in +process of construction his wife, anxious to be near her own family, +persuaded him to go back to Westchester. Thither in 1817 he went, +leaving his dwelling at Fenimore unfinished, and in 1823 it was +completely destroyed by fire. In Westchester, a few months after his +return, he took up his residence, in the town of Scarsdale, on what +was called the Angevine farm, from the name of a French family that +had occupied it for several generations. The site of his dwelling was +a commanding one, and gave from the south front an extensive view of +the country about it and of Long Island Sound. It remained his home +until the literary profession, upon which he unexpectedly entered, (p. 015) +forced him to leave it for New York city. + +Great changes had occurred during these years, or were occurring, in +his personal surroundings. His father had died in 1809, and his mother +in 1817. Before 1820 five daughters had been born to him. The first of +these did not live to the age of two years; but the others all reached +maturity. The second, Susan Augusta, herself an authoress, became in +his later years his secretary and amanuensis, and would naturally have +written his life, had not his unfortunate dying injunction stood in +the way. A son, Fenimore, born at Angevine, in 1821, died early, and +his youngest child, Paul, now a lawyer at Albany, was not born until +after his removal to New York city. Surrounded by his growing family, +he led for the two or three years following 1817 a life that gave no +indication of what was to be his career. His thoughts were principally +directed to improving the little estate that had come into his +possession. He planted trees, he built fences, he drained swamps, he +planned a lawn. The one thing which he did not do was to write. + + + + +CHAPTER II. (p. 016) + +1820-1822. + + +Cooper had now reached the age of thirty. Up to this time he had +written nothing, nor had he prepared or collected any material for +future use. No thought of taking up authorship as a profession had +entered his mind. Even the physical labor involved in the mere act of +writing was itself distasteful. Unexpectedly, however, he now began a +course of literary production that was to continue without abatement +during the little more than thirty years which constituted the +remainder of his life. + +Seldom has a first work been due more entirely to accident than that +which he composed at the outset of his career. In his home at Angevine +he was one day reading to his wife a novel descriptive of English +society. It did not please him, and he suddenly laid down the book and +said, "I believe I could write a better story myself." Challenged to +make good his boast, he sat down to perform the task, and wrote out a +few pages of the tale he had formed in his mind. The encouragement of +his wife determined him to go on and complete it, and when completed +the advice of friends decided him to publish it. Accordingly, on the +10th of November, 1820, a novel in two volumes, entitled "Precaution," +made its appearance in New York. In this purely haphazard way did the +most prolific of American authors begin his literary life. + +The work was brought out in a bad shape, and its typographical (p. 017) +defects were unconsciously exaggerated by Cooper in a revised edition +of it, which was published after his return from Europe. In the +preface to the latter he said that no novel of modern times had ever +been worse printed than was this story as it originally appeared. The +manuscript, he admitted, was bad; but the proof-reading could only be +described as execrable. Periods turned up in the middle of sentences, +while the places where they should have been knew them not. Passages, +in consequence, were rendered obscure, and even entire paragraphs +became unintelligible. A careful reading of the edition of 1820 will +show something to suggest, but little to justify, these sweeping +assertions. But the work has never been much read even by the admirers +of the author; and it is a curious illustration of this fact, that the +personal friend, who delivered the funeral discourse upon his life and +writings, avoided the discussion of it with such care that he was +betrayed into exposing the lack of interest he sought to hide. Bryant +confessed he had not read "Precaution." He had merely dipped into the +first edition of it, and had been puzzled and repelled by the +profusion of commas and other pauses. The non-committalism of cautious +criticism could hardly hope to go farther. Punctuation has had its +terrors and its triumphs; but this victory over the editor of a daily +newspaper must be deemed its proudest recorded achievement. The poet +went on to say that to a casual inspection the revised edition, which +Cooper afterward brought out, seemed almost another work. The +inspection which could come to such a conclusion must have been of +that exceedingly casual kind which contents itself with contemplating +the outside of a book, and disdains to open it. As a matter of (p. 018) +fact the changes made hardly extended beyond the correction of some +points of punctuation and of some grammatical forms; it was in a few +instances only that the construction of the sentences underwent +transformation. Not an incident was altered, not a sentiment modified. + +Such ignorance on the part of a contemporary and personal friend, if +it proves nothing else, shows certainly the little hold this novel has +had upon the public taste. Nevertheless, the first work of any +well-known author must always have a certain interest belonging to it, +entirely independent of any value the work may have in itself. In this +case, moreover, the character of the tale and the circumstances +attending its production are of no slight importance, when taken in +connection with the literary history of the times. It was accident +that led to the selection of the subject; but as things then were, +Cooper was not unlikely, in any event, to have chosen it or one very +similar. The intellectual dependence of America upon England at that +period is something that it is now hard to understand. Political +supremacy had been cast off, but the supremacy of opinion remained +absolutely unshaken. Of creative literature there was then very little +of any value produced: and to that little a foreign stamp was +necessary, to give currency outside of the petty circle in which it +originated. There was slight encouragement for the author to write; +there was still less for the publisher to print. It was indeed a +positive injury ordinarily to the commercial credit of a bookseller to +bring out a volume of poetry or of prose fiction which had been +written by an American; for it was almost certain to fail to pay +expenses. A sort of critical literature was struggling, or rather (p. 019) +gasping, for a life that was hardly worth living; for its most marked +characteristic was its servile deference to English judgment and dread +of English censure. It requires a painful and penitential examination +of the reviews of the period to comprehend the utter abasement of mind +with which the men of that day accepted the foreign estimate upon +works written here, which had been read by themselves, but which it +was clear had not been read by the critics whose opinions they echoed. +Even the meekness with which they submitted to the most depreciatory +estimate of themselves was outdone by the anxiety with which they +hurried to assure the world that they, the most cultivated of the +American race, did not presume to have so high an opinion of the +writings of some one of their countrymen as had been expressed by +enthusiasts, whose patriotism had proved too much for their +discernment. Never was any class so eager to free itself from charges +that imputed to it the presumption of holding independent views of its +own. Out of the intellectual character of many of those who at that +day pretended to be the representatives of the highest education in +this country, it almost seemed that the element of manliness had been +wholly eliminated; and that along with its sturdy democracy, whom no +obstacles thwarted and no dangers daunted, the New World was also to +give birth to a race of literary cowards and parasites. With such a +state of feeling prevalent, a work of fiction that concerned America +might seem to have small chance of success with Americans themselves. +It would not, therefore, have been strange, under any circumstances, +that in beginning his career as an author Cooper should have chosen to +write a tale of English social life. The fact that he knew (p. 020) +personally nothing about what he was describing was in itself no +insuperable objection. That ignorance was then and has since been +shared by many novelists on both sides of the water, who have treated +of the same subject. Relying upon English precedent, he might in fact +feel that he was peculiarly fitted for the task. He had cruised a few +times up and down the British channel, he had caught limited views of +British manners and customs by walking on several occasions the length +of Fleet Street and the Strand. Knowledge of America equivalent to +this would then have been regarded in England as an ample equipment +for an accurate treatise upon the social life of this country, and +even upon its existing political condition and probable future. + +But much more than the choice of a foreign subject did the pretense of +foreign authorship prove the servility of feeling prevailing at that +time among the educated classes. This was in the first place, to be +sure, the result of the freak that led Cooper originally to begin +writing a novel; but it was a freak that would never have been carried +out, after publication had been decided upon, had he not been fully +aware of the fact that the least recommendation of a book to his +countrymen would be the knowledge that it was composed by one of +themselves. "Precaution" was not merely a tale of English social life, +it purported to be written by an Englishman; and it was so thoroughly +conformed to its imaginary model that it not only reëchoed the cant of +English expression, but likewise the expression of English cant. To +talk about dissenters and the establishment was natural and proper +enough in a work written ostensibly by the citizen of a country in +which there was a state church. But Cooper went much farther than (p. 021) +this in the reflections and moral observations which are scattered up +and down the pages of this novel. These represent fairly views widely +held at the time in America, and may not impossibly express the +personal opinions he himself then entertained. He speaks in one place, +in his assumed character of an Englishman, of the solidity and purity +of our ethics as giving a superior tone to our moral feelings as +contrasted with the French. He goes out of his way to compliment +George III. One of the personages in the novel was tempted to admit +something to his credit that he did not deserve. The love of truth, +however, finally prevailed. But it was not because the man himself had +any innate love of truth, but because "he had been too much round the +person of our beloved monarch not to retain all the impressions of his +youth." Passages such as these are remarkable when we consider the +sentiments in regard to England that Cooper subsequently came to +express. If they do not show with certainty his opinions at that time, +they do show the school in which he had been brought up: they mark +clearly the extent and violence of the reaction which in after years +carried him to the opposite extreme. + +In its plan and development "Precaution" was a compromise between the +purely fashionable novel and that collection of moral disquisitions of +which Hannah More's Coelebs was the great exemplar, and still remained +the most popular representative. As in most tales of high life, nobody +of low condition plays a prominent part in the story, save for the +purpose of setting off the dukes, earls, baronets, generals, and +colonels that throng its pages. A novelist in his first production +never limits his creative activity in any respect; and Cooper, (p. 022) +moreover, knew the public well enough to be aware that a fictitious +narrative which aimed to describe aristocratic society might perhaps +succeed without much literary merit, but would be certain to fail +without an abundance of lords. The leading characters, however, +whether of higher or lower degree, are planned upon the moral model. +They either preach or furnish awful examples. It would certainly be +most unfair to an author to judge him, as in this case, by a work +which he had begun without any view to publication, and which he +afterward learned to think and to speak of slightingly. Still, though, +compared with many of his writings, "Precaution" is a novel of little +worth, it is, in some respects, a better guide to the knowledge of the +man than his better productions. The latter give evidence of his +powers; in this are shown certain limitations of his nature and +beliefs. Peculiarities, both of thought and feeling, which in his +other writings are merely suggested, are here clearly revealed. Some +of them will appear strange to those whose conception of his character +is derived from facts connected with his later life, or whose +acquaintance with his works is limited to those most celebrated. + +Cooper was, by nature, a man of deep religious feeling. This disposition +had been strengthened by his training. But there is something more +than deep religious feeling exhibited in his first novel. There runs +through it a vein of pietistic narrowness, which seems particularly +unsuited to the man whom popular imagination, investing him somewhat +with the characteristics of his own creations, has depicted as a +ranger of the forests and a rover of the seas. Yet the existence of +this vein is plainly apparent, though all his surroundings would (p. 023) +seem to have been unfavorable to its birth and development. He shared, +to its fullest extent, in the jealousy which at that time, far more +than now, prevailed between the Middle States and New England. He was +strongly attached to the Episcopal Church, and he had, or fancied he +had, a keen dislike to the Puritans and their manners and creeds. To +these "religionists," as he was wont to call them, he attributed a +great deal that was ungraceful in American life, and a good deal that +was disgraceful. But the Puritan element is an irrepressible and +undying one in English character. It can be found centuries before it +became the designation of a religious body. It can be traced, under +various and varying appellations, through every period of English +history. It is not the name of a sect, it is not the mark of a creed; +it is the characteristic of a race. It is, therefore, never long put +under ban before it comes back, and takes its turn in ruling manners +and society. The revolt against it in the eighteenth century had +stripped from religion everything in the shape of sentiment, and left +it merely a business. The reaction which brought the Puritan element +again to the front was so intensified by hostility to what were called +French principles that the minor literature of the latter half of the +reign of George III. exhibits a cant of intolerance from which many of +its greatest writers were rarely great enough to be wholly free. This +influence is clearly visible in the earliest work of Cooper. There is +no charge, probably, he would have denied sooner or disliked more, but +in his nature he was essentially a Puritan of the Puritans. Their +faults and their virtues, their inconsistencies and their contradictions, +were his. Their earnestness, their intensity, their narrowness, their +intolerance, their pugnacity, their serious way of looking at (p. 024) +human duties and responsibilities, all these elements corresponded +with elements in his own character. His, also, were their lofty ideas +of personal purity and of personal obligation, extending not merely to +the acts of the life, but to the thoughts of the heart. Like them, +moreover, he was always disposed to appeal directly to the authority +of the Supreme Being. Like them, he had perfect confidence in the +absolute knowledge he possessed of what that Being thought and wished. +Like them, he considered any controverted question as settled, if he +could once bring to bear upon the point in dispute a text beginning, +"Thus saith the Lord." No rational creature, certainly, would think of +contesting a view of the Creator, or acting contrary to a command +coming unmistakably from Him. But at this very point the difficulty +begins; and in nothing did Cooper more resemble the Puritans than in +his incapacity to see that there was any difficulty at all. It never +occurred to him that there might possibly be a vast difference between +what the Lord actually said and what James Fenimore Cooper thought the +Lord said. It is hardly necessary to add, however, that this +characteristic of mind has its advantages as well as disadvantages. + +It was not unnatural, accordingly, that "Precaution" should exemplify +in many cases that narrowness of view which seeks to shape narrow +rules for the conduct of life. For its sympathy with this, one of the +most distinguishing and disagreeable features of Puritanism, the novel +has an interest which could never be aroused by it as a work of art. +Extreme sentiments are often expressed by the author in his own +person, though they are usually put into the mouths of various actors +in the story. Their especial representative is a certain Mrs. (p. 025) +Wilson, who was clearly a great favorite of her creator, though to the +immense majority of men she would seem as disagreeably strong-minded +as most of Cooper's female characters are disagreeably weak-minded. +This lady is the widow of a general officer, who, the reader comes +heartily to feel, has, most fortunately for himself, fallen in the +Peninsular war. From her supreme height of morality she sweeps the +whole horizon of human frailties and faults, and looks down with a +relentless eye upon the misguided creatures who are struggling with +temptations to which she is superior, or are under the sway of beliefs +whose folly or falsity she has long since penetrated. In her, indeed, +there is no weak compromise with human feelings. The lesson meant to +be taught by the novel is the necessity of taking precaution in regard +to marriage. One point insisted upon again and again is the requirement +of piety in the husband. It is the duty of a Christian mother to guard +against a connection with any one but a Christian for her daughters: +for throughout the whole work the sovereign right of the parent over +the child is not merely implied, it is directly asserted. "No really +pious woman," says Mrs. Wilson, "can be happy unless her husband is in +what she deems the road to future happiness herself." When she is met +by the remark that the carrying out of this idea would give a deadly +blow to matrimony, she rises to the occasion by replying that "no man +who dispassionately examines the subject will be other than a Christian, +and rather than remain bachelors they would take even that trouble." +Nor in this was the author apparently expressing an opinion which he +did not himself hold in theory, however little he might have regarded +it in practice. He takes up the same subject in another place, (p. 026) +when speaking in his own person. "Would our daughters," he says, +"admire a handsome deist, if properly impressed with the horror of his +doctrines, sooner than they would now admire a handsome Mohammedan?" +On the matter of Sunday observance the narrowest tenets of Puritanism +were preached, and the usual ignorance was manifested that there were +two sides to the question. Some of the incidents connected with this +subject are curious. One of the better characters in the novel asks +his wife to ride out on that day, and she reluctantly consents. This +brings at once upon the stage the inevitable Mrs. Wilson, who always +stands ready to point a moral, though she can hardly be said to adorn +the tale. She draws from the transaction the lesson that it is a +warning against marrying a person with a difference of views. In this +particular instance the respect of the man for religion had been +injurious to his wife, because "had he been an open deist, she would +have shrunk from the act in his company on suspicion of its +sinfulness." It is justice to add that many of these extreme opinions, +at least in the extreme form stated in this work, the author came +finally to outgrow if in fact he held them seriously then. + +There are certain other peculiarities of Cooper's beliefs that +"Precaution" exemplifies. He has been constantly criticised for the +unvarying and uninteresting uniformity of his female characters. This +is hardly just; but it is just in the sense that there was only one +type which he ever held up to admiration. Others were introduced, but +they were never the kind of women whom he delighted to honor. Of +female purity he had the highest ideal. Deference for the female sex +as a sex he felt sincerely and expressed strongly. Along with (p. 027) +this he seemed to have the most contemptible opinion of the ability of +the female individual to take care of herself. On the other hand, if +she had the requisite ability, the greater became his contempt; for +helplessness, in his eyes, was apparently her chiefest charm. The +Emily Moseley of his first novel is the prototype of a long line of +heroines, whose combination of propriety and incapacity places them at +the farthest possible remove from the heroic. She is worthy of special +mention here, only because in this novel he describes in detail the +desirable qualities, which in the others are simply implied. He +furnishes us, moreover, with the precise training to which she had +been subjected by her aunt, Mrs. Wilson. Accordingly, we learn both +what, in Cooper's eyes, it was incumbent for a woman to be, and what +she ought to go through in order to be that woman. A few sentences +taken at random will show the character of this heroine. She was +artless, but intelligent; she was cheerful, but pious; she was familiar +with all the attainments suitable to her sex and years. Her time was +dedicated to work which had a tendency to qualify her for the duties +of this life and fit her for the life hereafter. She seldom opened a +book unless in search of information. She never read one that +contained a sentiment dangerous to her morals, or inculcated an +opinion improper for her sex. She never permitted a gentleman to ride +with her, to walk with her, to hold with her a tête-à-tête. Nor was +this result achieved with difficulty. Though she was natural and +unaffected, the simple dignity about her was sufficient to forbid any +such request, or even any such thought in the men who had the +pleasure, or, as the reader may think, the grief, of her (p. 028) +acquaintance. In short, she was not merely propriety personified; she +was propriety magnified and intensified. This particular heroine, who +could not consistently have read the book in which her own conduct is +described, finally disappears as the wife of an equally remarkable +earl. Her story, as it is told, however, strikingly exemplifies the +carelessness in working up details which is one of Cooper's marked +defects. The novel received its name, as has already been implied, +because it aimed to set forth the desirability of precaution in the +choice of husband or wife. What it actually taught, however, was its +undesirability. The misunderstandings, the crosses, the distresses, to +which the lovers were subjected in the tale all sprang from excess of +care, and not from lack of it; from exercising precaution where +precaution did nothing but harm. + +The work excited but little attention in this country. In the following +year it was printed in England by Colburn, and was there noticed +without the slightest suspicion of its American authorship. In some +quarters it received fairly favorable mention. It could not be hid, +however, that the novel, as regarded the general public, had been a +failure. Still, it was not so much a failure that the author's friends +did not think well of it and see promise in it. They urged him to +renewed exertions. He had tried the experiment of depicting scenes he +had never witnessed, and a life he had never led. He had, in their +opinion, succeeded fairly well in describing what he knew nothing +about; they were anxious that he should try his hand at the representation +of manners and men of which and whom he knew something. Especially was +it made a matter of reproach that he, in heart and soul an (p. 029) +American of the Americans, should have gone to a foreign land to fill +the imagination of his countrymen with pictures of a social state +alien both in feeling and fact to their own. This was an appeal of a +kind that was certain to touch Cooper sensibly; for with him love of +country was not a sentiment, it was a passion. As a sort of atonement, +therefore, for his first work, he determined to inflict, as he phrased +it, a second one upon the world. Against this there should be no +objection on the score of patriotism. He naturally turned for his +subject to the Revolution, with the details of which he was familiar +by his acquaintance with the men who had shared prominently in its +conduct, and had felt all the keenness of a personal triumph in its +success. The very county, moreover, in which he had made his home was +full of recollections. Westchester had been the neutral ground between +the English forces stationed in New York and the American army encamped +in the highlands of the Hudson. Upon it more, perhaps, than upon any +other portion of the soil of the revolted colonies had fallen the +curse of war in its heaviest form. Back and forth over a large part of +it had perpetually ebbed and flowed the tide of battle. Not a road was +there which had not been swept again and again by columns of infantry +or squadrons of horse. Every thicket had been the hiding-place of +refugees or spies; every wood or meadow had been the scene of a +skirmish; and every house that had survived the struggle had its tale +to tell of thrilling scenes that had taken place within its walls. +These circumstances determined Cooper's choice of the place and +period. Years before, while at the residence of John Jay, his host had +given him, one summer afternoon, the account of a spy that had (p. 030) +been in his service during the war. The coolness, shrewdness, +fearlessness, but above all the unselfish patriotism, of the man had +profoundly impressed the Revolutionary leader who had employed him. +The story made an equally deep impression upon Cooper at the time. He +now resolved to take it as the foundation of the tale he had been +persuaded to write. The result was that on the 22d of December, 1821, +the novel of "The Spy" was quietly advertised in the New York papers +as on that day published. + +The reader, however, would receive a very wrong idea of the feelings +with which the author began and ended this work of fiction, should he +stop short with the account that has just been given. The circumstances +attending its composition and publication are, as a matter of fact, +almost as remarkable as the story itself. They certainly present a +most suggestive picture of the literary state of America at that time. +Cooper, for his part, had not the slightest anticipation of the effect +that it was going to have upon his future. In writing it he was +carrying out the wishes of his friends full as much as his own. Nor, +apparently, did they urge the course upon him because they conceived +him capable of accomplishing anything very great or even very good. +They felt that he could produce something that was not discreditable, +and that was all that could reasonably be expected of an American. +There was no other novelist in the field. Charles Brockden Brown had +been dead several years. Irving and Paulding were writing only short +sketches. John Neal, indeed, in addition to the poems, tragedies, +reviews, newspaper articles, indexes, and histories he was turning out +by wholesale, had likewise perpetrated a novel; but it was never known +enough to justify the mention of it as having been forgotten. (p. 031) +Here, consequently, was a vacant place that ought to be filled. Cooper +was never the man who would be eager to take a place because there was +no one else to occupy it; and the way he went at the task he had +undertaken gives indirectly a clear insight into an American author's +feelings sixty years ago. He entered upon the work not merely without +the expectation of success, but almost without the hope of it. The +novel was written very hastily; the sheets passed into the hands of +the type-setter with scarcely a correction; and so little heart had he +in the task that the first volume was printed several months before he +felt any inducement to write a line of the second. The propriety of +abandoning it entirely, under the apprehension of its proving a serious +loss, was debated. "Should chance," he said, in a later introduction +to the book, "throw a copy of this prefatory notice into the hands of +an American twenty years hence, he will smile to think that a +countryman hesitated to complete a work so far advanced, merely +because the disposition of the country to read a book that treated of +its own familiar interests was distrusted." In this respect the +difficulty of his position was made more prominent by its contrast +with that of the great novelist who was then occupying the attention +of the English-speaking world. Scott, in writing "Waverley," could +take for granted that there lay behind him an intense feeling of +nationality, which would show itself not in noisy boastfulness, but in +genuine appreciation; that with the matter of his work his countrymen +would sympathize, whatever might be their opinion as to its execution. +No such supposition could be made by Cooper; no such belief inspired +him to exertion. He might hope to create interest; he could not (p. 032) +venture to assume its existence. One other incident connected with +the composition of this work marks even more plainly the almost +despairing attitude of his mind. While the second volume was slowly +printing, he received an intimation from his publisher that the work +might grow to a length that would endanger the profits. The author +hereupon adopted a course which is itself a proof of how much stranger +is fact than fiction. To placate the publisher and set his mind at +rest, the last chapter was written, printed, and paged, not merely +before the intervening chapters had been composed, but before they had +been fully conceived. It was fair to expect failure for a work which +no bookseller had been found willing to undertake at his own risk, and +which the author himself set about in a manner so perfunctory. The +indifference and carelessness displayed, he said afterward, were +disrespectful to the public and unjust to himself; yet they give, as +nothing else could, a vivid picture of the literary situation in +America at that time. + +The reluctance and half-heartedness with which Cooper began and completed +this work stand, indeed, in sharpest contrast to the existing state of +feeling, when it is only the prayers of friends and the tears of +relatives that can prevent most of us from publishing some novel we +have already written. But almost as it were by accident he had struck +into the vein best fitted for the display of his natural powers. In it +he succeeded with little effort, where other men with the greatest +effort might have failed. The delicate distinctions that underlie +character where social pressure has given to all the same outside, it +was not his to depict. Still less could he unfold the subtle (p. 033) +workings of motives that often elude the observation of the very +persons whom they most influence. Such a power is essential to the +success of him who seeks to delineate men as seen in conventional +society; and largely for the lack of it his first novel had been a +failure. It was only at rare intervals, also, that he showed that +precision of style and pointed method of statement which, independent +of the subject, interest the reader in men and things that are not in +themselves interesting. It was the story of adventure, using adventure +in its broadest sense, that he was fitted to tell: and fortunately for +him Walter Scott, then in the very height of his popularity, had made +it supremely fashionable. In this it is only needful to draw character +in bold outlines; to represent men not under the influence of motives +that hold sway in artificial and complex society, but as breathed upon +by those common airs of reflection and swept hither and thither by +those common gales of passion that operate upon us all as members of +the race. It is not the personality of the actors to which the +attention is supremely drawn, though even in that there is ample field +for the exhibition of striking characterization. It is the events that +carry us along; it is the catastrophe to which they are hurrying that +excites the feelings and absorbs the thoughts. There can be no greater +absurdity than to speak of this kind of story, as is sometimes done, +as being inferior in itself to those devoted exclusively to the +delineation of manners or character, or even of the subtler motives +which act upon the heart and life. As well might one say that the +"Iliad" is a poem of inferior type to the "Excursion." Again, it is +only those who think it must be easy to write what it is easy to read +who will fall into the mistake of fancying that a novel of (p. 034) +adventure which has vitality enough to live does not owe its existence +to the arduous, though it may be largely unconscious, exercise of high +creative power. No better correction for this error can be found than +in looking over the names of the countless imitators of Scott, some of +them distinguished in other fields, who have made so signal a failure +that even the very fact that they attempted to imitate him at all has +been wholly forgotten. + +"The Spy" appeared almost at the very close of 1821. It was not long +before its success was assured. Early in 1822 the newspapers were able +to assert that it had met with a sale unprecedented in the annals of +American literature. What that phrase meant is partly indicated by the +fact that it had then been found necessary to publish a second edition. +In March a third edition was put to the press; and in the same month +the story was dramatized and acted with the greatest success. Still in +the abject dependence upon foreign estimate which was the preëminent +characteristic of a large portion of the educated class of that day, +many felt constrained to wait for the judgment that would come back +from Europe before they could venture to express an opinion which they +had the presumption to call their own. Contemporary newspapers more +than once mention the relief that was afforded to many when Cooper was +spoken of in several of the English journals as "a distinguished +American novelist." This, it has been implied, was then a condition of +the public mind that no writer could dare wholly to disregard. When +the project of abandoning this novel, already half printed, was under +discussion, the principal reason that finally decided the author (p. 035) +to persevere was the fact that his previous work had received a respectful +notice in a few English periodicals. It was thought, in consequence, +that in his new venture he would be secure from loss. Still, it is due +to his countrymen to say that it was to them alone he owed his first +success. In later years the declaration was often made that he would +never have been held in honor at home, had it not been for foreign +approbation. The assertion he himself indignantly denied. "This work," +he said afterward, in speaking of "The Spy," "most of you received +with a generous welcome that might have satisfied any one that the +heart of this great community is sound." Certain it is that the +success of the novel was assured in America some time before the +character of its reception in Europe was known. + +The printed volume was offered to the London publisher Murray, and for +terms he was referred to Irving, who was then in England. Murray gave +the novel for examination to Gifford, the editor of the "Quarterly." +By his advice it was declined,--a result that might easily have been +foretold from the hostility of the man to this country. He had made +his review an organ of the most persistent depreciation and abuse of +America and everything American. A new writer from this side of the +ocean was little likely to meet with any favor in his sight, especially +when his subject was one that from its very nature could not be +flattering to British prejudices. Murray having refused, another +publisher was found in Miller, who had also been the first to bring +out Irving's "Sketch Book." Early in 1822 the work appeared in England. +There its success was full as great as it had been in America. This novel, +in fact, made Cooper's reputation both at home and abroad. It is (p. 036) +important to bear this in mind, because it is a common notion that it +was his delineations of Indian life that brought him his European +fame. They established it, but they did not originate it. "The Spy" +was a tale of a war, which in character was not essentially different +from any other war. So far as the story painted the incidents of a +struggle in which the English had been unsuccessful, it could have no +right to expect favor from the English public unless there was merit +in the execution of the work independent of the subject. The interest +with which it was read by a people who could not fail to find portions +of it disagreeable, who were moreover accustomed to look with contempt +upon everything of American origin, was the best proof that a novelist +had arisen whose reputation would stretch beyond the narrow limits of +nationality. This was even more strikingly seen, when it came to be +translated. If the English opinion was favorable, the French might +fairly be called enthusiastic. A version was made into that tongue in +the summer of 1822, by the translator of the Waverley Novels. In the +absolute ignorance that existed as to its authorship, the work was +ascribed by several of the Parisian papers to Fanny Wright, who +subsequently achieved a fame of her own as a champion of woman's +privileges and denouncer of woman's wrongs. In spite of its anonymous +character and of some extraordinary blunders in translation, it was +warmly received in France. From that country its reputation in no long +space of time spread in every direction; translations followed one +after another into all the cultivated tongues of modern Europe; and in +all it met the same degree of favor. Nor has lapse of time shaken +seriously its popularity. The career of success, which began sixty (p. 037) +years ago, has suffered vicissitudes, but never suspension; and to +this hour, whatever fault may be found with the work as a whole, the +name of Harvey Birch is still one of the best known in fiction. No +tale produced during the present century has probably had so extensive +a circulation; and the leading character in it has found admirers +everywhere and at times imitators. Of this latter statement a striking +illustration is given in the memoirs of Gisquet, a prefect of the French +police under Louis Philippe. In his chapter on the secret agents +employed by him during his administration, he tells the story of one +who by the information he imparted rendered important services in +preventing the outbreak of civil war. He thus describes the motives +which led the man to pursue the course he did. "Struck with the reading," +he writes, "of one of Cooper's novels called 'The Spy,' he aspired to +the sort of ambition which distinguished the hero of that work, and +was desirous of playing in France the part which Cooper has assigned +to Harvey Birch during the American war of independence.... Harvey +Birch--for he adopted this name in all his reports--never belied his +professions of fidelity. He rendered services which would have merited +a competent fortune; but when the term of them ended, he contented +himself with asking for a humble employment, barely enough to supply +his daily necessities." The belief in the reality of the hero has, +indeed, been part of the singular fortune of the book. In his account +of Nicaragua, published in 1852, Mr. E. G. Squier furnished incidentally +interesting testimony to the truth of this statement as well as to the +wide circulation of the tale itself. At La Union, the port of San Miguel, +he stayed at the house of the commandant of the place. His (p. 038) +apartments he found well stocked with books, and among them was this +particular novel. "The 'Espy,'" he went on to say, "of the lamented +Cooper, I may mention, seems to be better known in Spanish America +than any other work in the English language. I found it everywhere; +and when I subsequently visited the Indian pueblo of Conchagua, the +first alcalde produced it from an obscure corner of the cahildo, as a +very great treasure. He regarded it as veritable history, and thought +'Señor Birch' a most extraordinary personage and a model guerillero." + + + + +CHAPTER III. (p. 039) + +1822-1826. + + +Cooper would have been more or less than mortal if the unexpected +success achieved by "The Spy" had not incited him to renewed effort. +It definitely determined his career, though at the time he did not +know it. As yet he was not sure in his own mind whether the favor his +book had met was the result of a lucky hit or was due to the display +of actual power. There can be no question as to the honesty of his +assertion when he published his third novel, that it depended upon +certain contingencies whether it would not be the last. But from this +time on he wrote incessantly. From 1820 to 1830, including both years, +he brought out eleven works. In many respects this was the happiest +period of his literary life as well as the most successful. During it +he produced many of his greatest creations. One decided failure he +made; but with this exception if each new story did not seem to exhibit +any new power, it at least gave no sign of weakness, or misdirection +of energy. This period is in fact so supremely the creative one of +Cooper's life as regards the conception of character and scene that +nearly all he did demands careful examination. + +He first set about a task that lay near his heart. This was to describe +the scenes, the manners and customs of his native land, especially of +the frontier life in which he had been trained. In 1823, (p. 040) +accordingly, appeared "The Pioneers," itself the pioneer of the five +famous stories, which now go collectively under the name of the +"Leather-Stocking Tales." It was a vivid and faithful picture of the +sights he had seen and the men he had met in the home of his childhood, +where as a boy he had witnessed the struggles which attend the conquest +of man over nature. In it appear in comparatively rude outlines the +personages whose names and exploits his pen was afterwards to make +famous throughout the civilized world. They are in this work of a far +less lofty type than in those which followed. "The Pioneers," in +truth, though not a poor story, is much the poorest of the series of +which it forms a part. The almost loving interest he took in the +matter about which he was writing tempted the author to indulge his +recollections at the expense of his judgment. His first novel, he said +in the prefatory address to the publisher which appeared in this one, +had been written to show that he could write a grave tale, and it was +so grave that no one would read it; the second was written to overcome +if possible the neglect of the public; but the third was written +exclusively to please himself. The story as a story suffered in +consequence from the very fascination which the subject had for his +mind. So subordinate was it made, especially in the first half, to the +description of the scenes, that the details at times become wearisome +and the interest often flags. + +The expectation with which the appearance of this work was awaited is +a striking proof of the impression that the previous novel had made. +It was to have been brought out as early as the autumn of 1822. But +during the summer of that year the yellow fever ravaged New York (p. 041) +and largely broke up for a time all kinds of business, including +printing. Causes beyond control still further delayed the publication, +and it was not until the first of February, 1823, that the book appeared. +The public curiosity, however, had been fully excited. Extracts from +it--according to a custom then prevalent in England--had been +furnished in advance to some of the newspapers, and though these were +not the most striking passages, they served to direct attention and +awaken expectation. At the close of January, announcement of the +precise date of publication was made. Success was certain from the +start; but the degree of it outran all anticipation. The evening +papers of the first of February were able to state that up to twelve +o'clock that day there had been sold three thousand five hundred +copies. Even at this period, with a population more than five times as +numerous, such a half day's sale, under similar circumstances, would +be remarkable. It is little wonder, therefore, that the newspapers of +that period felt that only largeness of type and profusion of +exclamation points could suitably record such a success. + +"The Pioneers" was the first work to display a peculiarity of the author's +character, which came afterwards into marked prominence. Cooper in a +sense belonged to the school of Scott; and he was so far from denying +it that in one place he speaks of himself as being nothing more than a +chip from the former's block. But his life would have been far happier +and his success much greater had he followed in one respect the example +of him he called his master. Scott ordinarily did not read criticisms +upon his own writings; and when he did, he was careful not to let his +equanimity be seriously disturbed even by the severest attacks. (p. 042) +of this was no doubt due to prudence; but a good deal of it to contempt. +For of all the rubbish that time shoots into the wallet of oblivion, +contemporary criticism runs about the least chance of being rescued +from the forgetfulness into which it has been thrust. This is a result +entirely independent of its goodness or badness. If the criticism is +both destructive and just, the very death of the subject against which +it is directed causes it to perish in the ruin it has brought about. +If it is unjust, it is certain to be speedily forgotten, unless he who +suffers from it takes the pains to perpetuate its memory, or some later +investigator drags it from its obscurity for the sake of pointing out +its absurdity. The creative literature of the past is the utmost the +present can be expected to read. Its critical literature, however +celebrated in its day, is looked upon with contempt, or at best with a +patronizing approval, by the following age, which is always confident +that it at least has reached the supreme standard of correct taste, +and asks no aid in making up its judgments from those who have gone +before. But the philosophy which shows this to be true never lessened +one iota the pain which the man of sensitive nature suffers. The +extent to which Cooper was affected by hostile criticism is something +remarkable, even in the irritable race of authors. He manifested under +it the irascibility of a man not simply thin-skinned, but of one whose +skin was raw. Meekness was never a distinguishing characteristic of +his nature; and attack invariably stung him into defiance or +counter-attack. Unfriendly insinuations contained in obscure journals +could goad him into remarks upon them, or into a reply to them, which +at this date is the only means of preserving the original charge. (p. 043) +It was in his prefaces that he was apt to express his resentment most +warmly, for he well knew that this was the one part of a book which +the reviewer is absolutely certain to read. In these he frequently +took occasion to point out to the generation of critical vipers the +various offenses of which they were guilty, the stupidities that +seemed to belong to their very nature, and that utter lack of literary +skill which prevented them from giving a look of sense to the most +plausible nonsense they concocted. By Cooper, indeed, the preface was +looked upon not as a place to conciliate the reader, but to hurl scorn +at the reviewer. In his hands it became a trumpet from which he blew +from time to time critic-defying strains, which more than made up in +vigor for all they lacked in prudence. This characteristic was early +manifested. In the short preface to the second edition of "The Spy," +he could not refrain from referring to the friends who had given him +good advice, and who had favored him with numberless valuable hints, +by the help of which the work might be made excellent. But it is the +letter to the publisher, with which "The Pioneers" originally opened, +that was the first of his regular warlike manifestoes. Though not very +long, two thirds of it was devoted to the men who had publicly found +fault with his previous works. He pointed out their discrepancies in +taste and the metaphysical obscurity of their opinions. At the +conclusion he wrote a sentence which some of them never forgot. He +told his publisher that to him alone he should look for the only true +account of the reception of his book. "The critics," said he in +continuation, "may write as obscurely as they please, and look much +wiser than they are; the papers may puff and abuse as their (p. 044) +changeful humors dictate; but if you meet me with a smiling face I +shall at once know that all is essentially well." + +Little notice, however, was taken at the time of Cooper's preference +of the public opinion which showed itself in buying his books, to that +which made it its chief aim to teach him how they ought to be written. +The country was too pleased with him and too proud of him to pay any +special attention to these momentary ebullitions of dissatisfaction. +On his part so great had now become his literary activity, that before +"The Pioneers" was published he had set to work upon a new novel, of a +kind of which he can justly be described as the creator, and in which +he was to be followed by a host of imitators. + +At a dinner party in New York in 1822, at which Cooper was present, +the authorship of the Waverley Novels, still a matter of some +uncertainty, came up for discussion. In December of the preceding year +"The Pirate" had been published. The incidents in this story were +brought forward as a proof of the thorough familiarity with sea-life +of him, whoever he was, that had written it. Such familiarity Scott +had never had the opportunity to gain in the only way it could be +gained. It followed, therefore, that the tale was not of his composition. +Cooper, who had never doubted the authorship of these novels, did not +at all share in this view. The very reasons that made others feel +uncertain led him to be confident. To one like him whose early life +had been spent on top-gallant yards and in becketing royals, it was +perfectly clear that "The Pirate" was the work of a landsman and not +of a sailor. Not that he denied the accuracy of the descriptions so +far as they went. The point that he made was that with the same (p. 045) +materials far greater effects could and would have been produced, +had the author possessed that intimate familiarity with ocean-life +which can be his alone whose home for years has been upon the waves. +He could not convince his opponents by argument. He consequently +determined to convince them by writing a sea-story. + +We who are familiar with the countless hosts of novels of this nature +that have swarmed and are still swarming from the press, cannot realize +the apparent peril which at that time existed in this undertaking. No +work of the kind, such as he now projected, had ever yet been +published. Sailors, indeed, had been introduced into fiction, notably +by Smollett, but in no case had there been exhibited the handling and +movements of vessels, and the details of naval operations. During the +last half-century we have been so surfeited with the sea-story in +every form, that most of us have forgotten the fact of its late +origin, and that it is to Cooper that it owes its creation. That he +created it was not due to any encouragement from others. He had plenty +of judicious friends to warn him from the undertaking. Sailors, he was +told, might understand and appreciate it, but no one else would. +Minute detail, moreover, was necessary to render it intelligible to +seamen, and to landsmen it would be both unintelligible and +uninteresting on account of the technicalities which must inevitably +be found in minute detail. A reputation already well established would +be sunk in the treacherous element he was purposing to describe. +Cooper persisted in his purpose, but he could not fail to be disturbed +by the unfavorable auguries that met him on every side. These naturally +had the more weight, as they came from men who were attached to (p. 046) +him personally, and who were honestly solicitous for his fame. He was at +one time almost inclined to give up the project. But a critical English +friend to whom he submitted a portion of the manuscript was delighted +with it. In this man's judgment and taste Cooper felt so great confidence +that he was induced to persevere. Moreover, to try the effect upon the +more peculiar public of seamen, he read an extract to one of his old +shipmates, who was also a relative. This was the account of the +war-vessel working off shore in a gale. The selection was certainly a +happy one. The literature of the sea presents no more thrilling chapter +than that which, describing the passage of the great frigate through +the narrow channel, gives every detail with such vividness and power +that the most unimaginative cannot merely see ship, shore, and foaming +water, but almost hear the roaring of the wind, the creaking of the +cordage, and the dashing of the waves against the breakers. As he read +on the listener's interest kept growing until he was no longer able to +remain quiet. Rising from his seat he paced up and down the room +furiously until the chapter was finished. Then half ashamed of the +excitement into which he had been betrayed, he avenged himself just as +if he were a professional reviewer by indulging in a bit of special +criticism: "It's all very well," he burst out, "but you have let your +jib stand too long, my fine fellow." For once Cooper heeded advice. "I +blew it out of the bolt-rope," said he, "in pure spite;" and blown out +of the bolt-rope the jib appears in the tale. + +He now felt reasonably confident of success, and any doubt that might +have lingered in his mind was at once swept away by the favorable +reception the work met when it came out. Its publication was for (p. 047) +a while delayed. Early in the summer of 1823 the first volume had been +finished and a portion of the second, but any further progress was checked +for the time by an affliction that then befell the author. On the 5th of +August his youngest child, Fenimore, then little less than two years old, +died at the family residence in Beach Street, New York, and this calamity +was followed by illness of his own. "The Pilot," in consequence, though +bearing the date of 1823, was not actually furnished to the trade until +the 7th of January, 1824. Its success, both in this country and in +Europe, was instantaneous. Far-sighted men saw at once that a new +realm had been added to the domain of fiction. "The Pilot" is indeed +not only the first of Cooper's sea-stories in point of time, but if we +regard exclusively the excellence of detached scenes, it may perhaps +be justly styled the best of them all. At any rate its place in the +highest rank of this species of fiction cannot be disputed, and in +spite of the multitude of similar works that have followed in its wake +and which have had their seasons of temporary popularity, its hold +upon the public has never been lost. + +Cooper was without question exceptionally fortunate in the materials +with which he had to deal. He was never under the necessity of getting +up with infinite toil what the modern novelist terms his local coloring. +This existed for him ready made. He had only to call to mind the men he +had himself met, the hazards he had run, the life he had lived, to be +furnished with all the incidents and scenes and characters that were +capable of being wrought into romance. His descriptions both of forest +and of sea have all that vividness and reality which cannot well be given +save by him who has threaded at will every maze of the one and (p. 048) +tossed for week after week upon the billows of the other. Moreover, in +this particular case, while he satisfied his patriotic feeling in the +choice of the time, he displayed great judgment in the selection of +the hero. The pilot, though never named, we know to be the extraordinary +and daring adventurer, John Paul Jones, and the period is of course +the American Revolution. In his literary art, likewise, Cooper has never +been equaled by his imitators. Provided he could create the desired +effect, he dared to let the reader remain in ignorance of the details +he introduced. Enough of technicality was brought in to satisfy the +professional seaman, but not so much as to distract the attention of +the landsman from the main movement of the story. Contented with this +the author did not seek to explain to the latter what he could not +well understand without having served personally before the mast. From +this rule he never varied, save in the few cases where the interest of +the tale could be better served by imparting information than by +withholding it. He had a full artistic appreciation of the impressiveness +of the unknown. For, in stories of this kind, the vagueness of the +reader's knowledge adds to the effect upon his mind, because, while he +sees that mighty agencies are at work in perilous situations, his very +ignorance of their exact nature deepens the feeling of awe they are of +themselves calculated to produce. The wise reticence of Cooper in this +respect can be seen by contrasting it with the prodigality of information, +contained in more than one modern sea-novel, in which the whole action +of the story is arrested to explain a technical operation with the result +that the ordinary reader finds the explanation more unintelligible than +the technical operation itself. + +Still, in spite of the excellence of the tales which had followed (p. 049) +it, "The Spy" continued with the majority of readers to be the most popular +of his works. This fact, coupled with his intense love of country, led +him to turn once more for a subject to his native land and to the period +in the description of which he had won his first fame. He formed, in +fact, a plan of writing a series of works of fiction, the scenes of +which should be laid in the various colonies that had shared in the +Revolutionary struggle. In pursuance of this scheme, his next work was +projected. In February, 1825, appeared "Lionel Lincoln, or the Leaguer +of Boston." The first edition had a preliminary title-page, which +contained the inscription, "Legends of the Thirteen Republics," +followed by this quotation from Hamlet-- + + "I will fight with him upon this theme + Until my eyelids will no longer wag." + +When the plan he had conceived was given up, this addition naturally +disappeared with it. Nothing that industry could do was spared by Cooper +to make this work a success. On this account as well as for its +reception by the public it stands in marked contrast to "The Spy." In +the preparation of it he studied historical authorities, he read state +papers, he pored over official documents of all kinds and degrees of +dreariness. To have his slightest assertions in accordance with fact, +he examined almanacs, and searched for all the contemporary reports as +to the condition of the weather. He visited Boston in order to go over +in person the ground he was to make the scene of his story. As a result +of all this labor he has furnished us an admirable description of the +engagement at Concord Bridge, of the running fight of Lexington, (p. 050) +and of the battle of Bunker's Hill. Of the last, it is, according to +the sufficient authority of Bancroft, the best account ever given. At +this point praise must stop. New England was always to Cooper an +ungenial clime, both as regards his creative activity and his critical +appreciation. The moment he touched its soil, his strength seemed to +abandon him. Whatever excellencies this particular work displayed, +they were not the excellencies of a novel. Accuracy of detail, even in +historical romance, is only a minor virtue. The modern reader is, +indeed, often inclined to doubt whether it is a virtue at all now that +modern research is constantly showing that so much we have been wont +to look upon as fact is nothing more than fable. So superior is the +imagination of man turning out to his memory that one is tempted to +fancy that instead of going to history for our fiction we shall yet +have to turn about and go to fiction for our history. + +"Lionel Lincoln" is certainly one of Cooper's most signal failures. In +writing it he had attempted to do what it did not lie in the peculiar +nature of his powers to accomplish. It is the story of crime long hidden +from the knowledge of men, but dogging with unceasing activity the +memories of those concerned in it. But the secret chambers of the soul +into which the guilty man never looks willingly, Cooper could neither +enter himself nor lay bare to others. Remorse that gnaws incessantly at +every activity of the spirit, the consciousness of sin that haunts the +heart and hangs like a burden upon the life, can never well be depicted +save by him whose words suggest more than they reveal. Cooper was not +a writer of this kind. He belonged to that class of literary artists +who convey their precise meaning by exactness and fullness of (p. 051) +detail. The vagueness and indefiniteness with which this story abounds +is not, therefore, that impressive obscurity which springs from the +mysterious; it is, on the contrary, the obscurity of the unintelligible +and absurd. In all of Cooper's novels, it is a fault that the +characters are often represented as acting without sufficient motive. +In the story of adventure this can be pardoned, or at least overlooked; +for freak plays an important part in determining the movements of many +of us. It is not so, however, in tales containing a plot similar to +that of "Lionel Lincoln." The mind revolts at finding the actors in +the drama represented as having committed monstrous crimes, without +any reason that is worth mentioning. This radical defect in the plan +is not counterbalanced by any felicity in the execution. Many of the +incidents are more than improbable, they are impossible. The style, +likewise, is labored, and the conversations combine the two undesirable +peculiarities of being both stilted and dull. The characters, female +or male, are in no case successfully drawn. The inferior ones, introduced +to amuse, serve only to depress the reader. The hero in the course of +the tale does several absurd things; but he finally surpasses himself +by hurrying away from the woman he loves, without her knowledge, +immediately after he has been joined to her in marriage. The +representation of the half-witted Job--a character upon which the +author clearly labored hard--neither arouses interest nor touches the +heart. It is, indeed, impossible to feel much sympathy with one +particular imbecile, no matter how patriotic, in a story where most of +the actors are represented as acting like idiots. + +Nevertheless, his reputation and the real excellence of the battle (p. 052) +battle scenes, saved this work from seeming at the time so much of a +failure as it actually was. Certainly whatever loss of credit he may +have sustained as the result of writing "Lionel Lincoln," was much +more than made up by the success of the tale that followed. In 1824 he +had gone on an excursion to Saratoga, Lake George, and Lake Champlain, +with a small party of English gentlemen. One of these was Mr. Stanley, +the future Lord Derby. As they reached Glens Falls and were examining +the caverns made by the river at that spot, Mr. Stanley told Cooper +that here ought to be laid the scene of a romance. In reply, the +novelist assured him that a book should be written in which these +caverns should have a place. The promise was fulfilled. On the 4th of +February, 1826, "The Last of the Mohicans" made its appearance. It was +composed the previous year in a little cottage then situated in a +quiet, open country, on which now stands the suburban village of +Astoria. A severe illness attacked Cooper during its progress; but +whatever effect it had upon his physical frame, it certainly did not +impair in the slightest his intellectual force. The success of the +work was both instantaneous and prodigious. Owing, perhaps, to the +novelty of the scenes and characters, it was even greater in Europe +than in America. But there was no lack of appreciation in his own +land. In the estimation of his countrymen, the novel at once took its +place at the head of his productions. An incidental fact will not only +make clear its success, but the state of the book trade at that time. +The demand for the work soon became so great and so persistent, that +in April it was decided to stereotype it. + +It deserved fully the success it gained. Of all the novels written (p. 053) +by Cooper, "The Last of the Mohicans" is the one in which the interest +not only never halts, but never sinks. It is, indeed, an open question, +whether a higher art would not have given more breathing-places in this +exciting tale, in which the mind is hurried without pause from +sensation to sensation. But this is a fault, if it be a fault, which +the reader will always forgive, whatever the critic may say. The +latter, indeed, can see much to blame if he look at the work purely as +an artistic creation. He can find improbability of action, +insufficiency of motive, and feebleness of outline in many of the +leading characters. But these are minor drawbacks. They sink into +absolute insignificance when compared with the wealth of power +displayed. As they are unable to retard the unflagging interest with +which the story is read, so they do not essentially modify the +estimation of it after it has been read. + +In this work two great achievements were accomplished by Cooper. The +first was the idealization of the white hunter whom he had described +in "The Pioneers." No one can read the two novels in succession without +seeing at once how much Leather-Stocking has gained in dignity. In +thought and feeling and habits he is essentially the same; but there +was given to his character a poetic elevation which raised it at once +to the front rank of the creations of the imagination, and will make +it imperishable with English literature. As he appears in "The Pioneers" +he is merely an old man who has made his home in the hills in advance +of the tide of settlement. He is the solitary hunter who views with +dislike clearings and improvements, who cannot breathe freely in streets, +who hates the sight of masses of men, who looks with especial loathing +upon the civilization whose first work is to fell the trees he has (p. 054) +learned to love, whose first exercise of power is to draw the network +of the law around the freedom and irresponsibility of forest life. +Though full of a simple and somewhat sententious morality, he is +querulous, irritable, ignorant. But in "The Last of the Mohicans," +while the man continues the same, the aspect he presents is wholly +different. All that is weak in his character is in the background; all +that is best and strongest comes to the front. He is in the prime of +life. Ignorant he still remains of the ways of the world as found in +the settlements; but there is no trace of discontent or fretfulness. +He has full room for the exercise of his native virtues, and in the +character of the acute and daring scout he finds no superior. To him +forest and sky are an open book. Knowledge is conveyed to his ears in +every sound that breaks the stillness of the summer woods; and to his +eyes scarred rock and riven pine and the deserted nest of the eagle +have made the paths of the wilderness as plain as the broadest highway. +Nor are his moral qualities inferior to his purely professional. His +coolness never deserts him, his resources never fail him, and along +with the versatility that is never at a loss in the presence of the +unexpected is the resolution that never flinches at the approach of +the perilous. + +This delineation has always met with unqualified praise. But the +idealization of the Indian character as seen in Chingachcook and Uncas +has been the subject of much controversy. This is not the place to +express an opinion upon the truth of the representation. It is enough +to say here that the view Cooper took was not hastily formed, nor was +it the result of accidental prejudices. He studied all the sources of +information accessible at that time which threw light upon the (p. 055) +Indian character. He visited the deputations from the various tribes +that passed through the state of New York on their way to the national +capital. In some instances he followed them to Washington. It is +obvious that to a man of his poetic temperament they may have appeared +in a different light from what they did to the ordinary government +agent. Certainly he never found reason to modify his views, though he +was familiar with the criticism made upon them. Toward the close of +his life he took occasion to reaffirm them. It is also to be added +that if he gave especial prominence to certain virtues, real or +imaginary, of the Indian race, he was equally careful not to pass over +their vices. Most of the warriors he introduces are depicted as +crafty, bloodthirsty, and merciless. But whether his representation be +true or false, it has from that time to this profoundly affected +opinion. Throughout the whole civilized world the conception of the +Indian character, as Cooper drew it in "The Last of the Mohicans" and +still further elaborated it in the later "Leather-Stocking Tales," has +taken permanent hold of the imaginations of men. Individuals may cast +it off; but in the case of the great mass it stands undisturbed by +doubt or unshaken by denial. This much can be said in its favor +irrespective of the question of its accuracy. If Cooper has given to +Indian conversation more poetry than it is thought to possess, or to +Indian character more virtue, the addition has been a gain to +literature, whatever it may have been to truth. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. (p. 056) + +1826-1830. + + +With the publication of "The Last of the Mohicans," Cooper's popularity +was at its height. His countrymen were proud of him, proud that he had +chosen his native land as the scene of his stories, proud that he had in +consequence extended among all cultivated peoples its fame as well as his +own. His works were more than read. They were in most cases dramatized +and acted as soon as published. Artists vied in making incidents depicted +in them the subjects of their paintings. Poems, founded upon them or +connected in some way with them, made their appearance in the newspapers. +If in many cases these things were in themselves of no value, they at +least served to show the widespread popular interest which his writings +had aroused. Moreover, his reputation was far from being limited to his +own land. No other American, before or since, has enjoyed so wide a +contemporary popularity. Irving may have been on the whole a greater +favorite in England; but if so, it was largely due to the fact that the +subjects upon which he was employed were of special interest to English +readers, and his manner of treating them was flattering to English +prejudices. But the Continental fame of Cooper was unrivaled, and +indeed could fairly be said to hold its own with that of Walter Scott. +Long before he went to Europe himself, his works appeared (p. 057) +simultaneously in America, England, and France. They were speedily +translated into German and Italian, and in most instances soon found +their way into the other cultivated tongues of Europe. Everywhere his +ability had been recognized by those whose approbation, if it could +not confer immortality, was certain to bring with it temporary applause. +The admiration expressed for him was far less marked in England than +upon the Continent; but even there it could often be termed cordial. +It came, too, from those who, whatever estimation we may give to their +praise, did not praise lightly. From Miss Edgeworth he received +personally a tribute to his success in delineating the characters in +which her own reputation had been largely won. On reading "The Spy," +she sent him a message, that she liked Betty Flanigan particularly, +and that no Irish pen could have drawn her better. Scott had been much +struck by the scenes and personages depicted in "The Pilot," the novel +he first read, and predicted at once the success of the sea-story and +of its creator. Many there were, even in England, who looked upon +Cooper as being equal to the great master of historical romance. "Have +you read the American novels?" wrote in November, 1824, Mary Russell +Mitford to a friend. "In my mind they are as good as anything Sir Walter +ever wrote. He has opened fresh ground, too (if one may say so of the sea). +No one but Smollett has ever attempted to delineate the naval character; +and then his are so coarse and hard. Now this has the same truth and power +with a deep, grand feeling.... Imagine the author's boldness in taking +Paul Jones for a hero, and his power in making one care for him! I envy +the Americans their Mr. Cooper.... There is a certain Long Tom who (p. 058) +appears to me the finest thing since Parson Adams." Subsequently, in +July, 1826, she spoke thus of "The Last of the Mohicans," in a letter +to Haydon: "I like it," she wrote, "better than any of Scott's, except +the three first and 'The Heart of Mid-Lothian.'" The praise, indeed, +given both then and at a later period, may often seem extravagant. In +a passage written in 1835, Barry Cornwall, not merely content with +putting Cooper at the head of all American authors, added that he may +"dare competition with almost any writer whatever." + +It need hardly be said that opinions such as these were not to be found +generally in the English literary periodicals. Cooper's name was not +even mentioned in the great reviews until his fame had been secured +without their aid. The success which he won in Great Britain was not +due in the slightest to the professional critics. These men fancied +they had exhausted the power of panegyric when they went so far as to +term him the American Scott. This fact was triumphantly paraded at a +later period by a writer in Blackwood, presumably Wilson, as one of +the convincing proofs of the untruthfulness of the charge made by +Barry Cornwall, that authors from this country were treated with +systematic unfairness in English reviews. "Were we ever unjust to +Cooper?" he asked. "Why, people call him the American Scott." This +sort of patting on the back was thought a proud illustration of the +generosity of the British character, and as putting the recipient of +it under obligations of everlasting gratitude. + +There is no doubt, indeed, that the reputation of Cooper suffered all +his life by the constant comparison that was made between him and (p. 059) +the great Scotch writer. It was to a certain extent inevitable; but it +was none the less unfortunate. He could never be judged by what he did; +it was always by the fanciful test of how some one else would have done +it. This was even more true of his own country than of England. Scott's +popularity was greater here than it was anywhere else. There was a +feeling akin almost to moral reprobation expressed against any one who +should presume to fancy that the best work of any native author could +equal the poorest that Scott put forth. The Continental opinion which +at that time often reckoned the American novelist as equal, if not +superior to his British contemporary, seemed to men here like a +profanation. It was, indeed, so said in direct terms. + +Comparison with Scott, therefore, always put the one compared at a great +disadvantage. This, however, is a method of judging that is necessary +to some and easy to all. Genuine appreciation demands study and thought. +For these comparison is a cheap substitute. To call Cooper the American +Scott in compliment in the days of his popularity, and in derision in the +days of his unpopularity, was a method of criticism which enabled men to +praise or undervalue without taking the trouble to think. Stories were +invented and set in circulation of how he himself rejoiced in being so +designated. Great, accordingly, was the indignation felt and expressed +by these gentry at the presumption of the American author, when at a +later period he asserted that so far from taking pride in the title, +it merely gave him just as much gratification as any nickname could +give a gentleman. + +It would be, moreover, far from truth to say that in this most (p. 060) +prosperous portion of his career his popularity was unmixed in his own +country. Even then his success had aroused a good deal of envy. In 1823 +he was attacked, in common with many prominent citizens of New York, +in a satire called "Gotham and the Gothamites." This was the work of a +man of the name of Judah, who, in 1822, had published a dramatic poem +styled "Odofried the Outcast." The title was ominous of the fate which +the production met. The author naturally felt that the age was +unappreciative. To relieve his mind he wrote eleven or twelve hundred +lines of fresh drivel, in which he assailed everything and everybody. +The satire was of that dreadful kind which requires notes and commentaries +to point out who is hit and what is meant; and the annotation, as is +usual in such cases, took up much more space than the text. This +work--for which the author was sent to jail, though a lunatic asylum +would have been a far fitter place--is only of interest here because +it bears direct and positive evidence to the fact that at this time +Cooper was the most widely read of American authors. + +But jealousy of his fame could be found among men of much higher +pretensions than this wretched poetaster. "The North American Review" +had at that time been ponderously revolving through space for several +years. It was then a periodical respectable, classical, and dull, all +three in an eminent degree. Towards Cooper it struggled in a feeble +way to be just, but for all that it was the exponent of a distinctly +unfriendly feeling. Among individuals a conspicuous representative of +this hostility was the poet Percival. He could not endure the reputation +which the novelist had acquired. Percival was a man of a good deal of +ability, of a great deal of knowledge, and of an inexhaustible (p. 061) +capacity of spinning out verse, never rising much above, nor falling +much below mediocrity, which, if mere quantity were the only element +to be considered, would have justified him in contracting to produce +enough to constitute of itself a national literature. As he invariably +proved himself entirely destitute of common sense in his ordinary +conduct, he was led to fancy that he was not merely a man of ability, +but a man of genius; and during the whole of his life he perpetually +posed as that most intolerable of literary nuisances, a man of +unappreciated genius. In spite of the fact that he had been hospitably +entertained and befriended by Cooper, he could not be satisfied, because +their common publisher looked upon the latter as the "greatest literary +genius in America." The reception given by the public to the "long, dirty, +straggling tales" of the novelist disgusted him. "I ask nothing," he wrote +in April, 1823, "of a people who will lavish their patronage on such a +vulgar book as "The Pioneers." They and I are well quit. They neglect me, +and I despise them." In a later letter he returned to this work. "It might +do," he said, "to amuse the select society of a barber's shop or a +porter-house. But to have the author step forward on such stilts and claim +to be the lion of our national literature, and fall to roaring himself and +set all his jackals howling (S. C. & Co.) to put better folks out of +countenance--why 'tis pitiful, 'tis wondrous pitiful at least for the +country that not only suffers it but encourages it." Percival, indeed, his +biographer tells us, was subsequently urged to contribute to "The North +American Review" a critical article on "The Prairie," in which simple +justice was to be done to Cooper--which phrase had, of course, its (p. 062) +usual meaning, that injustice was to be done him. The poet's customary +indecision prevailed, however; the country was spared this exhibition +of spiteful incapacity, and the novelist was left to stumble along in +uncertainty as to his precise position among men of letters. + +Not but there were plenty of men anxious to show it. Especially was this +true of that class which looked upon it as the supreme effort of critical +judgment to exaggerate the value of everything written in Europe and +depreciate everything of native origin. There was a prevailing belief +among those who mistook their own individual impotence for the incapacity +of a whole people, that nothing good could come out of America. Many +showed their faith by their conduct. In 1834, Cooper himself said that +he knew of several instances in which persons had not read anything he +had written for the avowed reason that nothing worth reading could be +written by one of their countrymen. To all of these it was a subject of +some perplexity and of more annoyance that his works should be, if +anything, more popular in Europe than they were in his native land. To +account for this fact various sage reasons were early suggested and are +still occasionally heard. One of these has always been particularly +common. This was that it was the novelty of the scenes and characters +depicted that attracted attention and not the ability shown in depicting +them. At any rate, they wished it understood that if he satisfied the +European, he did not satisfy the native world: for if creative power had +been denied us, we could at least show that as a compensation we had +been supplied with a double portion of refined taste. Speaking in behalf +of the American people, these critics expressed anxiety that (p. 063) +neither at home nor abroad should Cooper be regarded as obtaining the +unqualified admiration or attaining the lofty ideal of "all of us." +Against any such impression they entered their humble protest. All that +lay in their power should be done to counteract it. This is no one-sided +statement of opinions then expressed. These very sentiments in almost +these very words can be found in reviews of that period. + +Cooper at the time of writing his first novel was dwelling at Angevine. +When the success of the second made it probable that he would continue +for a while his career as an author, and possibly devote his life to it, +the necessity arose of changing his residence. His country home was +about five and twenty miles from the city, but twenty-five miles in +those days of limited mail facilities and limited means of communication +was a distance not to be tolerated. Accordingly, in 1822 he moved into +New York. Either there or in its suburbs he dwelt until his departure +for Europe. Here his youngest child, Paul, was born in 1824, and here, +as has already been mentioned, his infant son Fenimore died. His talents +and his reputation gave him at once a leading position in society. Nor +were his associates inferior men. He founded a club which included on +its rolls the residents of New York then best known in literature and +law, science and art. The names of many will be even more familiar to +our ears than they were to those of their contemporaries. All forms of +intellectual activity were represented. To this club belonged, among +others, Chancellor Kent the jurist; Verplanck, the editor of Shakespeare; +Jarvis the painter; Durand the engraver; DeKay the naturalist; Wiley the +publisher; Morse the inventor of the electric telegraph; Halleck and +Bryant, the poets. It was sometimes called after the name of its (p. 064) +founder; but it more commonly bore the title of the "Bread and Cheese +Lunch." It met weekly, and Cooper, whenever he was in the city, was +invariably present. More than that, he was the life and soul of it. +Though kept up for a while after his departure from the country, it was +only a languishing existence it maintained, and even this speedily ended +in death. + +His pecuniary situation had been largely improved by his literary +success. The pressure upon his means had in fact been one of the main +reasons, if not the main reason, that had led him to contemplate +pursuing a literary life. The property left by his father had gradually +dwindled in value, partly through lack of careful uninterrupted +management. His elder brothers, on whom the administration of the estate +had successively devolved, had died. The result was, that he found +himself without the means which in his childhood he might justly have +looked forward to possessing. So far from being a man of wealth he was +in the earlier part of his literary career a poor man. From any +difficulties, however, into which he may have fallen he was more than +retrieved by the success of what he wrote. Precisely what was the sale +of his books, or how much he received for their sale, it would be hard +and perhaps impossible now to tell. He was careless himself about +preserving any records of such facts. But, besides this natural +indifference, he seemed to resent any public reference to the price paid +him for his writings as an unauthorized intrusion into his personal +affairs. Allusions even to the amount of his receipts he apparently +regarded as springing not so much from a feeling of pride in his +success, as from a desire to represent him as being under great (p. 065) +obligations to his countrymen. In some instances he was certainly correct +in so regarding it. On one occasion after his return from Europe, he +denied the truth of an assertion made in a newspaper, as to the amount +he derived from the sale of each of his novels. "It remains for the +public to decide," said he, "whether it will tolerate or not this +meddling with private interests by any one who can get the command of a +little ink and a few types." In the prefatory address to the publisher +which appeared in the first edition of "The Pioneers," he made the +statement, that the success of "The Spy," should always remain a secret +between themselves. This reticence and dislike of publicity continued +throughout the whole of his career. It extended to everything connected +with his writings. Our knowledge on these points is, therefore, both +scanty and uncertain. The size of the editions has never been given to +the public. The sale of "The Pioneers" on the morning of its publication +has already been noticed; and there are contemporary newspaper +statements to the effect that the first edition of "The Red Rover" +consisted of five thousand copies, and that this was exhausted in a few +days. But it is only from incidental references of this kind, which can +rarely be relied upon absolutely, that we at this late day are able to +gain any specific information whatever. + +He was unquestionably helped in the end, however, by what in the +beginning threatened to be a serious if not insuperable obstacle. He was +unable to get any one concerned in the book trade to assume the risk of +bringing out "The Spy." That had to be taken by the author himself. In +the case of this novel, we know positively that Cooper was not only the +owner of the copyright, but of all the edition; that he gave (p. 066) +directions as to the terms on which the work was to be furnished to the +booksellers, while the publishers, Wiley & Halsted, had no direct +interest in it, and received their reward by a commission. It is evident +that under this arrangement his profits on the sale were far larger than +would usually be the case. Whether he followed the same method in any of +his later productions, there seems to be no means of ascertaining. Wiley, +however, until his death, continued to be his publisher. "The Last of +the Mohicans" went into the hands of Carey & Lea of Philadelphia; and +this firm, under various changes of name, continued to bring out the +American edition of his novels until the year 1844. It was from the +sales in this country that most of the income from his books was derived. +England, indeed, brought him a large sum, at least up to the passage of +the copyright law of 1838; but he gained little pecuniary benefit from +the wide circulation of his works on the European continent, whatever +may have been the renown. In regard to France, he said in 1834 after his +return, that he had paid in taxes to the government of that country, +during his different residences in it, considerably more money than was +obtained from the sales of the sheets of fourteen books. In Germany, +where his writings had an immense circulation, his receipts were still +less. + +But whatever may have been the precise amount acquired by the sale of +his works, it was sufficient to pay off heavy debts incurred by others, +but which he was compelled to assume, to put him in an independent +position and justify him in determining to fulfill a long-cherished +desire of spending some time in Europe. Accordingly on the 1st (p. 067) +of June, 1826, he sailed with his family--consisting, with the servants, +of ten persons--from the port of New York. On the 5th of November, 1833, +he landed there on his return. His original intention was to be gone for +but five years. To the fixing of this particular time he was apparently +influenced by a remark of Jefferson, that no American should remain away +for a longer period from the country, because if he did, so rapid were +the changes, its facts would have got wholly beyond his knowledge. His +absence actually extended to a little less than seven years and a half. +Most of this time was spent in France. From Henry Clay, then Secretary +of State, he had received the appointment of consul at Lyons. He had +asked for it, because he did not wish to have the appearance of +expatriating himself; for as the service was then conducted, such a post +involved no duties and brought in no returns. His commission bears date +the 10th of May, 1826. Even this nominal position he gave up after +holding it between two and three years. No resignation of his is on file +in the State Department; but a successor was appointed on the 15th of +January, 1829. He threw up the place because he had come to entertain +the conviction that gross abuses existed in the system of foreign +appointments, and it became him to set an example of the principles he +professed. + +It may be well at this point to furnish an outline sketch of his various +residences in Europe. The voyage from America lasted about a month; and +after staying a few days in England he passed over to France, on the +soil of which he first set foot on the 18th of July, 1826. Either in +Paris or its immediate neighborhood he remained until February, 1828, +when he crossed over to England. Leaving London early in June, (p. 068) +he went back to France by the way of Holland and Belgium. In July, 1828, +he left Paris for Switzerland, and took up his residence near Berne. +After spending some weeks in making excursions from that point, he +crossed the Alps in October by the Simplon Pass. The following winter +and spring he spent in Florence and its vicinity. In the summer of 1829 +he sailed down the Italian coast to Naples, and after staying a few +weeks in that city, made a home for himself and his family at Sorrento +for nearly three months. The winter of 1829-30 he spent in Rome. In the +spring of 1830 he went to Venice. From that place he journeyed to Munich +by the Tyrol, and finally settled down in Dresden. From his temporary +home in Saxony, however, the July revolution speedily drew him to Paris, +and that city he made mainly his residence from that time until his +return to America in 1833. There he was, and there he stood his ground +during the terrible cholera ravages of 1832. Occasional expeditions he +made, and of one in particular, up the Rhine and in Switzerland, he has +published a full account. + +It was eminently characteristic of Cooper, that though he brought with +him letters of introduction, he found himself unwilling to deliver a +single one of them. Yet, certainly, if any American could be pardoned +the use of a custom that has been so much abused, he was the man. But +after he had resided quietly in France for a few weeks, he happened to +attend a diplomatic dinner given by the United States minister to +Canning, then on a visit to Paris. This was the occasion of making his +presence known to those who had long before made the acquaintance of his +writings. He was at once sought out and welcomed by the most (p. 069) +distinguished men of the most brilliant capital in the world. The +polish, the grace, the elegance, and the wit of French social life made +upon him an impression which he not only never forgot, but which he was +afterwards in the habit of contrasting with the social life of England +and America, to the manifest disadvantage of both, and with the certain +result of provoking the hostility of each. He himself says very little +of the reception he met; but we know from other sources how cordial and +even deferential it was. He was not a man, indeed, to enjoy being +lionized, to be set up, as he expressed it, at a dinner-table as a piece +of luxury, like strawberries in February or peaches in April. But he was +in a capital where attention is always paid to ability, though rarely +with noisy demonstration. He received his full share of it. Without +mentioning numerous other evidences, the conspicuous position he held is +evident from the way Scott speaks of him in his diary. He mentions +meeting him one evening at the Princess Galitzin's in November, 1826. +"Cooper was there," said he, "so the Scotch and American lions took the +field together." + +But of all the countries in which he resided he grew to be fondest of +Italy. This was partly due to the fact that there he could indulge to +the full extent two passions that had come to be a part of his +nature--the love of fine skies, and of beautiful scenery. His feelings +in regard to this country and to France he expressed on one occasion +with a courtliness that was wholly free from the insincerity of the +courtier's art. In November, 1830, shortly after his return to Paris +from Germany, he was presented to the royal family. The Queen of Louis +Philippe, who was the daughter of Ferdinand I., of the Two (p. 070) +Sicilies, asked him of all the lands visited by him which he most +preferred. "That in which your majesty was born," was the reply, "for +its nature, and that in which your majesty reigns for its society." +There was not in this the slightest compliment, if by compliment +anything is meant inconsistent with the severest truth. "Switzerland," +he said afterward, "is the country to astonish and sometimes to delight; +but Italy is the land to love." During the nearly two years he remained +there, its scenery, its climate, its recollections, and also its people, +were constantly gaining a hold upon his heart. No country did he ever +leave with so much regret; and when he came to take his final departure, +his feelings were such as are experienced by him who is on the point of +bidding farewell to a much-loved home. When he passed into the valley of +the Adige on his journey to the Tyrol, in 1830, he reversed the usual +practice of the traveler who has his eyes fixed only on what is to come. +He turned around to cast a last lingering glance at the land he was +about to leave behind. Italy was the only country, his wife told him, +that she had ever known him to quit looking over the shoulder. His +regard for the people was, perhaps, intensified by the reaction against +the estimation in which he had been wont to hold them. "The +vulgar-minded English,"--he said in one of those deliciously irritating +and double-acting sentences he was afterward in the habit of frequently +uttering--"talk of the damned Italians, and the vulgar-minded American, +quite in rule, imitates his great model." Certainly his prejudices +against the inhabitants of that country were soon swept away. He +contrasted them favorably with all their neighbors. They were (p. 071) +more gracious than the English, more sincere than the French, and +infinitely more refined than the Germans. In grace of mind, and in love, +and even knowledge of the arts, a large portion of the common Italians +were, in his opinion, as much superior to the Anglo-Saxons as +civilization is to barbarism. He came in time to have a sort of fondness +even for the professional mendicants. He furnishes us a curious picture +of the beggars who assembled about his residence daily in Sorrento, to +whom he invariably gave a grano apiece. The company, starting out from +one or two, had been steadily reinforced by recruits from far and near, +till it ran up to the neighborhood of a hundred men, who regularly +presented themselves for their pittance. There is no more graphic +description in his writings than his account of the scene which took +place when a new-comer among the beggars had the indiscretion, on +receiving his grano, to wish the giver only a hundred years of life; the +indignation of the king of the gang at this exhibition of black +ingratitude; the tumult with which the blunder was corrected, and the +shouts and outcries with which the pitiful hundred was changed into a +thousand years, and long ones at that. + +During this time his literary activity was unceasing. Before the close +of 1830 he had completed four novels: "The Prairie," "The Red Rover," +"The Wept of Wish-ton-Wish," and "The Water Witch,"--all of which were +devoted to the delineation of scenes and characters belonging to his +native land. Before he started for Europe he had begun a new Indian +story. This was finished during his early residence in Paris. He had +felt it to be a hazardous venture to bring into "The Last of the +Mohicans" the personages who had been previously drawn in "The (p. 072) +Pioneers." But so great had been his success, and so strongly had the +characters taken hold of him, that he determined to renew the experiment +for a third time. Leather-Stocking, accordingly, was introduced as +living in extreme old age on the Western prairies, and the book ends +with his death. The idea of transferring the home of the worn-out hunter +to these vast solitudes was suggested, it is fair to infer from Cooper's +own words, by the actual career of Daniel Boone, the Kentucky pioneer. +The simple story of this man's life was sufficiently remarkable; but in +the exaggerated accounts of it that were then current, he was +represented as having emigrated, in his ninety-second year, to an estate +three hundred miles west of the Mississippi, because he found a +population of ten to the square mile inconveniently crowded. + +On the 17th of May, 1827, "The Prairie" was published. It did not meet +with the extraordinary success of "The Last of the Mohicans," nor has it +ever been as great a favorite with the general public. It was written in +a far more quiet and subdued vein. It never keeps up that prolonged +strain upon the feelings which characterizes the work that preceded it, +and which while a defect in the eyes of some is to most readers its +special charm. There are, indeed, in many of Cooper's stories, +situations more thrilling and scenes more stirring than can be found in +"The Prairie," though in it there is no lack of these. But of all his +tales it is much the most poetical. Man sinks into insignificance in the +presence of these mighty solitudes; for throughout the whole book the +immensity of nature hangs over the spirit like a pall. Nor were the +characters of the principal personages out of harmony with the atmosphere +that envelopes the scenes described. In the lonely hunter, now (p. 073) +nearing his grave, there is a pathetic grandeur, which is a natural +development, and not an artificial addition. Though he has hurried as +far away as possible from the din of the settlements, he is no longer +querulous and irritable as in his old age in the Otsego hills. He has +learned to recognize the inevitable. While he does not cease to regret, +he has ceased to denounce. He knows that the majestic solitude of nature +will not long remain undisturbed, nor its more majestic silence unbroken; +for in every wind that blows from the East he hears the sound of axes and +the crash of falling trees that herald the march of civilization across +the continent. He sorrows at the ruin impending on all that is dearest to +his heart; but he awaits it in dignified submission. In fine contrast to +him stands the man who has likewise sought the solitude of the wilderness, +not because he loves the beauty and the majesty of primeval nature, but +because he hates the restraints that human society has thrown about the +indulgence of human passions. Criticism has rarely done justice to the +skill and power with which Cooper has drawn the squatter of the prairies, +who holds that land should be as free as air; who has traveled hundreds of +miles beyond the Mississippi to reach a place where title-deeds are not +registered and sheriffs make no levies; who neither fears God nor regards +man; to whom the rule of the rifle is the supremest law; and yet who, with +all his detestation of the safeguards which society has erected for its +security, has a moral code and a rough wild justice of his own. + +"The Prairie" was followed by "The Red Rover," which came out on the 9th +of January, 1828. During the years that followed the publication (p. 074) +of "The Pilot," the reputation of that work had been steadily increasing. +Time had more than confirmed the first favorable impression. Not only +had any lingering prejudice against the sea-story as a story been +entirely swept away, but tales of this kind were beginning to be the +fashion. Imitators were springing up everywhere. It was natural, therefore, +for Cooper to turn his attention once more to a kind of fiction to the +composition of which he himself had originally opened the way. After +leaving the navy he had become one of the owners of a whaling vessel, +and in it had made one or two voyages to Newport. In the harbor of that +place he fixed the introduction of his new story of the sea. He had +taken up his residence during the summer of 1827 in the little hamlet of +St. Ouen on the Seine, not far from Paris. There, in the space of three +or four months, "The Red Rover" was written. From the date of its +appearance to the present time it has always been justly one of the most +popular of his productions, and perhaps, considered as a whole, stands +at the head of his sea-tales. + +On the 6th of November, 1829, succeeded an Indian story of King Philip's +war, under the name of "The Wept of Wish-ton-Wish." The fanciful title +puzzled, and did not altogether please, the public. As a matter of fact +it was used only in this country. In England the novel was called "The +Borderers;" in France "The Puritans of America, or the Valley of +Wish-ton-Wish." This work was begun during his residence in Switzerland +in 1828, and was completed at Florence. It has never been popular, +particularly in America. The tale is a tragic one throughout, and the +prevailing air of sombreness is rarely lightened by any success in the +management of minor incidents. The introduction too was marked by (p. 075) +one of Cooper's besetting faults, intolerable prolixity. But the main +cause of his failure lay in his inability to delineate the Puritan +character. It was not knowledge that was wanting, it was sympathy; or +perhaps it is better to say that it was his lack of sympathy which +prevented his having any genuine knowledge. He tried in all honesty to +depict the men who had founded New England, the men of hard heads and +iron hearts, in whom piety and pugnacity were, as in himself, so +intimately blended that the transition from the one to the other is a +vanishing line whose discovery defies the closest scrutiny. Paradoxical +as the assertion may seem, he was too much like the Puritans to do them +justice. His character was essentially the same as their own; but the +influences under which he had been trained were altogether different. +Upon their manners, their ideas, and even their appearance he had early +learned to look with aversion; and he had not the power to project his +mind out of the circle of notions and prejudices in which he had been +brought up. The very name of the Reverend Meek Wolf which he bestowed in +this story upon his clergyman, revealed of itself the existence of +feelings which put him at once out of that pale of sympathetic thought, +which enables the novelist or historian to look with the insight of the +spirit upon men and motives which his intellect acting by itself would +prompt him to distrust and dislike. + +To this tale succeeded "The Water Witch." This was begun at Sorrento and +finished at Rome, a city which he subsequently used often to speak of as +the precise moral antipodes of the capital of the New World, in the +harbor of which he had laid much of the scene of this story. It (p. 076) +was not till he reached Dresden, however, that he was enabled to have +it put in print. On the 11th of December, 1830, it made its appearance +in this country. With it ended for a time his fictions that dealt with +American life and manners. He now turned to new fields and wrote with +different aims. + + * * * * * + +During all these years his popularity had continued unabated, though his +last two novels could hardly be said to have met with the favor which +had been accorded to most of those which had preceded them. It is +certainly a convincing proof of the wide reputation he had gained before +he went to Europe, that five editions of "The Prairie," the first work +he wrote after his arrival, were arranged to be published at the same +time. Two were to come out in Paris, one in French and one in English; +one in London; one in Berlin; and one in Philadelphia. But even this +success was soon surpassed. It is hard to credit the accounts that are +given on unimpeachable testimony. One statement, however, is too +important to be overlooked, coming from the source it does. In the +controversy going on in this country in 1833, in regard to the part +Cooper had taken in the finance discussion, which will be mentioned in +its proper place, Morse, the inventor of the electric telegraph, +published a letter in defense of his absent friend. In it he bore +witness in the following words to the popularity of the novelist in the +Old World: "I have visited, in Europe, many countries," said he, "and +what I have asserted of the fame of Mr. Cooper I assert from personal +knowledge. In every city of Europe that I visited the works of Cooper +were conspicuously placed in the windows of every bookshop. They (p. 077) +are published as soon as he produces them in thirty-four different +places in Europe. They have been seen by American travelers in the +languages of Turkey and Persia, in Constantinople, in Egypt, at +Jerusalem, at Ispahan." + + + + +CHAPTER V. (p. 078) + +1830. + + +The month of December, 1830, which saw the publication of "The Water +Witch," closed the first and far the most fortunate decade of Cooper's +literary life. In the decade which followed began that career of +controversy which lasted, with little intermission, until his death. By +it his reputation and his fortunes were profoundly affected. It worked a +complete revolution both in the sentiments with which he regarded others, +and in the sentiments with which others regarded him. The most intense +lover of his country, he became the most unpopular man of letters to +whom it has ever given birth. For years a storm of abuse fell upon him, +which for violence, for virulence, and even for malignity, surpassed +anything in the history of American literature, if not in the history of +literature itself. Nor did the effect of this disappear with his life. +The misrepresentations and calumnies, which were then set in motion, +have not ceased to operate even at this day. Full as marked, still, was +the influence which the controversies, in which he was engaged, had upon +his literary reputation. A direct result of them at the time was not +only to impair the estimation in which his previous writings had been +held, but to cause the later productions of his pen to be treated with +systematic injustice. Both in England and America the effect of this +hostile criticism has not yet died away. + +On the other hand, it was no one-sided contest that took place. (p. 079) +If Cooper was attacked, he, in turn, did his part in attacking. No man +has ever criticised his own country more unsparingly, and in some +instances more unjustly, than did he, who, in foreign lands, had been +its stoutest and most pronounced defender. Nor, in the controversies +that followed his return from Europe, did one side conduct itself with +perfect righteousness, and the other with deliberate villainy. Had the +parties but seen fit to act in this manner, the duties of a biographer +would have been sensibly lightened. A fair and dispassionate account of +the circumstances that led to the unpopularity which clouded, though it +could hardly be said to darken, Cooper's later life, demands a full and +careful examination of many facts which, in some instances, seem to have +no relation to the subject. Especially is a knowledge of the European +estimate of America during the period that the novelist resided abroad a +matter of first importance. But even of as great importance is a +knowledge of certain traits of his character and of certain sentiments +which he strongly felt, and of certain beliefs which he earnestly held. +To bring out these points clearly, it is necessary for a while to arrest +the progress of the narrative. + +It is to be remarked at the outset that the first impression which Cooper +made upon strangers was rarely in his favor. To this we have the +concurrent testimony of those who knew him slightly, and of those who +knew him well. It was due to a variety of causes. He had infinite pride, +and there was in his manner a self-assertion that often bordered, or seemed +to border, upon arrogance. His earnestness, moreover, was often mistaken +for brusqueness and violence; for he was, in some measure, of that (p. 080) +class of men who appear to be excited when they are only interested. The +result was that at first he was apt to repel rather than attract. Without +referring to other evidence, we need here only to quote the guarded +statement of one of his warmest friends in describing the beginning of +their acquaintance. "I remember," says Bryant, "being somewhat startled, +coming, as I did, from the seclusion of a country life, with a certain +emphatic frankness in his manner which, however, I came at last to like +and to admire." But besides this he had other characteristics which, to +the majority of men, could not be agreeable. Thoroughly grounded in his +own convictions, positive and uncompromising in the expression of them, +he had no patience with those--and the number is far from being a small +one--who embrace their views loosely, hold them halfheartedly, or defend +them ignorantly. The opinions of such he was not content, like most men of +ability, with quietly and unobtrusively despising. The contempt he felt he +did not pay sufficient deference to human nature to hide. It was inevitable +that the self-love of many should be offended by the arbitrariness and +imperiousness with which he overrode their opinions, and still more by +the unequivocal disdain manifested for them. It must be conceded, also, +that to those for whom he felt indifference or dislike, he had in no +slight degree that capacity of making himself disagreeable which +reaches, and then only in rare instances, the ripened perfection of +offensiveness in him who has breathed from earliest youth the social air +of England. These were traits that were sure to make him enemies in +private life. In public life, moreover, the ardor of his temperament was +such as to hurry him into controversy; and the number of those (p. 081) +hostile to him on personal grounds, was always liable to receive +accessions from men who had never seen him face to face. No gage of +battle could be thrown down which he did not stand ready to take up. +Opposition only inflamed him; it never daunted him. He had not the +slightest particle of that prudence which teaches a man to keep out of +contests in which he can gain no advantage, or in which success will be +only a little less disastrous than defeat. It hardly needs to be said +that a politic line of conduct is usually the very last which a person +of such a temperament follows. But when to all these characteristics is +added a peculiar sensitiveness to criticism, it is evident that if +proper opportunities are offered, personal unpopularity will be certain +to result from the ample materials existing for its development. + +Against this view of his character, it is fair to add here that he had +many qualities which would tend to bring about an entirely opposite +result. He was more than ordinarily generous; and gave with a liberality +that went at times beyond what most men would look upon as prudence. He +was prompt to relieve merit that stood in need of help. Many cases of +this kind there are unpublished and unknown out of a very small circle; +for Cooper was not one to let his left hand know what his right hand was +doing. One fact, however, has been so often mentioned, that it is +violating no sanctity of private life to repeat it here. He was the +first to discover the excellence of Greenough and to make that sculptor +known to his countrymen. "Fenimore Cooper saved me from despair," wrote +the latter in 1833, "after my second return to Italy. He employed me as +I wished to be employed; and has up to this moment been a (p. 082) +father to me in kindness." To this generosity, it is to be added that +his sense of personal honor was of the loftiest kind. It was sometimes, +indeed, carried to an extreme almost Quixotic; so that men morally +fat-witted could not even comprehend his principles of action, and men +who contented themselves with conventional morality resented his +assertion of them as a reflection upon themselves. His loyalty to those +who had become dear to him was, moreover, just as conspicuous as his +loyalty to what he deemed right. It withstood every chance of change, +every accident of time and circumstance, and only gave way on absolute +proof of unworthiness. Intimate acquaintance was sure to bring to Cooper +respect, admiration, and finally affection. Few men have stood better +than he that final test of excellence which rests upon the fact that +those who knew him best loved him most. Yet even these were often forced +to admit, that it was necessary to know him well to appreciate how +generous, how true, and how lofty-minded he was. + +Besides these traits of character, it is important to understand some of +Cooper's political and social opinions. He was an aristocrat in feeling, +and a democrat by conviction. To some this seems a combination so +unnatural that they find it hard to comprehend it. That a man whose +tastes and sympathies and station connect him with the highest class, +and to whom contact with the uneducated and unrefined brings with it a +sense of personal discomfort and often of disgust, should avow his +belief in the political rights of those socially inferior, should be +unwilling to deny them privileges which he claims for himself, is +something so appalling to many that their minds strive vainly to grasp +it. But this feeling was so thoroughly wrought into Cooper's (p. 083) +nature that he almost disliked those of his countrymen whom he found not +to share in it. "I confess," he wrote at the time when he was generally +denounced as an aristocrat, "that I now feel mortified and grieved when +I meet with an American gentleman who professes anything but liberal +opinions as respects the rights of his fellow-creatures." He went on to +explain that by liberal opinions he meant "the generous, manly +determination to let all enjoy equal political rights, and to bring +those to whom authority is necessarily confided under the control of the +community they serve." He despised the cant that the people were their +own worst enemies. So far from it, he believed in widening the +foundations of society by making representation as real as possible, and +thereby giving to every interest in the state its fair measure of power; +for no government, in his eyes, could ever be just or pure in which the +governors have interests distinct from those of the governed. These +opinions he put sometimes in an extreme form. "I have never yet been in +a country," he said, "in which what are called the lower orders have not +clearer and sounder views than their betters, of the great principles +which ought to predominate in the control of human affairs." At the same +time his belief in democracy was not in the least one of unmixed +admiration. He was far from looking upon it as a perfect form of +government. It was only the one that, taking all things into +consideration, was attended with fewer evils and greater advantages than +any other. It had faults and dangers peculiar to itself. His liberal +opinions, he took frequent care to say, had nothing in common with the +devices of demagogues who teach the doctrine, that the voice of (p. 084) +the people is the voice of God; that the aggregation of fallible parts, +acting, too, with diminished responsibilities, forms an infallible whole. + +Along with this clear understanding of the advantages and disadvantages +of democracy there was mingled, however, a weakness of feeling on the +subject of position, which occasionally degenerated into an almost +ridiculous pettiness. This was especially true of his later life. His +utterances were sometimes so apparently contradictory, however, that it +is hard to tell whether justice has been done to his real meaning on +account of the difficulty of ascertaining what his real meaning was. But +he spoke often of "the gentry of America," as if there were or could be +here a class of gentlemen outside and independent of those engaged in +professions or occupations. He seemed at times to attach that supreme +importance to descent which we are usually accustomed to see exhibited +in this country only by those who have little or nothing else to boast +of. His contempt of trade and of those employed in it had frequently +about its expression a spice of affectation. Moreover, he subjected +himself to much misrepresentation and ill-will by the manner in which he +lectured his countrymen on the distinctions that must prevail in +society. There are certain things which are everywhere recognized and +quietly accepted: they only become offensive when proclaimed. A man may +unhesitatingly acquiesce in his inferiority, socially, to one who is +politically only his equal; but he will very naturally resent a +reference, by the latter, to the fact of his social inferiority. A good +deal of Cooper's later writings was deformed by solemn commonplaces on +the inevitable necessity of the existence of class distinctions. This +drew upon him the condemnation of many who did not look upon the (p. 085) +expression of such views as an offense against truth, but as an offense +against good manners. To correct the folly of fools was itself folly; and +wise men, no matter what their station in life, did not thank him for +the instruction, the very giving of which implied an insult to their +intelligence. His remarks on the subject were never heeded, if indeed +they were ever read, by those for whom they were specially designed. But +to his enemies they furnished ample opportunities for misrepresentation +and abuse. + +But any account of Cooper would be of slight value that failed to take +notice of his love of country. No other man of letters has there been in +America, or perhaps in any other land, to whom this has been a passion +so absorbing. It entered into the very deepest feelings of his heart. +Even in the storm of calumny, which fell upon him in his later years, if +the flame of his patriotism seemed at times to die away, any little +circumstance was sure to revive it at once. No proclaimer of "manifest +destiny" ever had more faith than he in the imperial greatness and +grandeur to which the republic was to attain. All that in vulgar minds +took the shape of braggart boasting, was in his idealized and glorified +by his lofty conception of the majestic part which his country was to +play in deciding the destinies of mankind. In spite of short-comings he +deplored, of perils that he feared, firm in his heart was the conviction +that here was to be the home of the great new race that was to rule the +world. Other lands might look to the future with hope or doubt; his own +was as sure of it as if it lay already in its grasp. This was a +confidence that survived all changes, and despised all forebodings. The +question of slavery certainly disturbed him, but it did not shake (p. 086) +his trust. The prophecies of the dissolution of the Union, current +in Europe, he laughed to scorn. Even in the days of nullification his +faith never wavered one jot. To no one, more justly than to him, could +perpetual thanks have been voted, because he never despaired of the +republic. + +Cooper's lofty views of his country he soon found were essentially +different from those entertained abroad. The knowledge of America even +now possessed in Europe is not burdensomely great. But in 1830 its +ignorance was prodigious; and the nearest approach to interest was +usually the result of something of that same vague fear which haunted +the citizens of the Roman Empire at the possible perils to civilization +that might lie hid in the boundless depths of the German forests. On the +Continent the ignorance was greater than it was in England, and Cooper +had plenty of opportunities of witnessing the exhibition of it. In the +case of the common people he was amused by it. That the whites who had +emigrated to America had not yet become entirely black; that it was +reasonable to expect that time, while it could not restore their original +hue to these deteriorated Europeans tanned to ebony, might in the +revolution of the suns elevate them to a fair degree of civilization; +these, and similar sage opinions, did not disturb him when uttered by the +philosophers of the lower classes. Yet their ignorance, great as it was, +he found not to surpass materially that of men who ought to have known +better, so long as they pretended to know at all. That the colonies had +been settled by convicts, was a common impression among the best educated. +While residing in Paris Cooper had the gratification of having his country +quoted in the French Chamber of Deputies as an example of the (p. 087) +possibility of forming respectable communities by the transportation of +criminals. Even men who sympathized with republican institutions, he +informs us, did not think of denying the fact; they denied merely the +inference. The brilliant publicist, Paul Courier, had asserted it would +be as unjust to reproach the modern Romans with being descendants of +ravishers and robbers, as it would be to reproach the Americans with +being descendants of convicts. All could not be expected, however, to be +so liberal as this constitutional reformer. The gross vices which in +foreign opinion distinguished the inhabitants of the United States, were +held to be the natural consequences of their settlement by felons. +Cooper subsequently took care to furnish the sons of the Puritans with +all needful information as to the light in which their fathers were +viewed in Europe. At the time, however, it was far different. Keenly +sensitive to his country's honor, and knowing the morals of his +countrymen to be far higher than those of the men of any other land, +derogatory statements of this kind were galling in the extreme. + +But it was the English opinion that Cooper resented most bitterly. This +was partly because he believed from the community of origin and speech +it ought to be better informed, and partly because he looked upon it as +responsible for many of the absurd and erroneous impressions that +prevailed in the rest of Europe. His feelings were rendered still keener +by the direct contact with English prejudice which he had personally +during his residence abroad. The attitude of the Continent towards +America was that of supreme ignorance and indifference. But there was at +the time something besides that in the attitude of England, so far (p. 088) +certainly as it was represented by its periodical literature. In the +most favorable cases it was supercilious and patronizing, an attitude +which never permits the nation criticising to understand the nation +criticised. There was never any effort to penetrate into the real nature +of the social and political movements that were taking place on this +side of the water. Men were contented with the examination of mere +external phenomena, which, whether good or bad in themselves, belonged +to a period of growth and were certain to pass away. Not the slightest +sympathy existed with the feelings and aspirations of a people closely +allied in blood and speech, and the lack of desire involved the lack of +ability to enter into the spirit of their institutions. There was no +idea that there could be other types of character than those found on +British soil, or any room or reason for the play of other social and +political forces than were at work in British communities. + +At the time, however, that Cooper took up his residence in Europe there +was more than supercilious indifference in the character of English +criticism. There was steady misrepresentation and abuse, due in a few +cases to design, in more to ignorance, in most to that disposition on +the part of all men to believe readily what they wish ardently. It made +little difference whether the writer were Whig or Tory. If anything the +open dislike of the latter was preferable to the patronizing regard of +the former. In 1804 the poet Moore visited America. He wrote home a +number of poetical epistles, in which he told his friends that he had +found us old in our youth and blasted in our prime. The demon gold was +running loose; everything and everybody was corrupt; truth, (p. 089) +conscience, and virtue were regularly made matters of barter and sale. A +succession of English travelers repeated from year to year the same +dismal story, and their statements were caught up and paraded and dwelt +upon in the English periodical press. In "The Quarterly Review," in +particular, our condition was constantly held up as an awful example of +the results of democratic institutions and universal suffrage. Certain +facts and predictions had been repeated so often that they came to be +accepted and believed by all. We spoke a dialect of the English tongue; +our manners were bad, if we could be said to have any at all; loyalty we +could know nothing about, because we had no king; religion we were +entirely devoid of, because there was no established church; the +federation was steadily tending towards monarchy; the wealthy were +longing to be nobles; and the Union could not last above a quarter of a +century. Worse than all, intrigue and bribery were sapping the national +life; or to use a still favorite phrase of the newspapers, though the +repetition of a hundred years has now made it somewhat stale, corruption +was preying upon the vitals of the republic. + +There is not the slightest exaggeration in these statements. Their truth +any one familiar with the periodical literature of that period will +least of all doubt. There was a perfect agreement between those who +visited us and described us and those who drew their description from +their imaginations. Nothing distinguished the English traveler or the +English reviewer so much as his piety, and his profound conviction that +religion could not exist where it was not carefully watched over by an +established church. Besides this inevitable moral destitution, we (p. 090) +were irreclaimably given over to vulgarity. Manners there could not be +in a land abandoned to an unbridled democracy. In the most praiseworthy +instances even, men lacked that repose, that fine tact, which were found +universally in the higher orders in the mother country. The defect was +ineradicable, according to most; for it had its baleful origin in +popular institutions themselves. In justice it must be added that there +were some who, in consequence of the American passion for traveling, +entertained a mild hope that in time this rudeness would wear away, and +this total ignorance of good breeding would be enlightened by the polish +and refinement that would be picked up from the quantity to be found +scattered about foreign courts. The published correspondence of that +period is delicious in its frankness. The Englishman, writing to his +American friend, never descends from his lofty position of censor both +of great and petty morals. The inferiority of manners in this country is +a point insisted upon by the former with an assiduity and assurance that +are sufficient of themselves to make clear how high was the breeding to +which he himself had attained. It makes little difference who write the +letters. They all express the same sentiments. They all offer advice as +to the best method America can take to retrieve the good opinion of +Europe which it has lost. They are careful to say that they entertain +the kindest of feelings to the United States; that they neglect no +occasion of doing justice to the good and wise that had found there a +home. Unfortunately these are few in number; and with a lofty sense of +justice they never fail to express disapprobation in strong terms of the +vast amount to be condemned in a land which had fallen under the sway +of a reckless democracy and a godless church. One English (p. 091) +gentleman in the British military service, after being some time in this +country, writes, after his return, to an American friend, and thus +cheerfully records his impressions. "The frightful effects produced by +an unrestrained democracy," he says, "the demoralizing effects produced +by universal suffrage never appeared to me so odious as they do now by +contrast with the good breeding, the order and mutual support which all +give to each other in this country, from the highest to the lowest." +This letter belongs to the year 1839, and it only continues a line of +remark common for the half-century previous. Everything that came from +America, if praised at all, was praised with a qualification. Not a +compliment could be uttered of an individual without an implied +disparagement of the land that gave him birth. The record of every man +who was well received in English society will bear out this assertion. +Scott wrote to Southey in 1819, that Ticknor was "a wondrous fellow for +romantic lore and antiquarian research, _considering his country_." Even +words of genuine affection were often accompanied with an impertinence +which has a delightfulness of its own from the utter unconsciousness on +the part of the writer or speaker of having said anything out of the +way. They were compliments of the kind which intimated that the person +addressed was a sort of redeeming feature in a wild waste of desert. +"You have taught us," writes in 1840 Mrs. Basil Montagu to Charles +Sumner, "to think much more highly of your country--from whom we have +hitherto seen no such men." + +There is nothing to be gained in raking over at this day the ashes of +dead controversies and revilings. Americans no longer read the (p. 092) +writings of the kind described, and Englishmen have largely forgotten +that they were ever written. The new commentators on our habits and +customs have taken up a new line of remark, and the new prophets of woe +foresee an entirely new class of calamities. But it has been necessary +to revive here the memory of the old charges and forebodings, in order +to show the state of feeling that would be developed by them in a man of +a peculiarly sensitive and proud nature, such as was the subject of this +biography. Rubbish as they may seem now, they were to the men of that +time a grievous sore. Whatever may have been Cooper's feelings previously, +it was not until after he had resided for a while in Europe that any +hostility towards England is seen in his works. But there it soon began +to manifest itself, though at first rather in the way of defense than +attack. As time went on it increased rather than diminished. It largely +affected his own fortunes by the personal hostility it provoked in +return. To some extent, without doubt, his oft-repeated declaration was +true, that in the dependence then existing here upon foreign opinion, +every American author held his reputation at the mercy of the British +reviewer. It would be unjust to say that it seemed at one period almost +as if Cooper had sworn towards England undying hate. But it is certainly +a fact that he gave utterance to his inmost feelings when he described +it as a country that cast a chill over his affections, a country that +all men respected but that few men loved. Yet he had been brought up in +the school of the Federalist party, in which admiration for the +literature, policy, and morals of the motherland was taught as a duty; +in which every door was thrown open to visitors from England as an act +of hospitality due to kinsmen separated merely by the accident of (p. 093) +position. He himself tells us how, an ardent boy of seventeen, he leaped +for the first time upon the soil of Great Britain, feeling for it a love +almost as devoted as that which he bore the land of his birth, and +looking upon every native of it in the light of a brother. It did not +take him long to find out that the fancied tie of kinship was not +recognized, that it was even despised; and that if he made friends, it +must be in spite of his country, and not because of it. His connection +with the navy had also led him to be keenly sensitive to the injustice +and indignities connected with the impressment of seamen. In his first +voyage in a merchant ship he had seen two native Americans taken from +the vessel and forced into the British service. His own captain even had +on one occasion been seized, though speedily liberated. There had also +been an attempt to press a Swede belonging to the crew, on the ground +that his country and England were in alliance, and the latter had +therefore a right to his help. These were not the acts to inspire +devotion towards the people who committed or who authorized them. The +keen resentment Cooper felt for the wrongs then perpetrated upon the +American marine he afterward expressed in his novels of "Wing-and-Wing" +and "Miles Wallingford." He never forgot those early experiences. When +he came to reside in Europe he was as little disposed to forgive the +depreciation of his country which he imputed, whether justly or +unjustly, to English influence. Distrust became dislike, and dislike +deepened into hostility. + +There is little doubt that with a man of Cooper's nature the revulsion +from his original feelings would tend to swing him to the opposite +extreme; that, as a consequence of that, he would often fancy (p. 094) +insult where none was intended, and impute to design conduct that was +the result of chance or even of personal timidity. But making full +allowance for this inevitable source of error, there was plenty of +reason furnished for offense to a man whose personal pride was equal to +that of the whole British aristocracy, and whose pride in his country +exceeded even his personal pride. The ignorant criticism which amused +most Americans was apt to make him indignant. No compliment, in +particular, could be paid with safety to him individually at the expense +of his country. This was a practice, however, which the Englishmen of +that day seemed to regard as the consummate crown of adulation. +Depreciation of America of any sort he resented at once. If conversation +touched upon matters discreditable to the United States--which was far +from being an uncommon topic--it was very much his practice, instead of +listening to it patiently, to bring up matters discreditable to Great +Britain. There was unquestionably ample material on both sides with +which each could blacken the other. But while this tended to make the +conversation less monotonous, it likewise tended to make the converser +less popular. Cooper lost early by his bearing in English society much +of the favor which he had won from his writings. To this we have +positive evidence. It is specifically mentioned in the sketch of his +life, which along with his portrait appeared in 1831 in Colburn's "New +Monthly Magazine." The article went on, after mentioning this fact, to +pay a tribute to his somewhat aggressive patriotism. "Yet he seems," it +said, "to claim little consideration on the score of intellectual +greatness; he is evidently prouder of his birth than of his genius; and +looks, speaks, and walks as if he exulted more in being recognized (p. 095) +as an American citizen than as the author of 'The Pilot' and 'The Prairie.'" + +To a man whose heart was thus full of the future glories of the +republic, the indifference and neglect with which it was regarded could +not but be galling. Still this was nothing to the positive contempt +which often manifested itself in social slights that could be felt but +could not well be resented. This was especially noticeable in the case +of the legations, the conduct of which was largely under the control of +the home government. The English policy was here in marked contrast to +that of Russia, which, even at that early day, cultivated almost +ostentatiously friendship with America. Between the legations of these +two countries there was always the best of understandings. The direct +contrary often prevailed between the ministers of Great Britain and of +the United States. The influence of the former was frequently thought to +be exerted to the social injury of the latter. Whether true or false, +this was generally believed. Cooper certainly credited it and looked +forward to the time when the whole attitude of England would be altered. +We were then less than twelve millions in population; but the day would +come when we should be fifty millions. The existing state of things +would then be changed. You and I may not live to see it, he wrote +substantially to his friends, but our sons and grandsons will. They may +not like us any better, but they will take care to hide their feelings. +Strong resentment sometimes drove him into taking up positions he would +not in his cooler moments have maintained. "As one citizen of the +republic," he wrote, "however insignificant, I have no notion of being +blackguarded and vituperated half a century and then cajoled (p. 096) +into forgetfulness at the suggestion of fear and expediency, as +circumstances render our good-will of importance." Not one of these +slights and insults would he have the fifty millions forget. He did not +bear in mind that fifty millions could not afford to remember. It was +like asking the man of middle life to revenge upon the sons the +indignities which the boy had received from the fathers. + +Cooper's residence in England was only for a few months during the first +half of the year 1828. With his feelings towards that country and with +the feeling entertained in it toward his own, nothing could have made +his stay highly pleasant. But it is one of the numerous minor falsehoods +that came to be connected with his life, that it was unpleasant. On the +contrary, his company was sought by many of the most distinguished men, +though in accordance with his usual custom he carried no letters of +introduction. At a later period he said that in no country had he been +personally so well treated as in England; he was as strongly convinced +as his worst enemy, that as an author he had been extolled there beyond +his merits; nor had he failed to receive quite as much substantial +remuneration as he could properly lay claim to. But the social +atmosphere there prevailing was not the atmosphere he loved. The poet +Moore relates in his diary a story told him by Sydney Smith of the +"touchiness" of "the Republican"--so the American novelist is styled--as +evinced by the indignation of the latter at the conduct of Lord Nugent. +This nobleman, it appears, invited Cooper to take a walk with him to a +certain street. Arriving there he unceremoniously entered the (p. 097) +house of a friend and left his companion to make his way back alone. +Cooper's resentment of the treatment may have been unwisely shown; for +though often termed an aristocrat, he never exhibited in the slightest +degree that reticence which is or is supposed to be the peculiar +characteristic of aristocracy. But few would now be found to deny that +his indignation was both natural and just, and that the act of Lord +Nugent was the act of a boor and not of a gentleman. It was certainly +unreasonable to expect that a society which could rejoice in this method +of rebuking republican pretension could itself be agreeable to a +republican. Cooper could not but be offended by the prejudices he found +existing against his country and the dislike usually felt and sometimes +expressed for it. The only man he met whom he thought well informed +about America was Sir James Mackintosh. The ignorance of some of his +friends was so great that even to him it caused amusement rather than +anger. Many readers will have heard of the practice of "gouging," with +which, according to the veracious English traveler of early days, the +native American gave the charm of diversity and diversion to a life +whose serious thoughts were wholly absorbed in the acquisition of pelf. +Some will remember the definition given of it in Grose's "Dictionary of +the Vulgar Tongue:" "to squeeze out a man's eye with the thumb; a cruel +practice used by the Bostonians in America." A curious illustration of +the belief in this myth occurred to Cooper. One of his friends in +England was an amiable and pleasant man of letters, named William +Sotheby, little heard of in these days; and even in his own days he had +to endure the double degradation of being called a small poet by the +small poets themselves. He was at this time an old gentleman of (p. 098) +over seventy, and was preparing to make a creditable close to his +career by performing the task, which seems to assume the shape of a duty +to every literary Englishman of leisure, of translating the Iliad and +the Odyssey. Not unnaturally he was more familiar with the way the wrath +of Achilles manifested itself than with the shape taken by the wrath of +the men of his race beyond the sea. On one occasion he condoled with +Cooper because of the quarrelsomeness and fighting prevalent in America, +making during this expression of his sympathy an obvious allusion to +gouging. It was useless to attempt setting him right. His interest in +ancient fiction had not been so absorbing as to close his mind to the +acquisition of modern fact; and to Cooper's denial of what he had +implied he listened with a polite but incredulous smile. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. (p. 099) + +1828-1833. + + +Misrepresentation and abuse of his native land it was not in Cooper's +nature to bear in silence. His resentment for the imputations cast upon +his country began to show itself soon after he had taken up his +residence abroad. In "The Red Rover," which appeared in 1827, there are +satirical references to the benevolence and piety of the moral +missionaries which England had sent among us, and to the correctness and +wisdom of current foreign opinion. In the next novel, "The Wept of +Wish-ton-Wish," his feelings are still more fully expressed. In this +work he puts into the mouth of one of the characters, a physician, an +elaborate disquisition upon the degeneracy of man in America. In the +course of it the leech informs his opponent that the science and wisdom +and philosophy of Europe had been exceedingly active in the +investigation of this matter of colonial inferiority, that they had +proved to their own perfect satisfaction, which was the same thing as +disposing of the question without appeal, that man and beast, plant and +tree, hill and dale, lake, pond, sun, air, fire, and water were all +wanting in some of the perfectness of the old regions. It was plain we +could never hope to reach the exalted excellence they enjoy; and while +he respected the patriotism that held the contrary view, he could not, +out of deference to it, afford to doubt what had been demonstrated (p. 100) +by science and collected by learning. + +It was not in this indirect way, however, that he could content himself +with defending his country. No sooner had he lived in Europe long enough +to become acquainted with the erroneous impressions there prevalent, in +regard to America, than he set out to prepare a work which should expose +their falsity. In it he determined to lay the precise facts before a +public which was indisposed to believe anything to the credit, and +disposed to believe everything to the discredit of democratic institutions. +On the face of it, this was a futile undertaking, no matter how +praiseworthy its motive. Nations, no more than individuals, are +convinced by what other nations say of themselves; it is only by what +they do. In this particular case the difficulty was rendered more +insurmountable by the fact that these erroneous impressions prevailed +among those who did not care enough about the matter to investigate it +seriously, and who would be certain in most cases to refrain from +investigating it at all, had they a suspicion that their preconceived +beliefs would be overthrown or even shaken, as a result of their +examination. The question naturally arises, whether such men could be +convinced by facts and arguments, and if so, whether they were worth the +trouble of convincing. Why grudge the adherents of a dying cause the +dismal enjoyment they receive from contemplating the ruin that is always +being wrought, or is always to be wrought, by Democracy to Democracy? +Experience led Cooper subsequently to see the uselessness of the +experiment he, in this instance, tried. When asked at a later period why +some efforts were not made to correct the false notions prevalent (p. 101) +in Europe in regard to America, he answered with perfect truth then, +that no favorable account would be acceptable; that it would not be +enough to confess our real faults, but we should be required to confess +the precise faults that, according to the opinions of that quarter of +the world, we were morally, logically, and politically bound to possess. +By the wide circulation of his fictions he, in truth, did more to remove +wrong impressions, dissipate prejudices, and open the eyes of Europe to +a knowledge of American life and manners, than could have been +accomplished by the longest and most ponderous array of indisputable +facts. + +Facts, however, he at this time purposed to furnish. Accordingly, on the +13th of August, 1828, appeared a work entitled, "Notions of the +Americans, Picked up by a Traveling Bachelor." Whatever its actual +success, it was a relative failure. Cooper himself tells us that it +occasioned him a heavy pecuniary loss. Manner and matter, both +foredoomed it to the fate which it met. The plan of it was an unfortunate +one as well as a purely artificial one. The views and observations and +statements of fact are put into the mouth of a European traveling +bachelor, a member of a club of cosmopolites, who, in consequence of +meeting an American, named Cadwallader, is persuaded to visit and see +for himself the new world. Arriving there he writes letters to his +friends, giving an account of his impressions. The fiction of foreign +authorship was the first mistake. It could not mislead any one, nor was +it intended to mislead any one. But a grave didactic treatise which was +designed to convey a truthful impression, lost something and gained +nothing by being connected with any artifice, even though not meant to +impose upon the reader. Nor was the work interesting to one not (p. 102) +specially interested in the subject. To the American it gave the +strongest assurances of loyalty to republican institutions on the part +of her most widely-known man of letters; but it added little or nothing +to the information of which he was already in possession. On the other +hand, the laudatory style in which this country was invariably spoken of +was certain to be offensive to those whom it was the design of the work +to enlighten. The weight of matter, moreover, was not rendered any more +endurable by lightness of treatment. At the present day the work is +chiefly interesting for the keen observations that are found in it, and +for its remarks upon the future of the country rather than upon its then +existing state. Cooper's predictions were concerned with the minutest, +as well as the greatest subjects. They ranged all the way from the +indefinite assurance, that New York must eventually become the +gastronomic capital of the globe, to the precise statement, as to the +exact number of the population there would be in the United States fifty +years from the time in which he was writing. This last prophecy, it is +to be said, has turned out singularly true. He fixed the number at fifty +millions. That this was no chance guess, but a carefully worked out +computation, is evident from the fact that he repeats it several times +in this work and occasionally in later ones. He, moreover, assigned +definitely forty-three millions to the whites and seven millions to the +blacks. + +It is not for an American to find fault with the laudatory tone of a +work which reflects the ardent love of country felt by the writer. Yet +in many respects it is a singular production. In manner it is calm, +grave, almost philosophical; there is not the slightest effort at (p. 103) +fine writing; the tone can never be said to be even fervid. Yet it +must be confessed that not in the most exalted of Fourth of July +orations does the national eagle scream with a shriller note, or wing +his way with a more unflagging flight. Any one who formed his notions of +this country exclusively from this book, would be sure to fancy that +here at last paradise was reopening to the children of a fallen race. +After this remark, it may seem ridiculous, and yet it is perfectly just +to say, that Cooper, so far from giving way to exaggeration in his +assertions, kept himself well within the bounds of the truth. In the +exercise of that duty which presses heavily upon every reviewer, to +seem, if not to be wiser than his author, many of the English +periodicals, even those most favorable to America, undertook to doubt +his statements of fact, to sneer at his prophecies of the future as +ludicrous exaggerations, and to term them striking and whimsical +instances of Yankee braggadocio, and of the love of building castles in +the air. Cooper could not well overstate the material prosperity and +progress of the country, nor the inability of men trained under +different conditions either to believe it or to comprehend it. Reality +soon outran some of his most daring anticipations. His most extravagant +statements were speedily more than confirmed by the operation of +agencies whose mighty results he could not foresee, because, when he +wrote, the agencies themselves did not exist. He had carefully guarded +himself in one instance, by saying that he did not expect that the +Northwest would be settled within an early period. The precaution was +unnecessary. He had been brought up in a town, founded in the +wilderness, at a distance of less than one hundred and fifty miles (p. 104) +from the commercial capital of the republic. He lived long enough to see +the frontiers of civilization pushed one thousand miles west of the line +it had held in his boyhood's home. + +Any wrong impression, therefore, which the work conveyed was not due to +the spirit of braggadocio pervading it, as asserted and commented upon +by the English reviewers. No false statement was made intentionally; +there were very few that were made mistakenly. But though Cooper +purposed to tell nothing but truth about his country, he did not feel +himself under obligation to tell all the truth. The attention was almost +exclusively directed to that side of the national character which lent +itself most readily to favorable treatment. What was unfavorable was +either omitted altogether, or was very lightly passed over. One letter +alone, and that not a long one, was devoted to slavery. It is plain that +he was annoyed by it; to some extent, in spite of his confidence, +disquieted by it, though the dangers he feared were not the dangers that +actually came. Even at that early day there was enough to trouble the +lover of his country in the criticism it encountered, for the glaring +contrast between its professions of liberty and its practice; but far +more in the dimly-seen shape of that gigantic struggle which, though +itself vague and undefined, was already beginning to cast its lowering +shadow over the future of the republic. So in a similar manner the +literature, architecture, and art of America were passed over in a few +pages, while letter after letter was given up to a description of its +progress in wealth and comfort. Yet no one knew better than Cooper,--at +a later period he took care his countrymen should not forget it,--that +of all standards by which to test national glory, the material (p. 105) +standard is in itself the lowest and most vulgar; and that the +difference in real greatness between two places can never be measured by +the comparative amount of sugar, or salt, or flour sold in each. Yet he +remembered then, what later he seemed to forget, that the necessity of +conquering the continent, of making it inhabitable for man, was at the +time and must continue long to remain a very positive hindrance to the +development of literary and artistic ability, because by the immense +rewards it offered it attracted to the development of material resources +the intellect and vigor of the entire land. + +Cooper tells us, as has been said, that he lost money on this work. But +there was something more than pecuniary failure that attended it. There +were in it statements which met with disfavor at home. More important +than these, however, were remarks that aroused personal hostility +abroad. He made several references, in particular, to the people of +England, and they were not of a kind to conciliate regard for himself +and his work. In one place he spoke of the society of that country as +being more repulsive, artificial, and cumbered, and, in short, more +absurd and frequently less graceful than that of any other European +nation. Theoretically, the English care nothing for foreign opinion. +They have said it so often among themselves that most of them look upon +it as a point which has been settled by the consent of mankind. But like +many other beliefs it has become an article of faith without having +become an article of practice. To this extent it is true that they care +nothing for the remarks of obscure men of which they never hear. On the +other hand, no nation is more sensitive to contemporary foreign opinion, +coming from writers of distinction. There will be plenty of (p. 106) +instances furnished in this one biography to prove fully this assertion. +Cooper's attack was never forgotten or forgiven. From this time there +was a distinctly hostile feeling manifested toward him in many of the +English periodicals. Even before his next work appeared, London +correspondents of American newspapers announced that it was going to be +severely criticised, inasmuch as the novelist had made himself unpopular +in England by the comments made and the views put forth in the "Notions +of the Americans." If this were not true, it was at least believed to be +true. Certainly the fact of hostility steadily increasing from this +period, on the part of the British press, cannot be denied, whatever we +may think of the causes that brought it about. Nor did it stop short +with depreciation of his works. Literary criticism, even if based merely +upon personal dislike, can always resort with safety to the cheap +defense that it is honest. But there were reviewers who went farther, +who framed for Cooper imaginary feelings and then proceeded to assail +him for having them. He was accused, especially, of pluming himself +highly upon the title of the "American Scott." Hazlitt, for instance, +seeing him strutting, as he terms it, in the streets of Paris, was +enabled to detect by the way the novelist walked the way he felt upon +this special matter, and afterward to state the conclusion at which he +had arrived as a positive fact. Similar specimens of fine critical +insight into Cooper's motives and sentiments can be found scattered up +and down the pages of English journals. + +At the time he was bringing out "The Water Witch" in Germany, the +revolution in France took place that resulted in the expulsion of (p. 107) +the Bourbons and the calling of Louis Philippe to the throne. Paris +became at once the Mecca to which the lovers of liberty throughout +Europe resorted. Thither Cooper hastened from his home in Dresden. He +reached the city in August, 1830. There he watched with the profoundest +interest the political movements that were going on about him. The +reactionary tendencies that early began to manifest themselves in the +rule of the Citizen King, brought to him the same disappointment and the +same disgust that it did to all the ardent republicans of the Old World. +There is much in what he says to remind the reader of the feelings +expressed by Heine, who had likewise hurried to Paris after the July +revolution, and who was venting his indignation and contempt in the +columns of the Augsburg "Allgemeine Zeitung." Occasional passages bear +even a close similarity. Cooper on one occasion describes Louis Philippe +walking about among his subjects wearing a white hat, carrying a red +umbrella, and evidently laboring to act in an easy and affable manner. +"In short," he said in a phrase that might have been written by the +great German, "he was condescending with all his might." + +Close upon the revolution in France followed the revolt of Poland. The +insurrection lasted about ten months, and during its progress the +feelings of Cooper were profoundly stirred in behalf of that people. +With this his personal friendship with the Polish poet, Mickiewicz, had +probably a great deal to do; for at Rome a close intimacy had sprung up +between him and that author. At a meeting, held in Paris on the 4th of +July, 1831, at which Cooper presided, a sum of money was contributed to +aid the revolters in their struggle. He presided also at other (p. 108) +meetings to advance the same cause, and acted as chairman of a committee +to raise funds to assist the Polish soldiers who were fighting for +independence, and when this failed, to relieve the exiles in their +distress. Two addresses to the American people signed by him in his +official capacity--one written in July, 1831, and the other in June, +1832--appeared in the American papers of those years; and the fervor +that characterizes them both leaves little doubt as to their authorship. + +Into the great struggle going on in Europe, either openly or silently +between aristocracy and democracy, he now, indeed, threw himself with +his whole heart. In certain respects this was a disadvantage. Whenever +Cooper's feelings on political subjects were aroused, his literary work +betrayed the obtrusion of interests more dominating than those which +belong to it legitimately. This was manifested in the three tales which +followed. In them the scene of action was not only transferred to +European soil, but a direct attempt was avowedly made to apply American +principles to European facts. These novels were "The Bravo," which +appeared November 29, 1831; "The Heidenmauer," which appeared September +25, 1832; and "The Headsman," which appeared October 18, 1833. The +purpose of all these was the direct exaltation of republican +institutions, and likewise the exposure of those which paraded in the +garb of liberty without possessing its reality. The scenes of two were +accordingly laid in the aristocratic cities of Venice and of Berne. The +first of the three is generally spoken of as the best, especially by +those who have read none of them at all. Little difference will be +found, as a matter of fact, between "The Bravo" and "The Headsman" (p. 109) +as regards literary merit. "The Heidenmauer" is, however, distinctly +inferior, and is in truth one of the most tedious novels that Cooper +ever wrote. All were, however, animated by the same spirit. They all +assailed oligarchical, and lauded democratic institutions. They were +full of denunciations of the accommodating stupidity of patricians who +were never able to see anything beneficial to the interests of the state +in what was injurious to the interests of their own order. In +particular, the doctrine was held up to derision, that while to the +ignorant and the low there was ample power given to suffer, there was no +power given to understand; and that consequently it was their duty +always to obey and never to criticise. + +In writing this series Cooper was undertaking what was on the face of it +a hazardous experiment. The peril was not, as thoughtless criticism has +had it, in transferring his scenes and characters to a foreign soil. +Human nature suffers no material change in passing from America to +Europe. The danger lay in the fact that these were novels written with a +purpose. The story was not told for its own sake, but for the sake of +enforcing certain political opinions. It required, therefore, unusual +skill in its construction and in the management of its details. For +whatever may be the exact truth contained in the doctrine of art for +art's sake, this is certainly clear, that in a work of fiction designed +to advance successfully any cause, or support any theory, the didactic +element must be made entirely subordinate to the purely creative +element. Otherwise we impart to the novel the tediousness of a homily +without its accepted authority. Art must be wooed as a mistress; she can +never be commanded as a slave. He, therefore, who seeks to press (p. 110) +fiction into a work so foreign to its nature as the inculcation of +political opinions, must, if he hopes to succeed, make the story suggest +the lesson without conveying it obtrusively. Above all is there need of +delicate touch and skillful handling, if the aim be to affect those who +are prejudiced against the views expressed, or whose interests are +involved in the fate of those attacked. But Cooper's was never a +delicate touch. What he thought he never insinuated; what he believed +himself he never allowed to make its way indirectly into the minds of +others. He always uttered it boldly, and sometimes offensively. +Effective this assuredly is in compositions of a certain class; but it +is entirely out of place in a work of fiction. In the case of these +particular novels the purpose is avowed openly and repeatedly. Cooper, +indeed, takes care never to let it escape the reader's attention. He may +almost be said to stand by his shoulder to jog him if he once happens to +forget that the story has a moral. American institutions, especially, +were constantly held up as models in which the best results were seen, +and which it was the policy of all other countries to imitate. The +course taken was a mark of patriotism; but it was not the way to gain +converts. It is, in truth, the misfortune of the novelist, burdened with +a moral purpose, that the reader usually feels the burden and is not +affected by the moral. It was not by methods like these that Scott threw +about chivalry and aristocracy that glamour which outlasts the most +minute acquaintance with the reality, and influences the imagination in +spite of the protest of the judgment. + +But another result that followed from writing novels with a purpose, had +a more direct influence upon his reputation. It made it impossible (p. 111) +that his work should any longer be criticised fairly. This was +immediately seen in the case of "The Bravo." This novel had far more +success in Europe than in America. But the success was not of a +legitimate kind. Parties were at once arrayed for it or against it, not +because it was a good or bad production from a literary point of view, +but according as men sympathized with or were hostile to the political +principles it advocated. It was not the merit of the work that came +under consideration, but the merit of the cause. This at once destroyed +almost entirely the value of any criticism which the story received. + +A little while before "The Bravo" appeared, Cooper was unwillingly led +to take part in a controversy which, according to his own view, was the +remote cause of the hostility he afterwards encountered in his own land. +It was at the time that the movement began on the part of Louis Philippe +to separate himself from the liberals, of whom Lafayette was the chief +representative. A discussion had arisen, in the French Chamber of +Deputies, on the desirability of a reduction in the expenses of +government. It gave rise to a controversy which extended much beyond the +body in which it originated. Lafayette had advocated greater economy. In +the course of the debate mentioned, he had referred to the United States +as being a country which was cheaply governed, and at the same time well +governed. The periodical press at once took up the question. M. Saulnier, +one of the editors of the "Revue Britannique," came out with an article, +the direct object of which was to prove that a government of three +powers, such as was the limited monarchy recently established, was not +so expensive as that of a republic. In particular, he claimed that (p. 112) +the tax levied per head on the citizens of France was less than that +similarly levied on the citizens of the United States. This was a direct +attack upon Lafayette, who had for forty years been maintaining that the +government of this country was the cheapest known. The attention of +Cooper was called to this article, and he was asked to reply. He +declined. A little later it was made clear to him that the object with +which it was written was to injure Lafayette. The matter then assumed +another aspect. To that statesman Cooper was bound by ties of intimate +personal friendship and by a common love of this country. At a public +dinner, which had been given to Lafayette on the 8th of December, 1830, +by the Americans in Paris, Cooper had presided, and in a speech of +marked fervor and ability, he had dwelt upon the debt due from the +United States to the gallant Frenchman, who had ventured fortune and +life to aid a nation struggling against great odds to be free. It was +not in his nature to have his deeds give the lie to his words. The fact +above mentioned at once overcame his reluctance to engage in the +controversy. Accordingly in December, 1831, appeared a "Letter to +General Lafayette," preceded by a letter from Lafayette to himself, +dated the 22d of November. This was a pamphlet of fifty pages, in which +he went into the subject of the cost of the United States government. It +produced an immediate reply from M. Saulnier, who went over the ground +again, and with a fine air of candor affected to revise his previous +statements. As a result he made the cost of the American government a +little larger than he had done before. To this Cooper replied in a series +of letters published in the "National." The controversy would (p. 113) +have ended sooner than it did, had it not been for the appearance +of a fresh actor on the scene. This was a certain Mr. Leavitt Harris. He +nominally belonged to New Jersey, but a large share of his life had been +spent in Russia, and his political notions had apparently become +acclimated to that region. He wrote an article on the subject in the +shape of a letter to M. Francois Delassert, the vice-president of the +Chamber of Deputies. In it he took ground opposite to that taken by +Cooper, controverted his facts, and denied his inferences. So great +weight was attached to it by the French government party that it was +published as a supplementary number of the "Revue Britannique." Mr. +Harris had once been left as _chargé d'affaires_ at St. Petersburg +during the absence of John Adams at the peace negotiations at Ghent. His +letter was accordingly dwelt upon as the production of an American who +had been intrusted by his government with high diplomatic position. We +who know out of what stuff our foreign agents are sometimes made, would +not be likely to attach much weight to the mere fact. But to a foreign +nation the opinion of an official seemed naturally more trustworthy than +that of a private citizen. + +To the letter of Mr. Harris, Cooper replied on the 3d of May, 1832. This +closed the discussion, at least so far as he was concerned.[1] But the +controversy was followed by circumstances of a mortifying character. After +the return to America of the United States minister, William (p. 114) +C. Rives, Mr. Harris was nominated by the President, and confirmed by +the Senate early in March, 1833, as _chargé d'affaires_; and this office +he held until the arrival of Edward Livingston, who was appointed +minister on the 3d of May of the same year. Previously to this +discreditable act, the Department of State had committed one of +imbecility. It had issued a circular to the different local authorities +of the Union with avowed reference to the finance controversy. Its +purport was a request for them to furnish information in regard to the +amount of public expenditures over which they had control. Against this +course Cooper protested at once in a long and vigorous letter to the +American people, written on the 10th of December, 1832, from Vevay, +Switzerland, and first printed in the Philadelphia "National Gazette." +He took the ground that in such a discussion local burdens ought not to +be included. It was, in fact, by confusing various kinds of taxation, +and taxation for various objects, that the French government party had +been able to make any showing for their own side. The letter was widely +circulated, and seems to have served its purpose in suppressing the +information that had been asked. + + [Footnote 1: I express no opinion on the merits of + this controversy, for I have seen very slight + summaries only of the articles that appeared in the + _Revue Britannique_. But it is proper to say that it + was the opinion of the French liberals, that Cooper + utterly demolished his antagonists in the + controversy.] + +Unfortunately it was not the administration alone that displayed a lack +of proper sentiment in this controversy. It is far from being a +creditable thing in the history of the country that Cooper was subjected +to constant attack, and even abuse, in the American newspapers, for his +conduct in this finance discussion. He had been particularly careful to +confine his remarks to the cost of government in the United States. He +had not touched at all upon the cost of government in France. Yet he +was charged with having overstepped the reserve imposed upon (p. 115) +foreigners, and of having attacked the administration of a friendly +country. The accusation was constantly made against him that he went +about "flouting his Americanism throughout Europe," and in this +particular case that he had overrated the importance of the controversy, +and also the importance of the part he had taken in it. He had, in fact, +aroused the hostility of that section of Americans, insignificant in +number and ability, but sometimes having social position, who prefer the +conveniences of despotism to the inconveniences of liberty. To such men +Cooper's intense nationality was a standing reproach. His reputation, +moreover, made their own littleness especially conspicuous. Depreciation +of him, and of his rank as a man of letters, was a necessity of their +case. As they did not express openly their real feelings, they carried +on at advantage a war against a man who never had the prudence to hide +what he thought. Yet among the better class of Americans abroad, +Cooper's attachment to his native land received the recognition it +merited. "Cooper's new book, 'The Bravo,'" wrote Horatio Greenough, from +Paris, to Rembrandt Peale, in November, 1831, "is taking wonderfully +here. If you could transfuse a little of that man's love of country and +national pride into the leading members of our high society, I think it +would leaven them all." + +But the attacks in the American newspapers made a painful impression +upon a mind that was morbidly sensitive to criticism even from the most +insignificant of men. For an act of generous patriotism for which he +deserved the thanks of all his countrymen he had received vilification +from many of them. These things embittered him. They made him +distrustful of the spirit that prevailed in his own land. He (p. 116) +began to fancy that the country had gone back instead of forward in +national feeling during the years of his absence. He had determined to +return, because he was unwilling to have his children brought up on +foreign soil and under foreign influences. But for himself he resolved +to abandon literature. As soon as he had finished the manuscript he had +in hand, he would give up all further thought of writing. "The quill and +I are divorced," he wrote to Greenough in June, 1833, "and you cannot +conceive the degree of freedom, I could almost say of happiness, I feel +at having got my neck out of the halter." Longings for his old sea-life +often came over him. "You must not be surprised," he wrote, +half-jestingly, to the same friend, "if you hear of my sailing a sloop +between Cape Cod and New York." But he had no definite plans marked out. +The only thing about which his mind was made up was not to write any +more. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. (p. 117) + +1833-1838. + + +On the fifth of November, 1833, Cooper landed at New York. For a few +winters that followed he made that city his place of residence. The +summers he spent in Cooperstown. To this village he paid a visit in +June, 1834, after having been away from it entirely for about sixteen +years. The recollections of his early life had always endeared it to his +memory, and in it he now determined to take up his permanent abode. +Accordingly he acquired possession of his father's old place, which for +a long period had remained unoccupied. The house had received from the +inhabitants the name of Templeton Hall, with a direct reference to "The +Pioneers." Everything about it was rapidly hastening to ruin. Cooper at +once began repairs upon it, and after these had been fully completed he +made it his only residence. It was in this little village, upon the +shore of the lake which his pen has made famous, that he spent the +remainder of his life. There he wrote nearly all the works which he +produced after his return to his native land. Its seclusion and quiet +gave him ample opportunities for undisturbed literary exertion; the +beauty of the surroundings ministered constantly to his passion for +scenery; and of the world outside he saw sufficient to satisfy his +wishes in the frequent journeys which business compelled him to make to +the great cities. + +Yet, though his latter days were spent in the country, the life (p. 118) +he led henceforward deserves anything but the name of a pastoral. With +the return from Europe begins the epic period of Cooper's career. The +next ten years, in particular, were years of battle and storm. He had +been criticised harshly and unjustly; he came back prepared and disposed +to criticise. His feelings found expression at once. The America to +which he had returned seemed to him much worse than that from which he +had gone. In his opinion nearly everything had deteriorated. Manners, +morals, the whole spirit of the nation, struck him as being on a lower +level. Yet the change was not really in the people; it was in himself. +The country had been moving on in the line of its natural bustling +development; he, on the contrary, had been going back in sentiment. In +one particular there was a certain justification for the dislike +expressed by him for the novel things he saw. The business of the entire +land was in a feverish condition. The Erie Canal, completed the year +before his departure for Europe, had opened an unbroken water way from +the Atlantic sea-board to the farthest shores of the great lakes. To +this stimulus to population and trade was added the expected stimulus of +the railroad system, then in its infancy. Both together were disclosing, +though more to the imagination than to the eye, the wealth that lay hid +in the unsettled regions of the West. They were active agents, +therefore, in creating one of those periods of speculative prosperity +which are sure to recur when any new and unforeseen avenue to sudden +fortune is laid open. The immense field for endeavor revealed by the +prospective establishment of flourishing communities reacted unfavorably +upon the intellectual movement which had begun in a feeble way (p. 119) +to show itself twenty years before. The attraction of mighty enterprises +which held out to the hope promises of the highest temporal triumphs, +was a competition that mere literary and scholastic pursuits, with their +doubtful success and precarious rewards, could not well maintain. The +country certainly went back for a time in higher things in consequence +of that rapid material progress which drew to its further development +the youthful energy and ability of the entire land. To make money and to +make it rapidly seemed to be the one object of life. + +Such a fever of speculative prosperity wholly absorbing the thoughts and +activities of men in the acquisition of wealth, would have been viewed +by Cooper at any time with indifference, even if it did not inspire +disgust. But a greater change than he knew had come over him. It is +clear that he had now grown largely out of sympathy with the energy and +enterprise which were doing so much to build up the prosperity and power +of his country. His nature had come into a profound sympathy with the +quiet, the culture, and the polish of the lands he had left behind. His +spirit could no longer be incited by the romance that lay hid in the +fiery energies of trade. In the tumultuousness of the life about him, he +could see little but a restless and vulgar exertion for the creation of +wealth. The perpetual bustle and change were not to his taste. He spoke +of it afterwards, in one of his works, with a certain grim humor +peculiarly his own. America he said, was a country for alibis. The whole +nation was in motion; and everybody was everywhere, and nobody was +anywhere. + +Feelings of this kind had begun to come over him long before his (p. 120) +return from abroad. He had been affected by his surroundings to an +extent of which he was only vaguely conscious. While in Europe he +admitted that he found growing in his nature a strong distaste for the +common appliances of common life. He had not been long in Florence +before these sentiments found utterance. "I begin to feel," he wrote, "I +could be well content to vegetate here for one half of my life, to say +nothing of the remainder." He drew sharp distinctions between commercial +towns and capitals. Even in Italy, Leghorn with its growing trade, its +bales of merchandise, its atmosphere filled with the breath of the salt +sea mixed with the smell of pitch and tar, seemed mean and vulgar after +the refinement and world-old beauty of Florence. He acknowledged that +the languor and repose of towns which glory simply in their collections +and recollections, were far more suited to his feelings than the +activity and tumult of towns whose glory lies in their commercial +enterprises. This preference is not uncommon among cultivated men. But +it is too much to ask of a nation that it shall exist for the sake of +gratifying the æsthetic emotions of travelers. The process of achieving +greatness can never be so agreeable to the looker-on as the sight of +greatness achieved; but it is unhappily often the case that many things, +which the visitor regards as a charm, the native feels to be a reproach. + +Besides the change of view in himself, there were some actual changes in +the country that were not temporary in their nature. The constitution of +society had altered at home during his residence abroad, or was rapidly +altering. The influence of the old colonial aristocracy was fast dying +out. New men were pushing to the wall the descendants of the (p. 121) +families that had flourished before the Revolution, and had sought after +it to keep up distinctions and exclusiveness which the very success of +the struggle in which they had been concerned doomed to an early decay. +This was especially noticeable in New York. In such a city social rank +must tend, in the long run, to wait upon wealth. The result may be +delayed, it cannot be averted. Wealth, too, in most cases, will find its +way to the hands of those carrying on great commercial undertakings. +That this class would eventually become a controlling one in society, if +not the controlling one, was inevitable. It was not likely that men, who +were bent on the conquest of the continent, who revolved even in their +dreams all forms of the adventurous and the perilous, whose enterprise +stopped short only with the impossible, would be content long to submit +to a fictitious superiority on the part of those whose thoughts were so +taken up with the consideration of what their fathers had been or had +done that they forgot to be or to do anything themselves. Yet the latter +composed no small share of the class with which Cooper's early +associations had lain. He naturally sympathized with them rather than +with those who were displacing them. Trade began to seem to him vulgar, +and it was doubtless true that many engaged in it, who had become +rapidly rich, were vulgar enough. But he made no distinction. He longed +for the restoration of a state of things that had gone forever by. He +was disposed to feel dissatisfaction with much that was taking place, +not because it came into conflict with his judgment, but because it +jarred upon his tastes and prejudices. + +A residence in Europe for a few years had, indeed, done for him (p. 122) +what the coming-on of old age does for most. He had become the eulogist +of times past. The views which he expressed in private and in public, +during the decade that followed his return to America, were not of the +kind to make him popular with his countrymen. The manners of the people +were, according to him, decidedly worse than they were twenty or thirty +years before. The elegant deportment of women had been largely +supplanted by the rattle of hoydens and the giggling of the nursery. The +class of superior men of the quiet old school were fast disappearing +before the "wine-discussing, trade-talking, dollar-dollar set" of the +day. Under the blight of this bustling, fussy, money-getting race of +social Vandals, simplicity of manners had died out, or was dying out. +The architecture of the houses, like the character of the society, was +more ambitious than of old, but in far worse taste; in a taste, in fact, +which had been corrupted by uninstructed pretension. The towns were +larger, but they were tawdrier than ever. The spirit of traffic was +gradually enveloping everything in its sordid grasp. There had taken +place a vast expansion of mediocrity, well enough in itself, but so +overwhelming as nearly to overshadow everything that once stood out as +excellent. + +In most of these remarks I am giving Cooper's sentiments, as far as +possible, in his own words. They stung the national vanity to the quick. +The bitter resentment they evoked at the time could hardly be understood +now; and a great deal of wrath was then kindled at what would meet with +assent, at the present day, on account of its justice, or excite +amusement on account of its exaggeration. Thurlow Weed, in 1841, +expressed a general sentiment about Cooper, with much affluence of +capital letter and solemnity of exclamatory punctuation. "He has (p. 123) +disparaged, American Lakes," wrote that editor, "ridiculed American +Scenery, burlesqued American Coin, and even satirized the American +Flag!" Cooper could hardly have expected his strictures to be received +with applause, but he was clearly surprised at the outcry they awoke. +Yet he had had plenty of opportunities to learn that other countries +were as sensitive to criticism as his own. One singular illustration of +this feeling had been exhibited at Rome. He had completed his novel of +"The Water Witch" and wished to print and publish it in that city. The +manuscript was accordingly sent to the censor. It was kept for days, +which grew to weeks. It was at last returned with refusal, unless it +were subjected to thorough revision. Almost on the opening page occurred +a highly objectionable paragraph. "It would seem," Cooper had written, +"that as nature has given its periods to the stages of animal life, it +has also set limits to all moral and political ascendency. While the +city of the Medici is receding from its crumbling walls, like the human +form shrinking into 'the lean and slippered pantaloon,' the Queen of the +Adriatic sleeping on her muddy isles, and Rome itself is only to be +traced by fallen temples and buried columns, the youthful vigor of +America is fast covering the wilds of the West with the happiest fruits +of human industry." This passage, the censor quietly but severely +pointed out, laid down a principle that was unsound, and supported it by +facts that were false. A rigid pruning could alone make the work worthy +of a license. The consequence was that Cooper carried the manuscript +with him to Germany, and it was first published in Dresden, in a land +where men were not sensitive to anything that might be said, at any rate +about Italy. + +But the personal unpopularity he brought upon himself by his (p. 124) +censorious remarks will not wholly account for the unpopularity as a +writer, which it was his fortune, in no short time, to acquire. There +were other agencies at work besides those which affected the feeling +towards him as a man. Throughout the English-speaking world there had +been a literary reaction. Men had begun to tire of the novel of +adventure. It was not that it had lost its hold upon the public; it had +lost the supreme hold which for twenty years it had maintained. The +mighty master was dead; to some extent his influence had died before +him. The later work he did, had in several instances detracted from, +rather than added to the fame he had won by the earlier. Cooper's own +ventures in the field of foreign fiction, whatever their absolute merit, +could not be compared with those in which he had drawn the life of the +ocean, or the streams and forests of his native land. But outside of any +effect produced by poorer production, there could be no doubt of the +fact of a change in the public taste. The hero of action had gone by. In +his place had come the hero of observation and reflection, who did not +do great things, but who said good things. The exquisite and the +sentimentalist were the fashion, to be speedily followed, according to +the law of reaction, by the boor and the satirist. At the time when +Cooper returned from Europe, Bulwer was the popular favorite. Both in +England and America he was styled the prince of living novelists; and +nowhere was enthusiasm, in his behalf, crazier than in this country. The +revolution in taste, moreover, worked directly in his favor in more ways +than one. Scott and Cooper's heroes, whether intelligent or not, were +invariably moral. But of this sort of men readers were tired. No (p. 125) +character could please highly the popular palate in which there was +not a distinct flavor of iniquity. More ability and less morality was +the opinion generally entertained, though probably not often expressed. +Hence it was not unnatural that the sentimental dandies and high-toned +villains of Bulwer's earlier novels should have been the heroes to +captivate all hearts. + +The comparatively low estimate into which the novel of adventure had +sunk, undoubtedly had a marked effect upon Cooper's reputation. Some of +his later work is superior to his earlier from the artistic point of +view. Yet it was never received with the same praise, at least in +English-speaking countries. More than that, the criticism it received +was often excessively depreciatory; nor was this all due to personal +unpopularity, though a good deal of it certainly was. He simply wrote in +a style which the age had temporarily left behind, and fancied it had +outgrown. All that Cooper had to do, all that under any circumstances he +could do, was to keep on producing the best that lay in his power; sure +to find a certain body of readers in sympathy with him; sure also that +some time in the future the revolution of taste would bring him into +fashion if he had written anything that really deserved to live. + +These facts and considerations must, however, be borne in mind in order +to understand the gradual growth of the ill-feeling that sprang up +between Cooper and his countrymen. To the change of view in himself and +to the change of taste in the public, were soon added special +circumstances that tended to bring about or increase alienation. But +there did not exist toward him, when he came back from Europe, any +hostility on the part of his countrymen. Circumstances had led him (p. 126) +to suspect such a feeling; but it was mainly the creation of a nature +that was morbidly sensitive to criticism. He was not, to be sure, the +popular idol at his return that he had been at his departure. But this +decline, outside of the causes already mentioned, was due to ignorance +rather than dislike. A new generation had, during his absence, come on +the scene of active life. To it the influence of his personal presence +was unknown. He had been away so long that many looked upon him with the +indifference with which foreigners are regarded by the majority; on the +other hand, the fact of his being a native prevented others from feeling +that interest in him which a foreigner has to some. Whatever hostility +actually existed sprang mainly from causes creditable to himself. If +Cooper disliked England for its depreciation of America, he hated with a +hatred akin to loathing, the recreant Americans who mistook the relation +they bore to their native land, and apologized for its character and +existence, instead of apologizing for their own. For these men he made +no effort to hide the contempt he felt. This class, far larger then in +numbers than now, came mainly from the great cities. Many of them had +wealth and social position to make up for their lack of ability; some of +them were attached to the legations. They naturally resented the low +opinion entertained and expressed of them by their countryman, and had +doubtless done him some harm, though far less than he supposed. Besides +these, however, there were certainly a pretty large number by whom his +aggressive patriotism was felt to be a positive bore. To this feeling +there had been a good deal of expression given in the newspaper press. +Cooper, who never could learn how little effect of itself hostile (p. 127) +criticism has upon the reputation of a popular writer, gave to these +attacks far more weight than they deserved. + +It was, therefore, with exaggerated and unnecessary feelings of distrust +that he had returned to his native land. He looked for indifference and +aversion. Men seldom fail to find in such cases what they expect. He was +present at a reception given, a few days after his return, to Commodore +Chauncey. Men whom he knew, but had not seen for years, did not come up +to speak with him; those who did, addressed him as if he had been gone +from the city a few weeks. So much was he chilled by this apparent +coldness that he left the room before the dinner was half over. He did +not appreciate his own reserve of manner. The indifference which he +found was, in many cases, due not to any lack of cordiality in others, +but to hesitation at the way in which advances would be received by +himself. There was a brusqueness in his address, an apparent assumption +in his manner, which had nothing consonant to them in his feelings. But +it was only those who knew him intimately that could venture, after long +separation, to break in upon this seeming unsociableness and hauteur. + +On Monday, May 29 1826, just before his departure for Europe, a dinner +had been given to Cooper at the City Hotel by the club which he had +founded. It partook almost of the nature of an ovation. Chancellor Kent +had presided. De Witt Clinton, the governor of the state, General Scott, +and many others conspicuous in public life, had honored it with their +presence. Charles King, the editor of the "New York American," and +subsequently president of Columbia College, had addressed him in a +speech full of the heartiest interest in his future and of pride (p. 128) +in his past. The Chancellor had voiced the general feeling by toasting +him as the "genius which has rendered our native soil classic ground, +and given to our early history the enchantment of fiction." No one, in +fact, had ever left the country with warmer wishes or more enthusiastic +expressions of admiration and regard. It was but little more than a week +after his return when another invitation to a public dinner was offered +him by some of the most prominent citizens of New York. In this they +expressly asserted that he had won their esteem and affection, not +merely by his talents, but by his manly defense, while abroad, of the +institutions of his country. The invitation seemed to surprise Cooper as +well as the language in which it was couched. He thanked the proposers +warmly, but he declined it. The refusal was perhaps unavoidable. If so, +it was unfortunate; if not, it was a mistake. Had the dinner taken +place, it would have shown him the estimation in which he was really +held, and would have modified or destroyed any prejudices entertained +towards him by others, if any such existed. + +Up to this period in his public career, Cooper had certainly not done +anything to undermine his popularity. He now entered upon a line of +conduct which it is charity to call blundering. He began, or at any rate +pursued, a controversy, in which nothing was to be gained and everything +to be risked, if not actually lost. He not only set himself to defend a +course that needed no defense, he replied to attacks, real or imaginary, +which could only be raised into importance by receiving from him notice. +These attacks were a criticism on "The Bravo" which had appeared in the +"New York American;" a criticism on his later writings which was found +in the columns of the "New York Commercial Advertiser;" and an (p. 129) +editorial article in the "New York Courier and Enquirer." He could not +have done a more foolish thing. He knew perfectly well that no writer +could be written down save by himself. He has quoted the very remark. +But a hundred similar sayings, condensing in a line the wisdom of ages, +could never have kept him quiet when an attack was made upon himself. A +popular writer has always immense odds in his favor in any controversy +he may have with inferior men. He is ordinarily sure of the verdict of +posterity, for his is likely to be the only side that will reach its +ears. Even during his own time there will always be a large body of +admirers who will defend him with more fervor, and advocate his cause +with more effect than he has it in his own power to do. But it can and +will be done only in the case that he does little or nothing himself. If +Cooper had lost any ground in the estimation of the public, all he had +to do, in order to regain it, was to remain quiet. The one thing that +Cooper could not do was to remain quiet. He determined to set himself +right before his countrymen. He speedily had full opportunity to +ascertain the results that are pretty sure to follow experiments of this +kind. + +In June, 1834, appeared Cooper's "Letter to His Countrymen." Its +publication was no sudden freak, for the year before he had announced +the preparation of it. The work is a thin octavo of a little more than +one hundred pages; but the damage it wrought him was out of all +proportion to its size. The first half of it was taken up with a reply +to the comments and criticisms made in the New York journals already +mentioned. This was of itself sufficiently absurd, for it revived what +had already been forgotten, and gave importance to some things (p. 130) +had not been worth reading, let alone remembering. But to this +blundering was added a wrongheadedness, of which Cooper's later life was +to afford numerous illustrations. The article from the "Courier and +Enquirer" is quoted in full in the book. Some of its statements are +inaccurate; but no one can read it now without seeing at once that it +was written in a spirit that was the very reverse of hostile. To attack +a powerful journal for comments clearly dictated by friendly feeling, +betrayed more than a lack of prudence; it betrayed a lack of common +sense. Moreover, there were other serious defects in the Letter. He +criticised at some length certain forms of expression used by one of his +assailants. Cooper's remarks on language are almost invariably marked by +the pretension and positiveness that characterize the writers on usage +who are ignorant of their ignorance; but in this case they are in +addition frequently puerile. His personal references were not especially +objectionable. But the best that can be asserted of them is, that he +said with good taste what it would have been better taste not to say at +all. He, however, so contrived to state his position that he laid +himself open to the charge that he looked upon the unfavorable opinion +expressed of "The Bravo" as being instigated by the French government, +and that, in consequence, the ill reception here accorded to his book +was not due necessarily to any inferiority in the work itself, but to +the machinations of foreign political enemies. He did not so mean it. He +meant to imply that there was no limit to the volunteer baseness of men +who stand ready to gratify power by doing for it what it would gladly +have done, but would never ask to have done. But the other was a (p. 131) +natural inference, and it was used against him with marked effect. + +Worse even than all this, he succeeded in accomplishing in the latter +half of his Letter. A most exciting controversy was going on at the time +between the President and the Senate of the United States. The +bitterness had been aggravated into fury by the removal of the deposits. +The Senate had passed a resolution declaring the conduct of the +President unconstitutional. Against this resolution Jackson had +published a protest. The whole country was in a flame. Into the purely +personal controversy in which he was engaged, Cooper lugged in a +discussion of the political question that was agitating the nation. He +remarked, in the course of it, that if the Union were ever destroyed by +errors or faults of an internal origin, it would not be by executive but +by legislative usurpation. In order apparently to have neither of the +two parties in full sympathy with him, he criticised the appointing +power of the President, and his action in filling embassies. It is by +the most strained interpretation of the danger to our institutions from +imitation of those found in foreign countries, that the political +discussion was dragged into this production. The force of folly could +hardly go farther. + +The inevitable result followed. The work pleased nobody, and irritated +nearly everybody. Three influential journals were at once made open and +active enemies, and in their wake followed a long train of minor +newspapers. More than that was effected. The Letter called down upon him +the wrath of a great political party, which in the North embraced a +large majority of the educated class; and its hostility followed him +relentlessly to the grave. Unwise as the work was, however, there (p. 132) +was nothing in it to justify the abuse that in consequence fell upon its +author. To his statement of the danger of legislative usurpation Caleb +Cushing made a dignified, though somewhat rhetorical reply; but while +controverting his opinions, he spoke of Cooper personally with great +respect. But such was not the treatment he generally received. The +language with which he was assailed was of the most insulting and +grossly abusive kind. In those days it was called appalling severity. It +reads now like very dreary and very vulgar billingsgate. One example +will suffice. The "New York Mirror" was then supposed to be the leading +literary paper in New York. It was nominally edited by Morris, Willis, +and Fay, though the two last were at that time in Europe. Morris is +still remembered by two or three songs he wrote. Besides being an +editor, he held the position of general of militia; accordingly he was +often styled by his admirers, "he of the sword and pen," which was just +and appropriate to this extent, that he did as much execution with the +one as with the other. His paper intimated that Cooper was willing to +transform himself into a baboon for the sake of abusing America, and +that his inordinate ambition prompted him to distance all competitors, +whether the race were fame or shame. It is proper to add that the tone +of the "Mirror" in regard to Cooper was radically changed after the +return of Willis from Europe. + +In his Letter Cooper announced publicly, what he had long before said to +his friends, that he had made up his mind to abandon authorship. Such +resolutions are mainly remarkable for the fact that they are never kept. +But the howl of denunciation that immediately arose would never have +suffered him to keep still. From this time dates the beginning of (p. 133) +the long and gallant fight he carried on with the American people. +Gallant it certainly was, whatever may be thought of its wisdom; for it +was essentially the fight of one man against a nation. In politics he +had joined the Democratic party, but with some of their tenets he was +not in the slightest sympathy. He was, for example, a fierce +protectionist, and neglected no opportunity to cover with ridicule the +doctrine of free trade. But though practically standing alone, his +courage never faltered. The storm of obloquy that fell upon him made him +in his turn bitter and unjust in many things he said; but it never once +daunted his spirit or shook his resolution. On the contrary, it almost +seems as if he were aiming at unpopularity; at any rate he could not be +accused of seeking the favor of the public. Its acts he criticised, its +opinions he defied. His literary reputation and the sale of his works +were seriously affected by the course of conduct he pursued and the +hostility it provoked. But he was of that nature that if the certain +result of following the path he had marked out for himself had been the +hatred of the world, he would never have once deviated from it the +breadth of a hair. + +He was not a man to remain on the defensive. He at once began +hostilities. His first attempt was unfortunate enough. This was the +satirical novel called "The Monikins," which was published on the 9th of +July, 1835. Of all the works written by Cooper this is most justly +subject to the criticism conveyed in the German idiom, that "it does not +let itself be read." To the immense majority of even the author's +admirers, it has been from the very beginning a sealed book. It is +invariably dangerous to assert a negative. But if a personal reference +may be pardoned, I am disposed to say, that of the generation that (p. 134) +has come upon the stage of active life since Cooper's death, I am +the only person who has read this work through. The knowledge of it +possessed by his contemporaries did not, in many cases, approach to the +dignity of being even second-hand. The accounts of it that have come +under my own notice, seem often to have been gathered from reviews of it +which had themselves been written by men who had never read the +original. It is no difficult matter to explain the neglect into which it +immediately sank. The work was a satire mainly upon certain of the +social and political features to be found in England and America, +designated respectively as Leaphigh and Leaplow; though one or two +things characteristic of France were transferred to the former country. +But satire Cooper could not write. The power of vigorous invective he +had in a marked degree. But the wit which plays while it wounds, which +while saying one thing means another, which deals in far-off suggestion +and remote allusion, this was something entirely unsuited to the +directness and energy of his intellect. Moreover, some of his most +marked literary defects were seen here exaggerated and unrelieved. In +many of his novels there is prolixity in the introduction. Still in +these it is often compensated by descriptions of natural scenery so +life-like and so enthusiastic that even the most _blasé_ of novel +readers is carried along in a state of what may be called endurable +tediousness. But in "The Monikins" the introductory tediousness is +unendurable. It is not until we are nearly half-way into the work and +have actually entered upon the voyage to the land of the monkeys, that +the dullness at all disappears. After the country of Leaphigh is reached +the story is far less absurd and more entertaining; though (p. 135) +Cooper's descriptions are of the nature of caricature rather than of +satire. There are, however, many shrewd and caustic remarks scattered up +and down the pages of the latter part of the work, but they will never +be known to anybody, for nobody will read the book through. + +The work fell perfectly dead from the press. But its failure had not the +least effect in deterring Cooper from continuing in the course upon +which he had started. During the years 1836, 1837, and 1838, he +published ten volumes of travels. In these he repeated, with emphasis, +everything that he had uttered privately or had implied in his previous +publications. The first of these works was entitled "Sketches of +Switzerland." It was divided into two parts. The first, which was +published on May 21, 1836, gave an account of his residence and +excursions in that country during the summer and autumn of 1828. The +second part, which appeared October 8, 1836, was largely taken up with +accounts of matters and things in Paris during the winter of 1831-32, a +journey up the Rhine, and a second visit to Switzerland. These two parts +made four volumes. The remaining six had the general title of "Gleanings +in Europe," and two each were devoted to France, England, and Italy. The +first of these was published March 4, 1837; the second September 2 of +the same year; and the third, May 26, 1838. They were written in the +form of letters, and were pretty certainly made up from letters actually +written or memoranda taken at the time. But they were likewise largely +interspersed with the expression of views and feelings that he had +learned to adopt and cherish since his return to his native land. + +In the case of England and America, in particular, his remarks (p. 136) +may have been full of light, but they did not exhibit sweetness. +Probably no set of travels was ever more elaborately contrived to arouse +the wrath of readers in both countries, nor one that more successfully +fulfilled its mission. His keen observation let no striking traits +escape notice. The individual Englishmen he meets and describes could +furnish entertainment only to men that were not themselves Englishmen. +There is, for instance, the sea-captain who endeavors to compensate for +his lack of energy by giving his passenger an account of the marvelous +riches of the nobility and gentry. Even more graphically drawn is the +islander he met in the Bernese Oberland, who appeared to regard the peak +of the Jungfrau with contempt, as if it did very well for Switzerland; +and who, when his attention was called to a singularly beautiful effect +upon a mountain top, began to tell how cheap mutton was in +Herefordshire. Nor were many of his general remarks flattering. As one +descended in the social scale he thought the English the most artificial +people on earth. Large numbers of them mistook a labored, feigned, +heartless manner for high-breeding. The mass of them acted in society +like children who have had their hair combed and faces washed, to be +shown up in the drawing-room. They were conventional everywhere. The +very men whom he met after his arrival in the streets of Southampton, +all looked as if they had been born with hat-brushes and clothes-brushes +in their hands. As a race, moreover, they had special defects. They +lacked delicacy and taste in conferring obligations or paying +compliments. They were utterly indifferent to the feelings of others. +There was a national propensity to blackguardism; and the English press, +in particular, calumniated its enemies, both political and (p. 137) +personal, with the coarsest vituperation. + +These were not the sort of remarks to draw favorable notices from +British periodicals. Cooper soon had an opportunity to verify, in his +own experience, the truth of the last of his observations that have been +cited. Harsh, however, as was his language about England, it bore little +comparison to the severity with which he expressed himself about +America. The attacks on the newspaper press belong not here, but to the +account of the war he waged with it. The omission, however, will hardly +be noticed in the multitude of other matters he found to criticise. +Manners, customs, society, were touched throughout with an unsparing +hand. Common crimes, he admitted, were not so general with us as in +Europe, though mainly because we were exempt from temptation, but +uncommon meannesses did abound in a large circle of our population. Our +two besetting sins were canting and hypocrisy. We had far less publicity +in our pleasures than other nations; yet we had scarcely any domestic +privacy on account of the neighborhood. The whole country was full of a +village-like gossip which caused every man to think that he was a judge +of character, when he was not even a judge of facts. In most matters we +were humble imitators of the English. All their mistakes and +misjudgments we adopted except such as impaired our good opinion of +ourselves. It was a consequence that all their errors about foreign +countries had become our errors also. In a few cases, indeed, we were +compelled to be American; but whenever there was a tolerable chance we +endeavored to become second-class English. Wherever making money was in +view, we had but one soul and that was inventive enough; but when (p. 138) +it came to spending it we did not know how to set about it except +by routine. No people traveled as much as we; none traveled with so +little enjoyment or so few comforts. Taste and knowledge and tone were +too little concentrated anywhere, too much diffused everywhere, to make +head against the advances of an overwhelming mediocrity. Of society +there was but little; for what it suited the caprice of certain people +to call such was little more than the noisy, screeching, hoydenish +romping of both sexes. The taint of provincialism was diffused over all +feelings and beliefs. Of arts and letters the country possessed none or +next to none. Moreover, there was no genuine sympathy with either. To +all this dismal prospect there was slight hope of improvement, because +there was a disposition to resent any intimation that we could be better +than we were at present. + +It would be a gross error to infer the general character of Cooper's +travels from these extracts. They are gathered together from ten +volumes, without any of the attendant statements by which they are there +in many cases modified. Equally erroneous would it be to suppose that he +did not find much to praise as well as to condemn in both England and +America. These extracts, however, explain the almost savage vituperation +with which Cooper was thenceforth followed in the press of the two +countries. The works themselves met with a very slight sale: none of +them ever passed into a second edition. Men were not likely to read with +alacrity, however much they might with profit, unfavorable opinions +entertained of themselves. Cooper himself could not have hoped for much +success for his strictures. In fact, he expressly declared the contrary. +The most he should expect, he said, would be the secret assent of (p. 139) +the wise and good, the expressed censure of the numerous class of the +vapid and ignorant, the surprise of the mercenary and the demagogue, and +the secret satisfaction of the few who should come after him who would +take an interest in his name. + +Notwithstanding the ferocious criticism with which they were assailed at +the time and the forgetfulness into which they have now fallen, Cooper's +accounts of the countries in which he lived are among the best of their +kind. Books of travel are from their very nature of temporary interest. +It requires peculiar felicity of manner to make up long for the fresher +matter about foreign lands which newer books contain. Striking +descriptions and acute observations will still, however, reward the +reader of Cooper's sketches. There are often displayed in them a vigor +and a political sagacity which of themselves would justify his being +styled the most robust of American authors. Pointed assertions are +scattered up and down his pages. Could, for instance, one of the dangers +of a democracy be more clearly and ill-naturedly put than by his +statement, that the whole science of government in what are called free +states, is getting to be a strife in mystification, in which the great +secret is to persuade the governed that he is in fact the governor? His +books, moreover, while they reflect his prejudices, show an honest +desire to be just. He undoubtedly preferred the Continent to England. +But in his account of that country, while he had the unfairness of +dislike, he never had the unfairness of intentional misrepresentation. +There is nothing of that exulting yell with which the British traveler +of those days fell foul of some specimen of American ill-breeding or +American bumptiousness. Nor did he fail to pay a high tribute to (p. 140) +what was best in English society or English character. The gentlemen +of that country, in appearance, in attainments, in manliness, and he was +inclined to add in principles, he placed at the head of their class in +Christendom. His censure of America and the Americans was not at all in +the nature of indiscriminate abuse. The fault he found with his +countrymen was based mainly upon their mistaken opinion of themselves +and of their advantages and disadvantages. You boast, he practically +said to them, of the superiority of your scenery, in which you are not +to be compared with Europe; but you constantly abuse your climate which +is equal to, if not finer, than that of any region in the Old World. You +stand up manfully for your manners and tastes, which you ought to +correct; but you are incessantly apologizing for your institutions of +which you ought to be proud. The defects imputed in Europe to the +inhabitants of the United States, such as the want of morals, honesty, +order, decency, liberality, and religion, were not at all our defects. +These, in fact were, as the world goes, the strong points of American +character. On the other hand, those on which we prided ourselves, +intelligence, taste, manners, education as applied to all beyond the +base of society, were the very points upon which we should do well to be +silent. This is certainly not an extreme position. But men are far more +affected by the blame bestowed upon their foibles than by the praise +given to their virtues; and both in England and America the censures +were remembered and the commendations forgotten. Other circumstances +also came in now to add to his unpopularity in his own country. A local +quarrel in which he accidently became concerned, was followed by (p. 141) +consequences which affected his estimation throughout the whole land; +but the details of this will require a separate chapter. + + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. (p. 142) + +1837-1838. + + +Three miles from Cooperstown, on the western side of Otsego Lake, a low, +wooded point of land projects for some distance into the water. It +combines two characteristics of an attractive resort: beauty of scenery +and easiness of access. On these accounts Cooper's father had refused to +sell it when he disposed of his other lands. He had, in fact, specially +reserved it for his own use, and for that of his descendants. In 1808, a +year before his death, he drew up his will. In it he made a particular +devise of this spot. "I give and bequeath," ran the words of the +document, "my place, called Myrtle Grove, on the west side of the Lake +Otsego, to all my descendants in common until the year 1850; then to be +inherited by the youngest thereof bearing my name." Two small buildings +had been successively erected by him on the spot. The first he tore down +himself, but the second was set on fire after his death, by the +carelessness of trespassers using it, and burned to the ground. Shortly +after 1821, the only representative of the family living in Cooperstown +who was of proper age to be consulted, gave his consent, so far as he +was concerned, to the erection of a new building by the community. From +that time the Point came to be a place of general resort. To it fishing +and picnic parties were in the habit of repairing. An impression (p. 143) +sprang up, moreover, that the spot was public property. This impression +in the course of years advanced to the dignity of positive assertion. It +became in time a universally accepted belief in the minds of the +citizens that the place belonged to them. It then only remained to +furnish the explanation of how it had happened to come into their +possession. This was no difficult achievement. The story was soon +generally received that Cooper's father, instead of permitting the +public to use the Point, had actually made a gift of it to the public. + +When Cooper took up his summer residence in the village, after his +return from Europe, he found the notion prevalent that the place in +question belonged to the community. As executor of his father's will he +took pains to correct the error. He informed his fellow-citizens that +the Point was private property, and not public; and that while he had no +desire to prevent them from resorting to it, he was determined to insist +upon the recognition of the real ownership. He might as well have talked +to the winds. The community did not bother itself about examining the +question of title. It had been in the habit of using the Point without +asking any one's consent, and the Point it purposed to keep on using in +the same way. + +Matters reached a crisis in 1837. The building erected on the spot had +become dilapidated. Workmen were sent out to repair it, without going +through the formality of consulting the owners of the property. A tree +was also cut down, which, on account of certain associations connected +with his father, Cooper valued particularly. This was not the way to win +over to the view of the community the executor of the property. He sent +a card at once to the editor of the Democratic newspaper of the (p. 144) +village, stating that the Point was private property, and cautioning +the public against injuring the trees. Nothing, however, was said about +trespassing. The card came too late for publication that week and before +another number of the paper appeared, rumor of its existence had got +about. Its reported character created ill-feeling, and messages and even +threats were sent to Cooper on the subject. These had the effect which +might have been expected. He withdrew the original card and published in +its stead a simple, ordinary notice of warning against trespassing on +the Point, with a few additional facts. The notice, which is dated July +22, 1837, reads as follows:-- + +"The public is warned against trespassing on the Three Mile Point, it +being the intention of the subscriber rigidly to enforce the title of +the estate, of which he is the representative, to the same. The public +has not, nor has it ever had, any right to the same beyond what has been +conceded by the liberality of the owners." + +The notice was signed by Cooper as the executor of his father's estate. +Great was the excitement in the village when it was published. A +hand-bill was immediately put into circulation calling a meeting of the +citizens, to take into consideration the propriety of defending their +rights against the arrogant claims and assumed authority of "one J. +Fenimore Cooper." The meeting was accordingly held. There was little +difference of sentiment among those present. All were animated, +according to the newspaper reports, by the determination to use the +Three Mile Point without being indebted to the liberality of Cooper or +any one else. Stirring speeches were made. Two or three persons were +anxious to delay any action until the question of title had been (p. 145) +examined. This proposition was deemed by the immense majority of those +present to have a truckling character, and consequently met with no +favor. The meeting, accordingly, found immediate relief for its feelings +in the usual American way, by passing a series of resolutions. The vigor +of these was out of all proportion to the sense. The disposition to defy +Cooper shot, in some instances, indeed, beyond its proper mark, and +extended even to the rules of grammar. After reciting in a preamble the +facts as they understood them, the citizens present went on to express +their determination and opinions as follows:-- + +"Resolved, By the aforesaid citizens that we will wholly disregard the +notice given by James F. Cooper, forbidding the public to frequent the +Three Mile Point. + +"Resolved, That inasmuch as it is well known that the late William +Cooper intended the use of the Point in question for the citizens of +this village and its vicinity, we deem it no more than a proper respect +for the memory and intentions of the father, that the son should +recognize the claim of the citizens to the use of the premises, even had +he the power to deny it. + +"Resolved, That we will hold his threat to enforce title to the +premises, as we do his whole conduct in relation to the matter, in +perfect contempt. + +"Resolved, That the language and conduct of Cooper, in his attempts to +procure acknowledgements of 'liberality,' and his attempt to force the +citizens into asking his permission to use the premises, has been such +as to render himself odious to a greater portion of the citizens of this +community. + +"Resolved, That we do recommend and request the trustees of the Franklin +Library, in this village, to remove all books, of which Cooper is (p. 146) +the author, from said library. + +"Resolved also, That we will and do denounce any man as sycophant, who +has, or shall, ask permission of James F. Cooper to visit the Point in +question. + +"Resolved, That the proceedings of this meeting be signed by the +chairman and secretary, and published in the village papers." + +Whatever else these proceedings show, they make it clear that the people +of Cooperstown had not well improved the opportunity afforded by his +residence among them, of becoming well acquainted with the character of +their distinguished townsman. Still there was knowledge enough about him +to make the officers of the meeting unwilling to publish the resolutions +as they had been ordered. He was not a man to be trifled with; and no +one cared to make himself personally responsible for what had been said. +As a matter of fact the secretary of the meeting furnished Cooper with a +copy of the resolutions; and it was the latter that first caused them to +be printed. But the story of the meeting speedily found its way into the +newspapers. In the accounts of the proceedings that were in circulation, +it was said that a resolution had been passed that the works of the +novelist should be taken from the library and publicly burned. This was +caught up by the press and repeated everywhere throughout the country. +To this day the baseless tradition lingers in Cooperstown itself, that +this act was not only determined upon but actually done. The matter +doubtless was discussed among the other sage proposals that were brought +forward at this meeting; and it may be true, as was afterwards +suspected, that the original resolution on this point was modified +before it was allowed to go out to the public. + +Under the circumstances only one result was possible. The (p. 147) +community were very speedily satisfied that they did not own the Point, +and were equally convinced that their prospect of obtaining possession +of it by clamor was far from good. Two letters, marked by anything but +timidity or amiability, Cooper wrote to the Democratic newspaper of the +village. In them he gave fully all the facts in the case. To the +assertion paraded in many of the Whig journals of the state, that this +meeting showed the spirit of the people in Cooperstown, he made an +indignant reply. Such a remark, he said, was a libel on the character of +the place. The meeting, he declared, was not composed of a fourth part +of the population, or a hundredth part of the respectability of the +village. The resolutions he described as being the work of presuming +boys, who swagger of time immemorial; of strangers who had lived but a +brief time in the county; and of a few disreputable persons who, bent on +construing liberty entirely on their own side, interposed against +palpable rights and sacred family feelings their gossiping facts, their +grasping rapacity, and their ruthless disposition to destroy whatever +they could not control. "There is but one legal public," he defiantly +concluded his first letter, "and that acts under the obligation of +precise oaths, through prescribed forms, and on constitutional +principles. Let 'excitement' be flourished as it may, this is the only +public to which I shall submit the decision of my rights. So far as my +means allow, insult shall be avenged by the law, violence repelled by +the strong hand, falsehood put to shame by truth, and sophistry exposed +by reason." + +It is perfectly clear that on the merits of this controversy Cooper was +wholly in the right. The bluster of these resolutions exhausted (p. 148) +all the courage of his opponents. The question of ownership was at once +settled definitely and forever. No one on the spot ever questioned the +point any farther, though the original falsehood was steadily repeated +by newspapers at a distance, and apparently never once contradicted +after its untruth had been shown. Some may think the result might have +been reached by milder means, but the spirit shown at the meeting +renders this more than doubtful. Cooper even had to pay for the +insertion of his letters in the village newspaper. Unfortunately the +ill-feeling aroused did not stop here. It gave rise to what may be +described as a semi-political controversy--that is, a controversy in +which one party attacks a man, and the party to which he belongs does +not think it expedient or worth while to defend him. The libel suits to +which it directly or indirectly led with the Whig newspapers of the +state will demand a separate chapter. Before they were well under way, +however, the novelist made up his mind to right himself in another +manner, and brought out a work of fiction which seemed expressly +contrived to meet the thought of the sacred writer who wished his +adversary had written a book. + +Cooper determined to write a story in which he would set forth the +principles involved in the controversy about the Point. There is perhaps +no subject that cannot be made interesting by the right treatment. But +he was now in a state of mind that would not have permitted him to +discuss any matter of this nature in the spirit that belongs to the +composition of a work of the imagination. The dispute had embittered his +feelings already sore. It had tended to give him a still more distorted +view of the country to which he had come back. So completely had (p. 149) +his feelings swung around that he now had an eye for little but the +worst features of the national character. Passion had largely unbalanced +his judgment. Ancient fable has pointed out the danger of falling under +the fascinations of the sirens; but even that seems preferable to +becoming bewitched by the furies. + +Still he could not well make a book out of this one event. It could be +used to suit all his purposes, however, by being introduced as an +incident of an ordinary tale. In this way his side of the story would +travel as far as the false assertions about his conduct in the matter +which had been circulated not only over America but over Europe. He also +set out to bring together in the work he was contemplating all the +things that he looked upon with disapprobation and dislike in the social +life of this country. His original intention was to begin a story with +the landing here of an American family long resident in Europe. Happily +he was induced to give an account of the voyage home, and this in the +end necessitated the division of the work into two parts. Accordingly on +the 16th of August, 1837, appeared the novel of "Homeward Bound," +followed in November of the same year by its sequel, entitled "Home as +Found." The leading characters are the same in both tales, but the +events are entirely unlike. The scene of the first is laid wholly on the +water. In its movement, its variety of incidents, and the spirit and +energy with which they are told, it is one of the best of Cooper's +sea-novels. Nor is this estimate seriously impaired by the fact that it +is in some places marred by controversial discussions on liberty and +equality, and by the withering exposure of views that no man maintained +whose opinions were worth regarding. But these are only occasional (p. 150) +blemishes. They do not materially interfere with the progress of the +story, which moves on with little variation of interest to the end. On +the other hand, the characters are generally as uninteresting as the +events are exciting. The chief ones among them have all reached that +supreme refinement which justifies them in feeling and decisively +pronouncing that whatever is done by anybody but themselves is coarse. +But in this work the personages are so subordinate to the scenes that +any failure in representing the former is more than counterbalanced by +the success shown in depicting the latter. + +The reverse was the fact when the sequel followed. In this the +characters and their views became prominent, and the events were of +slight importance. "Home as Found" was far poorer than "Homeward Bound" +was good. Never was a more unfortunate work written by any author. This +is the fact, whether it be looked at from the literary or the popular +point of view. For the latter it is enough to say that the opinions +about America which have already been given in the account of his +European travels were more than reënforced. He said again what he had +said before, and he took pains to add a great deal that had been left +unsaid. The new matter surpassed in the energy of invective the old, and +its attack was more concentrated. There were in the novel, to be sure, +the remarks that had now got to be habitual with Cooper upon the +provincialism of the whole country; but it was upon New York city that +the vials of his wrath were especially poured. The town, according to +the view here expressed of it, was nothing more than a huge expansion of +commonplace things. It was a confused and tasteless collection of +flaring red brick houses, martin-box churches, and colossal (p. 151) +taverns. But the assault made upon its external appearance bore no +comparison to that upon its internal life. The city in a moral sense +resembled, according to Cooper, a huge encampment. It stood at the +farthest remove from the intellectual supremacy and high tone of a +genuine capital as distinguished from a great trading port. In its +gayeties he saw little better than the struggles of an uninstructed +taste, if indeed that could properly be styled gay which was only a +strife in prodigality and parade. The conversation of the elders was +entirely about the currency, the price of lots, and the latest +speculations in towns. The younger society was made up of babbling +misses, who prattled as waters flow, without consciousness of effort, +and of whiskered masters who fancied Broadway the world; and the two +together looked upon the flirtations of miniature drawing-rooms as the +ideal of human life in its loftiest aspects. Upon the _literati_ the +attack was even more savage. He described this appellation as being +given to the most incorrigible members of the book clubs of New York. +These had been laboriously employed in puffing each other into celebrity +for many weary years, but still remained just as vapid, as conceited, as +ignorant, as imitative, as dependent, and as provincial as ever. + +It is not an easy matter to condense the bitterness of two volumes into +a few sentences. Enough has been given, however, to show the character +of the strictures. Whatever may be thought of their justice, few will be +disposed to deny their vigor. But Cooper, unfortunately for himself, was +not satisfied with demolishing what seemed poor in his eyes. He +undertook the business of reconstruction, and set up an ideal of how +things ought to be. His main agents in this work were the members (p. 152) +of the Effingham family, whom he had brought over from Europe in +"Homeward Bound." In these and the train dependent upon them, we were to +find realized that pure and perfect social state which he contemplated +in his own mind. To them were added a few survivors from the old +families, as he termed them, which after a manner had ridden out the +social gale that had made shipwreck of so many of their original +companions. Out of these materials Cooper attempted to build his ideal +framework of a life in which men thought rationally and lived nobly. It +was here he made his mistake, and it was a signal one. His inability to +portray the higher types of character was an absolute bar to success. +This was largely due to his inability to catch and reproduce the tone of +polished conversation. Never was his weakness in this respect more +painfully manifested than in "Home as Found." He could appreciate such +conversation; he could bear a part in it; but he could not represent it. +His characters taken from low life, whatever critics may say, have +usually a marked individuality. But whenever Cooper sought to draw the +men and women of cultivated society he achieved at best a doubtful +success. In this instance he tried to make them and their words and +deeds the vehicle of reproof and satire. His failure was absolute. +Modern culture, we all know, consists largely in the most refined method +of finding fault. But this his ideal family had not reached. An +essentially coarse method of finding fault was the only one to which it +had attained. Never, indeed, was a more bumptious, conceited, and +disagreeable set of personages created by an author, under the +impression that they were the reverse. The simple-minded, (p. 153) +thoughtful, and upright Mr. Effingham can speedily be dismissed as +merely a mild type of bore. Not so with his daughter Eve, and his cousin +John Effingham. The latter plays the part of critic of his country and +countrymen. It seems hardly possible that in this narrow-minded, +disagreeable, and essentially vulgar character, Cooper could have +fancied he was creating anything but a contemptible boor. The contrast +between what is said of him, and what is said by him, almost reaches the +comic. We read constantly of his caustic satire; we find little of it in +his conversation. His fine face is, according to the author, always +expressing contempt and sarcasm; but the examples of these that are +shown in his speeches are usually specimens of that forcible-feeble +straining to be severe which marks the man of violent temper and feeble +intellect. As represented, he has neither the feeling, the instincts, +nor the manners of a gentleman. He so much dislikes untruth that he +insinuates to a guest, very broadly as well as very unjustly, that he is +lying. In short, he is one of those rude and vulgar men who fancy that +they are frank simply because they are brutal. No civilized society +would long tolerate the presence, if even the existence, of such an +animal as he is here represented to be. + +Even he, however, shines by comparison with the heroine. Of her we hear +no end of praise. Her delicacy, her plastic simplicity, the simple +elegance of her attire, her indescribable air of polish, her surpassing +beauty and modesty of mien, are referred to again and again. She is +simple, she is feminine, she is dignified. To men her smiles are faint +and distant. Across her countenance no unworthy thought has ever left a +trace. Once and once only did she fail to keep up to the high (p. 154) +level of deportment which she ordinarily maintained. On one occasion +"her little foot moved" in spite of the fact that "she had been +carefully taught, too, that a ladylike manner required that even this +beautiful portion of the female frame should be quiet and unobtrusive." +Something, however, must always be pardoned to human nature; and Cooper +doubtless felt that it would not do to make his heroine absolutely free +from frailty. As a sort of foil to her was introduced her cousin Grace +Van Cortlandt. She, to be sure, had not had the advantage of foreign +travel; but there was a redeeming feature in her case. She belonged to +an old family. She was saved in consequence from being entirely +submerged in that sweltering, foaming tide of mediocrity, which called +itself New York society. Belonging to an old family did not, however, +preserve her from being provincial. She is taken along with the rest to +Templeton. On her way thither she is steadily snubbed by the masculine +element of the party, and henpecked by the feminine. The reader comes in +time to have the sincerest pity for this unfortunate girl, who is made +to pay very dearly for the misfortune of being akin to a family whose +members had become too superior to be gracious and too polished to be +polite. + +In the composition of this work Cooper seems to have lost all sense of +the ridiculous. The personages whom he wished to make particularly +attractive are uniformly disagreeable. A French governess appears in the +story, who is simply insufferable. He brings in an American woman, Mrs. +Bloomfield, as a representative, according to him, of that class which +equals, if it does not surpass, in the brilliancy of its conversation +the best to be found in European salons. She is introduced discoursing +on the civilization of the country in a way that would speedily (p. 155) +empty any of the parlors of her native land. Indeed, throughout the work +the characters converse as no rational beings ever conversed under any +sort of provocation. But it is in the speeches of the heroine that the +language reaches its highest development. She can emphatically be said +to talk like a book. She does not guess, she hazards conjectures. She +playfully addresses her father as "thoughtless, precipitate parent." +When she is asked what she thinks of the country now that an attempt was +made to take possession of the Point, she describes her character, as +drawn in this novel, as no words of another can. "Miss Effingham," she +says, "has been grieved, disappointed, nay, shocked, but she will not +despair of the republic." Indeed the only person in the work who has any +near kinship to humanity is one of the inferior characters, named +Aristobulus Bragg. He is the more attractive because he says bright +things unconsciously; while the heavy characters say heavy things under +the impression that they are light. + +This book had a profound influence upon Cooper's fortunes. From +beginning to end it was a blunder. It cannot receive even the negative +praise of being a work in which the best of intentions was marred by the +worst of taste. Its spirit was a bad spirit throughout. It was dreadful +to think some of the things found in it; but it was more dreadful to say +them. There was a great deal of truth in its pages, but if the views +expressed in it had been actually inspired, the attitude and tone the +author assumed would have prevented his making a convert. To some extent +this had been true of "Homeward Bound." Greenough expostulated with +Cooper, after reading that novel. "I think," he wrote from (p. 156) +Florence, "you lose hold on the American public by rubbing down their +shins with brickbats as you do." The most surprising thing connected +with "Home as Found," however, is Cooper's unconsciousness, not of the +probability, but of the possibility, that he would be charged with +drawing himself in the character of Edward Effingham, and to some extent +in that of John Effingham. The sentiments advanced were his sentiments, +the acts described were in many cases his acts. The absence in a foreign +land, the return to America, the scene laid at Templeton, with a direct +reference to "The Pioneers," the account of the controversy about the +Three Mile Point,--all these fixed definitely the man and the place. +Variations in matters of detail would not disturb the truth of the +general resemblance. Still Cooper not only did not intend to represent +himself, he was unaware that he had done so. Nearly three years after in +the columns of a weekly newspaper he stoutly defended himself against +the imputation. It was useless. From this time forward the name of +Effingham was often derisively applied to him in the controversies in +which he was engaged. + +It was not merely the intemperate spirit exhibited, which destroyed the +effect of the shrewd and just comments often appearing in "Home as +Found." This was full as much impaired by the display of personal +weaknesses. Cooper's foible about descent he could not help exposing. No +thoughtful man denies the desirability of honorable lineage, or +undervalues the possession of it; but not for the reasons for which the +novelist regarded it and celebrated it. There was much in this single +story to justify Lowell's sarcasm, uttered ten years later, that (p. 157) +Cooper had written six volumes to prove that he was as good as a +lord. He traces his families up to remote periods in the past. He +thereby shows their superiority to the newly-created family of the +English baronet who is brought into the tale. It was to correct the +erroneous impression, prevalent in Europe, that there was no stability, +no permanent respectability in the society of this country, that he +enlarged upon the date to which ancestry could be traced. The difficulty +was to persuade anybody that the men who took the pains to look up their +forefathers had any superiority to those who shared in the general +indifference as to who their forefathers were. He went farther than this +in some instances, and expressly implied that blood and birth were +necessary to gentility. This was provincialism pushed to an extreme. +Whatever we may think of its actual value, English aristocracy resembles +in this gold and silver, that it has an accepted value independent of +the character of its representatives. It is, therefore, current +throughout the civilized world; whereas American aristocracy is like +local paper money: worth nothing except in its own country, and even +there receiving little recognition or circulation outside of the +immediate neighborhood in which it is found. Still, the subject of blood +and birth is a solemn one to those who believe in it, and they are +absolutely incapable of comprehending the feelings of a world of +scoffers, or, if they do, impute them to imperfect mental or spiritual +development. On this point Cooper had the misfortune to say what some +think but dare not express. + +The wrath aroused, especially in New York city, by this particular +novel, had about it something both fearful and comic. In one (p. 158) +respect Cooper had the advantage, and his critics all felt it. His work +was certain to be translated into all the principal languages of modern +Europe. The picture he drew of New York society would be the one that +foreigners would naturally receive as genuine. By them it would be +looked upon as the work of a man familiar with what he was describing, +the work of a man, moreover, who had been well known in European circles +for his intense Americanism. It was vain to protest that it was a +caricature. The protest would not be heeded even if it were heard. His +enemies might rage; but they were powerless to influence foreign +opinion, and they felt themselves so. Rage they certainly did; and if +the assault made upon him had been as effective as it was violent, +little would have been left of his reputation. Even as late as 1842, +during the progress of the libel suits, some one took the pains to +produce a novel in two volumes called "'The Effinghams, or Home as I +Found It,' by the Author of the 'Victims of Chancery.'" The whole aim of +this tale was to satirise Cooper. Mere malignity, however, has little +vitality; and in spite of the fact that the work was widely praised by +the journals for its "sound American feeling," and for its hits at "the +conceited, disappointed, and Europeanized writer of 'Home as Found,'" it +passed so speedily to the paper-makers that antiquarian research would +now be tasked to find a copy. About the contemporary newspaper notices +there was a certain tiger-like ferocity which almost justified much that +Cooper said in denunciation of the American press. A specimen, though a +somewhat extreme one, of a good deal of the sort of criticism to which +the novelist was subjected, can be found in the "New Yorker" for the +1st of December, 1838. This journal was edited by Horace Greeley, (p. 159) +but the article in question came probably from the pen of Park Benjamin. +It defended Cooper from the charge of vilifying his country in order to +make his works salable in England, but it defended him in this way. No +motive of that kind was necessary to be supposed. He had an inborn +disposition to pour out his bile and vent his spleen. "He is as proud of +blackguarding," the article continued, "as a fishwoman of Billingsgate. +It is as natural to him as snarling to a tom-cat, or growling to a +bull-dog.... He is the common mark of scorn and contempt of every +well-informed American. The superlative dolt!" In this refined and +chastened style did the defenders of American cultivation preserve its +reputation from its traducer. + +Criticism of the kind just quoted, hurts only the man who utters it and +the community which tolerates it. It injured the reputation of the +country far more than the work could that it criticised. "Home as +Found," as a matter of fact, was prevented from doing any harm, partly +by its excessive exaggeration but more by its excessive poorness. As a +story it stood in marked contrast to its immediate predecessor. It was +as difficult to accompany Cooper on land as it had been to abandon him +when on the water. The tediousness of the tale is indeed something +appalling to the most hardened novel-reader. The only interest it can +possibly have at this day is from the opportunity it affords of studying +one phase of the author's character, and of accounting for much of the +bitter hostility with which he was assailed. + +While he was lecturing his countrymen on manners, his own were spoken of +in turn in a way that gave especial delight to the enemies he had (p. 160) +made by his criticisms. In 1837 Lockhart's "Life of Sir Walter Scott" +was appearing. In the diary of that novelist were some references to the +American author. "This man," he said, describing his first interview, +"who has shown so much genius, has a good deal of the manners, or want +of manners, peculiar to his countrymen." Cooper's personal acquaintance +with Scott had begun in 1826, just after the latter had set about his +gigantic effort to pay off the load of debt in which he had involved +himself. The American novelist had made then an attempt to secure for +the man he regarded as his master some adequate return from the vast +sale of his works in the United States. In this he had been foiled. In +the "Knickerbocker Magazine" for April, 1838, he gave an account of +these fruitless negotiations. In a later number of the same year he +reviewed Lockhart's biography. This work is well known as one of the +most entertaining in our literature. But on its appearance it gave a +painful shock to the admirers of the great author by the revelations it +made of practices which savored more of the proverbial canniness of the +Scotchman than of the lofty spirit of the man of honor. Equally +surprising was the unconsciousness of the biographer, that there was +anything discreditable in what he disclosed. Cooper criticised Scott's +conduct in certain matters with a good deal of severity. In regard to +some points he took extreme, and what might fairly be deemed Quixotic +ground. Yet the general justice of his article will hardly be denied now +by any one who is fully cognizant of the facts. Nor, indeed, was it +then. "I have just read," wrote Charles Sumner from London to Hillard, +in January, 1839, "an article on Lockhart's 'Scott,' written by (p. 161) +Cooper in the "Knickerbocker," which was lent me by Barry Cornwall. +I think it capital. I see none of Cooper's faults; and I think a proper +castigation is applied to the vulgar minds of Scott and Lockhart. +Indeed, the nearer I approach the circle of these men the less disposed +do I find myself to like them." Sumner subsequently wrote, that Procter +fully concurred in the conclusions advanced in the review. But these +were not the prevalent opinions, in this country at least. Great was the +outcry against Cooper for writing this article; great the outcry against +the "Knickerbocker" for printing it. The latter was severely censured +for its willingness to prostitute its columns to the service of the +former in his slanderous "attempts to vilify the object of his impotent +and contemptible hatred." Americans who were averse to Scott's being +honestly paid proved particularly solicitous that he should not be +honestly criticised. They showed themselves as little scrupulous in +defending him after he was dead as they had been in plundering him while +he was living. + +Cooper had previously aroused the resentment of many because he had +failed to express gratification or delight at being termed "the American +Scott." He had then been assured again and again that there was no +danger of the title being applied to him in future; that in ten years +their names would never be coupled together, and that he himself would +be totally forgotten. It could hardly have been deemed a compliment in a +land where scarcely a petty district can exist peacefully and +creditably, with a hill three thousand feet in height, which is not in +time rendered disreputable by being saddled with the pretentious name of +"The American Switzerland." Personal malice alone, however, could +impute his disclaimer either to malice or to envy. His own (p. 162) +estimate of his relations to the British novelist, he had given many +times; and indirectly at that very time in his account in the first +"Knickerbocker" article, of his interview with Sir Walter Scott. The +latter had been so obliging, he observed, as to make him a number of +flattering speeches, which he, however, did not repay in kind. His +reserve he thought Scott did not altogether like. In this he was +probably mistaken, but the reason he gave for his own conduct savored +little of feelings of envy or rivalry. "As Johnson," he wrote, "said of +his interview with George the Third, it was not for me to bandy +compliments with my sovereign." No attention was paid to these and +similar utterances of a man whom his bitterest enemies never once dared +to charge with saying a word he did not mean. + +Few at this day will be disposed to deny the justice of a good deal of +the criticism that Cooper passed upon his country and his countrymen. +Even now, though many of his strictures are directed against things that +no longer exist, there is still much in his writings that can be read +with profit. The essential justice of what he said is not impaired by +the fact that he was usually indiscreet and intemperate in the saying of +it. Nor were his motives of a low kind. He loved his country, and +nothing lay dearer to his heart than to have her what she ought to be. +The people were the source of power; and it was his cardinal principle +that power ought always to be censured rather than flattered. It needed +to be told the truth, however unwelcome; and in his eyes, that man was +no true patriot who was not willing to encounter unpopularity, if it +came in the line of duty. At the same time, while doing full justice to +the purity of his motives, we cannot shut our eyes to the defects (p. 163) +of his method. His abilities, his reputation, his acquaintance with +foreign lands, gave him inestimable advantages for influencing his +countrymen, and of educating them in matters where they stood sadly in +need of it. But the spirit in which he went to work deprived him of the +legitimate influence he should have exerted. Excitement, and passion, +and indignation led him often to say the wrong thing. More often they +caused him to say the right thing in the wrong way. Nor did he escape +the special temptation which speedily besets him who starts out to tell +his fellow-men unpleasant truths. Duty of this kind soon begins to have +a peculiar fascination of its own. The careful reader cannot fail to see +that in process of time the more disagreeable was the truth the more +delightful it became to Cooper to tell it. Most unreasonable it +certainly was to expect that constant fault-finding would be looked upon +as a proof of special attachment. The means, moreover, were not always +adapted to the end. Men may possibly be lectured to some extent into the +acquisition of the virtues, but they never can be bullied into the +graces. + +Besides all this, in a great deal of Cooper's criticism there were +fundamental defects. He constantly confounded the unimportant and the +temporary with the important and the permanent. Many of his most violent +strictures are devoted to points of little consequence, and the feeling +expressed is out of all proportion to the significance of the matter +involved. Nothing, for instance, seemed to irritate him more than the +preference given by many of his countrymen to the scenery of America +over that of Europe. Especially was he indignant with the (p. 164) +"besotted stupidity" that could compare the bay of New York with that of +Naples. He returned to this topic in book after book. Yet of all the +harmless exhibitions of mistaken judgment, that which prefers the +scenery of one's own land is what a wise man would be least disposed to +find fault with; certainly what he would think least calculated to +inspire the wrath of a Juvenal. Cosmopolitanism is well enough in its +way. But that ability to see things exactly as they are, which enables a +man to criticise his mother with the same impartiality with which he +does any other woman, can hardly be thought to mark a high development +of his loftier feelings, however creditable it may be to the judicial +tone of his mind. Undue preference of the scenery of one's own country +is an amiable weakness at which the philosopher may smile, but the +patriot can afford to rejoice. + +There was, moreover, a certain vagueness about much of Cooper's +criticism that deprived it of effect. No more striking illustration of +this could be found than his constant charge of provincialism made +against this country. He repeated it in season and out of season. For +several years he hardly published a work which did not contain a number +of references to it or assertions of its existence. Provincial enough we +certainly were then, if looked at from the point of view of the present +time. We in turn may seem so to our descendants. This possibility shows +at once the somewhat unreal nature of the accusation. Provincialism, +like vulgarity, is a term that defies exact explanation. It is the +indefinite and, therefore, unanswerable charge that men constantly bring +against those whose standard of living and thinking is different from +their own. It depends upon the point of view of the speaker full (p. 165) +as much as upon the conduct and opinions of those spoken of. It +changes as manners change. Nations not only impute it to one another, +but even to themselves at different periods of their history. Made by +itself, therefore, it means nothing. Without a specific description of +what in particular is meant by provincialism, the charge cannot and +ought not to have any weight with those against whom it is directed. + +Certain incidental facts mentioned in these observations bring also to +light another marked defect of Cooper's course. This was not in his +views but in his method of enforcing them. He could not refrain from the +constant repetition of the same censures. He had never learned literary +self-restraint; that special criticisms, in order to have their full +weight, must not be forced too often upon the attention, and especially +at unseasonable times. The mind revolts at having the same exhibition of +personal feeling thrust upon it in the most uncalled-for manner and in +the most unexpected places. Even when originally disposed to agree with +the view expressed, it will, out of a pure spirit of contradiction, take +the side opposed to that which is enforced with exasperating frequency. +The fullest sympathizer is sure to get tired of this everlasting slaying +of the slain. A similar effect is, indeed, likely to be produced upon +the victim of the criticism. Instead of being stirred to reflection, +repentance, or even indignation, he simply becomes bored. After a man +has been told a hundred times that he is provincial, the remark ceases +to be exciting. The things, therefore, that Cooper said incidentally are +even now the only ones that make any deep impression upon the mind. Like +all men, sensitive to the national honor, he felt keenly the (p. 166) +refusal of Congress to pass a copyright law. It led him to say twice, +but both times very quietly, that in spite of loud profession there was +little genuine sympathy in this country with art, or scholarship, or +letters. The absence of all heat and excitement gives to the remark a +weight that never belongs to his violent utterances and fierce +denunciations. We may hope that we have gained since his time; but even +at this day we have little to boast of, if the average cultivation of +the people, as well as its average morality, finds expression in the +laws. The record in these matters of the highest legislative body in the +land is still the most discreditable of that of any nation in +Christendom. To gratify the greed of a few traders, it has never refused +to lay heavy burdens upon scholarship and letters. It has steadily +imposed duties on the introduction of everything that could facilitate +the acquisition of learning, and further the development of art. It has +persistently stabbed literature under the pretence of encouraging +intelligence. It has never once been guilty of the weakness of yielding +for a moment to the virtuous impulse that would even contemplate the +enactment of a copyright law. If it ever does pass one, it will do so, +not because foreign authors have rights, but because native publishers +have quarrels. Thus consistent in its unwillingness to do an honest +thing from an honest motive, it will even then grant to selfishness what +has been invariably denied to justice. + +There were other than faults of view or faults of statement that mark +Cooper's writings at this time. The two novels published during the year +1838 show a radical change in the attitude he assumed to his art. What +had been indicated in the stories whose scenes were laid in (p. 167) +Europe, was now carried out completely. He may have been unconscious of +the difference of his point of view, but none the less did it exist. The +novel was no longer something in which he could embody his conceptions +of beauty fairer, or truth higher than could actually be found in +nature. It no longer served him as a refuge from the din of a clamorous, +or the hostility of a censorious world. It became a sort of fortress, +from the secure position of which he was enabled to deal out annoyance +and defiance to his foes. He had not now so much a story to tell as a +sermon to preach; and with him, as with many others, to preach meant to +denounce. His spirit for a time became captive to the prejudices and the +heated feelings which had been aroused by the sense of the injustice +with which he had been treated. Though he at intervals worked himself +out of this state of mind, upon much of his later work rested the shadow +of the prison-house which he, for a season, had made his abiding-place. +The result was that a good deal of what he afterwards wrote was marred +by the obtrusion of personal likes and dislikes, and the taint of +controversial discussion. These things rarely concerned the story in +which they appeared, and they inspired hostility to the writer. Cooper, +indeed, never learned to appreciate the fact that a reader has rights +which an author is bound to respect. By dragging in irrelevant +discussions, moreover, he was taking the surest way to lose the audience +he most sought to influence. A little reflection would have taught him +that there was little use in a prophet's crying in the wilderness, +unless he can succeed in gathering the people together. + +While, therefore, there can be no justification for the ferocity with +which Cooper was assailed, there was some palliation. His course (p. 168) +from his return to the country had been wanting in prudence, and at +times in common sense. He had plunged at once as a combatant into one of +the bitterest political controversies that ever agitated the republic. +Hard blows were given and taken. He could scarcely expect that, in the +heat of the strife, regard would in all cases be paid to the proprieties +and even the decencies of private life. There was much in his later +productions, moreover, to alienate many who were honestly disposed to +admire him as a writer. Politics we could get at all times and from +everybody. If, again, we were hopelessly provincial, if we were +irreclaimably given over to vulgarity, we could find out all about it +from the latest English traveler, or the review of his work that had +appeared in the latest English periodicals. But by Cooper the life of +the wilderness and of the sea had been told as by no other writer. Over +the fields and forests and streams of his native land he had thrown the +glamour of romantic association and lofty deeds. There was something +unpleasant in witnessing a man who could do this turning his attention +to the discussion of points of etiquette and manners. Beside the waste +of power, which is something always disagreeable to contemplate, the +subject itself could hardly be called an attractive one. It was a sandy +desert to travel over at best. But even those who thought it a thing +worth while to do once, could hardly help feeling surprise at the spirit +which could induce a man to go over it again and again, enlarge upon its +discomforts, its perpetual sameness and barrenness, and point out its +incapacity of being made much better. There were even worse things than +this. It could scarcely fail to inspire a sentiment almost like disgust +to have the creator of Leather-Stocking argue with heat the (p. 169) +question whether it is right for a lady to come into a drawing-room at a +party without leaning upon the arm of a gentleman; or discourse solemnly +upon the proper way of eating eggs, and announce oracularly that all who +were acquainted with polite society would agree in denouncing the +wine-glass or egg-glass as a vulgar substitute for the egg-cup. +Questions like these are usually left to those who have the taste to +delight in them and the mental elevation to grasp the difficulties +involved in them. They were the more disagreeable when met with in +Cooper, because in addition to the pettiness of the subject, there was +an apparent unconsciousness on his part that the limits of his own +preferences and conclusions were not necessarily those of the human +mind. + +Cooper indeed exemplified in his literary career a story he was in the +habit of telling of one of his early adventures. While in the navy he +was traveling in the wilderness bordering upon the Ontario. The party to +which he belonged came upon an inn where they were not expected. The +landlord was totally unprepared, and met them with a sorrowful +countenance. There was, he assured them, absolutely nothing in his house +that was fit to eat. When asked what he had that was not fit to eat, he +could only say in reply that he could furnish them with venison, +pheasant, wild duck, and some fresh fish. To the astonished question of +what better he supposed they could wish, the landlord meekly replied, +that he thought they might have wanted some salt pork. The story was +truer of Cooper himself than of his innkeeper. Nature he could depict, +and the wild life led in it, so that all men stood ready and eager to +gaze on the pictures he drew. He chose too often to inflict upon them, +instead of it, the most commonplace of moralizing, the stalest (p. 170) +disquisitions upon manners and customs, and the driest discussions of +politics and theology. + +But the moral injury which Cooper received from these controversial +discussions and their results was far greater than the intellectual. +They swung him off the line of healthful activity. They perverted his +judgment. He looked upon the social and political movements that were +going on about him with the eye of an irritated and wronged man. Years +did not bring to him the philosophic mind, but the spirit of the +opinionated partisan and the heated denouncer. He fixed his attention so +completely on the tendencies to ill that manifested themselves in the +social state, that he often became blind to the counterbalancing +tendencies to good. Hence his later judgments were frequently one-sided +and partial. He too often took up the rôle of prophesying disasters that +never came to pass. Moreover, this habit of looking at one side not only +narrowed his mental vision, but turned it in the direction of petty +objects. No reader of his later novels can fail to see how often he +excites himself over matters of no serious moment; or which, whether +serious or slight, are utterly out of place where they are. By many of +these exhibitions the indifferent will be amused, but the admirers of +the man will feel pained if not outraged. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. (p. 171) + +1837-1842. + + +By the end of 1837 Cooper had pretty sedulously improved every +opportunity of making himself unpopular. His criticisms had been +distributed with admirable impartiality. Few persons or places could +complain that they had been overlooked. The natural satisfaction that +any one would have felt in contemplating the punishment inflicted upon +his friend or neighbor, was utterly marred by the consideration of the +outrage done to himself. There was scarcely a class of Cooper's +fellow-citizens whose susceptibilities had not been touched, or whose +wrath had not been kindled by something he had said either in public or +in private, and by his saying it repeatedly. The sons of the Puritans he +had exasperated by styling them the grand inquisitors of private life, +and by asserting that a low sort of tyranny over domestic affairs was +the direct result of their religious polity. He had roused the +resentment of the survivors of the old Federalist party by declaring +that its design during the war of 1812 had been disunion, and that in +secret many of them still longed for a restoration of monarchy, and +sighed for ribbons, stars, and garters. He had not conciliated the party +with which he was nominally allied by his incessant attacks upon the +doctrine of free-trade. He had made Boston shudder to its remotest +suburbs, by stating again and again in the strongest terms that (p. 172) +it was in the Middle States alone that the English language was spoken +with purity. The New England capital he had further described as a +gossiping country town with a tone of criticism so narrow and vulgar as +scarcely to hide the parochial sort of venom which engendered it. He had +charged upon New Yorkers that their lives were spent in the constant +struggle for inordinate and grasping gain; that to talk of dollars was +to them a source of endless enjoyment; and that their society had for +its characteristic distinction the fussy pretension and swagger that +usually mark the presence of lucky speculators in stocks. He had +attributed to the whole trading class a jealous and ferocious +watchfulness of the pocket, and a readiness to sacrifice at any time the +honor of the country for the sake of personal profit. To the native +merchants he had denied the name of real merchants. They were simply +factors, mere agents, who were ennobled by commerce, but who did not +themselves ennoble it. The foreign traders resident here fared no +better. They had never read the Constitution of the country they had +made their home, and were incapable of understanding it if they should +read it. Always judging of American facts in accordance with the +antiquated notions in which they had been brought up, they were largely +responsible for the erroneous opinions entertained and blundering +prophecies made in Europe in regard to the condition and future of the +United States. The educated class, above all, he had denounced for its +indomitable selfishness and its hatred of the rights of those socially +inferior. It was entirely behind the fortunes of the country and still +cherished prejudices against democracy that the very stupidest of +European conservatives had begun to lay aside. The newspaper (p. 173) +press he had assailed with a pungency and vigor which it in vain sought +to rival. He was spattered by it, however, with almost every opprobrious +term that belongs to the vocabulary of wrath and abuse. Invention was +tasked to furnish discreditable reasons for all that he said and did. +That inexhaustible capacity of devising base motives for conduct, which +is an especial attribute of mean minds, had now opportunity to put forth +its full powers in the way of insinuation and assertion. It did not go +unimproved. A common charge brought against him after the publication of +the "Letter to His Countrymen" was that it had been written for the sake +of gaining office. It was even said that Van Buren had a hand in it. +Then and afterward, the Whig newspapers represented Cooper as seeking +the position of Secretary of the Navy. Denial availed him nothing. It +would certainly have not been at all to his discredit to have desired +the place; for he knew a great deal about the navy, and its interests +were very dear to his heart. For these very reasons his appointment to +it would have been in violation of the traditional policy of the +government. It was probably never once contemplated by any +administration, as it was certainly never asked by Cooper himself. + +The two extracts that have already been given are doubtless sufficient +to satisfy any curiosity that may exist in regard to the way in which he +was spoken of by the press of America. Yet coarse as was its +vituperation, it was surpassed by that of Great Britain. Englishmen may +have felt, and have felt justly, that Cooper took an unfair view of +their social life and political institutions. National character sweeps +through a range so vast that a man will usually be able to find in it +what he goes to seek. Even under the most favorable conditions (p. 174) +the tastes of a coterie or the habits of a class are made the standard +by which to estimate the tastes and habits of a whole people. Certain it +is that the view of any nation is to be distrusted which is not taken +from a station of good-will. But granting that Cooper was unjust in his +observations, there was nothing he said which afforded the least excuse +for the coarse personality with which he was followed from the time he +published his volumes on England. The remarks of the ordinary journals +can be dismissed without comment. But brutal vituperation was found in +abundance in periodicals which claimed to be the representatives of the +highest cultivation and refinement. According to "Blackwood's Magazine," +Cooper was a vulgar man, who from having been bred to the sea had been +enabled to give some striking descriptions of sea-affairs, and in +consequence had unluckily imagined himself a universal genius. It went +on to add, that on the strength of the trifling reputation he had +acquired by stories descriptive of American life, he had come to Europe, +and had since been partly traveling on the Continent to pick up +materials for novels, and partly residing in England, actively employed +in the effort to introduce himself into society. In this it admitted he +might have been partially successful, for the English were a very +yielding people and did not take much trouble to resist attempts of this +kind. "Blackwood," however, was outdone in this rowdy style of reviewing +by "Fraser's Magazine." From that periodical we learn that Cooper was "a +passable scribbler of passable novels," a "bilious braggart," a "liar," +a "full jackass," "a man of consummate and inbred vulgarity," "a bore of +the first magnitude in society," who went about fishing for (p. 175) +introductions. "But this," it concluded, speaking of his England, "was +his last kick, and we shall not disturb his dying moments." Two years +later the magazine seemed to think he had some power of kicking left, +for it returned to the charge in consequence of his review of Lockhart's +"Life of Scott." In this article he was called a "spiteful miscreant," +an "insect," a "grub," a "reptile." The "Quarterly Review" was as +virulent and violent as the magazines, but the attack was more skillful +as well as longer and more elaborate. By garbling extracts it cleverly +insinuated a good deal more than it said, and it so contrived to put +several things that the reader could hardly fail to draw inferences +which the writer must have known to be false. Even these attacks were +equaled if not surpassed at a later period by the "London Times." A +nominal review in that journal of "Eve Effingham," as "Home as Found" +was entitled in England, was really devoted to personal vituperation of +the novelist. It ended with the assertion that he was more vulgar than +ever, and was the most "affected, offensive, envious, and +ill-conditioned" of authors. Altogether Cooper must have been impressed +with the effectiveness of the blow which he had struck by the violence +with which it was resented. It seems hard to believe that remarks such +as have been quoted should have been thought to establish anything but +the vulgarity of the men who wrote them. Yet they apparently answered +their purpose. The very latest notice of Cooper's life which has +appeared in Great Britain, characterizes his work on England as an +"outburst of vanity and ill-temper." It certainly contained some +ill-judged remarks which have been made the most of by his enemies; but +this estimate, like many other assertions in the same sketch, was (p. 176) +not got from reading the work itself, but from what British periodicals +had said about it. + +Such was the kind of criticism that the novelist now mainly received in +the two great English-speaking countries. These flowers of invective do +not constitute an anthology which an Englishman or American of today can +read with pleasure, or contemplate with pride. It was the comments made +by his countrymen that naturally touched Cooper most nearly. His nature +was of a kind to feel keenly, and resent warmly insinuations and charges +that impugned the purity of his motives. Nor was his a disposition to +rest quiet under attack or to assume merely the defensive. He retorted +in letters, in works of fiction, and in books of travel. Finally he +resorted to libel suits. Never, indeed, was a fiercer fight carried on +by an individual against a power more mighty than Cooper carried on with +the press. It had a thousand tongues, he had but one; but it often +seemed as if his one had the force of a thousand. The epithets he +applied to newspapers were not of the kind with which they were in the +habit of celebrating themselves. Their enterprise in obtaining news he +described as a mercenary diligence in the collection and diffusion of +information, whether true or false. Nor were his comments upon those +concerned in carrying them on more favorable. What we should call a +reporter he, on one occasion, mildly spoke of as a "miscreant who +pandered for the press." In the last novel he wrote, he energetically +termed this whole class the funguses of letters who flourished on the +dunghill of the common mind; and that in their view the sole use for +which the universe was created was to furnish paragraphs for +newspapers. Men in the higher grades of the profession fared (p. 177) +little better. Against the political journals, in particular, he brought +the charge that under the pretence of serving the public they were +mainly used to aid the ambition or gratify the spite of their editors. + +Even as early as 1832, Cooper had awakened the indignation of the press +by an incidental remark made in the introduction to "The Heidenmauer." +He was describing a journey through a part of Belgium in which the Dutch +troops had been operating the week before his arrival. They had been +reported as having committed unusual excesses. Of these excesses he said +he could find no trace. He went on to add a sentence which has +apparently only a slight connection with what had gone before. "Each +hour, as life advances," he wrote, "am I made to see how capricious and +vulgar is the immortality conferred by a newspaper." This remark was +warmly resented. It was asserted to be a declaration, not merely of +indifference to the opinion of the press, but of a preference on his +part of its censure to its praise. Its business, therefore, was to see +that his wishes should be carried out. + +After the controversy in regard to the Three Mile Point, the attacks of +the Whig journals increased in bitterness. The state of mind it caused +in Cooper can be seen in a little volume, published by him in April, +1838, entitled "The American Democrat." This work is made up of a +singular mixture of abstract discussions on liberty and equality, on the +nature of parties, on forms of government, and of remarks on national +habits and manners. It is not an interesting hook. Yet it is fair to say +of it, that it is animated throughout by a lofty patriotism, and it +manifests a clear view of the dangers and duties of a democracy, (p. 178) +with its comparative advantages and disadvantages. But it likewise +exhibited some of the most uncompromising traits of the author's +character. In writing it, he was not aiming at popularity; it might not +be much out of the way to say that he was aiming at unpopularity. The +doctrine with which he sets out is, that in this country power rests +with the people, and power ought always to be chidden rather than +commended. He was accordingly liberal in criticism. But the value of +what he said was largely impaired, if not wholly destroyed by the +one-sidedness of view and tendency to over-statement into which his +ardor of feeling now habitually hurried him. In nothing is this +extravagance more strikingly seen than in the comments in this work upon +the press. There was a great deal of truth in what he said; but the +justice of some of his views was deprived of any effect by the +exaggeration and consequent injustice of others. The substance of his +remarks was that there were more newspapers in this country than in +Europe, but they were generally of a lower character. The multiplication +of them was due to the fact that little capital was required in their +creation, and little intelligence employed in their management. Their +number was, therefore, not a thing to be boasted of but rather to be +sorrowed over, since the quality diminished in an inverse ratio to the +quantity. Nor was there anything in the methods employed by the press +that justified any exultation in its prosperity. It tyrannized over +public men, over letters, over the stage, over even private life. Under +the pretence of preserving public morals, it corrupted them to the core. +Under the semblance of maintaining liberty, it was gradually +establishing a despotism as rude, as grasping, and as vulgar as (p. 179) +that of any state known. It loudly professed freedom of opinion, but +exhibited no tolerance. It paraded patriotism, but never sacrificed +interest. But its great fundamental failing was the untrustworthiness of +its statements. It existed to pervert truth. Its conductors were mainly +political adventurers. They were unscrupulous, but they were not so +utterly ignorant that they failed to see the necessity of occasionally +making correct assertions. It was, however, this mixture of fact with +fiction that was the chief cause of the evil influence exerted. The +result of it all was that the entire nation, in a moral sense, breathed +an atmosphere of falsehood. He concluded his indictment by declaring +that the American press would seem to have been expressly devised by the +great agent of mischief, to depress and destroy all that was good, and +to elevate and advance all that was evil. + +This style of remark was certainly not designed to win newspaper favor +or support. But he went even farther in his novels of "Homeward Bound" +and "Home as Found." In those two works he drew the portrait of an +American editor in the person of Steadfast Dodge of the Active Inquirer. +All the baser qualities of human nature were united in this ideal +representative of the press. He was a sneak, a spy, a coward, a +demagogue, a parasite, a lickspittle, a fawner upon all from whom he +hoped help, a slanderer of all who did not care to endure his society. +Such a picture did not rise even to the dignity of caricature. Nor is it +relieved either in this work or elsewhere by others drawn favorably. The +reader of Cooper will search his writings in vain for a portrait which +any member of the editorial profession would be glad to recognize as his +own. + +All this was vigorous enough, but it could hardly be called (p. 180) +profitable. Cooper had now cultivated to perfection the art of saying +injudicious things as well as the art of saying things injudiciously. +His ability in hitting upon the very line of remark that would still +further enrage the hostile, and irritate the indifferent and even the +friendly, assumed almost the nature of genius. The power of his attacks +could not be gainsaid. But while they inspired his opponents with +respect, they filled his friends with dismay. He was soon in a singular +position. He enjoyed at one and the same time the double distinction of +being reviled in England for his aggressive republicanism, and of being +denounced in America for aping the airs of the English aristocracy. It +hardly seemed a favorable time for beginning hostilities in a new field. +Yet it was then that he entered upon his famous legal war with the Whig +newspapers of the state of New York. + +A detailed account of the libel suits instituted by Cooper would form +one of the most striking chapters in the history of the American press; +and for some reasons it is to be regretted that the plan he had of +writing a full account of them was never carried out. Here only a slight +summary can be given. It is well to say at the outset that many +assertions ordinarily made about them are utterly false. For certain of +these prevalent misconceptions Greeley is responsible. He spoke of these +trials with some fullness in commenting upon libel suits in his +"Recollections of a Busy Life." But Greeley's life was too busy for him +always to recollect accurately. While he had not the slightest intention +to say anything untrue, what he said was in some instances of this +character; though more often it was misleading rather than false. (p. 181) +But outside of what Greeley has written, there are several erroneous +assertions current. One of the most common of these is the statement +that Cooper's success in them was mainly due to the application of the +law maxim, that the greater the truth the greater the libel. There was +never any ground for even an insinuation of this kind. Cooper, when his +attention was called to it, treated it with contempt. "The pretense," he +wrote in 1845, "that our courts have ever overruled that the truth is +not a complete defense in a libel suit in the civil action, can only +gain credit with the supremely ignorant." In criminal indictments the +New York statute of 1805 had expressly declared that the truth might be +pleaded in evidence by the defense. The Constitution of 1821 made this +provision part of the fundamental law, and it was adopted from that into +the Constitution of 1846. The assertion owed its origin wholly to the +effort of beaten parties to explain their defeat on some other ground +than that they had been found guilty of the offense with which they had +been charged. + +A more preposterous statement even than this was that the question +involved in these suits was the right of editors to criticise the +productions of authors. In not one of these trials was the literary +judgment passed by the reviewer mentioned as having the slightest +bearing on the case. It ought not to be necessary to say that it was the +attack upon the character of the man that alone came under the +consideration of the courts, and not that upon the character of the +book. The impudent pretense was, however, set up at the time that the +press had a right to go behind the writer's work, and assail him +himself. "Does an author," said "The New Yorker" in February, (p. 182) +1837, "subject himself to personal criticism by submitting a work to the +public? If he makes his work the channel of disparagement upon masses of +men, he does." + +The most marked feature of these trials is that Cooper fought his battle +single-handed. With a very few exceptions,--notably the "Albany Argus" +and the "New York Evening Post,"--the press of the party with which he +was nominally allied, remained neutral. Some of them were even hostile; +for the novelist's criticism of editors had known no distinction of +politics. On the other hand, the press of the opposition party was +united. From East to West they bore down upon Cooper with a common cry. +No event in his life showed more plainly the fearless and uncompromising +nature of the man; nor again did anything else he was concerned in mark +more clearly his versatility and vigor. In these trials he was assisted +by his nephew, Richard Cooper, who was his regular counsel. But outside +of him, in the civil suits, he had very rarely any help, and in most of +them he argued his own cause. Wherever he appeared in person he seems to +have come off uniformly victorious. Nor were his victories won over +inferior opponents. The reputation of the lawyer is under ordinary +conditions limited necessarily to a small circle. Even in that, +considering the amount of intellectual acuteness and power displayed, it +is an exceedingly transitory reputation. But the men against whom Cooper +was pitted stood in the very front rank of their profession. They were +leaders of the bar in the greatest state in the Union. Nor have times so +far swept by that their names are not still remembered; and stories are +still told of their achievements by those who have taken their (p. 183) +places. Cooper, not a lawyer by profession, met these men on their own +ground and defeated them. It was not long, indeed, after these suits +were instituted, that it was claimed by his friends, and often conceded +by his foes, that he was the one man in the country best acquainted with +the law of libel. Our surprise at his success is increased by the fact +that he was not only unpopular himself, but he was engaged in an +unpopular cause. The verdicts he won were usually small in amount, but +they were wrung from reluctant juries, and frequently in the face of +bitter prejudices that had to be overcome before he could hope for a +fair consideration of his own side. + +At the outset the editorial fraternity were disposed to take these libel +suits jocularly. They were looked upon as a gigantic joke. Nor did this +feeling die out when the first trial resulted in Cooper's favor. It was +proposed that the newspapers throughout the country should contribute +each one dollar to a fund to be called "The Effingham Libel Fund," out +of which all damages awarded the novelist were to be paid. Every +additional suit was welcomed with a shout. As time went on this +insolence gave way to apprehension. In nearly every case the plaintiff +was coming off successful. The comments of the press began to assume an +expostulatory tone. Cooper was gravely informed that were he to be tried +in the High Court of Public Opinion--this imaginary tribunal was usually +made imposing by dignifying its initial letters--for his libels upon his +country and his countrymen, the damages he would have to pay would not +only sweep away the amounts given him by the results in the regular +courts, but even the profits that had accrued from the sale of his +novels. These remonstrances were often animated also by a (p. 184) +new-born zeal for his literary fame. He was told he was his own greatest +enemy. He was doing himself irreparable injury by the course he was +taking. He was so acting as to lose the reputation he had early won. +This feeling naturally increased in intensity as suits continued to be +decided in his favor. The newspapers at last rose to the full +appreciation of the situation. The liberty of the press was actually in +danger. The trials were said to be conducted in defiance of law as well +as justice. The judges belonged to the Democratic party, and they +wrested the statutes from their true intent in order to oppress the Whig +editor. There came finally to be something exquisitely absurd in the +utterances of the journals on the subject of these suits. One would +fancy from reading them that the plaintiff was a monster resembling the +bloodthirsty ogre of a fairy tale, bullying judges, overawing juries, +maliciously bent on crushing the free-born American who should have the +temerity to express an unfavorable opinion of his writings. Coriolanus, +indeed, never fluttered the dove-cotes in Corioli more effectively than +for some years Cooper did the Whig newspaper offices of the state of New +York. + +The origin of the suits was as follows: An account of the circumstances +connected with the Three Mile Point controversy appeared, immediately +after they had taken place, in the "Norwich Telegraph," a paper +published in the neighboring county of Chenango. The article began with +a reference to Cooper. "This gentleman," it said, "not satisfied with +having drawn upon his head universal contempt from abroad, has done the +same thing at Cooperstown where he resides." In this spirit it (p. 185) +went on to give its report of the events told in the preceding chapter. +"So stands the matter at present," it closed its account, "Mr. J. F. C. +threatening the citizens on the one hand, and being derided and despised +by them on the other." In conclusion it called upon the "Otsego +Republican," the Whig newspaper of Cooperstown, to furnish all the facts +in the case. + +The latter journal was edited by a man named Barber. He was not slow to +comply with the request, and in one of the numbers of August, 1837, he +republished the article of the "Chenango Telegraph" with additional +assertions of his own. The latter belonged more to the realm of fiction +than of fact. Three Mile Point he declared had been reserved expressly +for the use of the inhabitants of Cooperstown by the father of the +novelist. When the notice was published depriving them of their rights, +a meeting had been called which had been largely attended. The room was +crowded with the industry, intelligence, and respectability of the +village. Powerful addresses were made and a series of resolutions were +passed. These expressed the feelings of all present. "The remarks," the +newspaper continued, "were of a lucid character, and the resolutions, +full, pungent, and yet respectful." + +Two days after this article had appeared, the editor received a letter +from Cooper's counsel which was to the effect that he would be +prosecuted for libel unless he retracted his statements. On his side the +novelist undertook to make perfectly clear to him that his assertions +were untrue; but he expected, after the real facts had been set before +him and fully examined, that he would take back what he had said. "No +atonement," the letter concluded, "will be accepted, that is not first +approved of by the plaintiff in the suit." Barber was not (p. 186) +disposed either to retract or to investigate the accuracy of the facts +he had stated. He published the letter, however, with the usual solemn +declaration that seems to be kept in type in all newspaper offices, that +in doing what he had done he had been actuated solely by the noblest +motives; that he had not published anything libellous; that if in +anything he had been misinformed, he held himself always ready to make +the proper correction. "In conclusion," he said, "not being sensible of +having injured Mr. Cooper, we consider that we have no atonement to +offer." Under these circumstances the suit went on. It did not come to +final trial until May, 1839, at the Montgomery circuit of the Supreme +Court. Joshua A. Spencer was the principal lawyer for the defense, while +Cooper conducted his own case. The jury returned a verdict of four +hundred dollars for the plaintiff. Eventually the editor sought to evade +in various ways the payment of the whole award, and did succeed in +evading the payment of a good part of it. A terrible outcry was, +however, raised against Cooper because the sheriff levied upon some +money that had been carefully laid away and locked up by Barber in a +trunk. + +With this begins the famous series of suits that occupied no small share +of the few following years of the author's life. At the time the first +one was decided, another was pending against the editor of the "Chenango +Telegraph." The leading Whig newspapers naturally took the side of their +associates. For a time they had a good deal to say about the greatest +slanderer of the whole profession pouncing upon one of the fraternity +least able to defend himself, simply because in a moment of haste and +excitement he had been guilty of what they were pleased to call (p. 187) +a technical libel. It did not seem to occur to them, that any one +could be so foolhardy as to make them the object of attack. They did not +have to wait long to discover that the influence wielded by a journal +was no protection. Besides the newspapers already mentioned, Cooper +prosecuted the "Oneida Whig," published at Utica. This suit was tried in +April, 1842. Though successful in it, the damages awarded were slight, +being but seventy dollars. A suit, tried little more than six months +before against the "Evening Signal," of New York city, edited by Park +Benjamin, had resulted in the recovery of a larger sum. The amount in +this case was three hundred and seventy-five dollars. With these +exceptions his suits were directed against the "Courier and Enquirer," +edited by James Watson Webb; "the Albany Evening Journal," edited by +Thurlow Weed; the "Tribune," edited by Horace Greeley, and the +"Commercial Advertiser," edited by William Leet Stone. These were the +leading Whig journals in the state, and among the most influential in +the whole country. It could not be said that Cooper hesitated about +flying at high game. + +In the controversy with Webb, Cooper had the least success. This was +partly due to the fact that it was not a civil action that was brought +against the former, but a criminal indictment. Juries might make editors +pay for the privilege of expressing their feelings of contempt or hate, +but they were not inclined to send them to prison. The indictment in +this case was based upon a criticism of "Home as Found." The review, +which was of several columns in length, had appeared in the "Courier and +Enquirer" of November 22, 1838. There was very little in the way of +hostile insinuation and assertion and personal depreciation that (p. 188) +could not be found in this article and in some which followed. The +attack was moreover a skillful one. It was directed largely against +those points where Cooper had fairly laid himself open to ridicule. +Especially was this the case in the matter of descent and family. Webb +represented the novelist as the son of a humble hawker of fish through +the streets of Burlington, who had afterward become a respectable though +not a first-class wheelwright. By probity, industry, and enterprise he +had finally risen to wealth and position. The maternal grandmother of +the author had, according to this same story, for more than twenty years +occupied a stall and sold fresh vegetables in the Philadelphia market, +and was remarkable for the superior quality of the articles she kept. +Webb praised the father at the expense of the son. The former had never +been ashamed of his humble origin. On the contrary, he was justly proud +of the intelligence and ability which, unaided by any mere external +advantages, had raised him to a station in life so much higher than he +at first held. Of such a career any child had a right to be proud. These +were statements that could not well be resented, conceding that they +were injurious, nor could they well be corrected, conceding that they +were untrue. Webb, who had recently returned from Europe, asserted, +moreover, that he had been present at a dinner-party in London, where +"Home as Found" came under discussion. On that occasion he had fallen +into a conversation about it with "a nobleman of distinction." The +latter informed him that Cooper's attack upon English society had +materially injured the sale of his works in that country, and it was +evident that he was now seeking to regain the ground and the (p. 189) +market he had lost, by praising everything English at the expense of +everything American; but as his base motives were now fully understood, +no one was led astray. The reported conversation carries internal +evidence of its authenticity. It required a very noble lord to impute to +a well-known writer motives so very noble; and none but an Englishman +could have appreciated so fully the eternal conditions of success in the +English market. These remarks of Webb's are, however, merely incidental. +His direct personal attack on Cooper rivaled that of the British +periodicals in ferocity. "We may and do know him," said he in the only +extract for which there is room, "as a base-minded caitiff who has +traduced his country for filthy lucre and low-born spleen; but time only +can render harmless abroad the envenomed barb of the slanderer who is in +fact a traitor to national pride and national character." + +For this article Webb was indicted by the grand jury of Otsego County, +in February, 1839. In June of the same year a second indictment was +found against him for saying that the first was secured by political +trickery. The trial, for various reasons, did not come off until +November, 1841. Webb made a public retraction of the statements upon +which the second indictment was found; and this was accepted on the part +of the prosecution. On the trial for the first indictment the jury +disagreed. The defendant objected to Cooper's summing up the case, and +this objection the court sustained. It was a wise policy: for the trials +in the civil suits showed that the novelist was full as effective in +addressing a jury orally as he ever was in addressing the public in his +most successful stories. One amusing feature of this case was that the +two volumes of "Home as Found" were read to the jury from (p. 190) +beginning to end by the plaintiffs counsel, Ambrose L. Jordan. + +Cooper was not discouraged by the ill result of this trial. The +indictment was still pressed. A second trial took place at Cooperstown +in June, 1843. Again the jury disagreed. A third trial is reported to +have taken place and to have resulted in the acquittal of Webb; but I +find no account of it in the newspapers to which I have had access. + +The suits brought against the "Albany Evening Journal" were, however, +the most striking in this whole contest. They show, too, more clearly +than the others, the spirit and methods with which it was waged on both +sides. Some features are especially marked. One is the illustration +furnished of the onslaughts that were made upon the novelist's character +and reputation, not from any real ill-will, but from pure wantonness or +at least very slight political hostility. Another is the jaunty +superciliousness with which the conductors of the press at first +affected to treat the threats of prosecution. More noteworthy than +anything else, however, is the view given of the deliberate manner in +which Cooper began these suits, and the relentless tenacity with which +he followed them up. The "Evening Journal," of which Thurlow Weed was +then the head, partly from the political skill of its editor, and partly +from its being the organ of the party at the state capital, was, at that +time, the most influential Whig journal in New York. Weed published in +it, in two different numbers of August, 1837, the articles which had +appeared in the "Chenango Telegraph" and the "Otsego Republican" about +the Three Mile Point controversy. He accompanied them with some comments +of his own in regard to Cooper. "He was, as is known," said he in (p. 191) +his second notice, "pretty generally despised abroad. He is now +equally distinguished at home." The editor then went on to speak of the +act of meanness, as he termed it, which had excited the contempt of the +novelist's neighbors; and that the more precise account now furnished by +the "Otsego Republican" would rather increase than diminish the measure +of scorn that had been aroused. Much was Weed's surprise when, on the +18th of April, 1840, he received a letter from Cooper's counsel +requiring a retraction of what had been said in 1837, and a further +statement that it must be made within a certain time or a suit for libel +would be begun. He treated this notice cavalierly. He was amused by it +even more than he was astonished. As it had taken three years for Cooper +to bring the suit, he concluded that he would take three weeks at any +rate to reply to the demand for a retraction. A second letter from +Cooper's counsel, dated the 4th of May, met with the same neglect. +Accordingly on the 25th of that month he had the pleasure of announcing +that he had been sued for libel by "Mr. John Effingham." + +The case after being put off once on a very frivolous pretext, came to +trial at the Montgomery circuit of the Supreme Court, held at Fonda, in +November, 1841. When it was called Weed was not present, nor was counsel +for him. Cooper consented to have the case go over for a day. It was +then called again. Nothing was seen of the defendant, nothing had been +heard from him. The case was accordingly sent to the jury with a speech +from the plaintiff's counsel. A verdict of four hundred dollars was +returned. Weed arrived at Fonda the evening of that day, and wrote +anonymously to the "New York Tribune" an account of what had taken (p. 192) +place. In some of its details it was more entertaining than accurate. +The reason he gave for his absence from the trial was that he had been +kept at home by severe illness in his family. But the result enabled him +to notice in this manner the sum awarded by the jury. + +"This meagre verdict under the circumstances is a severe and mortifying +rebuke to Cooper, who had everything his own way. + +"The value of Mr. Cooper's character, therefore, has been judicially +determined. + +"It is worth exactly four hundred dollars." + +For the publication of this letter a suit was immediately begun against +the "Tribune." But though he wrote for that journal an amusing account +of the trial, in his own paper Weed gave vent to the anger which the +result had excited. The verdicts gained in his various cases by "this +man Cooper," he said, had made "deep inroads upon a fame once bright and +enviable, but now sadly dim and dilapidated." He then recited in full +the misdeeds of the novelist. "For all this," concluded the aggrieved +editor, "connected with the attempt to deprive the citizens of a social +privilege with which they were invested by his honored father, we said +Mr. Cooper was despised. And for this he prosecuted us. And now having +again said it he may again prosecute us, if he wants and thinks he can +obtain four hundred dollars more." + +Weed did not appreciate the fact that he was not dealing with a +politician, but with a man indifferent to or rather contemptuous of +popular clamor. His challenge was immediately accepted. Early in +December, 1841, he was able to announce the fact that he had been (p. 193) +sued again. "The sheriff," he said, "has served another writ upon +us for an alleged libel upon Cooper. It remains to be seen how much +longer courts and juries will sanction this legal persecution of a man, +who after libeling his country and calumniating his countrymen, seeks to +muzzle a free press." The jocular tone used at first had all vanished. +Instead it was replaced by a fierce spirit of wrathfulness and defiance. +During the whole of December, 1841, Weed kept constantly republishing +extracts from other newspapers reflecting upon and attacking Cooper's +character and conduct. These were, he said, "sharp rebukes" of the +novelist's "ridiculous and unworthy attempt to disgrace his own country +to gain the favor and smiles of the nobility abroad." Some of these +newspaper comments furnish very amusing reading now, especially as the +impunity of most of the writers was due to their insignificance. "We +rejoice," said one of them, "to witness the spirit of independence +manifested by the conductors of the press. It proves their incorruptible +integrity and their love of principle, their firm hostility to foreign +notions, and their detestation of the man who seeks to ape the high and +aristocratic manners of English nobility." These valorous declarations +came mainly from the country papers of the state of New York, for the +"Evening Journal" was the Triton of these minnows. Weed, however, +eagerly reproduced everything that came from outside. One article, in +particular, from a Chicago paper, was published, in order that Cooper +might see "what right-minded and unprejudiced people say and think of +him far away in the boundless West." + +The appeal was to deaf ears. Neither contracted East nor boundless (p. 194) +West affected Cooper's resolution. As fast as the articles were +republished, they were carefully examined, and prosecutions begun +against the "Evening Journal" for those of them containing libelous +matter. By the middle of December five suits had been commenced, and +more were under consideration. A little later, if contemporary newspaper +reports can be trusted, the number had swelled to seven. The editor +began to appreciate the difficulty and danger of the situation. His +courage, however, did not falter. In fact he looked upon himself as +manfully standing in the gap for freedom of speech. "These suits," he +said "will determine whether an Independent Press is to be protected in +the free exercise of honest opinion, or whether it is to be overawed and +silenced by the persecutions of an inflated, litigious, soured novelist, +who, in his better days by the favor of the Press, made the money with +which he now seeks to oppress its conductors, and sap its independence." +He did not purpose to flinch from his duty. Accordingly he announced +that he should continue publishing these attacks until Cooper ceased +prosecuting. + +In this determination he was encouraged by the result of two suits tried +in April, 1842, in the Otsego County Court. Though he was beaten in +both, the verdict was for small amounts. In one case it was fifty-five +dollars, in the other eighty-seven dollars. This convinced the press +that the tide was turning. Again the country newspapers were filled with +libelous paragraphs. Again the novelist was denounced for his heartless +abuse of his country, and his soulless and contemptible vanity. Again +these strictures were carefully collected from every quarter, no matter +how insignificant, and republished in the columns of the "Evening (p. 195) +Journal." But these cheerful anticipations were speedily dissipated. +Another suit, tried at Fonda in the Supreme Court in May, 1842, resulted +in a verdict of three hundred and twenty-five dollars for the plaintiff. +The country papers were indignant. One of the editors sagely suggested +that "if judge and jury are to carry on this war on the press to gratify +individual malignity much further, it would be well for all editors to +unite in petitioning the legislature to pass a law that judges should +discharge their duties impartially, and juries be composed of honest and +intelligent men." This profound suggestion marks pretty plainly the +intellectual grade to which most of the writers of these paragraphs had +attained. Before it could be acted upon another suit had been decided. +In the September term of the Supreme Court held at Cooperstown, a +further verdict of two hundred dollars was awarded. In the following +month a new suit was begun. + +Weed had fought his fight manfully. But the business of publishing +libelous paragraphs at these rates, low as they were, was ceasing to be +either pleasant or profitable. Besides his own counsel fees, the adverse +verdicts carried with them heavy costs. He concluded to let the liberty +of the press take care of itself. Accordingly, on the 14th of December, +1842, he published, though with a grumbling comment, a retraction of all +his previous statements. It had been previously submitted to the eminent +lawyer, Daniel Cady, and by him approved. It withdrew, first, the +allegations contained the previous year in a specific article in the +paper. "On a review of the matter and a better knowledge of the facts," +were the words of the retraction, "I feel it to be my duty to withdraw +the injurious imputations it contains on the character of Mr. (p. 196) +Cooper. It is my wish that this retraction should be as broad as the +charges. The 'Albany Evening Journal' having also contained various +other articles reflecting on Mr. Cooper's character, I feel it due to +that gentleman to withdraw every charge that injuriously affects his +character." + +The course of instruction had been protracted and expensive, but the +lesson had been learned at last. The independence of the press had been +crushed by the domineering despot of Cooperstown. The controversy +threatened to break out again in 1845, but it seems never to have got +beyond words. There is a comic element introduced into the whole affair +by the fact that the editor of the "Journal" was a profound and even +bigoted admirer of his adversary's novels. So fond was he of quoting +from them, that according to Greeley, jokers at that time gravely +affirmed that Weed had never read but three authors,--Shakespeare, +Scott, and Cooper. In the very heat of the controversy he was said to +have sat up all night reading "The Pathfinder," which had come out a +little while before. Greeley also asserts that the paragraphs which +appeared in the "Evening Journal" were merely designed as gentle +reminders to the novelist of the folly of the course he was pursuing. +This might find belief in a society in which telling a man that he was +an object of universal contempt would be deemed an expression of +friendly interest in his welfare. When he says, in addition, that there +was no shred, no spice of malice in these assaults, he takes away the +sole ground on which a plea of palliation can be brought. If not due to +that they had not even the poor excuse of weak human nature. They were +the wanton acts of a man who attacks another, not from (p. 197) +indignation or wrath, but from the mere desire of inflicting annoyance +or pain. + +The controversy with the "Commercial Advertiser" belongs not here but to +the account of the "Naval History." It has already been said that the +"Tribune" had been sued for the publication of Thurlow Weed's letter +describing the trial at Fonda in November, 1841. In December, 1842, this +case came off at Ballston. Greeley assumed the conduct of the defense. +He was unsuccessful. The jury brought in against him a verdict of two +hundred dollars and costs. "We went back to dinner," he wrote, "took the +verdict in all meekness, took a sleigh and struck a bee-line for New +York." No sooner had he reached the city than he published a most +entertaining account of the whole trial. It filled eleven columns of the +"Tribune," and the demand for it became so great that it was found +necessary to publish it in pamphlet form. For some expressions in it +Cooper began another suit. In this instance Greeley gave up the plan of +defending himself and intrusted the conduct of his side to Seward. The +case dragged on for years in the New York courts, and, so far as I have +been able to discover, had not been brought to a final trial before the +plaintiff's death. + +By the end of 1843, Cooper had pretty well reduced the press to silence, +so far as comments on his character were concerned. It was +insignificance or remoteness alone that protected the libeler. The +leading newspapers of the state, however much they might abuse his +writings, learned to be very cautious of what they said of him +personally. But it was a barren victory he had won. He had lost far more +than he had gained. That such would be the result, he knew, while (p. 198) +he was engaged in the controversy. It affected, at the time, his literary +reputation, and, as a result, the sale of his writings; and since his +death it has been a principal agency in keeping alive a distorted and +fictitious view of his personal character. A common impression came to +be of him something like the description which Greeley's lawyers gave of +the estimation in which he was held in Otsego County, in some legal +papers bearing the date of July, 1845. This was to the effect that he +had acquired and had among his neighbors "the reputation of a proud, +captious, censorious, arbitrary, dogmatical, malicious, illiberal, +revengeful, and litigious man." This one-sided and hostile view of a +strongly-marked character had just enough of truth in it to cause it to +be widely received as an accurate and complete picture. In a similar way +the notion became current that he sought to ape the manners of the +English aristocracy. Whatever Cooper's foibles were, they were none of +them imported. He was too proud in feeling and too self-centred in +opinion ever to think of aping anything or anybody. But on these points +the prejudices and misrepresentations of that day have lasted down to +this. + +The account given makes it clear that the occasion of bringing the first +of these libel suits was accidental. But as time went on the prosecution +of them assumed to Cooper the shape of a duty. When once it had taken on +that character, no possible degree of unpopularity or odium could have +prevented him from persisting in his course. He treated with disdain the +common arguments used to persuade him to abandon them. To one of these +he referred directly in a novel published in 1844. He was insisting upon +the superiority of the past to the present, a sentiment which (p. 199) +became a favorite burden of his latter-day utterances. "The public sense +of right," he said, "had not become blunted by familiarity with abuses, +and the miserable and craven apology was never heard for not enforcing +the laws that nobody cared for what the newspapers say." He certainly +had some justification for the hardest things he thought and said of the +press. The newspapers which circulated the false reports about his +father's disposition of the property at Three Mile Point never corrected +them after the precise facts had been published. Many of them continued +to repeat the original statements after they must have known them to be +untrue. Nor did they stop here. As the British press had in his case +done all it could to justify the charge Cooper made against it of +ferocious blackguardism of personal and political foes, so many of the +American editors seemed anxious to realize, so far as it lay in their +power, the picture that had been drawn of them in the character of +Steadfast Dodge. Papers containing offensive paragraphs about Cooper +were carefully sent, not directed to him personally, but to his wife and +daughters. The fear of punishment is the only motive by which those who +commit acts of this kind can possibly be influenced. On the other hand, +it is an idle claim that the character of the press has been elevated by +libel suits that Cooper or any one else has ever brought. Such +prosecutions may be both justifiable and necessary; but the agencies +that form and build up intelligence and taste and high principle are not +of this negative and restraining character. + + + + +CHAPTER X. (p. 200) + +1839-1843. + + +On the 10th of May, 1839, appeared Cooper's "History of the United +States Navy." The work was one which he had long contemplated writing. +As far back as 1825 there were newspaper reports that he had the +undertaking in mind. He himself, in his parting speech at the dinner +given him in May, 1826, just before his departure for Europe, had +publicly announced his determination of devoting himself to this subject +during his absence abroad. "Encouraged by your kindness," he said, "I +will take this opportunity of recording the deeds and sufferings of a +class of men to which this nation owes a debt of lasting gratitude--a +class of men among whom, I am always ready to declare, not only the +earliest, but many of the happiest days of my youth have been passed." +The necessity of providing for his family and of paying off debts +incurred by others, but for which he was responsible, had prevented the +immediate carrying out of this resolution. But it had always been in his +thoughts. The delay in the preparation probably added to the value of +the history; but its reception would unquestionably have been far +different had it been brought out in the height of his popularity. + +It was a work which for many reasons it was a hard task to make +accurate, and a still harder one to make interesting. With slight +exceptions the history could be little more than a record of (p. 201) +detached combats; and a string of episodes, no matter how brilliant, can +never have the attraction which belongs to unity and grandeur of +movement. These last can alone characterize the operations of great +fleets. + +Still, for the writing of this history Cooper was peculiarly fitted. He +had belonged to the navy in his early life. He had never ceased to feel +the deepest interest in its reputation and prosperity. He had +contributed to the "Naval Magazine," a periodical published during 1836 +and 1837, a series of papers connected with the improvement of its +condition. He was, moreover, on terms of intimacy with many of the +officers who had won for it distinction; and through them he had access +to sources of information that could not be gained from written +authorities. He had, besides, the characteristic of loving truth for its +own sake, and the disposition to endure any amount of drudgery and +encounter any sort of toil in order to secure it. To this were added the +special qualifications of the historical eye, which enabled him to seize +the important facts in an infinite mass of detail, and the power of +describing vividly what he saw clearly. Under such circumstances it was +reasonable to expect that his work would satisfy all fair-thinking men. +It is, perhaps, correct to say that it did so. But it also gave rise to +a controversy which stretched over a longer period and surpassed, in the +bitter feelings it aroused, any of the wars in which the navy itself had +ever been engaged. + +There were special difficulties to be encountered with readers on both +sides of the ocean. On the one hand, Englishmen had usually forgotten to +remember that during the war of 1812 there was any naval combat of +importance fought except between the Shannon and the Chesapeake; (p. 202) +and even at this day it would be difficult to find in an English writer +any account of the naval operations of that war in which that particular +engagement does not play the principal part. If any other was forced +upon their attention it had become an article of their creed that an +American frigate was little else than a line-of-battle ship disguised. +Moreover, the effective force of the American vessel was, according to +their theory, made up of deserters from the British service. These two +explanations of any failure were often combined. It is in this way +Captain Brenton, one of their naval historians, calmly shows how it was +that the Constitution happened to capture the Guerrière. "We may justly +say," he concludes his account, "it was a large British frigate taking a +small one." On her part America was not to be outdone in her estimate of +national prowess. It had become matter of firm faith with the +inhabitants of the United States that their side had suffered no losses +worth mentioning during the war of 1812; that the American vessel had +been invariably successful, whenever there was any approach to equality +of force; and that in every case it was the superior seamanship, +courage, and skill of their officers and men that had decided the result +in their favor, and not superiority in weight of metal. + +Neither of these beliefs was of a kind likely to influence Cooper. He +had got to that point of feeling in which he looked upon the public +opinion of both England and America with a good deal of contempt. It was +not to pamper the vanity or flatter the prejudices of either that he +wrote, but to state the truth. For this he neglected nothing that lay in +his power. He studied public documents of every kind, official (p. 203) +reports, all the printed and manuscript material to which he could get +access. From officers of the navy who had shared in the actions +described he gathered much information which they alone were able to +communicate. In one sense he was fully satisfied with what he had done. +He did not pretend that in a work which involved the examination and +sifting of an almost infinite number of details he had not made some +errors. It was only that he had made none intentionally, and that he had +put forth his most strenuous exertions to have what he wrote entirely +free from mistake. Nor is it possible for any unprejudiced mind to read +the history now and not feel the truth of the assertion. Its accuracy +and honesty have sometimes been flippantly questioned, but usually by +men who have not spent as many days in the study of the subject as +Cooper did months. During his lifetime imputations were made in a few +cases upon the correctness of his statements. They met then, however, so +speedy and effectual a refutation that it was not thought worth while to +repeat the criticisms until he was in his grave. Cooper might be wrong +in his conclusions; but it was rarely safe to quarrel with his facts. +There is more, however, in this history than freedom from intentional +perversion of the truth. There are throughout the whole of it the +calmness, the judicial spirit, the absence of partisanship which may not +of themselves add anything to the interest of the narrative, but are +worth everything for the impression of truthfulness it makes. + +Impartiality is a quality, however, little apt to be commended where our +own feelings and interests are concerned. Still, the general fairness of +the work was admitted in England, with the qualification, of (p. 204) +course that a perfectly trustworthy history could not come from this +side of the water. A few malignant attacks were made upon it. One of +these, which appeared in the "United Service Journal" for November and +December, 1839, is of the nature of a prolonged roar rather than a +criticism; but it is worth noticing for the incidental evidence it +furnishes of the intense rancor felt towards Cooper by many in England +on account of his strictures upon that country in the two volumes +devoted to it in his "Gleanings in Europe." The writer made the then +usual profession of faith, that the work referred to had been completely +crushed by the "Quarterly;" moreover, that the novelist had been +convicted by it of the blackest ingratitude for traducing the nation +which, we learn from this notice, had fostered his talents for romance. +No critic of Cooper, either in Europe or in this country, it is to be +remarked here, ever seemed willing to concede that the author had any +hand in gaining his own reputation. In America the newspapers constantly +assured him that it was due entirely to them. Great Britain assumed that +it was to her generous appreciation alone that he was known in either +hemisphere. The European main-land was not behind the island in this +feeling. "Undoubtedly," wrote Balzac, "Cooper's renown is not due to his +countrymen nor to the English: he owes it mainly to the ardent +appreciation of France." This sentiment of the novelist's obligation to +Great Britain was uppermost in the heart of the reviewer in the "United +Service Journal." An uneasy impression, however, weighed upon his mind +lest Cooper, who had now suffered annihilation several times without +injury, might have survived the particular one inflicted by the (p. 205) +"Quarterly." He honestly confessed, therefore, that he had waited +some months before criticising the "Naval History," so that he might not +look at it with a jaundiced or malignant eye in consequence of his +recollections of the previous work on England. + +It is not worth while to take any further notice of this article, in +which wretched criticism was put into still poorer English. But there +was one of these reviews to which Cooper felt it incumbent on him to +reply. This appeared in the "Edinburgh" for April, 1840. It was +studiously fair in tone. It commended the American author's work in many +respects. While doing so, however, it attacked him for having made no +use of the "Naval History of Great Britain" by William James, a history +which it spoke of in a gushing way as approaching "as nearly to +perfection in its own line as any historical work perhaps ever did." It +also labored heavily to break the force of some of Cooper's statements +by charging him with making assertions without evidence or against +evidence. James was a veterinary surgeon who had come to this country +before the war of 1812 to practice his profession. After the breaking +out of hostilities he left it, or rather, as he says, "escaped from it, +before being taken prisoner into the interior"--whatever that may mean. +In the early part of "the steelyard and arithmetical war," as Cooper +phrased it, which has raged with extreme violence ever since the peace +of Ghent, James bore a gallant and conspicuous part. He published a +pamphlet on the subject, which, in 1817, came out expanded into a +volume. In it he showed conclusively that his countrymen had been +utterly wrong in supposing that they had met with any naval reverses +during the war of 1812. The falsity of this assumption he (p. 206) +satisfactorily established by explaining that the Americans were the +most inveterate liars upon the face of the earth. By their deceptive and +fraudulent accounts they had beguiled the English, a self-distrustful +and self-depreciating people, into believing that they had been +defeated, where they had really been victorious. Heroes, indeed, can be +overcome by sufficient odds; and James was always prepared with ample +explanations to account for failure in special cases. He also convicted +the officers of the American navy not merely of lying in their official +reports--which was a duty expected of them both by government and +people--but of cowardice in action, of misconduct in their operations, +and of brutality toward enemies whom the chance of war threw into their +power. A work like this not merely filled a gap in historical +literature, it supplied a national want. It was accordingly received +with such favor that its author went on to produce a history of the +British navy from 1793 to the accession of George IV. In this he +embodied his previous narrative; and a grateful people has never ceased +to cherish a work which showed it that it had succeeded where previously +it had been laboring under the impression that it had failed. + +For James and his history Cooper had unbounded contempt. This +horse-doctor, as he termed him, he looked upon as being as well fitted +to describe a naval engagement as the proverbial horse-marine would be +to take part in one. Besides being incapable, he regarded him as +eminently dishonest; as vaunting impartiality while elevating +discreditable and improbable hearsay into positive assertion, and +fortifying his falsehoods by a pretentious parade of figures and +official documents. It is hardly going too far to say that, in (p. 207) +Cooper's opinion, the remarks of James on American affairs combined all +possible forms of misstatement from undesigned misrepresentation to +deliberate falsehood. There may be difference of opinion on this point; +on another there can be none. The period covered by the British writer +is on the whole the most glorious in the long and brilliant naval +history of the greatest maritime power the world has ever known. Never +was there a greater contrast between the spirit with which things were +done and the spirit with which they were told. In no other history known +to man does tediousness assume proportions more appalling, do figures +seem more juiceless, do the stories of heroic achievement furnish less +inspiration than in this of James. If it be true, as some modern writers +say, that history to be of value must be void of interest, it may be +conceded that this particular work is entitled to that praise of +perfection accorded it by the Edinburgh Reviewer. + +The judgment that held up such a history as a model was not likely to +impress a man, who was still under the sway of the old-fashioned notion, +that there was no absolutely necessary connection between dullness and +accuracy. To this particular criticism Cooper replied in the "Democratic +Review" for May and June, 1842. In the first article he exposed the +ignorance and dishonesty of James. In the second he devoted himself to +the assertions of the "Edinburgh." The game was hardly worth the candle. +His arguments could not reach the men who alone needed to know them. In +international quarrels of any kind there are few who read both sides. +The feeling exists that it is not safe to contaminate the purity of +one's faith in his country by the doubts that might arise from (p. 208) +merely fancying that an opponent has reasons for his course worth +considering. So it was in this case. Few people in the United States saw +the "Edinburgh Review," none believed what it said. In England fewer +knew even of the existence of the "Democratic Review." + +The controversy that arose in this country was on an entirely different +ground. It was one that could hardly have been foreseen. The personal +hostility which Cooper had succeeded in drawing upon himself was never +so conspicuously shown as in the treatment which his "Naval History" +underwent. At first, indeed, it was received with general favor, though +by many it was thought to give too much credit to the English. In a +short time, however, attacks were made upon it so virulent, so +causeless, and withal so simultaneous, that the mere fact would of +itself afford reason for the suspicion that they were concerted. This +was practically the case. A certain amount of preliminary detail will +make the circumstances clear. The controversy was entirely about the +account of a particular action in the war of 1812, and a work containing +over fifty chapters was absolutely condemned as partisan and worthless +for what was found on a few pages of one chapter. + +The battle of Lake Erie was fought and won by Commodore Perry on the +10th of September, 1813. It presented the peculiarity that the Lawrence, +the flagship of the victorious squadron, had struck to the enemy in the +course of the engagement. There was a feeling prevalent among many at +the time that Elliott, the second in rank, had not been cordial in his +support of his commander, and had left him to bear for a long while the +brunt of the fight without hastening in his vessel, the Niagara, (p. 209) +to his help. This was, in particular, the general belief among those on +board the Lawrence. Perry did not sanction this view at first. Urged by +good-nature, according to the theory of his friends, he praised +Elliott's conduct in his official report. He went even farther in a +letter of the 19th of September. This was in reply to a note from +Elliott stating that rumors were current that the Lawrence had been +sacrificed because of the lack of proper exertion on the part of the +second in command. "I am indignant," wrote Perry, "that any report +should be in circulation prejudicial to your character as respects the +action of the 10th instant. It affords me pleasure that I have it in my +power to assure you that the conduct of yourself, officers, and crew was +such as to merit my warmest approbation. And I consider the circumstance +of your volunteering and bringing the smaller vessels up to close action +as contributing largely to our victory." Such was the situation at the +time. A few years later, however, a bitter quarrel sprang up between +Perry and Elliott, which apparently owed a good deal of its rancor to +the exertions of good-natured friends of both in communicating to each +remarks made, or supposed to be made, by the other. An envenomed +correspondence took place in 1818. It led to Elliott's challenging +Perry, and Perry preferring charges against Elliott for his conduct at +the battle of Lake Erie. In the letter accompanying the charges he gave +as his reason for changing his opinion as to the behavior of his second +in command, that he had been put into possession of fresh facts. The +government took no action in the matter, and in the following year Perry +died. In 1834 Elliott became the mark of hostility of the Whig press on +account of his putting the figure of Andrew Jackson at the (p. 210) +figure-head of the Constitution, the war-ship of which he was in +command. The old scandal about his conduct at Erie was revived. Elliott +did more than defend himself. A life of him was published in 1835, +written by another, but from materials evidently that he himself had +furnished. It claimed that the success of the battle of Lake Erie was +mainly due to his efforts. It naturally produced a feeling of intense +bitterness among Perry's friends and relatives. This was the way matters +stood at the time that the "Naval History" was brought out. + +Cooper entered upon the account of the battle of Lake Erie with the +common prejudice against Elliott. Nor were efforts lacking to keep it +alive and strengthen it, when it was reported in naval circles that he +had begun to be uncertain about the justice of his original impressions. +Captain Matthew Perry, the brother of the Commodore, forwarded him all +the sworn documentary evidence that made against Elliott. He neglected +to send any that was given in his favor. Cooper was not the man to be +satisfied with this way of writing history. As he examined the subject +more and more, he was struck by the conflicting character of the +testimony, and the doubt that overhung the whole question. He came +finally to the conclusion that it was not a matter he could settle, or, +perhaps, any one. He accordingly contented himself with giving as +accurate an account of the battle of Lake Erie as he could without +entering at all into the details of the controversy. He made not the +slightest effort to detract from the praise due to Perry, and, indeed, +paid the highest tribute to his skill and conduct. Nor did he give to +Elliott any prominence whatever. + + +He had committed, however, the unpardonable sin. He had refused (p. 211) +to attack Elliott. He had preferred to accept Perry's original account +of the battle, written within five days after it had taken place, to the +view he took of it not only five years later, but also after a bitter +personal quarrel had sprung up between him and his former second in +command. While Cooper had made no special mention of the latter, he had +spoken of him respectfully. There was a general feeling that Elliott +ought to have been attacked. He was a very unpopular man, and, perhaps, +deservedly so; while Perry was both a popular favorite and a popular +hero. The refusal of Cooper to join in the general denunciation brought +down upon him, not only those who honestly believed him in the wrong, +but the whole horde of his own personal enemies who knew little and +cared less about this particular subject. In the long list of +controversies which the student of literature is under the necessity of +examining, none seems so uncalled for and so discreditable to the +assailants as this. For it is to be borne in mind that the historian had +not made the slightest attempt to injure Perry in the popular +estimation, or to elevate the subordinate at the expense of the +commander. Yet assertions of this kind were constantly bandied about, +though it would not have taken five minutes reading of the work to have +shown their falsity. Cooper was frequently spoken of by the press as the +detractor of American fame and the slanderer of American character, +because he refused to say, on one-sided evidence, that an officer of the +United States navy had been willing to sacrifice his superior in a hotly +contested battle and imperil the result for the sake of ministering to +his own personal ambition, or of gratifying a feeling of personal (p. 212) +dislike and envy, of the existence of which at the time there was no proof. + +Space here exists to notice only the elaborate attacks to which Cooper +himself felt constrained to reply. The first of these appeared in four +numbers of the "New York Commercial Advertiser" during June, 1839. The +articles were written by William A. Duer, who had lately been president +of Columbia College. They purported to be a review of the "Naval +History," but nothing whatever was said about that work beyond the few +pages in which the battle of Lake Erie is described. They were, +moreover, so personal in their nature and contained imputations so gross +on his character, that Cooper began a libel suit against the journal in +which they were published. This finally resulted in one of the most +extraordinary trials that has ever been recorded in merely literary +annals. The attack in the "Commercial Advertiser" was followed by a +similar one in the "North American Review." This was written, however, +with more decency, though it again devoted itself mainly to the battle +of Lake Erie. It was the work of Alexander Slidell Mackenzie, a naval +author, who by three books of travel had gained at the time some +literary notoriety. But the notoriety never rose to reputation; and the +history which preserves his name at all, preserves it in connection with +an event it were well for his memory to have eternally forgotten. It is +to be added that he was the brother-in-law of Captain Matthew Perry, and +that Duer was his uncle. Hardly had his broadside been delivered, when +another attack appeared. The victor of Lake Erie had come from Rhode +Island, and Rhode Island rushed to the fray, not to defend her son--for +he had not been attacked--but to build up his reputation by (p. 213) +ruining that of his enemy. Tristam Burges, when the biography of +Elliott, already referred to, had appeared, had delivered a lecture on +the battle of Lake Erie before the Rhode Island Historical Society. It +was not printed at the time; but no sooner was Cooper's work published +than, at the request of Perry's friends and relatives, it was brought +out with documents appended. The lecture reads very much like a stump +speech of the extreme florid type. It is needless to say that in it +Elliott got his full deserts for betraying his commander. It made no +direct reference to Cooper, but the whole object was to discredit the +account of the battle which he had given. + +Even this was not all. Mackenzie prepared a life of Perry, which was +published early in 1841. In it he attacked Elliott with great +bitterness, and was careful to give in an appendix all the sworn +testimony on one side, and leave out all the sworn testimony on the +other. The biography met with general favor. It was styled a noble work, +and the courage manifested by the author in assailing an unpopular man +and celebrating a popular hero was, for some reason hard now to be +understood, highly commended on all sides. The intense partisanship of +the biography can be read on almost every page. But it was warmly +welcomed everywhere, for Elliott had few friends even in his own +profession. The "North American Review" for July, 1841, in an article +written by the late Admiral Charles H. Davis, congratulated the navy on +now having a work which gave a true and faithful report of the battle of +Lake Erie, and stigmatized Cooper's account as false in spirit, +statement, and comment. + +This was, indeed, the general charge. For a while Cooper was (p. 214) +under as heavy a bombardment as Perry himself had been in his flagship. +That his feelings were outraged by the injustice of it there can be no +question, but it never daunted his spirit. Yet he took not the slightest +step without being sure of his ground. He went over the evidence again +and again. He talked with officers of the navy who held views opposed to +his own; though he said afterward he rarely found that they knew +anything about the matter beyond common report. With the exception of a +few newspaper articles, however, he published nothing directly in reply +until four years after his history was published. In the mean while he +pressed the suit against William L. Stone, the editor of the "Commercial +Advertiser." That paper at first took the prosecution in the jocular and +insolent way then common with the press. Under an announcement of "Stand +Clear," it informed its readers early in August, 1839, that "the +interesting Mr. J. Effingham Fenimore Cooper is to bring a libel suit +against us. None will approach it in interest, importance, or +amusement." The editor was telling more truth than he thought. No +action, however, was taken by Cooper for nearly a year to carry out his +expressed intention. But he could always be depended upon. His suits, +though sometimes long in coming, were sure to come at last. Great was +the surprise of the editor when, in May, 1840, a process was served upon +him for a libel printed eleven months before. He was indignant that the +prosecutor had waited so long. A demurrer was filed and argued in July, +1840, at the Utica term of the Supreme Court. The decision was against +the defendant. Things now began to look more serious; for while the +importance of the suit was increasing, its amusement was diminishing. +It, however, hung on in the courts for a year and a half longer. (p. 215) +The defendant was naturally unwilling to hasten a trial which was almost +certain to end in an adverse verdict. Negotiations between the parties +in the autumn of 1841 resulted in a novel agreement. Cooper did not care +for damages. It was not money he sought; it was to vindicate the truth +of his history and his character as an historian. When, therefore, his +adversary suggested that an ordinary jury of twelve men could not well +pass upon a question involving the value of conflicting evidence, and +minute technical detail, he seized upon the occasion to arrange that it +should be tried before a body of referees, consisting of three +distinguished lawyers. The proposal was accepted. Never was the eternal +question between author and reviewer settled in a more singular and a +more thorough way. For the referees were to decide, not merely upon +legal points, but upon moral ones. They were to decide whether the +author had written a truthful account of the battle of Lake Erie, and +whether he had written it in a spirit of truth. On the other hand, they +were to decide whether the reviewer had written matter libelous enough +to justify a verdict from a jury, and whether in the treatment of the +subject for which he criticised the history he had been just and +impartial. If the decision were in favor of the author the defendant was +not to pay more than two hundred and fifty dollars besides the costs. In +any case the beaten party was to publish the full text of the decision, +at his own expense, in the cities of New York, Albany, and Washington. +The referees agreed upon were Samuel Steevens, named by Cooper; Daniel +Lord, Jr., named by Stone; and Samuel A. Foot, chosen by mutual consent. +The attendance of many witnesses was rendered unnecessary by the (p. 216) +stipulation that a vast mass of documentary testimony in possession +of Cooper should be taken in evidence. + +The referees met in the United States court room in New York city, on +the afternoon of Monday, May 16, 1842. A large crowd was in attendance. +Public interest had been aroused, not only by the question involved and +the novel character of the suit, but by the fact that the historian was +to assume the principal conduct of his own side. The trial lasted for +five days. After the opening speeches had been made, the taking of oral +testimony began. Among the witnesses for the defense were Sands, +Mackenzie, and Paulding, all officers of the navy. They were examined in +reference to Cooper's account of the battle of Lake Erie and the +diagrams by which he represented the positions of the vessels during the +engagement. Their views were in all respects opposed to the theory of +operations which he had assumed. After the taking of the oral testimony +was ended and certain legal questions had been argued, the summing up +was begun by William W. Campbell of Otsego, the leading lawyer for the +defense. His speech was exceedingly able and effective. Men who were +present at the proceedings asserted, when it was finished, that there +was no possible way in which its reasoning could be shaken, still less +overthrown. At eight o'clock on Thursday evening Cooper began summing up +for the prosecution, and continued until ten. On Friday he resumed his +argument at four in the afternoon, and six hours had passed before he +concluded. His conduct of the case from the beginning had excited +surprise and admiration. Friends and foes alike bore witness to the +signal ability he had displayed throughout; but his closing speech (p. 217) +made an especially profound impression. Its interest, its ingenuity, and +its effectiveness were conceded by the defendant himself. It was for a +long time after spoken of as one of the finest forensic displays that +had ever been witnessed at the New York bar. Among those present at the +trial was Henry T. Tuckerman, who has left us an account of the +circumstances and of the bearing of the man. "A more unpopular cause," +he wrote, "never fell to the lot of a practiced advocate; for the hero +of Lake Erie was and had long been one of the most cherished of American +victors. We could not but admire the self-possession, coolness, and +vigor with which the author, on this occasion, played the lawyer. Almost +alone in his opinion,--the tide of public sentiment against his theory +of the battle, and the popular sympathy wholly with the received +traditions of that memorable day,--he stood collected, dignified, +uncompromising; examined witnesses, quoted authorities, argued nautical +and naval precedents with a force and a facility which would have done +credit to an experienced barrister. On the one hand, his speech was a +remarkable exhibition of self-esteem, and on the other, a most +interesting professional argument; for when he described the battle, and +illustrated his views by diagrams, it was like a chapter in one of his +own sea-stories, so minute, graphic, and spirited was the picture he +drew. The dogmatism was more than compensated for by the picturesqueness +of the scene; his self-complacency was exceeded by his wonderful +ability. He quoted Cooper's 'Naval History' as if it were 'Blackstone;' +he indulged in reminiscences; he made digressions and told anecdotes; he +spoke of the manoeuvres of the vessels, of the shifting of the wind, of +the course of the fight, like one whose life had been passed on (p. 218) +the quarter-deck. No greater evidence of self-reliance, of indifference +to the opinion of the world, and to that of his countrymen in +particular, of the rarest descriptive talent, of pertinacity, loyalty to +personal conviction, and a manly, firm, yet not unkindly spirit, could +be imagined than the position thus assumed, and the manner in which he +met the exigency. As we gazed and listened, we understood clearly why, +as a man, Cooper had been viewed from such extremes of prejudice and +partiality; we recognized at once the generosity and courage, and the +willfulness and pride of his character: but the effect was to inspire a +respect for the man, such as authors whose errors are moral weaknesses +never excite." + +On the 16th of June the referees rendered their decision on the eight +points submitted to them for adjudication. In regard to five of these +they were all in full agreement; but in three instances one of the +referees dissented from certain portions of the report made by the other +two. + +The first point was whether, according to the evidence and the rules of +the law the plaintiff would be entitled to the verdict of a jury in an +ordinary suit for libel. They agreed that he would, and accordingly +awarded the damages that had been fixed by the original stipulation. + +The second point was whether in writing his account of the battle of +Lake Erie, Cooper had faithfully fulfilled his obligations as an +historian. The majority of the referees decided that he had so done. Mr. +Foot dissented to this extent, that Cooper had intended to do so, but +that from error of judgment or from some cause not impugning the (p. 219) +purity of his motives, he had failed in one specified point. This was +that the narrative gave the impression that Elliott's conduct in the +battle had met with universal approbation, which it had not. The +arbitrator added, however, that this was the only particular in which it +appeared to him that the historian had failed in fulfilling the high +trust he had taken upon himself. + +The third point was whether the narrative of the battle of Lake Erie was +true or not in its essential facts, and if untrue, in what particulars. +The majority decided that it was true. Mr. Foot dissented on the same +point, to the same extent, and for the same reason, for which he had +dissented from the second. + +The fourth point was whether the account of the battle was written in a +spirit of impartiality and justice. They all agreed that it was so +written. + +The fifth point was whether the writer of the criticism, upon which the +suit was founded, had faithfully fulfilled the office of a reviewer. If +not they were to give the facts upon which their conclusion was based. +They unanimously agreed that the writer had not faithfully discharged +his obligations as a reviewer; that he had indulged in personal +imputations; that he was guilty of misquotations which materially +changed the meaning; that his statements were incorrect in several +particulars; and that his charge that Cooper had given to Elliott equal +credit with Perry in the conduct of the battle was untrue. This last +assertion, they add, was made after a careful examination by them of the +history itself. + +The sixth point was whether the review was true or not in its essential +facts; and if untrue, in what particulars. They all agreed that (p. 220) +it was untrue, and gave the particulars. + +The seventh point was whether the review was written in a spirit of +impartiality and justice. The majority decided that it was not so +written. Here again Mr. Foot made a partial dissent. He considered the +review to have been written under the influence of a wakeful +sensibility, inconsiderately and unnecessarily aroused in defense of the +reputation of a beloved and deceased friend. + +The eighth point was to settle which of the two parties should be +required to publish the full text of the decision at his own expense in +newspapers published in New York, Washington, and Albany. The referees +agreed that this was to be done by the defendant. + +Thus ended this suit. For Cooper the result was a great personal +triumph. He had had to contend with the prejudices of a nation. For +months and years he had been persistently assailed with all the weapons +that unscrupulous partisanship or unreasoning family affection could +wield. He had been compelled to identify his own cause with that of a +man who, in addition to unpopularity with members of his own profession, +had drawn upon himself the hostility of a political party. He had been +under the necessity of controverting, in some particulars, a generally +accepted belief. Against him had been arrayed two of the ablest lawyers +of the bar. Naval officers of reputation had on the witness stand +criticised his theory of the battle and contradicted his statements. He +had been assisted in the conduct of the case by his nephew; but outside +of this he had received help from no one. Sympathy with him, there was +little; desire for his success, there was less; and the referees (p. 221) +could hardly fail to feel to some extent the influence that pervaded +the whole country. In the face of all these odds he had fought the +battle and won it. He had wrung respect and admiration from a hostile +public sentiment which he had openly and contemptuously defied. Upon the +essential matters in dispute the verdict of three men, of highest rank +in their profession and skilled in the weighing of conflicting evidence, +had been entirely in his favor. + +Cooper followed up his victory by a pamphlet which appeared in August, +1843, entitled, "The Battle of Lake Erie: or, Answers to Messrs. Burges, +Duer, and Mackenzie." In this he went fully over the ground. No reply +was made to it; there was in fact none to be made. The popular tradition +could best be maintained by silence. Silence at any rate during his +lifetime was preserved, and silence in cases where it would have been +creditable to have said something. It certainly affords justification +additional to that already given, for the contemptuous opinion expressed +by Cooper of the American press, that the newspapers which had been +loudest in the denunciation of his history, never so much as alluded to +the result of the trial brought to test authoritatively the fairness and +impartiality of the narrative for which he had been condemned. + +After reading patiently all that has been written on both sides of this +question, it seems to me that not only was the verdict of the +arbitrators a just one, but that Cooper was right in the view he took. +Still, where evidence is conflicting there is ample room for difference +of opinion; and in regard to the conduct of Elliott at Lake Erie the +evidence is diametrically opposed. The only secure method, therefore, of +obtaining and maintaining a comfortable bigotry of belief on the (p. 222) +subject is to read carefully the testimony on one side and to despise +the other so thoroughly as to refrain from even looking at it. This was +then and has since been the course followed by the thick and thin +partisans of Perry. But whether the conclusion be right or not at which +Cooper arrived, there was never the slightest justification for the +gross abuse to which he was subjected. He had everything to gain by +falling in with the popular tradition and attacking Elliott. Nothing but +lofty integrity and love of truth could have made him take the course he +did. If a mistake at all, it was a mistake of judgment. But the charges +brought against him were based in most instances upon deliberate +misrepresentation of what he had said. This was especially true of the +criticisms of Duer and Mackenzie. The perversion of meaning of one of +his foot-notes is a striking instance of the unscrupulous nature of +these attacks. In this Cooper had spoken of the vulgar opinion which +celebrated as an act of special gallantry Perry's passing in an open +boat from one ship to another as being the very least of his merits; +that the same thing was done in the same engagement by others, including +Elliott; that there was personal risk everywhere; and that Perry's real +merit was his indomitable resolution not to be conquered, and the manner +in which he sought new modes of victory when old ones failed. If this be +depreciatory, it is depreciatory to say that greater honor is due to him +who manifests the skill and fertility of resource of a commander than to +him who exhibits the mere valor of a soldier. But in Duer's review of +the "Naval History," and Mackenzie's "Life of Perry," the purport of the +note was entirely changed. The concluding portion was dishonestly (p. 223) +omitted, and a paragraph that gave to the victor of Lake Erie credit for +generalship rather than soldiership was converted into an assertion that +the risk he had run was of slight consequence. + +This controversy brought in its train another libel suit. To the editor +of the "Commercial Advertiser" the result had caused deep mortification. +The reviewer also was naturally dissatisfied with a decision which left +upon him the stigma of a libeler. He offered, if the case could be +brought before a common jury for another trial, to pay double the amount +of damages awarded, provided the result was against him. With such an +arrangement Mr. Stone declined to have anything to do. He had had, he +said, annoyance enough already with the suit. But he was tempted in a +moment of vexation to indulge in remarks which implied that Cooper was +in a hurry to get the sum awarded, with the object of putting it into +Wall Street "for shaving purposes." The insinuation was uncalled for and +unjustifiable; and as the editor subsequently admitted that it was only +made in jest, it may be imputed to his credit that he had the grace to +be ashamed of it. A libel suit, however, followed. It was at first +decided in Cooper's favor. It was then carried up to the Court of +Errors, and in December, 1845, more than a year after Mr. Stone's death, +that tribunal reversed the decision. The result of the trial was hailed +with the keenest delight by the Whig press of the state. "The Great +Persecutor," as he was sometimes styled, had been finally foiled. "The +rights of the press," said one of the newspapers, "are at last +triumphant over the tyranny of courts and the vile constructions of the +law of libel." The value of the victory, however, was largely lessened +by the little respect in which the Court of Errors was held. This (p. 224) +tribunal, which consisted in the majority of cases of the Chancellor and +of the members of the state Senate, was swept away by the Constitution +of 1846. Its influence had gone long before. Cooper was doubtless giving +expression to the general feeling as well as venting his own indignation +at this particular decision when he spoke of it, as he did a little +later, as a "pitiful imitation of the House of Lords' system," by which +a body of "small lawyers, country doctors, merchants, farmers," with +occasionally a man of ability, were constituted the highest tribunal in +the state. + +Two other results followed incidentally this controversy about the +battle of Lake Erie. One had the nature of comedy, the other partook +rather of that of tragedy. Perry, as has been said, was a Rhode +Islander, and many of the men he had with him had come from that state. +Tristam Burges, in his lecture, had, in many instances, allowed his +eloquence to get the better of his sense. In the preface to it, when +published, he abandoned the latter altogether. He twice asserted, and +gave his reasons for it, that "the fleet and battle of Erie" were to be +regarded "as a part of the maritime affairs of Rhode Island." +Apparently, however, the whole state took the same view. There seemed to +be a feeling prevalent in it that its own reputation lay in destroying +the reputation of Perry's second in command. In 1845 Elliott had a medal +struck in honor of Cooper. It bore on one side the head of the author +surrounded by the words, "The Personification of Honor, Truth, and +Justice." At the suggestion of John Quincy Adams copies were sent to the +various historical societies of the country. That statesman himself +undertook their transmission. Accordingly one was forwarded among (p. 225) +the rest to the Rhode Island Society. It reached its destination in +March. It threw that body into a tumult of excitement. The trustees +reflected upon it anxiously. They referred it to a committee. After +prolonged brooding the committee gave birth to a preamble and two +resolutions. These were reported to the Society at the meeting of the +10th of September. In one of the resolutions the letter of Adams was +embodied, and he was thanked for the care and attention he had displayed +in the discharge of the trust committed to him by Commodore Elliott. The +second resolution recited substantially that Cooper had not been +conducting himself properly in the matter, and had published opinions +which the Society could not adopt or sanction. It therefore declined to +accept the medal in his honor, and directed the president to transmit it +to Adams with the request to return it to Commodore Elliott. Vigorous as +this action may now seem, it did not then come up to the level of +offended justice. There was to be no tampering with iniquity, even in +high places. Elliott was not to succeed in his impudent effort to skulk +behind the character of Adams, nor was Adams to escape reproof for the +base uses to which he had allowed himself to be put. A motion was +accordingly made to strike out the resolution conveying to that +statesman the thanks of the Society. It was carried unanimously. The +medal was accordingly returned to him with the request that he send it +to Elliott with an attested copy of the resolution. Adams's conception +of an Historical Society was different from that then entertained in +Rhode Island. He clearly thought it no part of their business to be +officially engaged in upholding the reputation of favorite sons, (p. 226) +or defending the character of heroes. His reply was curt, not to say +tart. "I decline the office," he wrote, "requested of me by the +Historical Society of Rhode Island, and hold the medal and the copy of +the resolution, which they request me to transmit to Commodore Elliott, +to be delivered to any person whom they, or you by their direction, may +authorize to receive them." + +Cooper apparently said nothing about this action at the time. He had +before been solemnly warned by the Providence newspapers not to risk a +controversy with Burges, or, as they more graphically expressed it, not +to "get into the talons of the bald-headed eagle of Rhode Island." The +threatened danger, however, had not deterred him from exposing the +absurdities into which even eagles fall when they use their pinions for +writing and not for flying. Not even did he have the fear of the +Historical Society itself before his eyes. In 1850 he took occasion to +pay his respects to that body. He was then bringing out a revised +edition of his novels. In the preface to "The Red Rover," he mentioned +the stone tower at Newport, and referred to the way in which he had been +assailed for his irreverence in calling it a mill. He repeated this +assertion as to its character. He expressed his belief that the building +was more probably built upon arches to defend grain from mice than men +from savages. "We trust," he added, "this denial of the accuracy of what +may be a favorite local theory will not draw upon us any new evidence of +the high displeasure of the Rhode Island Historical Society, an +institution which displayed such a magnanimous sense of the right, so +much impartiality, and so profound an understanding of the laws of +nature and of the facts of the day, on a former occasion when we (p. 227) +incurred its displeasure, that we really dread a second encounter with +its philosophy, its historical knowledge, its wit, and its signal love +of justice. Little institutions, like little men, very naturally have a +desire to get on stilts; a circumstance that may possibly explain the +theory of this extraordinary and very useless fortification. We prefer +the truth and common sense to any other mode of reasoning, not having +the honor to be an Historical Society at all." No reply, at least no +public reply, came from that quarter during his life, to the views he +had expressed. It was only when he was unable to defend himself that he +was again assailed. In February, 1852, an account of the battle of Lake +Erie was delivered before the Rhode Island Historical Society by Usher +Parsons, who had been assistant surgeon on board the Lawrence. His +testimony had been somewhat severely criticised by Cooper. Now that the +latter was in his grave he took occasion to cast imputations upon the +motives of the historian, and asperse the honesty of his statements. +Parsons added nothing new of moment to the discussion, for what he said +was merely a rehash, made in a very bungling way, of the old facts and +assertions. But the spirit in which he wrote and the insinuations in +which he indulged furnish ample justification for the low opinion which +Cooper held of the evidence he had previously given. + +With the parting shot in the preface to "The Red Rover," the +controversy, on Cooper's part, concluded. He had, however, been +concerned in another matter, in which the fortunes of his own work and +the fortunes of one of its critics were strangely blended. In 1841 an +abridged edition of his "Naval History" was brought out in one (p. 228) +volume. The publisher was desirous of having it included in the list of +books purchased for the district school libraries of New York. With this +object in view he offered it, without Cooper's knowledge, to the +Secretary of State, John C. Spencer, who was also superintendent of +public instruction. To him was confided, by virtue of his office, the +selection of the works which should constitute these libraries. He +rejected the proposal with uncomplimentary brevity. He would have +nothing to do, he informed the publisher, with so partisan a +performance. Soon after this he emphasized his opinion of its +partisanship by directing the purchase of Mackenzie's "Life of Perry"--a +work which was almost avowedly one-sided. There was a retribution almost +poetical in the tragedy that followed; for the same lack of mental +balance and judgment that had been exhibited in this biography of Perry +was to show itself under circumstances peculiarly harrowing. In October, +1841, Spencer joined the administration of John Tyler as Secretary of +War. In December, 1842, Mackenzie, then in command of the United States +brig Somers, gave a still further proof of his impartiality by hanging +on the high seas Spencer's son, an acting midshipman, for alleged +mutiny. It was done without even going through the formality of a trial. +It was an act of manslaughter, not committed, indeed, from any feeling +of malice, but merely from the same lack of judgment that he had +displayed in the literary controversy in which he had been engaged. +Mackenzie was brought before a naval court-martial, and succeeded with +some difficulty in securing an acquittal. In 1844 the proceedings of the +trial were published, and annexed to them was an elaborate review of the +case by Cooper. It was written in a calm and temperate tone, but (p. 229) +it practically settled the question of the character of the act. + +Cooper's interest in the navy led him also to write a series of lives of +officers who had been prominent in its history. The first of these +appeared originally in "Graham's Magazine" for October, 1842, and the +others are scattered through the volumes of that year and the years +succeeding. In 1846 they were published in book form. Among them was a +life of Perry. In this he took occasion to reaffirm what he had +previously said about the battle of Lake Erie. But the injustice which +had been done to him did not lead him to treat with injustice the man +whose life he was writing, though it was impossible for him to say what +would be satisfactory to Perry's partisans without falsifying what he +believed to be the truth. + +In spite of the numerous attacks made upon it the "Naval History" was +successful, as success is measured in technical works of this kind. A +second edition, revised and corrected, appeared in April, 1840, and in +1847 a third edition was published. At the time of his death Cooper was +projecting a continuation of it, and had gathered together materials for +that purpose. The original work ended with the close of the last war +with Great Britain. He intended to bring it down to the end of the +Mexican War. This was done by another after his death. In 1853 a new +edition of the "Naval History" appeared with a continuation prepared by +the Reverend Charles W. McHarg. The matter that Cooper had collected +was used, but there was very little in what was added that was of his +own composition. Of the original work, it is safe to say, that for the +period which it covers it is little likely to be superseded as the (p. 230) +standard history of the American navy. Later investigation may show +some of the author's assertions to be erroneous. Some of his conclusions +may turn out as mistaken as have his prophecies about the use of steam +in war vessels. But such defects, assuming that they exist, are more +than counterbalanced by advantages which make it a final authority on +points that can never again be so fully considered. Many sources of +information which were then accessible no longer exist. The men who +shared in the scenes described, and who communicated information +directly to Cooper, have all passed away. These are losses that can +never be replaced, even were it reasonable to expect that the same +practical knowledge, the same judicial spirit, and the same power of +graphic description could be found united again in the same person. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. (p. 231) + +1840-1850. + + +No man could go through the conflicts which Cooper had been carrying on +for so many years unharmed or unscarred. For the hostility entertained +and expressed toward him in England he cared but little. But though too +proud to parade his sufferings, the injustice done him in his own land +aroused in his heart an indignation which had in it, however, as much +pain as anger. He could not fail to see that he was in a false position, +that his motives were misunderstood where even they were not +deliberately misrepresented. The generation which had shared in his +early triumphs and had gloried in his early fame had largely passed +away. From some who survived he had been parted by a separation bitterer +than that of death. To the new generation that had come on he appeared +only as the captious and censorious critic of his country. His works +were read in every civilized country. To many men they had brought all +the little knowledge they possessed of America; to certain regions they +could almost be said to have first carried its name. But the land which +he loved with a passionate fervor seemed largely to have disowned him. +It would be vain to deny his sensitiveness to this hostility. Traces of +his secret feeling crop out unexpectedly in his later works. They reveal +phases of his character which would never be inferred from his acts; +they show the existence of sentiments which he would never have (p. 232) +directly avowed. "There are men," says the hero of "Afloat and Ashore," +"so strong in principle as well as in intellect, I do suppose, that they +can be content with the approbation of their own consciences, and who +can smile at the praise or censure of the world alike: but I confess to +a strong sympathy with the commendation of my fellow-creatures, and a +strong distaste for their disapprobation." Especially marked is the +reference to himself in the words he puts into the mouth of Columbus in +his "Mercedes of Castile." "Genoa," says the navigator, "hath proved but +a stern mother to me: and though nought could induce me to raise a hand +against her, she hath no longer any claim on my services.... One cannot +easily hate the land of his birth, but injustice may lead him to cease +to love it. The tie is mutual, and when the country ceases to protect +person, property, character, and rights, the subject is liberated from +all his duties." + +It was the attacks connected with the controversy about the "Naval +History" that more than anything else embittered Cooper's feelings. He +had striven hard to write a full and trustworthy account of the +achievements of his country upon the sea. Because he had refused to +pervert what he deemed the truth to the gratification of private spite, +he had been assailed with a malignity that had hardly stopped short of +any species of misrepresentation. Rarely has devotion to the right met +with a worse return. The reward of untiring industry, of patriotic zeal, +and of conscientious examination of evidence, was little else than +calumny and abuse. He felt so keenly the treatment he had received that +he regretted having ever written the "Naval History" at all. In (p. 233) +a published letter of the early part of 1843 he expressed himself on +the matter in words that come clearly from the depths of a wounded +spirit. "Were the manuscript of what has been printed," he wrote, "now +lying before me unpublished, I certainly should throw it into the fire +as an act of prudence to myself and of justice to my children." In his +triumphant reply to Burges, Duer, and Mackenzie, while he showed the +haughty disdain he felt for the popular clamor which had condemned him +without knowledge, he did not seek to hide the bitterness it had caused. +"This controversy," he said, "was not of my seeking; for years have I +rested under the imputations that these persons have brought against me, +and I now strike a blow in behalf of truth, not from any deference to a +public opinion that in my opinion has not honesty enough to feel much +interest in the exposure of duplicity and artifice, but that my children +may point to the facts with just pride that they had a father who dared +to stem popular prejudice in order to write truth." + +It is in these last lines that Cooper unconsciously revealed the +strength which enabled him to go through this roar of hostile criticism +and calumny without having his whole nature soured. One great resource +he possessed, and its influence cannot be overestimated. In the closest +and dearest relations of life with which happiness is connected far more +intimately than with the most prosperous series of outward events, he +was supremely fortunate. In his own home his lot was favored beyond that +of most men. However violent the storm without, there he could always +find peace and trust and affection. The regard, indeed, felt for him by +the female members of his family, may justly be termed devotion. (p. 234) +Towards all women he exhibited deference almost to the point of +chivalry. But in the case of those of his own household there was +mingled with it a tenderness which called forth in return that ardent +attachment which strong natures alone seem capable of inspiring. This +deference and tenderness were the more conspicuous by contrast with his +opinions. These would fill with wrath unspeakable the advocates of +women's rights. Nor was he at all particular about mincing their +expression. He sometimes gave utterance to them in the most extreme +form. He even made his sentiments more emphatic by putting them into the +mouths of his female characters. "There is," says the governess in "The +Red Rover," "no peace for our feeble sex but in submission; no happiness +but in obedience." In his last novel he denounced furiously the law that +gave to the wife control over her own property, and predicted, as a +consequence, all sorts of disasters to the family that have never come +to pass. All this was eminently characteristic. But like many strong men +tenacious of acknowledged superiority he was content with the mere +concession. That granted, he would yield to submission infinitely more +than recognized equality could have a right to expect or could hope to +gain. We may think what we please of his views about women; there can be +but one opinion as to his conduct towards them. + +A characteristic instance of the wantonness with which Cooper's acts and +motives were deliberately misrepresented during this period occurred in +1841. In that year came out a work, which had, in its day, some little +notoriety, but has long ago passed to the limbo of forgotten things. It +was called "The Glory and Shame of England." The very title shows that +this production was maliciously calculated to make the British (p. 235) +lion lash his tail with frenzy: and if we can trust its author, Mr. C. +Edwards Lester, it met with fierce opposition from British residents in +this country and their sympathizers. In an introductory letter addressed +to the Reverend J. T. Headley, he told the story of the experiences his +agents had undergone in securing subscriptions. In the course of it he +made the following allusion to Cooper. "Already," he wrote, "have +several educated and highly respectable young men engaged (with +unprecedented success) in procuring subscribers for this work been +rudely driven from the houses of Englishmen for crossing their threshold +with the prospectus. And I blush (but not for myself or my country) to +say that one of our celebrated authors, whose partiality for +Republicanism has been more than doubted, threatened to kick one of +these young men out of his house (castle) if he did not instantly leave +it; exclaiming, 'Why have you the impudence to hand me that prospectus? +I understand what the GLORY of England means; but as for the SHAME of +England, there is no such thing. The shame is all in that base +Democracy, which makes you presume to enter a gentleman's house to ask +him to subscribe for such a work.'" + +This statement was widely copied in the newspapers. But the falsity of +the fabrication soon became too apparent for even the journals most +hostile to Cooper to endure. They made a vain effort to get from the +author a confirmation of his story: but though he did not venture to +repeat the lie manfully, he equivocated about it in a sneaking way. The +newspapers, feeling, perhaps, that it was undesirable to arm the book +agent with new terrors, credited at once the denial the story had +received, and took back all imputations based upon it,--a (p. 236) +proceeding which ought to have shown Cooper that they were not so +utterly given over to the father of all evil as he fancied them. But the +author of this impudent falsehood never withdrew it, nor did the +publishers of the volume, in which it was contained, disavow it. The +extract given above is taken from an edition which bears the date of +1845. + +It is plain that these calumnious attacks sprang largely from Cooper's +personal unpopularity. It is equally plain that his personal +unpopularity was mainly due to the censorious tone he had assumed in the +criticism of his country and his countrymen. It may accordingly be said +that, in one sense, he deserved all that he received. He had pursued a +certain line of conduct. He had no reason to complain that it had been +followed by the same results here that would have followed similar +conduct anywhere. In fact, while his censure of England had been far +lighter than that of America, the language used about him in the former +country had been far more vulgar and abusive than that used in the +latter. But there were facts in his career which his countrymen were +bound to bear in mind, but which, on the contrary, they strove hard to +forget, and sometimes to pervert. He had been the uncompromising +defender of his native land in places where it cost reputation and +regard to appear in that light. He was assailed largely by the men who +had toadied to a hostile feeling which he himself had confronted. His +criticism of America was sometimes just, sometimes unjust. It was in a +few instances as full of outrageous misrepresentation as any which he +had resented in others. Even when right, it was often wrongly delivered. +But in no case did it spring from indifference or dislike. The (p. 237) +very loftiness of his aspirations for his country, the very vividness of +his conception of what he trusted she was to be, made him far more than +ordinarily sensitive to what she was, which fell short of his ideal. +Every indignity offered to her he felt as a personal blow; every stain +upon her honor as a personal disgrace. He had no fear as to the material +greatness of her future. What he could not bear was that the slightest +spot should soil the garments of her civilization. It was for her +character, her reputation, that he most cared. It is not necessary to +maintain that he was as wise as he was patriotic. Had he been in a +position where he wielded political power, his impulsive and fiery +temperament might very probably have made him an unsafe adviser. His +whole idea of foreign policy, as connected with war, may be summed up in +the statement that the nation should be as ready to resent a wrong done +to ourselves as to repair a wrong done to others. Nothing could be +better doctrine in theory. Unfortunately, the nation in all such cases +is itself both party and judge, and the question of right becomes, in +consequence, a hard one to decide as a matter of fact. Cooper's intense +convictions would therefore have been likely to have led the country +into war, had he had the control of events,--and war, too, at a time +when under the agencies of peace it was daily gathering strength to meet +a coming drain upon its resources in a conflict which but few were then +far-sighted enough to see would squander wealth as lavishly as it wasted +blood. Had it rested with him, it is quite clear that no Ashburton +treaty would have been signed. There is a striking passage printed to +this day in italics, which he puts into the mouth of Leather-Stocking in +the novel of "The Deerslayer." Its point is made specially (p. 238) +prominent when it is remembered that this work was written while the +controversy was going on between Great Britain and the United States in +regard to the Northeastern boundary. "I can see no great difference," +says Leather-Stocking, "atween givin' up territory afore a war, out of a +dread of war, or givin' it up after a war, because we can't help +it--onless it be that the last is most manful and honorable." + +The features of Cooper's personal character, as well as his prejudices +and limitations, are always to be kept in mind because they explain much +that is defective in his art, and account for much of his unpopularity. +Some of them became unpleasantly conspicuous in the writings of his +later years. In 1840 he entered upon a new period of creative activity +which lasted until 1850. Between and including those years he brought +out seventeen works of fiction. Eleven of them were written during the +first half of this period ending with 1845, and even these did not +constitute the whole of what he then wrote. This fertility is made the +more remarkable by the fact that during this same time he was engaged in +the special controversy about the battle of Lake Erie, not to speak of +his standing quarrel with the press and his running fight of libel suits +in which he was not only plaintiff, but did the main work of the +prosecution. + +It is possible that his unpopularity stirred him to unwonted exertion. +There is certainly no question that the years from 1840 to 1845 +inclusive, are, as a whole, the supreme creative period of Cooper's +career. Its production does not dwarf his early achievement in vigor or +interest; but it does often show a far higher mastery of his art. Two of +the works then written mark the culmination of his powers. These (p. 239) +were the Leather-Stocking tales called "The Pathfinder" and "The +Deerslayer." The former appeared on the 14th of March, 1840, the latter +on the 27th of August, 1841. They complete the circle of these stories; +for others which he contemplated writing he unfortunately never executed. +Still the series was a perfect one as it was left. The life of +Leather-Stocking was now a complete drama in five acts, beginning with +the first war-path in "The Deerslayer," followed by his career of +activity and of love in "The Last of the Mohicans" and "The Pathfinder," +and his old age and death in "The Pioneers" and "The Prairie." + +"The Pathfinder" and "The Deerslayer" stand at the head of Cooper's +novels as artistic creations. There are others of his works which +contain parts as perfect as are to be found in these, and scenes even +more thrilling. Not one can be compared with either of them as a +finished whole. For once, whether from greater care or happier +inspiration, Cooper discarded those features of his writings in which he +had either failed entirely, or achieved, at the most, slight success. +The leading characters belonged to the class which he drew best, so far +as he was a delineator of character at all. Here were no pasteboard +figures like Heywood in "The Last of the Mohicans," or Middleton in "The +Prairie." Here were no supernumeraries dragged in, in a vain effort to +amuse, as the singing-master in the former of these same stories, or the +naturalist in the latter. Humor, Cooper certainly had; but it is the +humor that gleams in fitful flashes from the men of earnest purposes and +serious lives, and gives a momentary relief to the sternness and +melancholy of their natures. The power of producing an entire (p. 240) +humorous creation he had not at all, and almost the only thing that mars +the perfectness of "The Pathfinder" is the occasional effort to make one +out of Muir, the character designed to play the part of a villain. But +the defects in both these tales are comparatively slight. The plot in +each is simple, but it gives plenty of room for the display of those +qualities in which Cooper excelled. The scene of the one was laid on +Lake Ontario and its shores; the other, on the little lake near which he +had made his home; and the whole atmosphere of both is redolent of the +beauty and the wildness of nature. + +These works were a revelation to the men who had begun to despair of +Cooper's ever accomplishing again anything worthy of his early renown. +They were pure works of art. No moral was everlastingly perking itself +in the reader's face, no labored lecture to prove what was self-evident +interrupted the progress of the story. There is scarcely an allusion to +any of the events which had checkered the novelist's career. References +to contemporary occurrences are so slight that they would pass unheeded +by any one whose attention had not been called beforehand to their +existence. These works showed what Cooper was capable of when he gave +full play to his powers, and did not fancy he was writing a novel when +he was indulging in lectures upon manners and customs. "It is beautiful, +it is grand," said Balzac to a friend, speaking of "The Pathfinder." +"Its interest is tremendous. He surely owed us this masterpiece after +the last two or three rhapsodies he has been giving us. You must read +it. I know no one in the world, save Walter Scott, who has risen to that +grandeur and serenity of colors." "Never," he said in another (p. 241) +place, "did the art of writing tread closer upon the art of the pencil. +This is the school of study for literary landscape-painters." Cooper +himself, if contemporary reports are to be trusted, was at the time in +the habit of saying that the palm of merit in his writings lay between +this novel and "The Deerslayer." He certainly reckoned them the best of +the five stories which have the unity of a common interest by having the +same hero, and these five he put at the head of his performances. "If +anything from the pen of the writer of these romances," he said, toward +the close of his life, "is at all to outlive himself, it is +unquestionably the series of 'The Leather-Stocking Tales.' To say this +is not to predict a very lasting reputation for the series itself, but +simply to express the belief that it will outlast any or all of the +works from the same hand." + +But at this time no work of his was treated fairly by the American +press. His name was rarely mentioned save in censure or derision. Both +"The Pathfinder" and "The Deerslayer" on their first appearance were +violently assailed. It is giving praise to a good deal of the +contemporary criticism passed upon them to call it merely feeble and +senseless. Much of it was marked by a malignity which fortunately was as +contemptible intellectually as it was morally. Still, neither this +hostile criticism nor Cooper's own personal unpopularity hindered the +success of the books. He says, to be sure, in the preface to the revised +edition of the Leather-Stocking tales which came out towards the end of +his life, that probably not one in ten of those who knew all about the +three earlier works of the series had any knowledge of the existence of +the two last. This assertion seems exaggerated. It certainly struck many +with surprise at the time it was made; for both "The Pathfinder" (p. 242) +and "The Deerslayer" had met with a large sale. + +Between the publication of these two novels appeared, on the 24th of +November, 1840, "Mercedes of Castile." The subject of this was the first +voyage of Columbus. It had several very obvious defects. It was marred +by that prolixity of introduction which was a fault that ran through the +majority of Cooper's tales. The reader meets with as many +discouragements and rebuffs and turnings aside in getting under way as +did the great navigator the story celebrates. There was, moreover, an +excess of that cheap moralizing, that dwelling upon commonplace truths, +which was another of Cooper's besetting sins. The only effect these +discourses have upon the reader is to make him feel that while virtue +may be a very good thing, it is an excessively tedious thing. As a +novel, "Mercedes of Castile" must be regarded as a failure. On the other +hand, as a story of the first voyage of Columbus, told with the special +knowledge of a seaman, the accuracy of an historian, and with something +of the fervor of a poet, it will always have a peculiar interest of its +own. + +Two sea-stories followed "The Deerslayer." The first of these, entitled +"The Two Admirals," was published in April, 1842, and the second in +November of the same year. Cooper was at this time engaged in the +hottest of his fight with the American press and people. Publicly and +privately he was expressing his contempt for nearly everything and +everybody. He, in turn, was undergoing assaults from every quarter. It +is, therefore, a singular illustration of the love of country which +burned in him with an intense, even when hidden, flame, that in (p. 243) +in the midst of his greatest unpopularity he was unwilling to desert his +own flag for that of the land to which he was forced to go for material. +Yet there was every inducement. He wished to do what had never before +been done in fiction. His aim was to describe the evolutions of fleets +instead of confining himself to the movements of single vessels. But no +American fleet had ever been assembled, no American admiral had ever +trod a quarter-deck. In order, therefore, to describe operations on a +grand scale he had to have recourse to the history of the +mother-country; but he purposely put the scene in "The Two Admirals" in +a period when the states were still colonies. This novel takes a very +high place among the sea-stories, so long as the action is confined to +the water. But it suffers greatly from the carelessness and the +incompleteness with which the details are worked out. + +In "Wing-and-Wing," which followed it, the fortune of a French privateer +is told. The scene is laid in the Mediterranean, and the time is the end +of the last century. Though inferior in power to some of his other +sea-stories, it is far from being a poor novel; and it was, in fact, one +of the author's favorites. But its greatest interest is in the view it +gives of a tendency in Cooper's character which was constantly becoming +more pronounced. The Puritanic narrowness of the very deep and genuine +religious element in his nature was steadily increasing as time went on. +In "Precaution" it has been already observed that the doctrine had been +laid down by one of the characters that there should be no marriage +between Christians and non-Christians. In "Wing-and-Wing" this doctrine +was fully carried out. The heroine is a devout Roman Catholic. She loves +devotedly the hero, the captain of the French privateer. She (p. 244) +trusts in his honor; she admires his abilities and character; she is +profoundly affected by the fervor of the affection he bears to herself. +But he is an infidel. He is too honest and honorable to pretend to +believe and think differently from what he really believes and thinks. +As she cannot convert him, she will not marry him: and in the end +succeeds indirectly, by her refusal, in bringing about his death. It +never seemed to occur to Cooper that the course of conduct he was +holding up as praiseworthy, in his novels, could have little other +effect in real life than to encourage hypocrisy where it did not produce +misery. The man who, for the sake of gaining a great prize, changes his +religious views is sure to have his sincerity distrusted by others. That +can be borne. But he is equally certain to feel distrust of himself. He +cannot have that perfect confidence in his own convictions, or even in +his own character, that would be the case had no considerations of +personal advantage influenced him in the slightest in the decision he +had made, or the conclusions to which he had come. Even he who believes +in this course of action as something to be quietly adopted might wisely +refuse to proclaim it loudly as a rule for the conduct of life. + +The next important work that followed was "Wyandotte; or the Hutted +Knoll." It was published on the 5th of September, 1843. The story, as a +whole, was a tragic one. In spite of the fact that the events occur in +the place and time where some of the author's greatest successes had +been achieved, this novel is inferior to all his others that deal with +the same scenes. Certain manifestations of his feelings and certain +traits of character indicated, rather than expressed, in the tales +immediately preceding, were in this one distinctly revealed. His (p. 245) +dislike of the newspapers and the critics has been so often referred +to that it needs hardly to be said that in all the writings of this +period these offenders were soundly castigated. Especially was this true +of the preface. It was there, if anywhere, that Cooper was apt to +concentrate all the ill-humor he felt--his wrath against the race and +his scorn of the individual. But the two feelings that henceforth became +conspicuously noticeable in nearly all his writings were his regard for +the Episcopal church and his dislike of New England. They manifest +themselves sometimes deliciously, sometimes disagreeably. In the midst +of a story remote as possible from the occurrences of modern life, +suddenly turn up remarks upon the apostolic origin of bishops, or the +desirability of written prayers, and the need of a liturgy. The +impropriety of their introduction, from a literary point of view, Cooper +never had sufficient delicacy of taste to feel. Less excusable were the +attacks he made upon those whose religious views differed from his own. +The insults he sometimes offered to possible readers were as needless as +they were brutal. In one of his later novels he mentioned "the rowdy +religion--half-cant, half-blasphemy, that Cromwell and his associates +entailed on so many Englishmen." There is little reason to doubt that +under proper conditions Cooper could easily have developed into a +sincere, narrow-minded, and ferocious bigot.[2] + + [Footnote 2: Poe wrote a review of _Wyandotte_ which + appeared in _Graham's Magazine_ for November, 1843. + As notices of Cooper's novels then went, this may be + regarded as a favorable one, though in it the critic + took occasion to divide works of fiction into two + classes: one of a popular sort which anybody could + write, and the other of a kind intrinsically more + worthy and artistic, and capable of being produced + only by the few. At the head of the former class he + placed Cooper, but had the grace not to include his + own name in the latter class which he had created for + himself. The reader will be edified to learn from a + life of Poe, written by John H. Ingram (2 vols., + London, 1880), that the writing of this review was an + act of heroic and even desperate hardihood. Poe, it + seems, had before valorously depreciated Halleck; but + his crowning act of courage is introduced with the + statement that "he dared all _published_ opinion, and + in the very teeth of Cooper's supreme popularity + ventured upon saying" the remarks which have already + been referred to, and which are quoted in full by the + biographer, to whom is also to be given the credit of + the italicized word in the foregoing quotation. No + small share of the common belief in regard to + Cooper's character and career is based upon + assertions about as trustworthy as this.] + +Full as marked and even more persistent were his attacks upon (p. 246) +New England. There was little specially characteristic of that portion +of the country with which he did not find fault. New England cooking of +the first class was inferior to that of the second class in the Middle +States. The New Yorker of humble life, not of Yankee descent, spoke the +language better than thousands of educated men in New England. This +dislike kept steadily increasing. As late as 1844, if he sent his heroes +to college at all, he sent them to Yale; after that year he transferred +them to Princeton. With all this there is constantly seen going on a +somewhat amusing struggle between his dislike and the thorough honesty +of his nature, which forced him to admit in the men of New England +certain characteristics of a high order. Their frugality, their +enterprise, their readiness of resource, he could not deny. Still, he +continued to imply that these qualities were used pretty generally for +selfish ends. In his later works, in consequence, his villains were very +apt to be New Englanders. They were not villains of a romantic type. +They were mean rather than vicious; crafty rather than bold; given to +degrading but at the same time cheap excesses. The first of these (p. 247) +these special representatives of the New England character is the +powerful but somewhat unpleasant creation of Ithuel Bolt in +"Wing-and-Wing," who finds a fitting sequel to a life passed largely in +committing acts of doubtful morality in becoming a deacon in a +Congregational church. After him follows a succession of personages who +represent nearly every conceivable shade of craft, meanness, and +dishonesty that is consistent with the respect of the Puritan community +about them, and with a high position in the religious society of which +they form a part. + +There was, it must be admitted, some justification for Cooper's feelings +towards New England on the score of retaliation. He had been criticised +from the beginning in that part of the country with a severity that +often approached virulence. He had been denied there the possession of +qualities which the rest of the world agreed in according him. +Cultivated society has always been afflicted with a class too +superlatively intellectual to enjoy what everybody else likes. Of these +unhappy beings New England has had the misfortune to have perhaps more +than her proper share. It was hardly in human nature that the +disparagement he received from these should not have influenced his +feelings towards the region which had given them birth and +consideration. + +It is pleasant to turn aside from these scenes and sayings which show +the least amiable side of a nature essentially noble, and pass to one of +the little incidents that are strikingly characteristic of the man. On +board the Sterling, the merchantman on which Cooper's first voyage was +made, was a boy younger than himself. His name was Ned Myers. This +person had spent his life on the sea. He had belonged to seventy-two +crafts, exclusive of prison-ships, transports, and vessels in (p. 248) +which he had merely made passages. According to his own calculation he +had been twenty-five years out of sight of land. After this long and +varied career he had finally landed in that asylum for worn-out +mariners, the "Sailors' Snug Harbor." From here, late in 1842, he wrote +to Cooper, asking him if he were the one with whom he had served in the +Sterling. Cooper, who never forgot a friend, sent him a reply, +beginning: "I am your old shipmate, Ned," and told him when and where he +could be found in New York. There in a few months they met after an +interval of thirty-seven years. Cooper took the battered old hulk of a +seaman up to Cooperstown in June, 1843, and entertained him for several +weeks. While the two were knocking about the lake, and the latter was +telling his adventures, it occurred to the former to put into print the +wandering life the sailor had led. Between them the work was done that +summer, and in November, 1843, "Ned Myers; or, Life before the Mast" was +published. This work has often been falsely spoken of as a novel. It is, +on the contrary, a truthful record, so far as dependence can be placed +upon the word or the memory of the narrator. "This is literally," said +Myers, "my own story, logged by an old shipmate." + +In 1842 Cooper had entered into an engagement to write regularly for +"Graham's Magazine." This periodical, which had been formed not long +before by the union of two others, had rapidly risen to high reputation, +and claimed a circulation of thirty thousand copies. In the first four +numbers of 1843 Cooper published the shortest of his stories. It was +entitled "The Autobiography of a Pocket Handkerchief." For some reason +not easy to explain, this has never been included in the regular (p. 249) +editions of his novels. In it he made in some measure another effort to +reproduce the social life of New York city. The previous failure was +repeated. An air of ridiculous unreality is given to this part of the +story in which the impossible talk of impossible people is paraded as a +genuine representation of what takes place in civilized society. The +autobiographical form which he had first adopted in this tale he +continued in the two series of "Afloat and Ashore." These appeared +respectively in June and in December, 1844. They are essentially one +novel, though the second part goes usually in this country under the +title of "Miles Wallingford," the name of its hero; and in Europe under +that of "Lucy Harding," the name of its heroine. + +This work, the first part more particularly, is a delightful story of +adventure. As usual there are startling incidents, perilous situations, +and hairbreadth escapes enough to furnish sufficient materials for a +dozen ordinary fictions. Yet the probabilities are better preserved than +in many of Cooper's novels where the events are far fewer, as well as +far less striking. But it is interesting, not merely for the incidents +it contains, but for the revelation it makes of the man who wrote it. +Expressions of personal feeling and opinion turn up unexpectedly +everywhere, and make slight but constantly recurring eddies in the +stream of the story. Everything is to be found here which he had ever +discussed before. The inferiority of the bay of New York to that of +Naples; the miserable cooking and gross feeding of New England; the +absolute necessity of a liturgy in religious worship; the contempt he +felt for the misguided beings who presume to deny the existence of (p. 250) +bishops in the primitive church; his aversion to paper money; his +disdain for the shingle palaces of the Grecian temple school; his scorn +of the idea that one man is as good as another; these and scores of +similar utterances arrest constantly the reader's attention. But they do +not jar upon his feelings as in many other of his writings. They are +essentially different in tone. There runs through this series a vein of +ill-natured amiability or amiable ill-nature--it is hard to say which +phrase is more appropriate--which gives to the whole what +horticulturists call a delicate sub-acid flavor. The roar of contempt +found in previous writings subsided in these into a sort of prolonged +but subdued growl. But it is a case in which the reader feels that it is +eminently proper that the writer should growl. It is the old man of +sixty-five telling the tale of his early years. His preferences for the +past do not irritate us, they entertain us. It is right that the world +about him should seem meaner and more commonplace than it did in the +fever-fit of youth and love, when it was joy merely to live. The work, +moreover, has another characteristic that gives it a whimsical +attractiveness. It is a tale of the good old times when New York had +still some New York feeling left; when her old historic names still +carried weight and found universal respect, and her old families still +ruled society with a despotic sway; and especially before the whole +state had been overrun by the lank, angular, loose-jointed, slouching, +shrewd, money-worshiping sons of the Puritans, whose restless activity +had triumphed over the slow and steady respectability of the original +settlers. The scene of this story, so far as it is laid on land, is +mainly in the river counties; but in spite of that fact it is difficult +not to think that some recollections of the writer's own youth (p. 251) +were not mingled in certain portions of it. Especially is it a hard task +not to fancy that in the heroine, Lucy Harding, he was drawing, in some +slight particulars at least, the picture of his own wife, and telling +the story of his early love. + +The delineation of the New York life of the past which he had in some +measure accomplished in these volumes, he now continued more fully in +certain works which took up successive periods in the history of the +state. The idea of writing them was suggested by events that were taking +place at the time. The troubles which arose in certain counties of New +York after the death, in 1839, of Stephen Van Rensselaer, the patroon, +were now culminating in a series of acts of violence and bloodshed, +perpetrated usually by men disguised as Indians. The questions involved +had likewise become subjects of fierce political controversy. Cooper, +who saw in the conduct of the tenants and their supporters a dangerous +invasion of the rights of property, plunged into the discussion of the +matter with all the ardor of his fiery temperament. He worked himself +into the highest state of excitement over the proceedings. It was his +interest in this matter that led him to compose the three works which +are collectively called the Anti-rent novels. These purport to be the +successive records of the Littlepage family, and each is in the form of +an autobiography. They cover a period extending from the first half of +the eighteenth century down to the very year in which he was writing. + +It was about this time that Cooper's reputation touched the lowest +point to which it has ever fallen, so far, at least, as it depends +upon the opinion of critics and of men of letters. He was now (p. 252) +reaping the fruits of the various controversies in which he had been +engaged, and of all the hostility which he had succeeded in inspiring. +The two anti-rent novels which appeared in 1845 were "Satanstoe," +published in June, and "The Chainbearer," published in November. They +may have had a large sale. But there is scarcely a review of the period +in which they are even mentioned. Even the newspapers contain merely the +barest reference to their existence. It is perhaps partly due to this +contemporary silence that these two stories are among the least known +and least read of Cooper's productions. Moreover, they are constantly +misjudged. The tone which pervades the concluding novel of the series is +taken as the tone which pervades the two which preceded it. This is an +injustice as well as a mistake. In no sense is "Satanstoe," in +particular, a political novel. There is no reference to anti-rentism in +it save in the preface. Its only connection with the subject is the +account it gives of the manner in which the great estates were +originally settled. On the other hand it is a picture of colonial life +and manners in New York during the middle of the eighteenth century, +such as can be found drawn nowhere else so truthfully and so vividly. It +takes rank among the very best of Cooper's stories. The characters are, +to a certain extent, the same as in "Afloat and Ashore;" the main +difference being, that in the one the events take place principally on +land, and in the other on water. Even those majestic first families, +whom he had celebrated before, loom up in these pages with renewed and +increasing grandeur. But the story is throughout told in a graphic and +spirited manner, and as it approaches the end and details the scenes +that follow Abercrombie's repulse at Lake George in 1758, it (p. 253) +becomes intensely exciting. The villain of the tale is, of course, a New +Englander, in this instance a long, ungainly pedagogue from Danbury, +Connecticut. He does not, however, blossom out into the full perfection +of his rascality until he makes his appearance in "The Chainbearer," the +next novel of the series. This tale, though decidedly inferior to +"Satanstoe," contains passages of great interest. The description, +especially, of the squatter family and the life led by it, is one of +Cooper's most powerfully drawn pictures. + +It has been the misfortune of this series that the member of it which +has attracted most attention is "The Redskins; or, Indian and Injin," +which came out in July, 1846. This is one of three or four books which, +in a certain way, give one a high idea of Cooper's power in the fact +that his reputation has been able to survive them. If he had been +anxious to help the anti-renters and hurt the patroon, he could hardly +have done better than to write this book. As a story it has no merit. +The incidents told in it are absurd. It is full, moreover, of the +arguments that irritate but do not convince; and is liberally supplied, +in addition, with prophecies that have never been realized. Everything +that was disagreeable in Cooper's manner and bungling in his art, was +conspicuous in this work. His dislikes were not uttered pleasantly, as +in "Afloat and Ashore," but with an ill-nature that often bordered upon +ferocity. A tone of pretension ran through the whole, a constant +reference to what men think who had seen the world, with the implied +inference that those who disagreed with the author in opinion had not +seen the world. The feeling of the reader is, that if this extravagance +and over-statement be the result of travel, men had better stay (p. 254) +at home. Nor did Cooper refrain from dragging in everything with which +he had found fault before. We are not even spared the everlasting +reference to the bays of New York and of Naples. The work is what he +himself would have called provincial in the worst sense of that word. +Even more than its spirit was its matter extraordinary for a work of +fiction. Part of it is little else than a controversial tract on the +superiority of Episcopacy; and the temper in which it is written could +hardly have been grateful to any but an opponent of that church. +"Satanstoe" is full of many of Cooper's likes and dislikes, but there +can be no greater contrast conceived than between the tone which +pervades that delightful creation, and the boisterous brawling of "The +Redskins". + +With the publication of this series Cooper's career as a creator of +works of imagination practically closed. He wrote several novels +afterward, but not one of them did anything to advance his reputation. +Some of them tended to lower it. This was not due to failure of power, +but to its misdirection. The didactic element in his nature had now +gained complete mastery over the artistic. The interest, such as it is, +which belongs to his later stories, is rarely a literary interest. Not +one of them has the slightest pretension to be termed a work of art. +There are, at times, passages in them that thrill us, and scenes that +display something of his old skill in description. But these are +recollections rather than new creations. Cooper's fame would not have +been a whit lessened, if every line he wrote after "The Chainbearer" had +never seen the light. + +The works that came out during the remaining years of his life (p. 255) +were "The Crater," published October 12, 1847; "Jack Tier," published +March 21, 1848; "The Oak Openings," published August 24 of the same +year; "The Sea Lions," published April 10, 1849, and "The Ways of the +Hour," published April 10, 1850. Of these "Jack Tier" originally made +its appearance in "Graham's Magazine" during the years 1845-1847, under +the title of "The Islets of the Gulf," and strictly stands first in the +order of time. It shares with "The Crater" the distinction of being one +of the two best of these later stories. It may be fair to mention that +Bryant saw in it as much spirit, energy, invention, and life-like +presentation of objects and events as in anything the author ever wrote. +This will seem exaggerated praise when one reads it in connection with +"The Red Rover," of which it is in some respects a feeble reflection. It +was hard for Cooper to be uninteresting when once fairly launched upon +the waves. Without denying the existence in "Jack Tier" of passages of +marked power, no small share of it was merely a reproduction of what had +been done and better done before. The old woman who is constantly +misusing nautical terms is the most palpable imitation of the admiral's +widow in "The Red Rover." It is a cheap expedient at best, and must at +any time be used with extreme moderation. Above all, it is a device +which is abused the very moment it is repeated. As displayed in "Jack +Tier," it is simply unendurable. Cooper's silly people, in facts are apt +to be silly not only beyond human experience but almost beyond human +conception. The tragedy, moreover, with which this novel ends is +intended to be terrible, while as a matter of fact it is merely +grotesque and absurd. The tale reaches a sudden but necessary conclusion +because nearly all the characters are disposed of at once by (p. 256) +drowning or killing. There is scarcely any one left to carry on the +action of the story. + +"The Crater," which in one sense followed and in another preceded "Jack +Tier," has a very special interest to the student of Cooper's character. +He had now lived for so long a time a life remote from the real clash of +conflicting views that he had finally reached that satisfied state of +opinion which thinks the little circle in which it moves is the proper +orbit for the revolution of thought of the whole race. As he advanced in +years he narrowed instead of broadening. The intensity of his faith +coupled with his energy of expression makes this fact very conspicuous; +and in "The Crater" the reader is alternately attracted by the shrewd +and keen remarks of the writer, and repelled by his illiberality. The +novel tells the tale of a shipwrecked mariner cast away on a reef not +laid down in any chart and unknown to navigators. This barren spot he +makes bud and blossom as the rose. To the new Utopia he has created in +the bosom of the Pacific he brings a body of emigrants. Their +proceedings are entertainingly told. But the history of the decline of +the colony from its primitive state of happiness and perfection, which +is designed to furnish a warning, tends instead to fill the irreverent +with amusement. While under the control of its founder and governor, who +combined all the virtues, it is represented as enjoying peace and +prosperity. Demagogism had no control. The reign of gossip had not +begun. The great discovery had not been made that men were merely +incidents of newspapers. Care was taken that the children should not +imbibe any false principles, that is, any principles which the (p. 257) +ruling powers thought false. The schools did not furnish much instruction, +but owing to this considerate watchfulness they were innocent if they +were inefficient. Still this ingenious arrangement for stopping the +progress of the human mind could not work forever. From the start there +was a dangerous element, though in this case the colonists had not come +from New England but from the Middle States. Very speedily that innate +depravity of the human heart which does not like to hear a clergyman +read prayers, which looks with suspicion upon a liturgy, began to +manifest itself. This, however, was kept under control until the arrival +of new colonists. This Eden was then invaded not by one serpent only, +but by several. Four of them were clergymen; one a Presbyterian, one a +Methodist, one a Baptist, and one a Quaker. This was too much for the +solitary Episcopalian who had previously been on the ground, and who is +represented as combining a weak physical constitution with a very strong +conception of his apostolic authority as a divine. It must be conceded +that for a population of about five hundred souls the supply of +spiritual teachers was ample. With them came also a lawyer and an +editor. The seeds of dissolution were at once sown. The colonists became +ungrateful, and began to inquire not only into the conduct of their +governor, but even into the title by which he held some of his lands. He +finally left the spot in disgust, and having first taken the precaution +to dispose of his property at a good price, returned to his native +country. A natural yearning to see the community he had established led +the discoverer to revisit, after a few months, the scene of his trials. +He sailed to the spot but he could not find it. A convulsion of nature +similar to that which had raised the reef above the level of the (p. 258) +waves had sunk it again out of sight. Ungrateful colonists, +clergymen, editor, and lawyer, had all perished. + +In June, 1847, Cooper made a trip to the West, and went as far as +Detroit. One result of this journey was the novel of "The Oak Openings; +or, the Bee-Hunter." This must be looked upon as a decided failure. The +desire to lecture his fellow-men on manners had now given place to a +desire to edify them; and he was no more successful in the one than he +had been in the other. In this instance the issue of the story depends +on the course of an Indian who is converted to Christianity by +witnessing the way in which a self-denying Methodist missionary meets +his death. The whole winding-up is unnatural, and the process of turning +the organizing chief of a great warlike confederacy into a Sunday-school +hero is only saved from being commonplace by being absurd. Far more +singular, however, was the central idea of "The Sea Lions," the story +that followed. This is certainly one of the most remarkable conceptions +that it ever entered into the mind of a novelist to create. It shows the +intense hold religious convictions were taking of Cooper's feelings, and +to what extremes of opinion they were carrying him. In "Wing-and-Wing" +the hero had been discarded because he was a thorough infidel. But +Cooper's sentiments had now moved a long distance beyond this +milk-and-water way of dealing with religious differences. In "The Sea +Lions" the hero merely denied the divinity of Christ, while he professed +to hold him in reverence as the purest and most exalted of men. But if +there was any one point on which the heroine was sound and likewise +inflexible, it was the doctrine of the Trinity. Whatever else she (p. 259) +doubted, she was absolutely sure of the incarnation. She would not +unite herself with one who presumed to "set up his own feeble +understanding of the nature of the mediation between God and man in +opposition to the plainest language of revelation as well as to the +prevalent belief of the Church." In this case the hero is converted, +apparently by spending a winter in the Antarctic seas. An important +agent in effecting this change of belief is a common seaman who improves +every occasion to drop into the conversation going on, some unexpected +Trinitarian remark. When the master has almost against hope saved his +vessel, and in the thankfulness of his heart invokes blessing on the +name of God, Stimson is on hand at his elbow to add, "and that of his +only and _true_ Son." This novel is, indeed, a further but unneeded +proof of how little Cooper was able to project himself out of the circle +of his own feelings, or to aid any cause which he had near to his heart. +He had had much to say about New England cant. Yet in this work he can +find no words sufficiently strong to praise what he calls the zealous +freedom and Christian earnestness of one of the most offensive canters +that the whole range of fiction presents. It would be unjust to deny +that when in "The Sea Lions" Cooper abandons his metaphysics and turns +to his real business, that he creates a powerful story. One may almost +be said at times to feel the cold, the desolation, the darkness, and the +gloom of an Antarctic winter confronting and overshadowing the spirit. +But there can be little that is more tedious than the dry chaff of +theological discussion which is here threshed for us over and over +again. Believers in the Trinity had as little reason as believers in +Episcopacy to rejoice in Cooper's advocacy of their faith. There (p. 260) +was nothing original in his views; there was nothing pointed or +forcible in his statement of them. He meant to inculcate a lesson, and +the only lesson that can possibly be drawn is the sufficiently absurd +one that dwellers in the chilly spiritual clime of Unitarianism can be +cured of their faith in that icy creed by being subjected to the horrors +of a polar winter. Far more clearly does the novel show the falling-off +in his artistic conceptions and the narrowing process his opinions were +undergoing. At the rate this latter was taking place it seems probable +that had he lived to write another novel on a theme similar to this, his +hero would have been compelled to abandon his belief in Presbyterianism, +Congregationalism, Methodism, or some other ism before he would be found +worthy of being joined in the marriage relation to his Episcopalian +bride. + +The "Ways of the Hour" was the last work that Cooper published. +Everything he now wrote was written with a special object. The design of +this was to attack trial by jury; but he was not prevented by that fact +from discussing several other matters that were uppermost in his mind. +The incidents of the story utterly destroyed the effectiveness of the +lesson that it was intended to convey. It would be dignifying too much +many of the events related in it to say that they are improbabilities: +they are simply impossibilities. The "Ways of the Hour" was, however, +like the preceding novels, often full of suggestive remarks, on many +other points than trial by jury. It showed in numerous instances the +working of an acute, vigorous, and aggressive intellect. The good +qualities it has need not be denied: only they are not the good +qualities that belong to fiction. + +The pecuniary profits that his works brought him during this (p. 261) +latter period of his life there are, perhaps, no means of ascertaining. +Much of the literary activity of his last years was due to necessity +rather than to inspiration. He had been concerned for a long time in +company with a number of men of business in a series of cotton +speculations, and in others connected with Western lands. In both cases +the ventures were unprofitable, and the desire of retrieving his losses +was one of the causes that led to this constant literary production. +There were other circumstances, too, besides his mere unpopularity that +had tended to reduce the amount gained from what he wrote. After 1838, +the income received from England naturally fell off, in consequence of +the change in the law of copyright. The act of Parliament passed in that +year provided that no foreign author outside of British dominions should +have copyright in those dominions unless the country to which he +belonged gave copyright to the English author. No fault can be found +with this legislation on the score of justice. The value of anything +produced by a citizen of the United States fell at once as a necessary +consequence of the want of protection against piracy. The British +publisher, not from any motive of mere personal gain, but from an +unselfish desire by retaliatory proceedings to bring about a better +state of things, went speedily to work to plunder the American author +who favored international copyright in order to show his disgust at the +conduct of the American publisher who opposed it. As a matter of fact +Cooper's novels were from that time published in Great Britain, in cheap +form, and sold at a cheap price. Such reprints could not but lower the +amount which could be offered for his work. Newspaper reports, the (p. 262) +correctness of which can neither be affirmed nor denied, frequently +mention that for the copyright of each of his earlier novels he was in +the habit of receiving a thousand guineas. We know positively that for +his later tales, as fast as they were written, Bentley, his London +publisher, usually paid him three hundred pounds each. + +In America circumstances of another kind contributed to reduce the +profits from his works. Most of them were published at a price that +would have required an immense sale to make them remunerative at all. It +was about 1840 that two weekly newspapers in New York, "The New World," +and "The Brother Jonathan," had begun the practice of reprinting in +their columns the writings of the most popular novelists which were then +coming out in England. As soon as these were finished they were brought +out in parts and sold at a small price. This piracy was so successful +that imitators sprang up everywhere. The large publishing houses were +soon obliged to follow in the wake of the newspaper establishments. The +reign of the so-called "cheap and nasty" literature began. The +productions of the greatest foreign novelists were sold for a song. The +native writer was subjected to a competition which forced him at once to +lower his price or to go unread. Beginning with "Wing-and-Wing," the +rate at which Cooper's works were published furnishes a striking +commentary upon the cheap professions of sympathy with letters current +in this country, indicates suggestively the inspiriting inducements held +out by the law-making power to enter upon the career of authorship, and +shows with disgraceful clearness how utterly the interests of the men +engaged in the creation of literature had been subordinated to the (p. 263) +greed of those who traded in it. The barest recital of the facts +makes evident the nature of the encouragement given. "Wing-and-Wing" was +published at twenty-five cents a volume. So were "Wyandotte," "The +Redskins," "The Crater," "Jack Tier," "The Oak Openings," and "The Sea +Lions." The four volumes of the series "Afloat and Ashore" were +published at thirty-seven and a half cents each; and at the same rate +"Satanstoe" came out, and also "Ned Myers." It was not till Cooper's +last work appeared that the price went up as high as a dollar and +twenty-five cents. This was in one volume; but it is to be kept in mind, +in considering these prices, that in America his novels regularly +appeared in two. + +One further experiment Cooper made in a new field; and with it the +record of his literary life closes. In the year 1850 he tried the stage. +On the 18th of June a comedy written by him was brought out at Burton's +Theatre, New York. It was entitled, "Upside Down; or, Philosophy in +Petticoats." For the three nights following the 18th it was acted, and +was then withdrawn. It has never been played since, nor has it been +published. + +All these years he spent his time mainly in his home at Cooperstown. +There, besides the pleasure he found in the improvement of the extensive +grounds about his house, he gave full vent to that latent passion for +wasting money in agricultural operations, which seems to be one of the +most widely-extended peculiarities of the English race. On the eastern +shore of the lake, about a mile from the village, he bought a farm of +about two hundred acres which he called the "Châlet." The view from it +was exceedingly beautiful, looking as it did down the Valley of (p. 264) +the Susquehanna. The farm, too, had its picturesque and poetical +features; but unhappily it was little adapted to practical agriculture. +It stood on a hill-side, the abruptness of which was only occasionally +relieved by a few acres of level land. Much of it was still covered with +the original forest; and a good deal of the cleared land was full of +stumps. To superintend the removal of these latter was one of Cooper's +chief relaxations from mental labor. It is a desirable thing to do, but +it has never been found pecuniarily profitable in itself. To this place +Cooper daily drove in the summer season, and spent two or three hours +directing the operations that were going on, finding constantly new ways +to spend money, and doubtless pleasing himself occasionally with the +fancy that the farm would at some time pay expenses. And in the best +sense it did pay expenses. It gave regular diversion to his life; it +ministered constantly to his enjoyment of the beautiful in scenery; and +it occupied his thoughts with perpetual projects of improvement for +which its character furnished unlimited opportunities. He had bought it +for pleasure and not for profit; and in that it yielded him a full +return for the money invested. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. (p. 265) + +1850-1851. + + +Cooper, at the time he published his last novel, was more than sixty +years of age; but as yet he showed no traces of physical or intellectual +decay. His literary activity remained unabated, though he was now +purposing to direct it to other fields than that of fiction. A decided +change was likewise taking place in the estimation in which he was held +by the public. He had not become popular, to be sure; but he had become +less unpopular. There was, moreover, a feeling pretty generally +prevalent that he had been hardly used; that in many respects he had +been a wronged and persecuted man. The ranks of those who had remained +faithful to him during all these years of obloquy were beginning to be +largely swelled from the newer generation which had neither part in, nor +knowledge of, the bitter controversies in which he had been concerned. +His friends were purposing to give a public dinner in his honor in order +to show their regard for him as a man, and their appreciation of the +credit his writings had brought to his country. Before this project +could be carried into effect, the illness had overtaken him which ended +in death. + +On the other hand time had, in some respect, mollified his own feelings. +Many things had occurred to make him more gentle and forbearing. Much of +this was certainly due to the increasing strength of his (p. 266) +religious convictions, which as has been noticed, steadily deepened +during his last years. It is clear from much that appears in his later +novels that these had, to some extent, been perverted from their +legitimate effect, and had made him at intervals illiberal and even +bitter. But they had brought calm to an excitable nature, and healing to +a spirit which had been sometimes sorely wounded. In 1851 he carried out +a plan long before determined upon. In March of that year he became a +communicant in the Episcopal church, and in the following July was +confirmed by his brother-in-law, Bishop DeLancey. + +In the summer of 1850 he was in New York city. "At this time," says +Bryant, "his personal appearance was remarkable. He seemed in perfect +health, and in the highest energy and activity of his faculties. I have +scarcely seen any man at that period of life on whom his years sat more +lightly." But even then the disease which was to destroy him was lurking +in his system. In the beginning of April, 1851, he came again to New +York partly for medical advice, and his changed appearance struck all +his friends with surprise and sorrow. The digestive organs were +impaired, the liver was torpid, and a general feebleness had taken the +place of the vigor for which he had previously been distinguished. +He remained several weeks in the city and then returned to Cooperstown. +That place he never left again. The disease made rapid advances, and at +last became a confirmed dropsy. In the latter part of August his old and +intimate friend, Dr. Francis, of New York, went up to Cooper's country +home to make a full examination of his condition. He found him worse, if +anything, than he expected. There was, in fact, little hope of (p. 267) +recovery. The physician told him frankly of the danger he was in, and of +the possibilities of restoration to health that still existed. Though +his own perception of his condition was too clear to make the +announcement a shock, it could not have been other than a +disappointment. He had many projects still unfulfilled. Plans of new +works were in his mind; and one of them on the "Towns of Manhattan," +partly written, was at that very time in press. But he met the news as +bravely as he had the various troubles of his eventful life. After Dr. +Francis' departure the malady steadily increased, and it soon became +evident that expectation of recovery must be given up. During all these +days he was quiet and cheerful, and his last hours were full of peace +and hope. On Sunday, the 14th of September, 1851, at half-past one in +the afternoon, he died. Had he lived one day longer he would have been +sixty-two years old. In a little more than four months his wife followed +him to the grave. They lie side by side in the grounds of Christ's +Church at Cooperstown. + +His property was found, at his death, to be much impaired in value. +Enough was left to insure the family a competency, but it became +necessary to give up the mansion where so many years of his life had +been passed. The dwelling went, accordingly, into other hands, and it +was not a long while after that it burned down. Part of the grounds have +since become public property, and that which is not so employed is +little better than a waste. + +The death of men of letters did not excite at that time the attention +which interest or fashion pays to it now. Cooper's relations, too, with +many, had been of so strained a nature that it was hardly to be (p. 268) +expected that his loss should arouse universal regret. Yet it was +felt on all hands that a great man had fallen. On the 25th of September, +a few days after his death, a meeting was held in the City Hall, New +York, with the intent to make a suitable demonstration of respect to his +memory. Washington Irving presided, and a committee of prominent men of +letters was appointed to carry into effect the measures for which the +gathering had been called. A discourse on the life, genius, and writings +of the dead author was fixed upon to be given by his intimate friend, +William Cullen Bryant. On the 25th of February, 1852, this address was +delivered at Metropolitan Hall before the most cultivated audience the +city could boast. With a singular ineptitude, not generally appreciated +at the time, Daniel Webster was selected to preside. He had nothing to +say, and he said it wretchedly. It was doubtful if he had ever read a +single work of the novelist. That, at least, is a natural inference from +his speech, which, furthermore, is little else than a collection of +dreary platitudes. It was after this fashion that he paid his respects +to the man whose memory they had come together to honor. "As far as I am +acquainted," he remarked, "with the writings of Mr. Cooper, they uphold +good sentiments, sustain good morals, and maintain just taste; and after +saying this I have next to add, that all his writings are truly +patriotic and American throughout and throughout." This did not even +reach the respectability of commonplace, and the commonplaces to which +Webster soared in other parts of his speech did not have the poor merit +of being sonorous. Still he looked so majestic and imposing that most of +his audience were profoundly impressed by the justness and value (p. 269) +of his observations. Any failure, however, on his part in the matter of +what he said, was more than made up by the address delivered by Byrant. +It is not very long; it contains a few errors of fact, especially in the +dates; but it is not only the most eloquent tribute that has been paid +to the dead author, it has also remained during all these years the +fullest account of the life he lived, and the work he did. + + * * * * * + +More than sixty years have gone by since Cooper began to write; more +than thirty since he ceased to live. If his reputation has not +advanced during the period that has passed since his death, it has +certainly not receded. Nor does it seem likely to undergo much change +in the future. The world has pretty well made up its mind as to the +value of his work. The estimate in which it is held will not be +materially raised or lowered by anything which criticism can now +utter. This will itself be criticised for being too obvious; for it +can do little but repeat, with variation of phrase, what has been +constantly said and often better said before. There is, however, now a +chance of its meeting with fairer consideration. The cloud of +depreciation which seems to settle upon the achievement of every man +of letters soon after death, it was Cooper's fortune to encounter +during life. This was partly due to the literary reaction which had +taken place against the form of fiction he adopted, but far more to +the personal animosities he aroused. We are now far enough removed +from the prejudices and passions of his time to take an impartial view +of the man, and to state, without bias for or against him, the +conclusions to which the world has very generally come as to his +merits and defects as a writer. + +At the outset it is to be said that Cooper is one of the people's (p. 270) +novelists as opposed to the novelists of highly-cultivated men. This +does not imply that he has not been, and is not still, a favorite with +many of the latter. The names of those, indeed, who have expressed +excessive admiration for his writings far surpass in reputation and even +critical ability those who have spoken of him depreciatingly. Still the +general statement is true that it is with the masses he has found favor +chiefly. The sale of his works has known no abatement since his death. +It goes on constantly to an extent that will surprise any one who has +not made an examination of this particular point. His tales continue to +be read or rather devoured by the uncultivated many. They are often +contemptuously criticised by the cultivated few, who sometimes affect to +look upon any admiration they may have once had for them as belonging +exclusively to the undisciplined taste of childhood. + +This state of things may be thought decisive against the permanent +reputation of the novelist. The opinion of the cultivated few, it is +said, must prevail over that of the uncultivated many. True as this is +in certain cases, it is just as untrue in others. It is, in fact, often +absurdly false when the general reading public represents the +uncultivated many. On matters which come legitimately within the scope +of their judgment the verdict of the great mass of men is infinitely +more trustworthy than that of any small body of men, no matter how +cultivated. Of plenty of that narrow judgment of select circles which +mistakes the cackle of its little coterie for the voice of the world, +Cooper was made the subject, and sometimes the victim, during his +lifetime. There were any number of writers, now never heard of, who +were going to outlive him, according to literary prophecies then (p. 271) +current, which had everything oracular in their utterance except +ambiguity. Especially is this true of the notices of his stories of the +sea. As I have turned over the pages of defunct criticism, I have come +across the names of several authors whose tales descriptive of ocean +life were, according to many contemporary estimates, immensely superior +to anything of the kind Cooper had produced or could produce. Some of +these writers enjoyed for a time high reputation. Most of them are now +as utterly forgotten as the men who celebrated their praises. + +But however unfair as a whole may be the estimate of cultivated men in +any particular case, their adverse opinion is pretty certain to have a +foundation of justice in its details. This is unquestionably true in the +present instance. Characteristics there are of Cooper's writings which +would and do repel many. Defects exist both in manner and matter. Part +of the unfavorable judgment he has received is due to the prevalence of +minor faults, disagreeable rather than positively bad. These, in many +cases, sprang from the quantity of what he did and the rapidity with +which he did it. The amount that Cooper wrote is something that in +fairness must always be taken into consideration. He who has crowded +into a single volume the experience of a life must concede that he +stands at great advantage as regards matters of detail, and especially +as regards perfection of form, with him who has manifested incessant +literary activity in countless ways. It was the immense quantity that +Cooper wrote and the haste and inevitable carelessness which wait upon +great production, that are responsible for many of his minor faults. +Incongruities in the conception of his tales, as well as in their (p. 272) +execution, often make their appearance. Singular blunders can be found +which escaped even his own notice in the final revision he gave his works. +In "Mercedes of Castile," for instance, the heroine presents her lover +on his outward passage with a cross framed of sapphire stones. These, +she tells him, are emblems of fidelity. When she comes to inquire about +them after his return she speaks of them as turquoise. Again, in "The +Deerslayer" three castles of a curious set of chessmen are given in one +part of the story to the Indians. Later on, two other castles of the +same set make their appearance. This is a singular mistake for Cooper to +overlook, for chess was a game of which he was very fond. + +In the matter of language this rapidity and carelessness often +degenerated into downright slovenliness. It was bad enough to resort to +the same expedients and to repeat the same scenes. Still from this +charge few prolific novelists can be freed. But in Cooper there were +often words and phrases which he worked to death. In "The Wept of +Wish-ton-Wish" there is so perpetual a reference to the quiet way in +which the younger Heathcote talks and acts that it has finally anything +but a quieting effect upon the reader's feelings. In "The Headsman of +Berne," "warm" in the sense of "well-to-do," a disagreeable usage at +best, occurs again and again, until the feeling of disagreeableness it +inspires at first becomes at last positive disgust. This trick of +repetition reaches the climax of meaninglessness in "The Ways of the +Hour." During the trial scene the judge repeats on every pretext and as +a part of almost every speech, the sentence "time is precious;" and it +is about the only point on which he is represented as taking a clear and +decided stand. + +There were other faults in the matter of language that to some (p. 273) +will seem far worse. I confess to feeling little admiration for that +grammar-school training which consists in teaching the pupil how much +more he knows about our tongue than the great masters who have moulded +it; which practically sets up the claim that the only men who are able +to write English properly are the men who have never shown any capacity +to write it at all; and which seeks, in a feeble way, to cramp usage by +setting up distinctions that never existed, and laying down rules which +it requires uncommon ignorance of the language to make or to heed. Still +there are lengths to which the most strenuous stickler for freedom of +speech does not venture to go. There are prejudices in favor of the +exclusive legitimacy of certain constructions that he feels bound to +respect. He recognizes, as a general rule, for instance, that when the +subject is in the singular it is desirable that the verb should be in +the same number. For conventionalities of syntax of this kind Cooper was +very apt to exhibit disregard, not to say disdain. He too often passed +the bounds that divide liberty from license. It scarcely needs to be +asserted that in most of these cases the violation of idiom arose from +haste or carelessness. But there were some blunders which can only be +imputed to pure unadulterated ignorance. He occasionally used words in +senses unknown to past or present use. He sometimes employed grammatical +forms that belong to no period in the history of the English language. A +curious illustration of a word combining in itself both these errors is +_wists_, a verb, in the third person, singular. If this be anything it +should be _wist_, the preterite of _wot_, and should have accordingly +the meaning "knew." Cooper uses it in fact as a present with the (p. 274) +sense of "wishes." Far worse than occasional errors in the use of words +are errors of construction. His sentences are sometimes involved in the +most hopeless way, and the efforts of grammar to untie the knot by any +means known to it serve only to make conspicuous its own helplessness. + +All this is, in itself, of slight importance when set off against +positive merits. But it is constantly forced upon the reader's attention +by the fact that Cooper himself was exceedingly critical on points of +speech. He was perpetually going out of his way to impart bits of +information about words and their uses, and it is rare that he blunders +into correct statement or right inference. He often, indeed, in these +matters carried ignorance of what he was talking about, and confidence +in his own knowledge of it to the extremest verge of the possible. He +sometimes mistook dialectic or antiquated English for classical, and +laboriously corrected the latter by putting the former in parentheses by +its side. In orthography and pronunciation he had never got beyond that +puerile conception which fancies it a most creditable feature in a word +that its sound shall not be suggested by anything in its spelling. In +the case of proper names this was more than creditable; it was +aristocratic. So in "The Crater" great care is taken to tell us that the +hero's name, though written Woolston, was pronounced Wooster; and that +he so continued to sound it in spite of a miserable Yankee pedagogue who +tried hard to persuade him to follow the spelling. So, again, in "The +Ways of the Hour" we are sedulously informed that Wilmeter is to be +pronounced Wilmington. But absurdities like these belonged not so much +to Cooper as to the good old times of gentlemanly ignorance in (p. 275) +which he lived. In his etymological vagaries, however, he sometimes left +his age far behind. In "The Oak Openings" he enters upon the discussion +of the word "shanty." He finds the best explanation of its origin is to +suppose it a corruption of _chiènté_, a word which he again supposed +might exist in Canadian French, and provided it existed there, he +further supposed that in that dialect it might mean "dog-kennel." The +student of language, much hardened to this sort of work on the part of +men of letters, can read with resignation "this plausible derivation," +as it is styled. Cooper, however, not content with the simple glory of +originating it, actually uses throughout the whole work _chiènté_ +instead of "shanty." This rivals, if it does not outdo, the linguistic +excesses of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. + +There are imperfections far more serious than these mistakes in +language. He rarely attained to beauty of style. The rapidity with which +he wrote forbids the idea that he ever strove earnestly for it. Even the +essential but minor grace of clearness is sometimes denied him. He had +not, in truth, the instincts of the born literary artist. Satisfied with +producing the main effect, he was apt to be careless in the consistent +working out of details. Plot, in any genuine sense of the word "plot," +is to be found in very few of his stories. He seems rarely to have +planned all the events beforehand; or, if he did, anything was likely to +divert him from his original intention. The incidents often appear to +have been suggested as the tale was in process of composition. Hence the +constant presence of incongruities with the frequent result of bringing +about a bungling and incomplete development. The introduction of certain +characters is sometimes so heralded as to lead us to expect from (p. 276) +them far more than they actually perform. Thus, in "The Two Admirals," +Mr. Thomas Wychecombe is brought in with a fullness of description that +justifies the reader in entertaining a rational expectation of finding +in him a satisfactory scoundrel, capable, desperate, full of resources, +needing the highest display of energy and ability to be overcome. This +reasonable anticipation is disappointed. At the very moment when +respectable determined villainy is in request, he fades away into a +poltroon of the most insignificant type who is not able to hold his own +against an ordinary house-steward. + +The prolixity of Cooper's introductions is a fault so obvious to every +one that it needs here reference merely and not discussion. A similar +remark may be made as to his moralizing, which was apt to be cheap and +commonplace. He was much disposed to waste his own time and to exhaust +the patience of his reader by establishing with great fullness of +demonstration and great positiveness of assertion the truth of +principles which most of the human race are humbly content to regard as +axioms. A greater because even a more constantly recurring fault is the +gross improbability to be found in the details of his stories. There is +too much fiction in his fiction. We are continually exasperated by the +inadequacy of the motive assigned; we are irritated by the unnatural if +not ridiculous conduct of the characters. These are perpetually doing +unreasonable things, or doing reasonable things at unsuitable times. +They take the very path that must lead them into the danger they are +seeking to shun. They engage in making love when they ought to be flying +for their lives. His heroes, in particular, exhibit a capacity for going +to sleep in critical situations, which may not transcend (p. 277) +extraordinary human experience, but does ordinary human belief. Nor is +improbability always confined to details. It pervades sometimes the +central idea of the story. In "The Bravo," for instance, the hero is the +most pious of sons, the most faithful of friends, the most devoted of +lovers. The part he has to play in the tale is to appear to be a +cutthroat of the worst type, without doing a single thing to merit his +reputation. It is asking too much of human credulity to believe that a +really good man could long sustain the character of a remorseless +desperado by merely making faces. This improbability, moreover, is most +marked in the tales which are designed to teach a lesson. A double +disadvantage is the result. The story is spoiled for the sake of the +moral; and the moral is lost by the grossly improbable nature of the +story. In the last novel Cooper wrote this is strikingly seen. He who +can credit the possibility of the events occurring that are told in "The +Ways of the Hour" must give up at the same time his belief in the maxim +that truth is stranger than fiction. + +It has now become a conventional criticism of Cooper that his characters +are conventional. Such a charge can be admitted without seriously +disparaging the value of his work. In the kind of fiction to which his +writings belong, the persons are necessarily so subordinate to the +events that nearly all novelists of this class have been subjected to +this same criticism. So regularly is it made, indeed, that Scott when he +wrote a review of some of his own tales for the "Quarterly" felt obliged +to adopt it in speaking of himself. He describes his heroes as amiable, +insipid young men, the sort of pattern people that nobody cares a +farthing about. Untrue as this is of many of Scott's creations, (p. 278) +it is unquestionably true of the higher characters that Cooper +introduces. They are often described in the most laudatory terms; but it +is little they do that makes them worthy of the epithets with which they +are honored. Their talk is often of a kind not known to human society. +One peculiarity is especially noticeable. A stiffness, not to say an +appearance of affectation is often given to the conversation by the use +of _thou_ and _thee_. This was probably a survival in Cooper of the +Quakerism of his ancestors; for he sometimes used it in his private +letters. But since the action of his stories was in nearly all cases +laid in a period in which the second person singular had become obsolete +in ordinary speech, an unnatural character is given to the dialogue, +which removes it still farther from the language of real life. + +His failure in characterization was undoubtedly greatest in the women he +drew. Cooper's ardent admirers have always resented this charge. Each +one of them points to some single heroine that fulfills the highest +requirements that criticism could demand. It seems to me that close +study of his writings must confirm the opinion generally entertained. +All his utterances show that the theoretical view he had of the rights, +the duties, and the abilities of women, were of the most narrow and +conventional type. Unhappily it was a limitation of his nature that he +could not invest with charm characters with whom he was not in moral and +intellectual sympathy. There was, in his eyes, but one praiseworthy type +of womanly excellence. It did not lie in his power to represent any +other; on one occasion he unconsciously satirized his inability even to +conceive of any other. In "Mercedes of Castile" the heroine is (p. 279) +thus described by her aunt: "Her very nature," she says, "is made up of +religion and female decorum." It is evident that the author fancied that +in this commendation he was exhausting praise. These are the sentiments +of a man with whom devoutness and deportment have become the culminating +conception of the possibilities that lie in the female character. His +heroines naturally conformed to his belief. They are usually spoken of +as spotless beings. They are made up of retiring sweetness, artlessness, +and simplicity. They are timid, shrinking, helpless. They shudder with +terror on any decent pretext. But if they fail in higher qualities, they +embody in themselves all conceivable combinations of the proprieties and +minor morals. They always give utterance to the most unexceptionable +sentiments. They always do the extremely correct thing. The dead +perfection of their virtues has not the alloy of a single redeeming +fault. The reader naturally wearies of these uninterestingly discreet +and admirable creatures in fiction as he would in real life. He feels +that they would be a good deal more attractive if they were a good deal +less angelic. With all their faultlessness, moreover, they do not attain +an ideal which is constantly realized by their living, but faulty sisters. +They do not show the faith, the devotion, the self-forgetfulness, and +self-sacrifice which women exhibit daily without being conscious that +they have done anything especially creditable. They experience, so far +as their own words and acts furnish evidence of their feelings, a sort +of lukewarm emotion which they dignify with the name of love. But they +not merely suspect without the slightest provocation, they give up the +men to whom they have pledged the devotion of their lives, for reasons +for which no one would think of abandoning an ordinary (p. 280) +acquaintance. In "The Spy" the heroine distrusts her lover's integrity +because another woman does not conceal her fondness for him. In "The +Heidenmauer" one of the female characters resigns the man she loves +because on one occasion, when heated by wine and maddened by passion, he +had done violence to the sacred elements. There was never a woman in +real life, whose heart and brain were sound, that conformed her conduct +to a model so contemptible. It is just to say of Cooper that as he +advanced in years he improved upon this feeble conception. The female +characters of his earlier tales are never able to do anything +successfully but to faint. In his later ones they are given more +strength of mind as well as nobility of character. But at best, the +height they reach is little loftier than that of the pattern woman of +the regular religious novel. The reader cannot help picturing for all of +them the same dreary and rather inane future. He is as sure, as if their +career had been actually unrolled before his eyes, of the part they will +perform in life. They will all become leading members of Dorcas +societies; they will find perpetual delight in carrying to the poor +bundles of tracts and packages of tea; they will scour the highways and +by-ways for dirty, ragged, hatless, shoeless, and godless children, whom +they will hale into the Sunday-school; they will shine with unsurpassed +skill in the manufacture of slippers for the rector; they will exhibit a +fiery enthusiasm in the decoration and adornment of the church at +Christmas and Easter festivals. Far be the thought that would deny +praise to the mild raptures and delicate aspirations of gentle natures +such as Cooper drew. But in novels, at least, one longs for a (p. 281) +ruddier life than flows in the veins of these pale, bleached-out +personifications of the proprieties. Women like them may be far more +useful members of society than the stormier characters of fiction that +are dear to the carnal-minded. They may very possibly be far more +agreeable to live with; but they are not usually the women for whom men +are willing or anxious to die. + +These are imperfections that have led to the undue depreciation of +Cooper among many highly cultivated men. Taken by themselves they might +seem enough to ruin his reputation beyond redemption. It is a proof of +his real greatness that he triumphs over defects which would utterly +destroy the fame of a writer of inferior power. It is with novels as +with men. There are those with great faults which please us and impress +us far more than those in which the component parts are better balanced. +Whatever its other demerits, Cooper's best work never sins against the +first law of fictitious composition, that the story shall be full of +sustained interest. It has power, and power always fascinates, even +though accompanied with much that would naturally excite repulsion or +dislike. Moreover, poorly as he sometimes told his story, he had a story +to tell. The permanence and universality of his reputation are largely +due to this fact. In many modern creations full of subtle charm and +beauty, the narrative, the material framework of the fiction, has been +made so subordinate to the delineation of character and motive, that the +reader ceases to feel much interest in what men do in the study which is +furnished him of why they do it. In this highly-rarefied air of +philosophic analysis, incident and event wither and die. Work of this +kind is apt to have within its sphere an unbounded popularity; but its +sphere is limited, and can never include a tithe of that vast (p. 282) +public for which Cooper wrote and which has always cherished and kept +alive his memory, while that of men of perhaps far finer mould has quite +faded away. + +It is only fair, also, to judge him by his successes and not by his +failures; by the work he did best, and not by what he did moderately +well. His strength lies in the description of scenes, in the narration +of events. In the best of these he has had no superior, and very few +equals. The reader will look in vain for the revelation of sentiment, or +for the exhibition of passion. The love-story is rarely well done; but +the love-story plays a subordinate part in the composition. The moment +his imagination is set on fire with the conception of adventure, +vividness and power come unbidden to his pen. The pictures he then draws +are as real to the mind as if they were actually seen by the eye. It is +doubtless due to the fact that these fits of inspiration came to him +only in certain kinds of composition, that the excellence of many of his +stories lies largely in detached scenes. Still his best works are a +moving panorama, in which the mind is no sooner sated with one picture +than its place is taken by another equally fitted to fix the attention +and to stir the heart. The genuineness of his power, in such cases, is +shown by the perfect simplicity of the agencies employed. There is no +pomp of words; there is an entire lack of even the attempt at +meretricious adornment; there is not the slightest appearance of effort +to impress the reader. In his portrayal of these scenes Cooper is like +nature, in that lie accomplishes his greatest effects with the fewest +means. If, as we are sometimes told, these things are easily done, the +pertinent question always remains, why are they not done. + +Moreover, while in his higher characters he has almost (p. 283) +absolutely failed, he has succeeded in drawing a whole group of +strongly-marked lower ones. Birch, in "The Spy," Long Tom Coffin and +Boltrope in "The Pilot," the squatter in "The Prairie," Cap in "The +Pathfinder," and several others there are, any one of which would be +enough of itself to furnish a respectable reputation to many a novelist +who fancies himself far superior to Cooper as a delineator of character. +He had neither the skill nor power to draw the varied figures with which +Scott, with all the reckless prodigality of genius, crowded his canvas. +Yet in the gorgeous gallery of the great master of romantic fiction, +alive with men and women of every rank in life and of every variety of +nature, there is, perhaps, no one person who so profoundly impresses the +imagination as Cooper's crowning creation, the man of the forests. It is +not that Scott could not have done what his follower did, had he so +chosen; only that as a matter of fact he did not. Leather-Stocking is +one of the few original characters, perhaps the only great original +character, that American fiction has added to the literature of the +world. + +The more uniform excellence of Cooper, however, lies in the pictures he +gives of the life of nature. Forest, ocean, and stream are the things +for which he really cares; and men and women are the accessories, +inconvenient and often uncomfortable, that must be endured. Of the +former he speaks with a loving particularity that lets nothing escape +the attention. Yet minute as are often his descriptions, he did not fall +into that too easily besetting sin of the novelist, of overloading his +picture with details. To advance the greater he sacrificed the less. +Cooper looked at nature with the eye of a painter and not of a (p. 284) +photographer. He fills the imagination even more than he does the sight. +Hence the permanence of the impression which he leaves upon the mind. +His descriptions, too, produce a greater effect at the time and cling +longer to the memory because they fall naturally into the narrative, and +form a real part in the development of the story; they are not merely +dragged in to let the reader know what the writer can do. "If Cooper," +said Balzac, "had succeeded in the painting of character to the same +extent that he did in the painting of the phenomena of nature, he would +have uttered the last word of our art." This author I have quoted +several times, because far better even than George Sand, or indeed any +who have criticised the American novelist, he seems to me to have seen +clearly wherein the latter succeeded and wherein he failed. + +To this it is just to add one word which Cooper himself would have +regarded as the highest tribute that could be paid to what he did. +Whatever else we may say of his writings, their influence is always a +healthy influence. Narrow and prejudiced he sometimes was in his +opinions; but he hated whatever was mean and low in character. It is +with beautiful things and with noble things that he teaches us to +sympathize. Here are no incitements to passion, no prurient suggestions +of sensual delights. The air which breathes through all his fictions is +as pure as that which sweeps the streets of his mountain home. It is as +healthy as nature itself. To read one of his best works after many of +the novels of the day, is like passing from the heated and stifling +atmosphere of crowded rooms to the purity, the freedom, and the +boundlessness of the forest. + +In these foregoing pages I have attempted to portray an author (p. 285) +who was something more than an author, who in any community would have +been a marked man had he never written a word. I have not sought to hide +his foibles and his faults, his intolerance and his dogmatism, the +irascibility of his temperament, the pugnacity of his nature, the +illiberality and injustice of many of his opinions, the unreasonableness +as well as the imprudence of the course he often pursued. To his friends +and admirers these points will seem to have been insisted upon too +strongly. Their feelings may, to a certain extent, be just. Cooper is, +indeed, a striking instance of how much more a man loses in the +estimation of the world by the exhibition of foibles, than he will by +that of vices. In this work one side of the life he lived--the side he +presented to the public--is the only one that, owing to circumstances, +could be depicted. It does not present the most attractive features of +his character. That exclusiveness of temperament which made him +misjudged by the many, endeared him only the more to the few who were in +a position to see how different he was from what he seemed. In nothing +is the essential sweetness of Cooper's nature more clearly shown than in +the intense affection he inspired in the immediate circle which +surrounded him or that was dependent upon him. He could not fail to feel +keenly at times how utterly his character and motives were +misapprehended and belied. "As for myself," says the hero of "Miles +Wallingford," "I can safely say that in scarce a circumstance of my +life, that has brought me the least under the cognizance of the public, +have I ever been judged justly. In various instances have I been praised +for acts that were either totally without any merit, or at least the +particular merit imputed to them; while I have been even (p. 286) +persecuted for deeds that deserved praise." + +His faults, in fact, were faults of temper rather than of character. +Like the defects of his writings, too, they lay upon the surface, and +were seen and read of all men. But granting everything that can be urged +against him, impartial consideration must award him an ample excess of +the higher virtues. His failings were the failings of a man who +possessed in the fullest measure vigor of mind, intensity of conviction, +and capability of passion. Disagree with him one could hardly help; one +could never fail to respect him. Many of the common charges against him +are due to pure ignorance. Of these, perhaps, the most common and the +most absolutely baseless is the one which imputes to him excessive +literary vanity. Pride, even up to the point of arrogance, he had; but +even this was only in a small degree connected with his reputation as an +author. In the nearly one hundred volumes he wrote, not a single line +can be found which implies that he had an undue opinion of his own +powers. On the contrary, there are many that would lead to the +conclusion that his appreciation of himself and of his achievement was +far lower than even the coldest estimate would form. The prevalent +misconception on this point was in part due to his excessive +sensitiveness to criticism and his resentment of it when hostile. It was +partly due, also, to a certain outspokenness of nature which led him to +talk of himself as freely as he would talk of a stranger. But his whole +conduct showed the falseness of any such impression. From all the petty +tricks to which literary vanity resorts, he was absolutely free. He +utterly disdained anything that savored of manoeuvring for reputation. +He indulged in no devices to revive the decaying attention of the (p. 287) +public. He sought no favors from those who were in a position to confer +the notoriety which so many mistake for fame. He went, in fact, to the +other extreme, and refused an aid that he might with perfect propriety +have received. In the early period of his literary career he wrote a +good deal for the "New York Patriot," a newspaper edited by his intimate +friend, Colonel Gardiner. He objected to the publication in it of a +favorable notice, which had been prepared of "The Pioneers," because by +the fact of being an occasional contributor he was indirectly connected +with the journal. Accordingly the criticism was not inserted. It would +not have been possible for him to offer to review his own works, as +Scott both offered to do and did of the "Tales of My Landlord," in the +"Quarterly." Nor would he have acceded to a request to furnish a review +of any production of his own, as Irving did, in the same periodical, of +his "Conquest of Granada." No publisher who knew him, even slightly, +would have ventured to make him a proposition of the kind. I am +expressing no opinion as to the propriety of these particular acts; only +that Cooper, constituted as he was, could not for a moment have +entertained the thought of doing them. + +The fearlessness and the truthfulness of his nature are conspicuous in +almost every incident of his career. He fought for a principle as +desperately as other men fight for life. The storm of detraction through +which he went never once shook the almost haughty independence of his +conduct, or swerved him in the slightest from the course he had chosen. +The only thing to which he unquestioningly submitted was the truth. His +loyalty to that was of a kind almost Quixotic. He was in later (p. 288) +years dissatisfied with himself, because, in his novel of "The Pilot," +he had put the character of Paul Jones too high. He thought that the +hero had been credited in that work with loftier motives than those by +which he was actually animated. Feelings such as these formed the +groundwork of his character, and made him intolerant of the devious ways +of many who were satisfied with conforming to a lower code of morality. +There was a royalty in his nature that disdained even the semblance of +deceit. With other authors one feels that the man is inferior to his +work. With him it is the very reverse. High qualities, such as these, so +different from the easy-going virtues of common men, are more than an +offset to infirmities of temper, to unfairness of judgment, or to +unwisdom of conduct. His life was the best answer to many of the charges +brought against his country and his countrymen; for whatever he may have +fancied, the hostility he encountered was due far less to the matter of +his criticisms than to their manner. Against the common cant, that in +republican governments the tyranny of public sentiment will always bring +conduct to the same monotonous level, and opinion to the same +subservient uniformity, Democracy can point to this dauntless son who +never flinched from any course because it brought odium, who never +flattered popular prejudices, and who never truckled to a popular cry. +America has had among her representatives of the irritable race of +writers many who have shown far more ability to get on pleasantly with +their fellows than Cooper. She has had several gifted with higher +spiritual insight than he, with broader and juster views of life, (p. 289) +with finer ideals of literary art, and, above all, with far greater +delicacy of taste. But she counts on the scanty roll of her men of +letters the name of no one who acted from purer patriotism or loftier +principle. She finds among them all no manlier nature, and no more +heroic soul. + + + + +APPENDIX. (p. 290) + +PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF COOPER'S WRITINGS. + + +The following list embraces the first editions of Cooper's works; +articles contributed to magazines; and two or three of the most +important communications sent to the newspapers. The titles of his +works, as published in England, were sometimes different from the titles +used in the United States; and whenever this is the case the former are +subjoined. It is also to be remarked that Cooper's works were sometimes +published earlier in Europe than they were in America; but the dates +given in this biography belong exclusively to the publication of his +works in this country. With the exception of No. 45 and of No. 67, all +his tales were originally published in two volumes in America; with the +exception of No. 45 they were originally published in three volumes in +England. First editions of many of his novels are now rarely to be found +in libraries; and the titles given have in several cases, in +consequence, been taken from contemporary book notices and not from +personal examination. The titles are given in the order of publication +of the writings. + + 1. Precaution; a Novel. 2 vols. New York: A. T. Goodrich & Co., 1820. + + The English edition appeared in March, 1821. + + + 2. The Spy; a Tale of the Neutral Ground. By the Author of Precaution. + 2 vols. New York: Wiley & Halsted, 1821. + + The English edition appeared in March, 1822. + + + 3. The Pioneers; or the Sources of the Susquehanna. A Descriptive (p. 291) + Tale. By the Author of Precaution. 2 vols. New York: Charles Wiley, + 1823. + + The English edition appeared in March, 1823. + + + 4. The Pilot; A Tale of the Sea. By the Author of The Pioneers, etc. + 2 vols. New York: Charles Wiley, 1823. + + The first edition bears the imprint of 1823, but was not actually + published until early in January, 1824. + + + 5. Lionel Lincoln; or the Leaguer of Boston. By the Author of The + Pioneers, Pilot, etc. 2 vols. New York: Charles Wiley, 1825. + + + 6. The Last of the Mohicans. A Narrative of 1757. By the Author of + The Pioneers. 2 vols. Philadelphia: H. C. Carey & I. Lea, 1826. + + + 7. The Prairie; a Tale. By the Author of The Pioneers and The Last of + the Mohicans. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Carey, 1827. + + + 8. The Red Rover; a Tale. By the Author of The Pilot, etc., etc. + 2 vols. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Carey, 1828. + + + 9. Notions of the Americans; Picked up by a Travelling Bachelor. + 2 vols. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Carey, 1828. + + +10. The Wept of Wish-ton-Wish; a Tale. By the Author of The Pioneers, + Prairie, etc., etc. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Carey, 1829. + + In England this was published under the title of "The Borderers; + or the Wept of Wish-ton-Wish." It has also been published with the + title of "The Heathcotes." + + +11. The Water-Witch; or the Skimmer of the Seas. A Tale. By the Author + of The Pilot, Red Rover, etc., etc., etc. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Carey & Lea, 1830. + + +12. The Bravo; a Tale. By the Author of The Spy, The Red Rover, The + Water Witch, etc., etc., etc. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Carey & Lea, 1831. + + +13. Letter of J. Fenimore Cooper to Gen. Lafayette on the Expenditure + of the United States of America. 50 pp. (p. 292) + Paris: Baudry's Foreign Library, 1831. + + +14. The Heidenmauer; or the Benedictines. A Legend of the Rhine. + By the Author of The Prairie, Red Rover, Bravo, etc., etc. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Carey & Lea, 1832. + + +15. Letter to the American Public. + + Dated Vevay, Canton de Vaud, Oct. 1, 1832; first published in + Philadelphia National Gazette, Dec. 6. The subject is the + Expenses' Controversy. It occupies about two columns. + + +16. The Headsman; or the Abbaye des Vignerons. A Tale. By the Author of + The Bravo, etc., etc. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, + 1833. + + +17. A Letter to His Countrymen. By J. Fenimore-Cooper. 116 pp. + New York: John Wiley, 1834. + + +18. The Monikins; edited by the Author of The Spy. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1835. + + +19. Comparative Resources of the American Navy. + + In Naval Magazine, vol. i, No. 1, January, 1836, pp. 19-33. + + +20. Hints on Manning the Navy, etc., etc. + + In Naval Magazine, vol. i., No. 2, March, 1836, pp. 176-191. + This was published the following May in pamphlet form by the + "Committee of Publication for the Naval Magazine." + + +21. Sketches of Switzerland. By an American. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1836. + + The English title was "Excursions in Switzerland." + + +22. Sketches of Switzerland. By an American. Part Second. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1836. + + The English title was "A Residence in France; with an Excursion up + the Rhine, and a Second Visit to Switzerland." + +23. Gleanings in Europe. By an American. 2 vols. Philadelphia: + Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1837. + + This work is devoted to France. Its English title is (p. 293) + "Recollections of Europe." + + +24. Gleanings in Europe. England; by an American. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1837. + + This was published in England under the title of "England; with + Sketches of Society in the Metropolis." + + +25. Letter to the Editors of the Knickerbocker. (On the relations + between himself and Sir Walter Scott, etc.) + + In Knickerbocker Magazine, vol. xi., April, 1838, pp. 380-386. + + +26. Gleanings in Europe. Italy; by an American. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1838. + + Published in England under the title of "Excursions in Italy." + + +27. The American Democrat; or Hints on the Social and Civic Relations + of the United States of America. By J. Fenimore Cooper. Pp. 192. + Cooperstown: H. & E. Phinney, 1838. + + +28. The Chronicles of Cooperstown. Pp. 100. Cooperstown: H. & E. Phinney, + 1838. + + Published anonymously. Republished at Albany in 1862 with additional + notes and details bringing the events down to that year. The + republication is entitled "A Condensed History of Cooperstown; with + a Biographical Sketch of J. Fenimore Cooper. By Rev. T. S. Livermore, + A. M." It is a volume of 276 pages, and contains Bryant's funeral + discourse on Cooper, with much other matter. The "Chronicles of + Cooperstown" extend from page 9 to page 86 inclusive. + + +29. Homeward Bound; or the Chase. A Tale of the Sea. By the Author of + The Pilot, The Spy, etc. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & + Blanchard, 1838. + + +30. Review of the "Memoirs of the Life of Sir Walter Scott, Bart. + By J. G. Lockhart." + + In Knickerbocker Magazine, October, 1838, vol. xii., pp. + 349-366. + + +31. Home as Found. By the Author of Homeward Bound, The Pioneers, (p. 294) + etc., etc. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1838. + + In England published under the title of "Eve Effingham; or Home." + + +32. The History of the Navy of the United States of America. + By J. Fenimore Cooper. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1839. + + +33. Letters in "Cooperstown Freeman's Journal," July 1st and July 8th, + 1839. + + A reply to the criticism upon his Naval History, or rather upon his + account of the battle of Lake Erie, which had appeared in the + New York Commercial Advertiser in June, 1839. The first letter + occupies two columns, the second more than three. + + +34. The Pathfinder; or the Inland Sea. By the Author of The Pioneers, + Last of the Mohicans, etc. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, + 1840. + + +35. Mercedes of Castile; or the Voyage to Cathay. By the Author of The + Bravo, The Last of the Mohicans, etc. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1840. + + The English title was "Mercedes of Castile. A Romance of the + Days of Columbus." + + +36. History of the Navy of the United States of America. Abridged in + one volume. Pp. 447. Philadelphia: Thomas Cowperthwait & Co., 1841. + + +37. The Deerslayer; or the First War Path. A Tale. By the Author of The + Last of the Mohicans, The Pioneers, etc. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1841. + + +38. "Home as Found. Lost Chapter." Preceded by a "Preface," and a + "Letter to the Editor." In the "Brother Jonathan" newspaper of + January 1, 1842.--Followed by a Letter to the Editor, from Cooper, + on "The Effingham Matter," in same paper for February 12, 1842, + and by two articles on "The Effingham Controversy," in the numbers + for March 26, 1842, and April 9, 1842. + + +39. The Two Admirals; a Tale. By the Author of The Pilot, Red (p. 295) + Rover, Water Witch, Homeward Bound, etc., etc. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1842. + + +40. Edinburgh Review on James' Naval Occurrences and Cooper's Naval + History. + + In the United States Magazine and Democratic Review, vol. x., + for May and June, 1842. First article, pp. 409-435; second + article, pp. 515-541. + + +41. Richard Somers. + + In Graham's Magazine for October, 1842. + + +42. William Bainbridge. + + In Graham's Magazine for November, 1842. + + +43. The Wing-and-Wing; or Le Feu-Follet. A Tale. By the Author of + The Pilot, Red Rover, Two Admirals, Homeward Bound, etc., etc. + 2 vols. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1842. + + In England this was published under the title "The Jack + o' Lantern (Le Feu-Follet); or the Privateer." + + +44. Richard Dale. + + In Graham's Magazine for December, 1842. + + +45. Autobiography of a Pocket Handkerchief. + + In Graham's Magazine for January, February, March, and April, 1843. + It came out in March among the publications of the "Brother + Jonathan" newspaper office, and was then entitled "Le Mouchoir; + an Autobiographical Romance." The English title was "The French + Governess; or the Embroidered Handkerchief." + + +46. Oliver Hazard Perry. + + In Graham's Magazine for May and June, 1843. + + +47. John Paul Jones. + + In Graham's Magazine for July and August, 1843. + + +48. The Battle of Lake Erie; or Answers to Messrs. Burges, Duer, and + Mackenzie. By J. Fenimore Cooper. Pp. 118. Cooperstown: H. & E. + Phinney, 1843. + + +49. Wyandotte; or the Hutted Knoll. A Tale. By the Author of The + Pathfinder, Deerslayer, Last of the Mohicans, Pioneers, (p. 296) + Prairie, etc., etc. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1843. + + +50. Ned Myers; or a Life before the Mast. Edited by J. Fenimore Cooper. + Pp. 232. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1843. + + +51. John Shaw. + + In Graham's Magazine for March, 1844. + + +52. John Barry. + + In Graham's Magazine for June, 1844. + + +53. Afloat and Ashore; or the Adventures of Miles Wallingford. By the + Author of The Pilot, Red Rover, The Two Admirals, etc. 2 vols. + Philadelphia: Published by the Author, 1844. + + +54. Proceedings of the Naval Court Martial in the Case of Alexander + Slidell Mackenzie, a Commander in the Navy of the United States, + etc., including the Charges and Specifications of Charges, preferred + against him by the Secretary of the Navy. To which is annexed an + Elaborate Review. By James Fennimore Cooper. Pp. 344. New York: + Henry G. Langley, 1844. (Cooper's review extends from page 263 to + page 344 inclusive. The spelling of the name was due to the + publisher.) + + +55. Afloat and Ashore; or the Adventures of Miles Wallingford. By the + Author of The Pilot, Red Rover, etc. Vols. 3 & 4. Published for the + Author. New York: Burgess, Stringer & Co., 1844. + + This second series of Afloat and Ashore goes in this country under + the name of "Miles Wallingford." In England it was published as + "Lucy Hardinge." + + +56. John Templer Shubrick. + + In Graham's Magazine for December, 1844. + + +57. Melancthon Taylor Woolsey. + + In Graham's Magazine for January, 1845. + + +58. Edward Preble. + + In Graham's Magazine for May and June, 1845. + + +59. Satanstoe; or the Littlepage Manuscripts. A Tale of the (p. 297) + Colony. 2 vols. New York: Burgess, Stringer & Co., 1845. + + +60. The Chainbearer; or the Littlepage Manuscripts. Edited by the Author + of Satanstoe, Spy, Pathfinder, Two Admirals, etc. 2 vols. + New York: Burgess, Stringer & Co, 1846. + + +61. Lives of Distinguished American Naval Officers. By J. Fenimore Cooper. + Author of The Spy, The Pilot, etc. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Carey & Hart, + 1846. Also, 2 vols. Auburn: Derby & Jackson, 1846. + + Volume I. contains, in the following order: Bainbridge (No. 42), + Somers (No. 41), Shaw (No. 51), Shubrick (No. 56), Preble (No. 58). + + Volume II. contains: Jones (No. 47), Woolsey (No. 57), Perry + (No. 46), and Dale (No. 44); Barry (No. 52) was not included. + + +62. The Redskins; or Indian and Injin. Being the conclusion of the + Littlepage Manuscripts. By the Author of The Pathfinder, Deerslayer, + Two Admirals, etc. 2 vols. New York: Burgess & Stringer, 1846. + + In England the title of this work was "Ravensnest; or the Redskins." + + +63. The Islets of the Gulf; or Rose Budd. + + Begun in Graham's Magazine for November, 1846, and continued through + every succeeding number until March, 1848, in which month it was + concluded. It was published in book form March 21, 1848, by Burgess, + Stringer & Co., as "Jack Tier; or the Florida Reefs." In England + the title was "Captain Spike; or the Islets of the Gulf." + + +64. The Crater; or Vulcan's Peak. A Tale of the Pacific. By the Author + of Miles Wallingford, The Red Rover, The Pilot, etc., etc. 2 vols. + New York: Burgess, Stringer & Co., 1847. + + The English title was "Mark's Reef; or the Crater." Jack Tier; or + the Florida Reefs, 1848. See No. 63. + + +65. The Oak Openings; or the Bee Hunter. By the Author of The (p. 298) + Pioneers, Last of the Mohicans, Pathfinder, Deerslayer, etc., etc. + 2 vols. New York: Burgess, Stringer & Co., 1848. + + The English title was "The Bee Hunter; or the Oak Openings." + + +66. The Sea Lions; or the Lost Sealers. By the Author of The Crater, etc. + 2 vols. New York: Stringer & Townsend, 1849. + + +67. The Ways of the Hour; a Tale. By the Author of The Spy, The Red Rover, + etc., etc. 1 vol. New York: G. P. Putnam, 1850. + + +POSTHUMOUS PUBLICATIONS. + + +68. Old Ironsides. + + In Putnam's Magazine, vol. i., No. v., May, 1853, pp. 473-487; and + in No. vi., June, 1853, pp. 593-607. + + This is a history of the United States frigate Constitution. + + +69. Fragments from a Diary of James Fenimore Cooper. + + In Putnam's Magazine, new series, vol. i., February, 1868, pp. + 167-172; and June, 1868, pp. 730-737. + + +70. The Battle of Plattsburgh Bay. + + In January, 1869, of Putnam's Magazine, vol. iii., new series, + pp. 49-59. + + A note to this article says that it was prepared as a lecture to + be delivered before the New York Historical Society. The records + of that Society, however, contain no reference to any lecture + delivered by Cooper. + + +71. The Eclipse. + + In Putnam's Magazine, new series, vol. iv., for September, 1869, + pp. 352-359. Written about 1831, and gives an account of the + eclipse of the sun in June, 1806. + + +Besides these there are numerous letters written to the newspapers, and +in particular the letters written to the Paris journal, the "National," +in 1833. During Cooper's life it was frequently said that he was engaged +in preparing a work on the Middle States of the Union; but no (p. 299) +trace of such a production was found among his papers. A work of his on +"The Towns of Manhattan" was partly finished and in press at the time of +his death; but the portion printed was entirely destroyed by fire. Part +of the manuscript, however, was recovered. On the 4th of August, 1841, +Cooper also delivered an address before the Literary Societies of Hobart +College, Geneva, N. Y.; but this he himself burned on the day it was +delivered. + +A few works have been wrongly attributed to him. One of these is "The +Cruise of the Somers; illustrative of the Despotism of the Quarter Deck; +and of the Unmanly Conduct of Commander Mackenzie." New York: 1844. +Another is "Elinor Wyllys; or the Young Folk of Longbridge." +Philadelphia: 1846. Of this novel Cooper was the nominal editor, and to +it he contributed a short preface. A third work, which has been falsely +attributed to him, is entitled "The Republic of the United States; its +Duties to Itself, and its Responsible Relations to other Countries." New +York: 1848. + + + + +INDEX. (p. 300) + + +Adams, John, 113. + +Adams, John Quincy, 224-226. + +"Afloat and Ashore," 232, 249-253, 263, 296. + +Albany, N. Y., 6, 15. + +"Albany Argus," 182. + +"Albany Evening Journal," Cooper's libel suits with, 187, 190-196. + +America, intellectual dependence of, + on England in 1820 and later, 18-21, 34, 35, 62, 92; + literary state of, in 1820, 30-32. + +"American Scott, The," Cooper so termed, 58, 106; + his feelings about it, 59, 161. + +"American Democrat, The," 177-179, 293. + +Angevine, 14-16, 63. + +Anti-Rent Novels, The, 251-254. + +Ashburton Treaty, 237. + +"Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung," 107. + +"Autobiography of a Pocket Handkerchief," 249, 293. + + +Bainbridge, Commodore William, 295, 297. + +Balzac, Honoré de, Criticisms of Cooper, 204, 240, 284. + +Barry Cornwall. See _Procter_. + +Barry, John, 296, 297. + +Benjamin, Park, 159; Cooper's libel suit with, 187. + +Bentley, London publisher of Cooper's later works, 262. + +"Blackwood's Magazine," 58; + abuse of Cooper, 174. + +Berne, Cooper's residence near, 68. + +Boone, Daniel, 72. + +"Borderers, The" (English title), 291. + +Boston, Cooper's criticism of, 171, 172. + +Bostonians practice "gouging," 97. + +"Bravo, The," 108-111, 115, 128, 130, 277, 291. + +Bread and Cheese Club, founded by Cooper, 63; + its members, 63; + gives dinner to Cooper, 127. + +Brenton's, Captain Edward Pelham, "Naval History of Great Britain," 202. + +British press, Cooper's opinion of, 106, 136, 137; + its attacks upon Cooper, 138, 173-176, 199, 236. + +"Brother Jonathan, The," newspaper, 262, 294, 295. + +Brown, Charles Brockden, 30. + +Bryant, William Cullen, 17, 63, 80, 266; + delivers funeral oration on Cooper, 268. + +Bulwer, Sir Edward Lytton, 124, 125. + +Burges, Tristam, 213, 221, 224, 226, 233, 295. + +Burlington, N. J., 2, 12. + +Burton's Theatre, Cooper's comedy acted at, 263. + + +Campbell, Judge William W., 216. + +Canning, George, 68. + +"Captain Spike" (English title), 297. + +Carey and Lea, publishers, 66. + +"Chainbearer, The," 252-254, 297. + +Châlet, The, Cooper's farm, near Cooperstown, 263. + +Champlain, Lake, 12. + +Chauncey, Commodore Isaac, 127. + +Chesapeake, American man-of-war, 202. + +"Chronicles of Cooperstown, The," 293. + +Clay, Henry, 67. + +Clinton, DeWitt, 127. + +"Coelebs," Hannah More's, 21. + +Colburn, London publisher, 28, 94. + +"Comparative Resources of the American Navy," 292. + +Constitution, ship-of-war, 210, 298. + +Cooper, Fenimore, 15, 63. + +Cooper, J. F.: born at Burlington, 2; + removed to Cooperstown, 2; + early education, 6; + at Albany, 6; + at Yale College, 7; + dismissed from college, 8; + serves before the mast, 9, 10; + enters navy as midshipman, 11; + his service, 11; + marries, 12; + resigns position in the navy, 14; + residences from 1811 to 1822, 14, 15; + his children, 15; + begins literary life, 16; + moves into New York city, 63; + founds the Bread and Cheese club, 63; + has family name changed to Fenimore-Cooper, 3; + is given a public dinner, 127; + sails for Europe, 67; + made consul at Lyons, 67; + residences in France, England, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, 67, 68; + cordial reception in Paris, 68, 69; + wide extent of his reputation, 56-58, 77; + returns to America, 117; + refuses a public dinner, 128; + resides in New York city, 117; + buys his father's house in Cooperstown and makes it his permanent + home, 117; + has a controversy with citizens of Cooperstown, 142-148; + brings a number of newspaper libel suits, 180-197; + engages unsuccessfully in business operations, 261; + his farm, 263, 264; + becomes a communicant in the Episcopal Church, 266; + his death, 267; + funeral oration over, delivered by Bryant, 268; + happiness of his home life, 13, 14, 233, 234, 285; + wide circulation of his works, 37, 56, 76, 270; + pecuniary profits from their sale, 64-66, 261-263; + his success as a lawyer, 182, 189, 216-218, 220; + his sensitiveness to criticism, 41-44, 286; + defects of his literary art, 50, 51; + failure in characterization, 152, 155, 277, 278; + female characters, 26-28, 153, 154, 278-281; + success in characters from low life, 53-55, 72, 73, 152, 283; + fondness for commonplace, 84, 242, 276; + prolixity of his introductions, 75, 134, 242, 276; + improbability and carelessness in the details of his + stories, 51, 53, 276, 277; + carelessness in the development of the plot, 28, 271, 272, 275, 276; + criticism on language and carelessness in use of it, 130, 272-275; + his humor, 119, 239, 240; + his fondness for natural scenery, and success in + description, 8, 69, 134, 168, 169, 240, 241, 264, 282-284; + his political opinions, 82-84, 108, 109; + his imperiousness of manner, 79, 80, 286; + his pugnacity, 24, 75, 80, 81, 146, 147, 285; + his generosity, 81, 82; + his patriotism, 49, 85, 86, 94, 110, 115, 128, 231, 237, 238, 243; + depth and narrowness of religious feeling, 22-26, 75, 243, 256, + 258-261, 266; + high sense of honor, 82, 286; + love of truth, 202, 203, 222, 232, 287, 288. + +Cooper, Paul, 15, 63. + +Cooper, Richard, 182, 185, 220. + +Cooper, Susan Fenimore, 15. + +Cooper, William, Cooper's father, 2, 3, 9, 142-145, 188, 192. + +Cooperstown, situation of, 1, 3, 4; + when founded, 2; + original population of, 5; + Cooper's residences in, 2, 3, 14, 117; + his controversy with citizens of, 142-148; + farm near, 263, 264; + his death at, 266, 267; + the Chronicles of, 293. + +"Cooperstown Freeman's Journal," democratic newspaper, 143, 144; + Cooper's letters to, 147, 148, 294. + +Copyright, international, Cooper's feelings in regard to, 166; + pecuniary loss sustained by the lack of one, 261. + +Copyright law, English, of, 1838, 66, 261. + +Courier, Paul, liberal sentiments about America, 87. + +Court of Errors, The, of New York, 228, 229. + +"Crater, The," 255-258, 274, 297. + +Cushing, Caleb, replies to Cooper, 132. + + +Dale, Richard, 295, 297. + +Davis, Admiral Charles H., 213. + +"Deerslayer, The," 239-242, 272, 294. + +DeKay, James E., 63. + +DeLancey family, 12, 13. + +DeLancey, Susan Augusta, 12-14, 16, 70, 233, 234; + married to Cooper, 12; + her death, 267. + +DeLancey, William H., bishop of Western New York, 266. + +Democratic party, Cooper nominally belonging to, 133, 171. + +"Democratic Review," 207, 208, 295. + +Derby, Lord, 52. + +"Diary of James Fenimore Cooper, Fragments from," 298. + +Dresden, Saxony, Cooper's residence at, 68, 107, 123. + +Duer, William Alexander, Cooper's controversy with, 212, 221-223, 233, 295. + +Durand, Asher B., the engraver, 63. + + +"Eclipse, The," 298. + +Edgeworth, Maria, 57. + +"Edinburgh Review, The," 205-208, 295. + +Elliott, Commodore Jesse, 208-213, 222; + has a medal struck in honor of Cooper, 224-226. + +"Encyclopedia Britannica," notice of Cooper's life in, 175. + +England, Cooper's residence in, 68, 96; + feeling of, towards America, 87-98; + criticism of, by Cooper, 105, 130, 137; + his work on, 135, 293; + hostility expressed for Cooper in, 92, 106, 138, 173-176. + +Effingham, name applied to Cooper, 156, 158, 183, 191, 294. + +Episcopal Church, Cooper's attachment to, 23, 245, 249, 254, 257, 259, + 260, 266. + +Erie Lake, Battle of, controversy in regard to, 208-227, 294. + +European ignorance of America, 86-88, 100, 101. + +"Eve Effingham" (English title), 294. + +"Excursions in Italy" (English title), 293. + +"Excursions in Switzerland" (English title), 292. + +Expenses' Controversy, The, 76, 111-115, 292. + + +Fay, Theodore S., 132. + +Federalist Party, 9, 171; + Cooper brought up in, 92; + feeling of, towards England, 92, 93. + +Fenimore family, 3, 188. + +Fenimore, near Cooperstown, Cooper's residence at, 14. + +Fenimore-Cooper, family name changed to, 3. + +Florence, Cooper's residence at, 68, 74, 120. + +Foot, Samuel A., 215-221. + +France, Cooper's work on, 135, 292, 293. + +Francis, Dr. John W., 266, 267. + +"Fraser's Magazine," its attack on Cooper, 174-175. + +Free trade, Cooper's hostility to, 133, 171. + +"French Governess, The" (English title), 295. + +French opinion of Cooper, 36, 204. + +French social life, Cooper's opinion of, 69. + + +Galitzin, Princess, 69. + +Gardner, Colonel Charles K., 287. + +Gifford, William, editor of "The Quarterly," 35. + +Gisquet, French prefect of police, 37. + +"Gleanings in Europe," 135-140, 204, 292, 293. + +Glens Falls, 52. + +"Glory and Shame of England," attack on Cooper in, 234, 235. + +"Gotham and the Gothamites," 60. + +Gouging, prevalence of, in America, 97; + practiced by Bostonians, 97. + +"Graham's Magazine," 229, 245, _note_, 248, 255, 295-297. + +Greeley, Horace, 159, 180, 181, 187; + Cooper's libel suits with, 197, 198. + +Greenough, Horatio, 81, 115-116, 155. + +Grose's "Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue," 97. + + +Halleck, Fitzgreene, 63, 246, _note_. + +Harris, Leavitt, 113, 114. + +Haydon, Benjamin Robert, 58. + +Hazlitt, William, 106. + +Headley, Rev. J. T., 235. + +"Headsman, The," 108, 109, 272, 292. + +"Heathcotes, The" (English title), 291. + +"Heidenmauer, The," 108, 109, 280, 292. + +Heine, 107. + +Hillard, George S., 160. + +Hillhouse, James A., 7. + +"Hints on Manning the Navy," 292. + +Hobart College, Cooper's address at, 299. + +"Home as Found," 149, 150-159, 294. + +"Home as Found, Lost Chapter of," 294. + +"Homeward Bound," 149, 150, 152, 155, 293. + + +Impressment of American seamen, 93. + +Indian character, Cooper's view of, 54, 55. + +Ingram's, John H., "Life of Poe," 246, _note_. + +Irving, Washington, 3, 35, 56, 268, 287. + +"Islets of the Gulf, The." See "_Jack Tier_." + +Italy, Cooper's work on, 135, 293; + attachment of Cooper to, 69-71. + + +"Jack o' Lantern, The" (English title), 295. + +Jackson, President Andrew, 131, 210. + +"Jack Tier," 255, 256, 263, 297. + +James's, William, "Naval History of Great Britain," 205-207, 295; + Cooper's opinion of, 206, 207. + +Jarvis, John Wesley, 63. + +Jay, John, 29. + +Jefferson, Thomas, 67. + +Jones, John Paul, 48, 57, 288, 295, 297. + +Jordan, Ambrose C., 190. + +Judah, Samuel B. H., 60. + +Jury, trial by, 260. + + +Kent, Chancellor James, 63, 127. + +King, Charles, 127. + +"Knickerbocker Magazine," 160, 161, 293. + + +Lafayette, 111, 112. + +"Last of the Mohicans, The," 52-55, 56, 58, 66, 71, 72, 239, 291. + +Lawrence, Captain James, 12. + +"Leather-Stocking Tales, The," 40, 55, 239; + Cooper's opinion of, 241. + +Leghorn, 120. + +Lester, C. Edwards, 235, 236. + +"Letter to General Lafayette," 112, 291. + +"Letter to his Countrymen," 129-132, 292. + +"Letter to the American Public," 114, 292. + +Libel suits, Cooper's, with the Otsego "Republican," 185, 186; + with the Norwich "Telegraph," 184, 186; + with the Oneida "Whig," 187; + with the New York "Evening Signal," 187; + with the New York "Courier and Enquirer," 187-190; + with the Albany "Evening Journal," 187, 190, 196; + with the New York "Tribune," 187, 197; + with the New York "Commercial Advertiser," 187, 197, 212, 214-221, + 223-224. + +"Lionel Lincoln," 49-52, 291. + +Livermore, Rev. T. S., 293. + +Livingston, Edward, 114. + +Lockhart's, John Gibson, "Life of Scott," 160, 161, 293. + +London, Cooper's residence in, 68, 96-98. + +"London Times," its attack on Cooper, 175. + +Lord, Daniel, Jr., 215-221. + +Louis Philippe, 69, 107. + +Lowell, James Russell, 156. + +"Lucy Harding" (English title), 249, 296; 251. + +Lyons, Cooper consul at, 67. + + +Mackenzie, Alexander Slidell, 212, 213, 216, 221, 222, 233, 295. + +Mackintosh, Sir James, 97. + +Mamaroneck, N. Y., 12, 13, 14. + +Man, Isle of, Cooper reported birthplace in, 3. + +"Mark's Reef" (English title), 297. + +McHarg, Rev. C. W., 229. + +"Mercedes of Castile," 232, 242, 272, 278. + +Mickiewicz, Adam, 107. + +Miller, London publisher, 35. + +"Miles Wallingford," 93, 249, 285, 296. + +Mitford, Mary Russell, 57. + +"Monikins, The," 133-135. + +Montagu, Mrs. Basil, 91. + +Moore, Thomas, 88, 96. + +More, Hannah, 21. + +Morris, George P., 132. + +Morse, S. F. B., 63, 76. + +Murray, John, London publisher, 35. + + +Naples, Cooper's residence at, 68. + +Naples, bay of, compared with that of New York, 164, 249, 254. + +"National" (Paris), 113, 298. + +"Naval Magazine," 201, 292. + +"Naval History of the United States," 200-230, 232, 233, 294. + +"Naval Officers, Lives of," 228, 229, 297. + +Neal, John, 30. + +Ned Myers, 247, 248, 263, 296. + +New England, Cooper's dislike of, 245, 246, 247, 249, 250, 253, 257, 259; + Cooper's unpopularity in, 50, 247. + +New Haven, 8. + +"New Monthly Magazine, Colburn's," sketch of Cooper in, 94. + +Newport, 74; stone tower at, 226. + +"New World, The," newspaper, 262. + +New York (city), Cooper's residences in, 15, 47, 63, 67, 117; + Cooper's criticism of society in, 150, 151, 158, 249; + social life in, 121; + Cooper's prophecy about, 102. + +"New York American," 127, 128. + +"New York Commercial Advertiser," 129; + Cooper's libel suits with, 187, 212, 214-221, 223, 224. + +"New York Courier and Enquirer," 129, 130; + Cooper's libel suits with, 187-190. + +"New York Evening Post," 182. + +"New York Evening Signal," Cooper's libel suit with, 187. + +New York Historical Society, 298. + +"New York Home Journal," 13. + +"New York Mirror," 132. + +"New York Patriot," 287. + +"New York Tribune," Cooper's libel suits with, 187, 192, 197. + +"New Yorker, The," 158, 182. + +Newspapers, Cooper's attacks on, 43, 176-180; + libel suits with, 180-199. + +"North American Review, The," 60, 61, 212, 213. + +"Norwich Telegraph," Cooper's libel suit with, 184, 185. + +"Notions of the Americans," 101-106, 291. + +Nugent, Lord, 96. + + +"Oak Openings, The," 255, 258, 263, 275, 297. + +"Odofried the Outcast," 60. + +Old Ironsides, 298. + +"Oneida Whig, The," Cooper's libel suit with, 187. + +Ontario, Lake, 11, 169, 240. + +Otsego Hall, Cooper's residence, 2, 117, 267. + +Otsego Lake, 1, 4, 117, 142, 240. + +"Otsego Republican," Cooper's libel suit with, 185, 186. + + +Paris, Cooper's residence at, 67-69, 107. + +Parsons, Usher, 227. + +"Pathfinder, The," 11, 239-242, 283, 294. + +Paulding, James Kirke, 30. + +Paulding, Hiram, 216. + +Peale, Rembrandt, 115. + +Percival, James G., 60-62. + +Perry, Captain Matthew, 210, 212. + +Perry, Commodore Oliver H., 208-229, 295, 297. + +"Philadelphia National Gazette," 114, 292. + +"Pilot, The," 44-48, 57, 74, 95, 283-288, 291. + +"Pioneers, The," 39-44, 61, 65, 72, 117, 156, 239, 287, 291. + +Piracy of books, 261, 262. + +Plattsburgh Bay, Battle of, 298. + +Poe, Elgar A., 245, 246, _note_. + +Poland, revolt of, 107; + Cooper's efforts to aid, 108. + +"Prairie, The," 61, 71, 73, 76, 95, 239, 283, 291. + +Preble, Edward, 296, 297. + +"Precaution," 16-28, 243. + +Price of Cooper's later novels, 262, 263. + +Princeton College, 246. + +Procter, Bryan Waller, 58, 161. + +Provincialism of America, 138, 150, 164, 165, 168. + +Puritanism, 23-29, 75, 243. + +"Putnam's Magazine," 298. + + +"Quarterly Review, The," 35, 277, 287; + its attacks on America, 89; + its attack on Cooper, 205. + + +"Ravensnest" (English title), 297. + +"Recollections of Europe" (English title), 293. + +"Redskins, The," 253, 254, 263, 297. + +"Red Rover, The," 65, 73, 99, 226, 227, 255, 291. + +Reporters of newspapers, Cooper's attack on, 176. + +"Residence in France" (English title), 292. + +Revolution of 1830, French, 106, 107. + +"Revue Britannique," 111-113. + +Rhode Island Historical Society, 213; + refuses to accept the Cooper medal, 224-227. + +Rives, William C., 114. + +Rome, Cooper's residence at, 68, 75. + +Russia, early cordial relations of, with the United States, 93. + + +Sand, George, 284. + +"Satanstoe," 252, 253, 254, 263, 296. + +Saulnier, M., 111, 112. + +Scott, Sir Walter, 31, 33, 41, 44, 56-59, 91, 110, 124, 277, 278, 283, 287; + his mention of Cooper, 69, 160; + Lockhart's life of, 159-161. + +Scott, General Winfield, 127. + +"Sea Lions, The," 255, 258-260, 263, 298. + +Sea novel, Cooper's creation of, 44-47, 57, 74. + +Shannon, English ship-of-war, 12, 202. + +Shanty, Cooper's derivation of, 275. + +Shaw, John, 290, 297. + +Shubrick, John Templer, 296, 297. + +Silliman, Professor Benjamin, 8. + +"Sketches of Switzerland," 135-140, 292. + +Slavery, Cooper's feelings toward, 85, 104. + +Smith, Sydney, 96. + +Smollett, Tobias G., 45, 57. + +Somers, American man-of-war, 228. + +Somers, Richard, 295, 297. + +Sorrento, Cooper's residence at, 68, 71, 75. + +Sotheby, William, 97, 98. + +Southey, Robert, 91. + +Spencer, John C., 228. + +Spencer, Joshua A., 186. + +"Spy, The," 13, 30-38, 43, 49, 57, 65, 66, 280, 283, 290. + +Squier, E. G., 37. + +Steevens, Samuel, 215-221. + +Sterling, merchant ship, 9, 10, 247, 248. + +Stone, William Leet, Cooper's libel suits against, 187, 214-221, 223, 224. + +Sumner, Charles, 91, 160. + +Susquehanna River, 1, 2, 264. + + +Talleyrand visits Cooper's father, 5. + +Three Mile Point Controversy, The, 142-148, 156. + +Ticknor, George, 91. + +Tories of American Revolution, Cooper's treatment of, 13. + +"Towns of Manhattan, The," 266, 299. + +Tuckerman, Henry T., his account of a trial scene, 217, 218. + +"Two Admirals, The," 242, 243, 276, 295. + +Tyler, John, President, 228. + + +"United Service Journal," its criticism of Cooper's Naval History, 204, + 205. + +"Upside Down," Cooper's comedy, 263. + + +Van Rensselaer, Stephen, the patroon, 251. + +Verplanck, Gulian Crommelin, 63. + +Vesuvius, American man-of-war, 11. + + +"Water Witch, The," 75, 76, 78, 106, 291; + refused publication in Rome, 123. + +Waverley Novels, 31, 44. + +"Ways of the Hour, The," 255, 260, 263, 272, 274, 277, 298. + +Webster, Daniel, 268. + +Weed, Thurlow, 122, 190; + Cooper's libel suits against, 187, 190-196; + admiration for Cooper's novels, 196. + +"Wept of Wish-ton-Wish, The," 74, 99, 272, 291. + +Westchester County, New York, 12, 14, 29. + +Whig party, its hostility to Cooper 131. + +Whig press, attacks on Cooper, 147, 148, 158, 159, 173, 177, 180, 184, + 185, 199, 211, 235, 241. + +Wiley, John, publisher, 63, 66. + +Willis, N. P., 132. + +Wilson, John, 58. + +"Wing-and-Wing," 93, 243, 244, 247, 262, 295. + +Woolsey, Melancthon Taylor, 11, 296, 297. + +Wright, Fanny, 36. + +"Wyandotte," 13, 244, 245, 263, 295. + + +Yale College, 246; + Cooper's connection with, 7-9. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's James Fenimore Cooper, by Thomas R. Lounsbury + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAMES FENIMORE COOPER *** + +***** This file should be named 19463-8.txt or 19463-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/4/6/19463/ + +Produced by Christine P. 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