diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:55:49 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:55:49 -0700 |
| commit | 352bf7a212853cb2c0f2dcf34562c7f227c55970 (patch) | |
| tree | 842b28d5ded136cd66b90f6e8e30f6cd0787373e /19465-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '19465-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/19465-h.html | 9727 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image01.png | bin | 0 -> 34622 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image02.png | bin | 0 -> 136929 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image03.png | bin | 0 -> 33555 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image04.png | bin | 0 -> 92665 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image05.png | bin | 0 -> 24360 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image06.png | bin | 0 -> 50147 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image07.png | bin | 0 -> 2151 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image08.png | bin | 0 -> 23185 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image09.png | bin | 0 -> 47665 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image10.png | bin | 0 -> 149969 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image11.png | bin | 0 -> 172360 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image12.png | bin | 0 -> 47288 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image13.png | bin | 0 -> 8212 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image14.png | bin | 0 -> 11755 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image15.png | bin | 0 -> 17777 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image16.png | bin | 0 -> 18634 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image19.png | bin | 0 -> 2403 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image20.png | bin | 0 -> 20755 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image21.png | bin | 0 -> 30137 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image22.png | bin | 0 -> 53655 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image23.png | bin | 0 -> 83126 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image24.png | bin | 0 -> 215291 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image25.png | bin | 0 -> 9162 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image26.png | bin | 0 -> 4265 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image27.png | bin | 0 -> 15928 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image28.png | bin | 0 -> 4775 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image29.png | bin | 0 -> 694 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image30.png | bin | 0 -> 89748 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image31.png | bin | 0 -> 9563 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image32.png | bin | 0 -> 13590 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image33.png | bin | 0 -> 16948 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image34.png | bin | 0 -> 55097 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image35.png | bin | 0 -> 208184 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image36.png | bin | 0 -> 71633 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image37.png | bin | 0 -> 115636 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image38.png | bin | 0 -> 44829 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image39.png | bin | 0 -> 45950 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image40.png | bin | 0 -> 143804 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image41.png | bin | 0 -> 9027 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image42.png | bin | 0 -> 100241 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image43.png | bin | 0 -> 72494 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image44.png | bin | 0 -> 55870 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image45.png | bin | 0 -> 7495 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image46.png | bin | 0 -> 25744 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image47.png | bin | 0 -> 33845 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image48.png | bin | 0 -> 106330 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 19465-h/images/image49.png | bin | 0 -> 85654 bytes |
48 files changed, 9727 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/19465-h/19465-h.html b/19465-h/19465-h.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4a4b359 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/19465-h.html @@ -0,0 +1,9727 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /><meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" /><meta name="DC.Creator" content="George E. Waring" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health" /><meta name="DC.Date" content="October 4, 2006" /><meta name="DC.Language" content="English" /><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="Project Gutenberg" /><meta name="DC.Identifier" content="http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19465" /><meta name="DC.Rights" content="This text is in the public domain." /><title>The Project Gutenberg EBook of Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health by George E. Waring</title><style type="text/css">/* +The Gnutenberg Press - default CSS2 stylesheet + +Any generated element will have a class "tei" and a class "tei-elem" +where elem is the element name in TEI. +The order of statements is important !!! +*/ + +.tei { margin: 0; padding: 0; + font-size: 100%; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal } + +.block { display: block; } +.inline { display: inline; } +.floatleft { float: left; margin: 1em 2em 1em 0; } +.floatright { float: right; margin: 1em 0 1em 2em; } +.shaded { margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + padding: 1em; background-color: #eee; } +.boxed { margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + padding: 1em; border: 1px solid black; } + +body.tei { margin: 4ex 10%; text-align: justify } +div.tei { margin: 2em 0em } +p.tei { margin: 0em 0em 1em 0em; text-indent: 0em; } +blockquote.tei { margin: 2em 4em } + +div.tei-lg { margin: 1em 0em; } +div.tei-l { margin: 0em; text-align: left; } +div.tei-tb { text-align: center; } +div.tei-epigraph { margin: 0em 0em 1em 10em; } +div.tei-dateline { margin: 1ex 0em; text-align: right } +div.tei-salute { margin: 1ex 0em; } +div.tei-signed { margin: 1ex 0em; text-align: right } +div.tei-byline { margin: 1ex 0em; } + + /* calculate from size of body = 80% */ +div.tei-marginnote { margin: 0em 0em 0em -12%; width: 11%; float: left; } + +div.tei-sp { margin: 1em 0em 1em 2em } +div.tei-speaker { margin: 0em 0em 1em -2em; + font-weight: bold; text-indent: 0em } +div.tei-stage { margin: 1em 0em; font-weight: normal; font-style: italic } +span.tei-stage { font-weight: normal; font-style: italic } + +div.tei-eg { padding: 1em; + color: black; background-color: #eee } + +hr.doublepage { margin: 4em 0em; height: 5px; } +hr.page { margin: 4em 0em; height: 2px; } + +ul.tei-index { list-style-type: none } + +dl.tei { margin: 1em 0em } + +dt.tei-notelabel { font-weight: normal; text-align: right; + float: left; width: 3em } +dd.tei-notetext { margin: 0em 0em 1ex 4em } + +span.tei-pb { position: absolute; left: 1%; width: 8%; + font-style: normal; } + +span.code { font-family: monospace; font-size: 110%; } + +ul.tei-castlist { margin: 0em; list-style-type: none } +li.tei-castitem { margin: 0em; } +table.tei-castgroup { margin: 0em; } +ul.tei-castgroup { margin: 0em; list-style-type: none; + padding-right: 2em; border-right: solid black 2px; } +caption.tei-castgroup-head { caption-side: right; width: 50%; text-align: left; + vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 2em; } +*.tei-roledesc { font-style: italic } +*.tei-set { font-style: italic } + +table.rules { border-collapse: collapse; } +table.rules caption, +table.rules th, +table.rules td { border: 1px solid black; } + +table.tei { border-collapse: collapse; } +table.tei-list { width: 100% } + +th.tei-head-table { padding: 0.5ex 1em } + +th.tei-cell { padding: 0em 1em } +td.tei-cell { padding: 0em 1em } + +td.tei-item { padding: 0; font-weight: normal; + vertical-align: top; text-align: left; } +th.tei-label, +td.tei-label { width: 3em; padding: 0; font-weight: normal; + vertical-align: top; text-align: right; } + +th.tei-label-gloss, +td.tei-label-gloss { text-align: left } + +td.tei-item-gloss, +th.tei-headItem-gloss { padding-left: 4em; } + +img.tei-formula { vertical-align: middle; } + +</style></head><body class="tei"> + + + + + + +<div lang="en" class="tei tei-text" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em" xml:lang="en"> + <div class="tei tei-front" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgheader" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em">The Project Gutenberg EBook of Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health by George E. Waring</p></div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost + and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, + give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this + eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health + +Author: George E. Waring + +Release Date: October 4, 2006 [Ebook #19465] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAINING FOR PROFIT, AND DRAINING FOR HEALTH*** +</pre></div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + </div> + + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div class="block tei tei-docTitle"><div class="block tei tei-titlePart" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health</span></div></div><div class="block tei tei-byline" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">by </span><span class="inline tei tei-docAuthor" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 173%">George E. Waring</span></span></div><div class="tei tei-div" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 5.76em; margin-top: 5.76em"><span class="tei tei-docEdition" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-edition" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">Edition 1</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 144%">, (</span><span class="tei tei-docDate" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-date" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">October 4, 2006</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 144%">)</span></div> + </div> + + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York<br /> + Orange Judd & Company,<br /> + 245 Broadway.</p> + </div> + + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by<br /> +ORANGE JUDD & CO.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for this +Southern District of New-York.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lovejoy & Son,<br /> +Electrotypers and Stereotypers.<br /> +15 Vandewater street N.Y.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In presenting this book to the public the writer desires +to say that, having in view the great importance of thorough +work in land draining, and believing it advisable to +avoid every thing which might be construed into an approval +of half-way measures, he has purposely taken the +most radical view of the whole subject, and has endeavored +to emphasize the necessity for the utmost thoroughness in +all draining operations, from the first staking of the lines +to the final filling-in of the ditches.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That it is sometimes necessary, because of limited means, +or limited time, or for other good reasons, to drain partially +or imperfectly, or with a view only to temporary results, +is freely acknowledged. In these cases the occasion for +less completeness in the work must determine the extent +to which the directions herein laid down are to be disregarded; +but it is believed that, even in such cases, the +principles on which those directions are founded should +be always borne in mind.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Newport, R.I.</span></span>, 1867.</p> +</div> + + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Illustrations</span></h1> + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-fig"><li><a href="#fig3">Fig. 1 - A DRY SOIL.</a></li><li><a href="#fig4">Fig. 2 - A WET SOIL.</a></li><li><a href="#fig5">Fig. 3 - A DRAINED SOIL.</a></li><li><a href="#fig10">Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS, SPRINGS AND TREES. INTENDED TO REPRESENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING.</a></li><li><a href="#fig11">Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES.</a></li><li><a href="#fig12">Fig. 6 - LEVELLING INSTRUMENT.</a></li><li><a href="#fig13">Fig. 7 - LEVELLING ROD.</a></li><li><a href="#fig14">Fig. 8 - MAP WITH CONTOUR LINES.</a></li><li><a href="#fig15">Fig. 9 - WELL'S CLINOMETER.</a></li><li><a href="#fig16">Fig. 10 - STONE PIT TO CONNECT SPRING WITH DRAIN.</a></li><li><a href="#fig17">Fig. 11 - STONE AND TILE BASIN FOR SPRING WITH DRAIN.</a></li><li><a href="#fig18">Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS.</a></li><li><a href="#fig19">Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig20">Fig. 14 - SOLE TILE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig21">Fig. 15 - DOUBLE-SOLE TILE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig22">Fig. 16 - ROUND TILE AND COLLAR, AND THE SAME AS LAID.</a></li><li><a href="#fig23">Fig. 19 - THREE PROFILES OF DRAINS, WITH DIFFERENT INCLINATIONS.</a></li><li><a href="#fig24">Fig. 20 - MAP WITH DRAINS AND CONTOUR LINES.</a></li><li><a href="#fig25">Fig. 21 - PROFILE OF DRAIN C.</a></li><li><a href="#fig28">Fig. 22 - SET OF TOOLS.</a></li><li><a href="#fig29">Fig. 23 - OUTLET, SECURED WITH MASONRY AND GRATING.</a></li><li><a href="#fig30">Fig. 24 - SILT-BASIN, BUILT TO THE SURFACE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig31">Fig. 25 - FINISHING SPADE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig32">Fig. 26 - FINISHING SCOOP.</a></li><li><a href="#fig33">Fig. 27 - BRACING THE SIDES IN SOFT LAND.</a></li><li><a href="#fig34">Fig. 28 - MEASURING STAFF.</a></li><li><a href="#fig35">Fig. 29 - BONING ROD.</a></li><li><a href="#fig36">Fig. 30 - POSITION OF WORKMAN AND USE OF FINISHING SCOOP.</a></li><li><a href="#fig37">Fig. 31 - SIGHTING BY THE BONING-RODS.</a></li><li><a href="#fig38">Fig. 32 - PICK FOR DRESSING AND PREFORATING TILE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig39">Fig. 33 - LATERAL DRAIN ENTERING AT TOP.</a></li><li><a href="#fig40">Fig. 34 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF JOINT.</a></li><li><a href="#fig41">Fig. 35 - SQUARE BRICK SILT-BASIN.</a></li><li><a href="#fig42">Fig. 36 - SILT-BASIN OF VITRIFIED PIPE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig43">Fig. 37 - TILE SILT-BASIN.</a></li><li><a href="#fig44">Fig. 38 - MAUL FOR RAMMING.</a></li><li><a href="#fig45">Fig. 39 - BOARD SCRAPER FOR FILLING DITCHES.</a></li><li><a href="#fig46">Fig. 40 - CROSS-SECTION OF DITCH (FILLED), WITH FURROW AT EACH SIDE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig51">Fig. 41 - FOOT PICK.</a></li><li><a href="#fig56">Fig. 42 - PUG-MILL.</a></li><li><a href="#fig57">Fig. 43 - PLATE OF DIES.</a></li><li><a href="#fig58">Fig. 44 - CHEAP WOODEN MACHINE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig59">Fig. 45 - MANDRIL FOR CARRYING TILES FROM MACHINE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig60">Fig. 46 - CLAY-KILN.</a></li><li><a href="#fig63">Fig. 47 - DYKE AND DITCH.</a></li><li><a href="#fig68">Fig. 48 - OLD STYLE HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig69">Fig. 49 - MODERN HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE.</a></li></ul> + </div> + + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">CHAPTER I. - LAND TO BE DRAINED AND THE REASONS WHY.</a></li><li><a href="#toc6">CHAPTER II. - HOW DRAINS ACT, AND HOW THEY AFFECT THE SOIL</a></li><li><a href="#toc8">CHAPTER III. - HOW TO GO TO WORK TO LAY OUT A SYSTEM OF DRAINS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc26">CHAPTER IV. - HOW TO MAKE THE DRAINS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc47">CHAPTER V. - HOW TO TAKE CARE OF DRAINS AND DRAINED LAND.</a></li><li><a href="#toc49">CHAPTER VI. - WHAT DRAINING COSTS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc52">CHAPTER VII. - "WILL IT PAY?"</a></li><li><a href="#toc54">CHAPTER VIII. - HOW TO MAKE DRAINING TILES.</a></li><li><a href="#toc61">CHAPTER IX. - THE RECLAIMING OF SALT MARSHES.</a></li><li><a href="#toc64">CHAPTER X. - MALARIAL DISEASES.</a></li><li><a href="#toc66">CHAPTER XI. - HOUSE DRAINAGE AND TOWN SEWERAGE IN +THEIR RELATIONS TO THE PUBLIC HEALTH.</a></li><li><a href="#toc70">INDEX</a></li></ul> + </div> + +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> +<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER I. - LAND TO BE DRAINED AND THE REASONS WHY.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Land which requires draining hangs out a sign of its +condition, more or less clear, according to its circumstances, +but always unmistakable to the practiced eye. Sometimes +it is the broad banner of standing water, or dark, wet streaks +in plowed land, when all should be dry and of even color; +sometimes only a fluttering rag of distress in curling corn, +or wide-cracking clay, or feeble, spindling, shivering grain, +which has survived a precarious winter, on the ice-stilts +that have stretched its crown above a wet soil; sometimes +the quarantine flag of rank growth and dank miasmatic fogs.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To recognize these indications is the first office of the +drainer; the second, to remove the causes from which they +arise.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If a rule could be adopted which would cover the varied +circumstances of different soils, it would be somewhat as +follows: All lands, of whatever texture or kind, in which +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the spaces between the particles of soil</span></span> are filled with water, +(whether from rain or from springs,) within less than four +feet of the surface of the ground, except during and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">immediately</span></span> after heavy rains, require draining.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">particles</span></span> of the soil cannot be made dry, +nor should they be; but, although they should be moist +themselves, they should be surrounded with air, not with +water. To illustrate this: suppose that water be poured +into a barrel filled with chips of wood until it runs over at +the top. The spaces between the chips will be filled with<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +water, and the chips themselves will absorb enough to become +thoroughly wet;—this represents the worst condition +of a wet soil. If an opening be made at the bottom of the +barrel, the water which fills the spaces between the chips +will be drawn off, and its place will be taken by air, while +the chips themselves will remain wet from the water which +they hold by absorption. A drain at the bottom of a wet +field draws away the water from the free spaces between +its particles, and its place is taken by air, while the particles +hold, by attraction, the moisture necessary to a healthy +condition of the soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are vast areas of land in this country which do +not need draining. The whole range of sands, gravels, +light loams and moulds allow water to pass freely through +them, and are sufficiently drained by nature, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">provided</span></span>, +they are as open at the bottom as throughout the mass. +A sieve filled with gravel will drain perfectly; a basin filled +with the same gravel will not drain at all. More than this, +a sieve filled with the stiffest clay, if not "puddled,"<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> +will drain completely, and so will heavy clay soils on porous +and well drained subsoils. Money expended in draining +such lands as do not require the operation is, of course, +wasted; and when there is doubt as to the requirement,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +tests should be made before the outlay for so +costly work is encountered.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is, on the other hand, much land which only by +thorough-draining can be rendered profitable for cultivation, +or healthful for residence, and very much more, described +as "ordinarily dry land," which draining would +greatly improve in both productive value and salubrity.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Surface Indications</span></span> of the necessity for draining +are various. Those of actual swamps need no description; +those of land in cultivation are more or less evident at +different seasons, and require more or less care in their examination, +according to the circumstances under which +they are manifested.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If a plowed field show, over a part or the whole of its +surface, a constant appearance of dampness, indicating that, +as fast as water is dried out from its upper parts, more +is forced up from below, so that after a rain it is much +longer than other lands in assuming the light color of dry +earth, it unmistakably needs draining.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A pit, sunk to the depth of three or four feet in the +earth, may collect water at its bottom, shortly after a +rain;—this is a sure sign of the need of draining.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All tests of the condition of land as to water,—such as +trial pits, etc.,—should be made, when practicable, during +the wet spring weather, or at a time when the springs and +brooks are running full. If there be much water in the +soil, even at such times, it needs draining.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the water of heavy rains stands for some time on the +surface, or if water collects in the furrow while plowing, +draining is necessary to bring the land to its full fertility.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Other indications may be observed in dry weather;—wide +cracks in the soil are caused by the drying of clays, which, +by previous soaking, have been pasted together; the curling +of corn often indicates that in its early growth it has +been prevented, by a wet subsoil, from sending down its +roots below the reach of the sun's heat, where it would find,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +even in the dryest weather, sufficient moisture for a healthy +growth; any <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">severe</span></span> effect of drought, except on poor +sands and gravels, may be presumed to result from the +same cause; and a certain wiryness of grass, together with +a mossy or mouldy appearance of the ground, also indicate +excessive moisture during some period of growth. The +effects of drought are, of course, sometimes manifested on +soils which do not require draining,—such as those poor +gravels, which, from sheer poverty, do not enable plants +to form vigorous and penetrating roots; but any soil of +ordinary richness, which contains a fair amount of clay, +will withstand even a severe drought, without great injury +to its crop, if it is thoroughly drained, and is kept loose at +its surface.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Poor crops are, when the cultivation of the soil is reasonably +good, caused either by inherent poverty of the +land, or by too great moisture during the season of early +growth. Which of these causes has operated in a particular +case may be easily known. Manure will correct the difficulty +in the former case, but in the latter there is no real remedy +short of such a system of drainage as will thoroughly relieve +the soil of its surplus water.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Sources of the Water</span></span> in the soil are various. +Either it falls directly upon the land as rain; rises into it +from underlying springs; or reaches it through, or over, +adjacent land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rain water</span></span> belongs to the field on which it falls, and +it would be an advantage if it could all be made to pass +down through the first three or four feet of the soil, and be +removed from below. Every drop of it is freighted with +fertilizing matters washed out from the air, and in its descent +through the ground, these are given up for the use +of plants; and it performs other important work among +the vegetable and mineral parts of the soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">spring water</span></span> does not belong to the field,—not a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +drop of it,—and it ought not to be allowed to show itself +within the reach of the roots of ordinary plants. It has +fallen on other land, and, presumably, has there done its +appointed work, and ought not to be allowed to convert +our soil into a mere outlet passage for its removal.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ooze water</span></span>,—that which soaks out from adjoining +land,—is subject to all the objections which hold against +spring water, and should be rigidly excluded.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">surface water</span></span> which comes over the surface of +higher ground in the vicinity, should be allowed every +opportunity, which is consistent with good husbandry, to +work its slow course over our soil,—not to run in such +streams as will cut away the surface, nor in such quantities +as to make the ground inconveniently wet, but to spread +itself in beneficent irrigation, and to deposit the fertilizing +matters which it contains, then to descend through a well-drained +subsoil, to a free outlet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From whatever source the water comes, it cannot remain +stagnant in any soil without permanent injury to its fertility.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Objection to too much Water in the Soil</span></span> will +be understood from the following explanation of the process +of germination, (sprouting,) and growth. Other grave +reasons why it is injurious will be treated in their proper +order.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first growth of the embryo plant, (in the seed,) is +merely a change of form and position of the material which +the seed itself contains. It requires none of the elements +of the soil, and would, under the same conditions, take place +as well in moist saw-dust as in the richest mold. The +conditions required are, the exclusion of light; a certain +degree of heat; and the presence of atmospheric air, and +moisture. Any material which, without entirely excluding +the air, will shade the seed from the light, yield +the necessary amount of moisture, and allow the accumulation +of the requisite heat, will favor the chemical<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +changes which, under these circumstances, take place in the +living seed. In proportion as the heat is reduced by the +chilling effect of evaporation, and as atmospheric air is excluded, +will the germination of the seed be retarded; and, +in case of complete saturation for a long time, absolute +decay will ensue, and the germ will die.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The accompanying illustrations, (Figures 1, 2 and 3,) from +the "Minutes of Information" on Drainage, submitted by +the General Board of Health to the British Parliament in +1852, represent the different conditions of the soil as to +moisture, and the effect of these conditions on the germination +of seeds. The figures are thus explained by Dr. +Madden, from whose lecture they are taken:</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"Soil, examined mechanically, is found to consist entirely +of particles of all shapes and sizes, from stones and pebbles +down to the finest powder; and, on account of their +extreme irregularity of shape, they cannot lie so close to +one another as to prevent there being passages between +them, owing to which circumstance soil in the mass is +always more or less </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">porous</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. If, however, we proceed to +examine one of the smallest particles of which soil is +made up, we shall find that even this is not always solid, +but is much more frequently porous, like soil in the mass. +A considerable proportion of this finely-divided part of +soil, </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">the impalpable matter</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, as it is generally called, is +found, by the aid of the microscope, to consist of </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">broken +down vegetable tissue</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, so that when a small portion of +the finest dust from a garden or field is placed under the +microscope, we have exhibited to us particles of every +variety of shape and structure, of which a certain part is +evidently of vegetable origin.</span></p> + +<a name="fig3" id="fig3"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 1.80em"><img src="images/image01.png" width="640" height="546" alt="Illustration: Fig. 1 - A DRY SOIL." title="Fig. 1 - A DRY SOIL." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">Fig. 1 - A DRY SOIL.</span></div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"In these figures I have given a very rude representation +of these particles; and I must beg you particularly to +remember that they are not meant to represent by any +means accurately what the microscope exhibits, but are</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> +only designed to serve as a plan by which to illustrate +the mechanical properties of the soil. On referring to +Fig. 1, we perceive that there are two distinct classes of +pores,—first, the large ones, which exist </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">between</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> the particles +of soil, and second, the very minute ones, which +occur in the particles themselves; and you will at the +same time notice that, +whereas all the larger +pores,—those between the +particles of soil,—communicate +most freely with +each other, so that they +form canals, the small +pores, however freely they +may communicate with +one another in the interior +of the particle in which +they occur, have no direct +connection with the pores of the surrounding particles. +Let us now, therefore, trace the effect of this arrangement. +In Fig. 1 we perceive that +these canals and pores are +all empty, the soil being +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">perfectly dry</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; and the +canals communicating freely +at the surface with the +surrounding atmosphere, +the whole will of course +be filled with air. If in +this condition a seed be +placed in the soil, at </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">a</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, +you at once perceive that +it is freely supplied with air, </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">but there is no moisture</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">; +therefore, when soil is </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">perfectly dry</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, a seed cannot grow.</span></p> + +<a name="fig4" id="fig4"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 1.80em"><img src="images/image02.png" width="640" height="546" alt="Illustration: Fig. 2 - A WET SOIL." title="Fig. 2 - A WET SOIL." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">Fig. 2 - A WET SOIL.</span></div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"Let us turn our attention now to Fig. 2. Here we</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> +perceive that both the pores and canals are no longer +represented white, but black, this color being used to indicate +water; in this instance, therefore, water has taken +the place of air, or, in other words, the soil is </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">very wet</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. +If we observe our seed </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">a</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> now, we find it abundantly +supplied with water, but </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">no air</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. Here again, therefore, +germination cannot take place. It may be well to state +here that this can never occur </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">exactly</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> in nature, because, +water having the power of dissolving air to a certain +extent, the seed </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">a</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> in Fig. 2 is, in fact, supplied with a +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">certain</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> amount of this necessary substance; and, owing +to this, germination does take place, although by no +means under such advantageous circumstances as it would +were the soil in a better condition.</span></p> + +<a name="fig5" id="fig5"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 1.80em"><img src="images/image03.png" width="640" height="544" alt="Illustration: Fig. 3 - A DRAINED SOIL." title="Fig. 3 - A DRAINED SOIL." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">Fig. 3 - A DRAINED SOIL.</span></div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"We pass on now to Fig. 3. Here we find a different +state of matters. The canals are open and freely supplied +with air, while the pores are filled with water; and, +consequently, you perceive +that, while the seed </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">a</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> has +quite enough of air from +the canals, it can never be +without moisture, as every +particle of soil which +touches it is well supplied +with this necessary ingredient. +This, then, is +the proper condition of soil +for germination, and in +fact for every period of the +plant's development; and this condition occurs when the +soil is </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">moist</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, but not </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">wet</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,—that is to say, when it has the +color and appearance of being well watered, but when it +is still capable of being crumbled to pieces by the hands, +without any of its particles adhering together in the +familiar form of mud."</span></p> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As plants grow under the same conditions, as to soil, +that are necessary for the germination of seeds, the foregoing +explanation of the relation of water to the particles +of the soil is perfectly applicable to the whole period of +vegetable growth. The soil, to the entire depth occupied +by roots, which, with most cultivated plants is, in drained +land, from two to four feet, or even more, should be maintained, +as nearly as possible, in the condition represented +in Fig. 3,—that is, the particles of soil should hold water +by attraction, (absorption,) and the spaces between the +particles should be filled with air. Soils which require +drainage are not in this condition. When they are not +saturated with water, they are generally dried into lumps +and clods, which are almost as impenetrable by roots as so +many stones. The moisture which these clods contain is +not available to plants, and their surfaces are liable to be +dried by the too free circulation of air among the wide +fissures between them. It is also worthy of incidental remark, +that the cracking of heavy soils, shrinking by +drought, is attended by the tearing asunder of the smaller +roots which may have penetrated them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Injurious Effects of Standing Water in the Subsoil</span></span> +may be best explained in connection with the description +of a soil which needs under-draining. It would +be tedious, and superfluous, to attempt to detail the various +geological formations and conditions which make the soil +unprofitably wet, and render draining necessary. Nor,—as +this work is intended as a hand-book for practical use,—is +it deemed advisable to introduce the geological charts and +sections, which are so often employed to illustrate the +various sources of under-ground water; interesting as +they are to students of the theories of agriculture, and +important as the study is, their consideration here would +consume space, which it is desired to devote only to the +reasons for, and the practice of, thorough-draining.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To one writing in advocacy of improvements, of any +kind, there is always a temptation to throw a tub to the +popular whale, and to suggest some make-shift, by which +a certain advantage may be obtained at half-price. It is +proposed in this essay to resist that temptation, and to adhere +to the rule that "whatever is worth doing, is worth +doing well," in the belief that this rule applies in no +other department of industry with more force than in the +draining of land, whether for agricultural or for sanitary +improvement. Therefore, it will not be recommended that +draining be ever confined to the wettest lands only; that, in +the pursuance of a penny-wisdom, drains be constructed +with stones, or brush, or boards; that the antiquated +horse-shoe tiles be used, because they cost less money; or +that it will, in any case, be economical to make only such +drains as are necessary to remove the water of large springs. +The doctrine herein advanced is, that, so far as draining +is applied at all, it should be done in the most thorough +and complete manner, and that it is better that, in +commencing this improvement, a single field be really well +drained, than that the whole farm be half drained.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course, there are some farms which suffer from too +much water, which are not worth draining at present; +many more which, at the present price of frontier lands, +are only worth relieving of the water which stands on the +surface; and not a few on which the quantity of stone to +be removed suggests the propriety of making wide ditches, +in which to hide them, (using the ditches, incidentally, as +drains). A hand-book of draining is not needed by the +owners of these farms; their operations are simple, and they +require no especial instruction for their performance. This +work is addressed especially to those who occupy lands of +sufficient value, from their proximity to market, to make +it cheaper to cultivate well, than to buy more land for the +sake of getting a larger return from poor cultivation.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Wherever Indian corn is worth fifty cents a bushel, on the +farm, it will pay to thoroughly drain every acre of land +which needs draining. If, from want of capital, this cannot +be done at once, it is best to first drain a portion of the +farm, doing the work thoroughly well, and to apply the +return from the improvement to its extension over other +portions afterward.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In pursuance of the foregoing declaration of principles, +it is left to the sagacity of the individual operator, to decide +when the full effect desired can be obtained, on particular +lands, without applying the regular system of depth +and distance, which has been found sufficient for the worst +cases. The directions of this book will be confined to the +treatment of land which demands thorough work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such land is that which, at some time during the period +of vegetation, contains stagnant water, at least in its sub-soil, +within the reach of the roots of ordinary crops; in +which there is not a free outlet <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">at the bottom</span></span> for all the +water which it receives from the heavens, from adjoining +land, or from springs; and which is more or less in the condition +of standing in a great, water-tight box, with openings +to let water in, but with no means for its escape, except +by evaporation at the surface; or, having larger inlets +than outlets, and being at times "water-logged," at +least in its lower parts. The subsoil, to a great extent, consists +of clay or other compact material, which is not <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">impervious</span></span>, +in the sense in which india-rubber is impervious, +(else it could not have become wet,) but which is sufficiently +so to prevent the free escape of water. The surface +soil is of a lighter or more open character, in consequence +of the cultivation which it has received, or of the decayed +vegetable matter and the roots which it contains.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In such land the subsoil is wet,—almost constantly wet,—and +the falling rain, finding only the surface soil in a condition +to receive it, soon fills this, and often more than fills it, +and stands on the surface. After the rain, come wind and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sun, to dry off the standing water,—to dry out the free water +in the surface soil, and to drink up the water of the +subsoil, which is slowly drawn from below. If no spring, +or ooze, keep up the supply, and if no more rain fall, +the subsoil may be dried to a considerable depth, cracking +and gaping open, in wide fissures, as the clay loses its +water of absorption, and shrinks. After the surface soil has +become sufficiently dry, the land may be plowed, seeds will +germinate, and plants will grow. If there be not too much +rain during the season, nor too little, the crop may be a +fair one,—if the land be rich, a very good one. It is not impossible, +nor even very uncommon, for such soils to produce +largely, but they are always precarious. To the labor +and expense of cultivation, which fairly earn a secure return, +there is added the anxiety of chance; success is greatly +dependent on the weather, and the weather may be bad: +Heavy rains, after planting, may cause the seed to rot in the +ground, or to germinate imperfectly; heavy rains during +early growth may give an unnatural development, or a +feeble character to the plants; later in the season, the want +of sufficient rain may cause the crop to be parched by +drought, for its roots, disliking the clammy subsoil below, +will have extended within only a few inches of the surface, +and are subject, almost, to the direct action of the sun's +heat; in harvest time, bad weather may delay the gathering +until the crop is greatly injured, and fall and spring +work must often be put off because of wet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The above is no fancy sketch. Every farmer who cultivates +a retentive soil will confess, that all of these inconveniences +conspire, in the same season, to lessen his returns, +with very damaging frequency; and nothing is more common +than for him to qualify his calculations with the proviso, +"if I have a good season." He prepares his ground, +plants his seed, cultivates the crop, "does his best,"—thinks +he does his best, that is,—and trusts to Providence +to send him good weather. Such farming is attended with<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +too much uncertainty,—with too much <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">luck</span></span>,—to be satisfactory; +yet, so long as the soil remains in its undrained +condition, the element of luck will continue to play a very +important part in its cultivation, and bad luck will often +play sad havoc with the year's accounts.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Land of this character is usually kept in grass, as long +as it will bring paying crops, and is, not unfrequently, only +available for pasture; but, both for hay and for pasture, it +is still subject to the drawback of the uncertainty of the +seasons, and in the best seasons it produces far less than it +might if well drained.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The effect of this condition of the soil on the health of animals +living on it, and on the health of persons living near +it, is extremely unfavorable; the discussion of this branch +of the question, however, is postponed to a later chapter.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus far, there have been considered only the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">effects</span></span> of +the undue moisture in the soil. The manner in which these +effects are produced will be examined, in connection with +the manner in which draining overcomes them,—reducing +to the lowest possible proportion, that uncertainty which +always attaches to human enterprises, and which is falsely +supposed to belong especially to the cultivation of the soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Why is it that the farmer believes, why should any +one believe, in these modern days, when the advancement +of science has so simplified the industrial processes +of the world, and thrown its light into so many corners, +that the word "mystery" is hardly to be applied to any +operation of nature, save to that which depends on the +always mysterious Principle of Life,—when the effect of any +combination of physical circumstances may be foretold, +with almost unerring certainty,—why should we believe +that the success of farming must, after all, depend +mainly on chance? That an intelligent man should submit +the success of his own patient efforts to the operation of +"luck;" that he should deliberately <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">bet</span></span> his capital, his toil,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and his experience on having a good season, or a bad one,—this +is not the least of the remaining mysteries. Some +chance there must be in all things,—more in farming +than in mechanics, no doubt; but it should be made to +take the smallest possible place in our calculations, by a +careful avoidance of every condition which may place our +crops at the mercy of that most uncertain of all things—the +weather; and especially should this be the case, when +the very means for lessening the element of chance in our +calculations are the best means for increasing our crops, even +in the most favorable weather.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc6" id="toc6"></a> +<a name="pdf7" id="pdf7"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER II. - HOW DRAINS ACT, AND HOW THEY AFFECT THE SOIL</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For reasons which will appear, in the course of this work, +the only sort of drain to which reference is here made is that +which consists of a conduit of burned clay, (tile,) placed at a +considerable depth in the subsoil, and enclosed in a compacted +bed of the stiffest earth which can conveniently be found. +Stone-drains, brush-drains, sod-drains, mole-plow tracks, +and the various other devices for forming a conduit for the +conveying away of the soakage-water of the land, are not +without the support of such arguments as are based on the +expediency of make-shifts, and are, perhaps, in rare cases, +advisable to be used; but, for the purposes of permanent +improvement, they are neither so good nor so economical as +tile-drains. The arguments of this book have reference to +the latter, (as the most perfect of all drains thus far invented,) +though they will apply, in a modified degree, to all +underground conduits, so long as they remain free from obstructions. +Concerning stone-drains, attention may properly +be called to the fact that, (contrary to the general +opinion of farmers,) they are very much more expensive +than tile-drains. So great is the cost of cutting the ditches +to the much greater size required for stone than for tiles, of +handling the stones, of placing them properly in the ditches, +and of covering them, after they are laid, with a suitable barrier +to the rattling down of loose earth among them, that, +as a mere question of first cost, it is far cheaper to buy +tiles than to use stones, although these may lie on the surface<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the field, and only require to be placed in the +trenches. In addition to this, the great liability of stone-drains +to become obstructed in a few years, and the certainty +that tile-drains will, practically, last forever, are +conclusive arguments in favor of the use of the latter. +If the land is stony, it must be cleared; this is a proposition +by itself, but if the sole object is to make drains, the +best material should be used, and this material is not stone.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A well laid tile-drain has the following essential characteristics:—1. +It has a free outlet for the discharge of all +water which may run through it. 2. It has openings, at its +joints, sufficient for the admission of all the water which +may rise to the level of its floor. 3. Its floor is laid on a +well regulated line of descent, so that its current may +maintain a flow of uniform, or, at least, never decreasing +rapidity, throughout its entire length.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Land which requires draining, is that which, at some +time during the year, (either from an accumulation of the +rains which fall upon it, from the lateral flow, or soakage, +from adjoining land, from springs which open within it, or +from a combination of two or all of these sources,) becomes +filled with water, that does not readily find a natural +outlet, but remains until removed by evaporation. Every +considerable addition to its water wells up, and soaks its +very surface; and that which is added after it is already +brim full, must flow off over the surface, or lie in puddles +upon it. Evaporation is a slow process, and it becomes +more and more slow as the level of the water recedes from +the surface, and is sheltered, by the overlying earth, from the +action of sun and wind. Therefore, at least during the +periods of spring and fall preparation of the land, during +the early growth of plants, and often even in midsummer, +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">water-table</span></span>,—the top of the water of saturation,—is +within a few inches of the surface, preventing the natural +descent of roots, and, by reason of the small space to receive<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fresh rains, causing an interruption of work for some +days after each storm.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If such land is properly furnished with tile-drains, (having +a clear and sufficient outfall, offering sufficient means +of entrance to the water which reaches them, and carrying +it, by a uniform or increasing descent, to the outlet,) +its water will be removed to nearly, or quite, the level +of the floor of the drains, and its water-table will be at the +distance of some feet from the surface, leaving the spaces +between the particles of all of the soil above it filled with +air instead of water. The water below the drains stands +at a level, like any other water that is dammed up. Rain +water falling on the soil will descend by its own weight to +this level, and the water will rise into the drains, as it +would flow over a dam, until the proper level is again attained. +Spring water entering from below, and water oozing +from the adjoining land, will be removed in like manner, +and the usual condition of the soil, above the water-table, +will be that represented in Fig. 3, the condition which +is best adapted to the growth of useful plants.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the heaviest storms, some water will flow over the +surface of even the dryest beach-sand; but, in a well +drained soil the water of ordinary rains will be at once +absorbed, will slowly descend toward the water-table, and +will be removed by the drains, so rapidly, even in heavy +clays, as to leave the ground fit for cultivation, and in a +condition for steady growth, within a short time after the +rain ceases. It has been estimated that a drained soil has +room between its particles for about one quarter of its bulk +of water;—that is, four inches of drained soil contains free +space enough to receive a rain-fall one inch in depth, and, by +the same token, four feet of drained soil can receive twelve +inches of rain,—-more than is known to have ever fallen in +twenty-four hours, since the deluge, and more than one +quarter of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">annual</span></span> rain-fall in the United States.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As was stated in the previous chapter, the water which +reaches the soil may be considered under two heads:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1st—That which reaches its surface, whether directly by +rain, or by the surface flow of adjoining land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2d—That which reaches it below the surface, by springs +and by soakage from the lower portions of adjoining land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first of these is beneficial, because it contains fresh +air, carbonic acid, ammonia, nitric acid, and heat, obtained +from the atmosphere; and the flowage water contains, in +addition, some of the finer or more soluble parts of the +land over which it has passed. The second, is only so much +dead water, which has already given up, to other soil, all +that ours could absorb from it, and its effect is chilling and +hurtful. This being the case, the only interest we can have +in it, is to keep it down from the surface, and remove it as +rapidly as possible.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The water of the first sort, on the other hand, should be +arrested by every device within our reach. If the land is +steep, the furrows in plowing should be run horizontally +along the hill, to prevent the escape of the water over the +surface, and to allow it to descend readily into the ground. +Steep grass lands may have frequent, small, horizontal +ditches for the same purpose. If the soil is at all heavy, it +should not, when wet, be trampled by animals, lest it be +puddled, and thus made less absorptive. If in cultivation, +the surface should be kept loose and open, ready to receive +all of the rain and irrigation water that reaches it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In descending through the soil, this water, in summer, +gives up heat which it received from the air and from the +heated surface of the ground, and thus raises the temperature +of the lower soil. The fertilizing matters which it has +obtained from the air,—carbonic acid, ammonia and nitric +acid,—are extracted from it, and held for the use of growing +plants. Its fresh air, and the air which follows the descent +of the water-table, carries oxygen to the organic and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +mineral parts of the soil, and hastens the rust and decay +by which these are prepared for the uses of vegetation. +The water itself supplies, by means of their power of absorption, +the moisture which is needed by the particles of +the soil; and, having performed its work, it goes down to +the level of the water below, and, swelling the tide above +the brink of the dam, sets the drains running, until it is +all removed. In its descent through the ground, this water +clears the passages through which it flows, leaving a +better channel for the water of future rains, so that, in +time, the heaviest clays, which will drain but imperfectly +during the first one or two years, will pass water, to a +depth of four or five feet, almost as readily as the lighter +loams.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, imagine the drains to be closed up, leaving no outlet +for the water, save at the surface. This amounts to a +raising of the dam to that height, and additions to the water +will bring the water-table even with the top of the soil. +No provision being made for the removal of spring and +soakage water, this causes serious inconvenience, and +even the rain-fall, finding no room in the soil for its +reception, can only lie upon, or flow over, the surface,—not +yielding to the soil the fertilizing matters which it contains, +but, on the contrary, washing away some of its finer +and looser parts. The particles of the soil, instead of being +furnished, by absorption, with a healthful amount of +moisture, are made unduly wet; and the spaces between +them, being filled with water, no air can enter, whereby the +chemical processes by which the inert minerals, and the +roots and manure, in the soil are prepared for the use of +vegetation, are greatly retarded.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Instead of carrying the heat of the air, and of the surface +of the ground, to the subsoil, the rain only adds so +much to the amount of water to be evaporated, and increases, +by so much, the chilling effect of evaporation.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Instead of opening the spaces of the soil for the more +free passage of water and air, as is done by descending +water, that which ascends by evaporation at the surface +brings up soluble matters, which it leaves at the point +where it becomes a vapor, forming a crust that prevents +the free entrance of air at those times when the soil is dry +enough to afford it space for circulation.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Instead of crumbling to the fine condition of a loam, as +it does, when well drained, by the descent of water +through it, heavy clay soil, being rapidly dried by evaporation, +shrinks into hard masses, separated by wide cracks.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In short, in wet seasons, on such land, the crops will be +greatly lessened, or entirely destroyed, and in dry seasons, +cultivation will always be much more laborious, more hurried, +and less complete, than if it were well drained.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foregoing general statements, concerning the action +of water in drained, and in undrained land, and of the effects +of its removal, by gravitation, and by evaporation, are based +on facts which have been developed by long practice, and +on a rational application of well know principles of science. +These facts and principles are worthy of examination, and +they are set forth below, somewhat at length, especially +with reference to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Absorption</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Filtration</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evaporation</span></span>; +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Temperature</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Drought</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Porosity</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mellowness;</span></span> +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chemical Action</span></span>.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Absorption and Filtration.</span></span>—The process of under-draining +is a process of absorption and filtration, as distinguished +from surface-flow and evaporation. The completeness +with which the latter are prevented, and the +former promoted, is the measure of the completeness of the +improvement. If water lie on the surface of the ground +until evaporated, or if it flow off over the surface, it will +do harm; if it soak away through the soil, it will do good. +The rapidity and ease with which it is absorbed, and, therefore, +the extent to which under-draining is successful, depend<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +on the physical condition of the soil, and on the +manner in which its texture is affected by the drying action +of sun and wind, and by the downward passage of water +through it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In drying, all soils, except pure sands, shrink, and occupy +less space than when they are saturated with water. They +shrink more or less, according to their composition, as will +be seen by the following table of results obtained in the +experiments of Schuebler:</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="4"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">1,000 Parts of</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Will Contract Parts.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,000 Parts of</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Will Contract Parts.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Strong Limey Soil</td><td class="tei tei-cell">50.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Pure Clay</td><td class="tei tei-cell">183.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Heavy Loam</td><td class="tei tei-cell">60.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Peat</td><td class="tei tei-cell">200.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Brick Maker's Clay</td><td class="tei tei-cell">85.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor Johnson estimates that peat and heavy clay +shrink one-fifth of their bulk.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If soil be dried suddenly, from a condition of extreme +wetness, it will be divided into large masses, or clods, separated +by wide cracks. A subsequent wetting of the clods, +which is not sufficient to expand it to its former condition, +will not entirely obliterate the cracks, and the next drying +will be followed by new fissures within the clods themselves; +and a frequent repetition of this process will make +the network of fissures finer and finer, until the whole mass +of the soil is divided to a pulverulent condition. This is the +process which follows the complete draining of such lands +as contain large proportions of clay or of peat. It is retarded, +in proportion to the amount of the free water in the +soil which is evaporated from the surface, and in proportion +to the trampling of the ground, when very wet. It is +greatly facilitated by frost, and especially by deep frost.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fissures which are formed by this process are, in time, +occupied by the roots of plants, which remain and decay, +when the crop has been removed, and which prevent the +soil from ever again closing on itself so completely as before +their penetration; and each season's crop adds new roots<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to make the separation more complete and more universal; +but it is only after the water of saturation, which occupies +the lower soil for so large a part of the year, has been removed +by draining, that roots can penetrate to any considerable +depth, and, in fact, the cracking of undrained +soils, in drying, never extends beyond the separation into +large masses, because each heavy rain, by saturating the +soil and expanding it to its full capacity, entirely obliterates +the cracks and forms a solid mass, in which the operation +has to be commenced anew with the next drying.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. Gisborne, in his capital essay on "Agricultural +Drainage," which appeared in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>, No. +CLXXI, says: "We really thought that no one was so ignorant +as not to be aware that clay lands always shrink +and crack with drought, and the stiffer the clay the +greater the shrinking, as brickmakers well know. In the +great drought, 36 years ago, we saw in a very retentive +soil in the Vale of Belvoir, cracks which it was not +very pleasant to ride among. This very summer, on land +which, with reference to this very subject, the owner +stated to be impervious, we put a walking stick three +feet into a sun-crack, without finding a bottom, and the +whole surface was what Mr. Parkes, not inappropriately, +calls a network of cracks. When heavy rain comes +upon a soil in this state, of course the cracks fill, the clay +imbibes the water, expands, and the cracks are abolished. +But if there are four or five feet parallel drains in the +land, the water passes at once into them and is carried +off. In fact, when heavy rain falls upon clay lands in this +cracked state, it passes off too quickly, without adequate +filtration. Into the fissures of the undrained soil the roots +only penetrate to be perished by the cold and wet of the +succeeding winter; but in the drained soil the roots follow +the threads of vegetable mold which have been +washed into the cracks, and get an abiding tenure. Earth<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +worms follow either the roots or the mold. Permanent +schisms are established in the clay, and its whole character +is changed. An old farmer in a midland county began +with 20-inch drains across the hill, and, without ever +reading a word, or, we believe, conversing with any one +on the subject, poked his way, step by step, to four or +five feet drains, in the line of steepest descent. Showing +us his drains this spring, he said: 'They do better year +by year; the water gets a habit of coming to them '—a very +correct statement of fact, though not a very philosophical +explanation."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alderman Mechi, of Tiptree Hall, says: "Filtration +may be too sudden, as is well enough shown by our hot +sands and gravels; but I apprehend no one will ever +fear rendering strong clays too porous and manageable. +The object of draining is to impart to such soils the +mellowness and dark color of self drained, rich and friable +soil. That perfect drainage and cultivation will do +this, is a well known fact. I know it in the case of my +own garden. How it does so I am not chemist enough +to explain in detail; but it is evident the effect is produced +by the fibers of the growing crop intersecting +every particle of the soil, which they never could do before +draining; these, with their excretions, decompose on +removal of the crop, and are acted on by the alternating +air and water, which also decompose and change, in a +degree, the inorganic substances of the soil. Thereby +drained land, which was, before, impervious to air and +water, and consequently unavailable to air and roots, +to worms, or to vegetable or animal life, becomes, by +drainage, populated by both, and is a great chemical +laboratory, as our own atmosphere is subject to all the +changes produced by animated nature."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Experience proves that the descent of water through the +soil renders it more porous, so that it is easier for the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +water falling afterward to pass down to the drains, but no +very satisfactory reason for this has been presented, beyond +that which is connected with the cracking of the soil. The +fact is well stated in the following extract from a letter to +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Country Gentleman</span></span>:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"A simple experiment will convince any farmer that the +best means of permanently deepening and mellowing the +soil is by thorough drainage, to afford a ready exit for all +surplus moisture. Let him take in spring, while wet, a +quantity of his hardest soil,—such as it is almost impossible +to plow in summer,—such as presents a baked and +brick-like character under the influence of drought,—and +place it in a box or barrel, open at the bottom, and frequently +during the season let him saturate it with water. +He will find it gradually becoming more and more porous +and friable,—holding water less and less perfectly as the +experiment proceeds, and in the end it will attain a state +best suited to the growth of plants from its deep and +mellow character."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is equally a fact that the ascent of water in the soil, +together with its evaporation at the surface, has the effect +of making the soil impervious to rains, and of covering the +land with a crust of hard, dry earth, which forms a barrier +to the free entrance of air. So far as the formation of crust +is concerned, it is doubtless due to the fact that the water +in the soil holds in solution certain mineral matters, which +it deposits at the point of evaporation, the collection of +these finely divided matters serving to completely fill the +spaces between the particles of soil at the surface,—pasting +them together, as it were. How far below the surface this +direct action extends, cannot be definitely determined; but +the process being carried on for successive years, accumulating +a quantity of these fine particles, each season, they +are, by cultivation, and by the action of heavy showers +falling at a time when the soil is more or less dry, distributed +through a certain depth, and ordinarily, in all<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +probability, are most largely deposited at the top of the +subsoil. It is found in practice that the first foot in depth +of retentive soils is more retentive than that which lies +below. If this opinion as to the cause of this greater imperviousness +is correct, it will be readily seen how water, +descending to the drains, by carrying these soluble and +finer parts downward and distributing them more equally +through the whole, should render the soil more porous.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another cause of the retention of water by the surface +soil, often a very serious one, is the puddling which +clayey lands undergo by working them, or feeding cattle +upon them, when they are wet. This is always injurious. +By draining, land is made fit for working much earlier in +the spring, and is sooner ready for pasturing after a rain, +but, no matter how thoroughly the draining has been done, +if there is much clay in the soil, the effect of the improvement +will be destroyed by plowing or trampling, while +very wet; this impervious condition will be removed in +time, of course, but while it lasts, it places us as completely +at the mercy of the weather as we were before a +ditch was dug.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In connection with the use of the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">impervious</span></span>, it +should be understood that it is not used in its strict sense, +for no substance which can be wetted by water is really +impervious and the most retentive soil will become wet. +Gisborne states the case clearly when he says: "Is your +subsoil moister after the rains of mid-winter, than it is +after the drought of mid-summer? If it is, it will drain."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The proportion of the rain-fall which will filtrate +through the soil to the level of the drains, varies with the +composition of the soil, and with the effect that the +draining has had upon them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a very loose, gravelly, or sandy soil, which has a perfect +outlet for water below, all but the heaviest falls of +rain will sink at once, while on a heavy clay, no matter +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +how well it is drained, the process of filtration will be +much more slow, and if the land be steeply inclined, some +of the water of ordinarily heavy rains must flow off over +the surface, unless, by horizontal plowing, or catch drains +on the surface, its flow be retarded until it has time to +enter the soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The power of drained soils to hold water, by absorption, +is very great. A cubic foot of very dry soil, of favorable +character, has been estimated to absorb within its particles,—holding +no free water, or water of drainage,—about one-half +its bulk of water; if this is true, the amount required +to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">moisten</span></span> a dry soil, four feet deep, giving no excess to be +drained away, would amount to a rain fall of from 20 to 30 +inches in depth. If we consider, in addition to this, the +amount of water drained away, we shall see that the soil +has sufficient capacity for the reception of all the rain water +that falls upon it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In connection with the question of absorption and filtration, +it is interesting to investigate the movements of +water in the ground. The natural tendency of water, in the +soil as well as out of it, is to descend perpendicularly +toward the center of the earth. If it meet a flat layer of +gravel lying upon clay, and having a free outlet, it will +follow the course of the gravel,—laterally,—and find the +outlet; if it meet water which is dammed up in the soil, +and which has an outlet at a certain elevation, as at the +floor of a drain, it will raise the general level of the water, +and force it out through the drain; if it meet water which +has no outlet, it will raise its level until the soil is filled, or +until it accumulates sufficient pressure, (head,) to force its +way through the adjoining lands, or until it finds an outlet +at the surface.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first two cases named represent the condition which +it is desirable to obtain, by either natural or artificial +drainage; the third case is the only one which makes<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +drainage necessary. It is a fixed rule that water, descending +in the soil, will find the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lowest</span></span> outlet to which there +exists a channel through which it can flow, and that if, after +heavy rains, it rise too near the surface of the ground, the +proper remedy is to tap it at a lower level, and thus remove +the water table to the proper distance from the surface. +This subject will be more fully treated in a future +chapter, in considering the question of the depth, and the +intervals, at which drains should be placed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Evaporation.</span></span>—By evaporation is meant the process by +which a liquid assumes the form of a gas or vapor, or +"dries up." Water, exposed to the air, is constantly undergoing +this change. It is changed from the liquid form, and +becomes a vapor in the air. Water in the form of vapor +occupies nearly 2000 times the space that it filled as a +liquid. As the vapor at the time of its formation is of the +same temperature with the water, and, from its highly expanded +condition, requires a great <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">amount</span></span> of heat to maintain +it as vapor, it follows that a given quantity of water +contains, in the vapory form, many times as much heat as +in the liquid form. This heat is taken from surrounding +substances,—from the ground and from the air,—which are +thereby made much cooler. For instance, if a shower +moisten the ground, on a hot summer day, the drying up +of the water will cool both the ground and the air. If we +place a wet cloth on the head, and hasten the evaporation +of the water by fanning, we cool the head; if we wrap +a wet napkin around a pitcher of water, and place it in a +current of air, the water in the pitcher is made cooler, +by giving up its heat to the evaporating water of the +napkin; when we sprinkle water on the floor of a room, +its evaporation cools the air of the room.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So great is the effect of evaporation, on the temperature +of the soil, that Dr. Madden found that the soil of a +drained field, in which most of the water was removed<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from below, was 6-1/2° Far. warmer than a similar soil undrained, +from which the water had to be removed by +evaporation. This difference of 6-1/2° is equal to a difference +of elevation of 1,950 feet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been found, by experiments made in England, that +the average evaporation of water from wet soils is equal +to a depth of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">two inches per month</span></span>, from May to August, +inclusive; in America it must be very much greater than +this in the summer months, but this is surely enough for +the purposes of illustration, as two inches of water, over an +acre of land, would weigh about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">two hundred tons</span></span>. The +amount of heat required to evaporate this is immense, and +a very large part of it is taken from the soil, which, thereby, +becomes cooler, and less favorable for a rapid growth. It +is usual to speak of heavy, wet lands as being "cold," and +it is now seen why they are so.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If none of the water which falls on a field is removed by +drainage, (natural or artificial,) and if none runs off from +the surface, the whole rain-fall of a year must be removed +by evaporation, and the cooling of the soil will be proportionately +great. The more completely we withdraw this +water from the surface, and carry it off in underground +drains, the more do we reduce the amount to be removed +by evaporation. In land which is well drained, the amount +evaporated, even in summer, will not be sufficient to so +lower the temperature of the soil as to retard the growth +of plants; the small amount dried out of the particles of +the soil, (water of absorption,) will only keep it from being +raised to too great a heat by the mid-summer sun.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An idea of the amount of heat lost to the soil, in the +evaporation of water, may be formed from the fact that to +evaporate, by artificial heat, the amount of water contained +in a rain-fall of two inches on an acre, (200 tons,) would +require over 20 tons of coal. Of course a considerable—probably +by far the larger,—part of the heat taken up in<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the process of evaporation is furnished by the air; but the +amount abstracted from the soil is great, and is in direct +proportion to the amount of water removed by this process; +hence, the more we remove by draining, the more +heat we retain in the ground.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The season of growth is lengthened by draining, because, +by avoiding the cooling effects of evaporation, germination +is more rapid, and the young plant grows steadily +from the start, instead of struggling against the retarding +influence of a cold soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Temperature.</span></span>—The temperature of the soil has great +effect on the germination of seeds, the growth of plants, +and the ripening of the crops.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gisborne says: "The evaporation of 1 lb. of water +lowers the temperature of 100 lbs. of soil 10°,—that is +to say, that, if to 100 lbs. of soil, holding all the water +it can by attraction, but containing no water of drainage, +is added 1 lb. of water which it has no means of +discharging, except by evaporation, it will, by the time +that it has so discharged it, be 60° colder than it would +have been, if it had the power of discharging this 1 lb. +by filtration; or, more practically, that, if rain, entering +in the proportion of 1 lb. to 100 lbs. into a retentive +soil, which is saturated with water of attraction, is discharged +by evaporation, it lowers the temperature of +that soil 10°. If the soil has the means of discharging +that 1 lb. of water by filtration, no effect is produced beyond +what is due to the relative temperatures of the +rain and of the soil."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been established by experiment that four times +as much heat is required to evaporate a certain quantity +of water, as to raise the same quantity from the freezing +to the boiling point.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is, probably, in consequence of this cooling effect +of evaporation, that wet lands are warmest when shaded,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +because, under this condition, evaporation is less active. +Such lands, in cloudy weather, form an unnatural growth, +such as results in the "lodging" of grain crops, from the +deficient strength of the straw which this growth produces.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In hot weather, the temperature of the lower soil is, of +course, much lower than that of the air, and lower than +that of the water of warm rains. If the soil is saturated +with water, the water will, of course, be of an even temperature +with the soil in which it lies, but if this be drained +off, warm air will enter from above, and give its heat to +the soil, while each rain, as it falls, will also carry its heat +with it. Furthermore, the surface of the ground is sometimes +excessively heated by the summer sun, and the heat +thus contained is carried down to the lower soil by the +descending water of rains, which thus cool the surface and +warm the subsoil, both beneficial.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. Josiah Parkes, one of the leading draining engineers +of England, has made some experiments to test the +extent to which draining affects the temperature of the +soil. The results of his observations are thus stated by +Gisborne: "Mr. Parkes gives the temperature on a +Lancashire flat moss, but they only commence 7 inches +below the surface, and do not extend to mid-summer. +At that period of the year the temperature, at 7 inches, +never exceeded 66°, and was generally from 10° to 15° +below the temperature of the air in the shade, at 4 feet +above the earth. Mr. Parkes' experiments were made +simultaneously, on a drained, and on an undrained portion +of the moss; and the result was, that, on a mean +of 35 observations, the drained soil at 7 inches in depth +was 10° warmer than the undrained, at the same depth. +The undrained soil never exceeded 47°, whereas, after a +thunder storm, the drained reached 66° at 7 inches, and +48° at 31 inches. Such were the effects, at an early +period of the year, on a black bog. They suggest some<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +idea of what they were, when, in July or August, thunder +rain at 60° or 70° falls on a surface heated to 130°, and +carries down with it, into the greedy fissures of the earth, +its augmented temperature. These advantages, porous +soils possess by nature, and retentive ones only acquire +them by drainage."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Drained land, being more open to atmospheric circulation, +and having lost the water which prevented the temperature +of its lower portions from being so readily +affected by the temperature of the air as it is when dry, +will freeze to a greater depth in winter and thaw out earlier +in the spring. The deep freezing has the effect to +greatly pulverize the lower soil, thus better fitting it for +the support of vegetation; and the earlier thawing makes +it earlier ready for spring work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Drought.</span></span>—At first thought, it is not unnatural to suppose +that draining will increase the ill effect of too dry +seasons, by removing water which might keep the soil +moist. Experience has proven, however, that the result +is exactly the opposite of this. Lands which suffer most +from drought are most benefited by draining,—more in +their greater ability to withstand drought than in any +other particular.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reasons for this action of draining become obvious, +when its effects on the character of the soil are examined. +There is always the same amount of water in, and about, +the surface of the earth. In winter there is more in the +soil than in summer, while in summer, that which has +been dried out of the soil exists in the atmosphere in the +form of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vapor</span></span>. It is held in the vapory form by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">heat</span></span>, +which may be regarded as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">braces</span></span> to keep it distended. +When vapor comes in contact with substances sufficiently +colder than itself, it gives up its heat,—thus losing its +braces,—contracts, becomes liquid water, and is deposited +as dew.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many instances of this operation are familiar to all.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For instance, a cold pitcher in the summer robs the +vapor in the air of its heat, and causes it to be deposited +on its own surface,—of course the water comes from the +atmosphere, not through the wall of the pitcher; if we +breathe on a knife blade, it condenses, in the same manner, +the moisture of the breath, and becomes covered with a +film of-water; stone-houses are damp in summer, because +the inner surface of their walls, being cooler than the +atmosphere, causes its moisture to be deposited in the +manner described;<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> nearly every night, in summer, the +cold earth receives moisture from the atmosphere in the +form of dew; a single large head of cabbage, which at +night is very cold, often condenses water to the amount of +a gill or more.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same operation takes place in the soil. When the +air is allowed to circulate among its lower and cooler, +(because more shaded,) particles, they receive moisture by +the same process of condensation. Therefore, when, by +the aid of under-drains, the lower soil becomes sufficiently +loose and open, to allow a circulation of air, the deposit of +atmospheric moisture will keep it supplied with water, at +a point easily accessible to the roots of plants.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we wish to satisfy ourselves that this is practically +correct, we have only to prepare two boxes of finely pulverized +soil,—one three or four inches deep,—and the other +fifteen or twenty inches deep, and place them in the sun, at +midday, in summer. The thinner soil will soon be completely +dried, while the deeper one, though it may have +been previously dried in an oven, will soon accumulate a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +large amount of water on those particles which, being +lower and better sheltered from the sun's heat than the +particles of the thin soil, are made cooler.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have seen that even the most retentive soil,—the +stiffest clay,—is made porous by the repeated passage of +water from the surface to the level of the drains, and that +the ability to admit air, which plowing gives it, is maintained +for a much longer time than if it were usually saturated +with water which has no other means of escape +than by evaporation at the surface. The power of dry +soils to absorb moisture from the air may be seen by an +examination of the following table of results obtained by +Schuebler, who exposed 1,000 grains of dried soil of the +various kinds named to the action of the air:</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Kind of Soil.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Amount of Water Absorbed in 24 Hours.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Common Soil</td><td class="tei tei-cell">22 grains.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Loamy Clay</td><td class="tei tei-cell">26 grains.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Garden Soil</td><td class="tei tei-cell">45 grains.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Brickmakers' Clay</td><td class="tei tei-cell">30 grains.</td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The effect of draining in overcoming drought, by admitting +atmospheric vapor will, of course, be very much increased +if the land be thoroughly loosened by cultivation, +and especially if the surface be kept in an open and mellow +condition.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In addition to the moisture received from the air, as +above described, water is, in a porous soil, drawn up from +the wetter subsoil below, by the same attractive force +which acts to wet the whole of a sponge of which only the +lower part touches the water;—as a hard, dry, compact +sponge will absorb water much less readily than one +which is loose and open, so the hard clods, into which undrained +clay is dried, drink up water much less freely than +they will do after draining shall have made them more +friable.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The source of this underground moisture is the "water +table,"—the level of the soil below the influence of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +drains,—and this should be so placed that, while its water +will easily rise to a point occupied by the feeding roots of +the crop, it should yield as little as possible for evaporation +at the surface.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another source of moisture, in summer, is the deposit of +dew on the surface of the ground. The amount of this is +very difficult to determine, and accurate American experiments +on the subject are wanting. Of course the amount +of dew is greater here than in England, where Dr. Dalton, +a skillful examiner of atmospheric phenomena, estimates +the annual deposit of dew to equal a depth of five inches, +or about one-fifth of the rain-fall. Water thus deposited +on the soil is absorbed more or less completely, in proportion +to the porosity of the ground.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The extent to which plants will be affected by drought +depends, other things being equal, on the depth to which +they send their roots. If these lie near the surface, they +will be parched by the heat of the sun. If they strike +deeply into the damper subsoil, the sun will have less effect +on the source from which they obtain their moisture. +Nothing tends so much to deep rooting, as the thorough +draining of the soil. If the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">free</span></span> water be withdrawn to +a considerable distance from the surface, plants,—even +without the valuable aid of deep and subsoil plowing,—will +send their roots to great depths. Writers on this +subject cite many instances in which the roots of ordinary +crops "not mere hairs, but strong fibres, as large as pack-thread," +sink to the depth of 4, 6, and in some instances +12 or 14 feet. Certain it is that, in a healthy, well aerated +soil, any of the plants ordinarily cultivated in the garden +or field will send their roots far below the parched surface +soil; but if the subsoil is wet, cold, and soggy, at the +time when the young crop is laying out its plan of future +action, it will perforce accommodate its roots to the +limited space which the comparatively dry surface soil +affords.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is well known among those who attend the meetings +of the Farmers' Club of the American Institute, in New +York, that the farm of Professor Mapes, near Newark, N.J., +which maintains its wonderful fertility, year after year, +without reference to wet or dry weather, has been rendered +almost absolutely indifferent to the severest drought, +by a course of cultivation which has been rendered possible +only by under-draining. The lawns of the Central +Park, which are a marvel of freshness, when the lands about +the Park are burned brown, owe their vigor mainly to the +complete drainage of the soil. What is true of these thoroughly +cultivated lands, it is practicable to attain on all +soils, which, from their compact condition, are now almost +denuded of vegetation in dry seasons.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Porosity or Mellowness.</span></span>—An open and mellow condition +of the soil is always favorable for the growth of +plants. They require heat, fresh air and moisture, to enable +them to take up the materials on which they live, and +by which they grow. We have seen that the heat of retentive +soils is almost directly proportionate to the completeness +with which their free water is removed by underground +draining, and that, by reason of the increased +facility with which air and water circulate within them, +their heat is more evenly distributed among all those parts +of the soil which are occupied by roots. The word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">moisture</span></span>, +in this connection, is used in contradistinction to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">wetness</span></span>, +and implies a condition of freshness and dampness,—not +at all of saturation. In a saturated, a soaking-wet soil, +every space between the particles is filled with water to +the entire exclusion of the atmosphere, and in such a soil +only aquatic plants will grow. In a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dry</span></span> soil, on the other +hand, when the earth is contracted into clods and baked, +almost as in an oven,—one of the most important conditions +for growth being wanting,—nothing can thrive, save +those plants which ask of the earth only an anchoring +place, and seek their nourishment from the air. Both air<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +plants and water plants have their wisely assigned places +in the economy of nature, and nature provides them with +ample space for growth. Agriculture, however, is directed +to the production of a class of plants very different from +either of these,—to those which can only grow to their +greatest perfection in a soil combining, not one or two +only, but all three of the conditions named above. While +they require heat, they cannot dispense with the moisture +which too great heat removes; while they require moisture, +they cannot abide the entire exclusion of air, nor the +dissipation of heat which too much water causes. The +interior part of the pellets of a well pulverized soil should +contain all the water that they can hold by their own absorptive +power, just as the finer walls of a damp sponge +hold it; while the spaces between these pellets, like the +pores of the sponge, should be filled with air.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In such a soil, roots can extend in any direction, and to +considerable depth, without being parched with thirst, or +drowned in stagnant water, and, other things being equal, +plants will grow to their greatest possible size, and all +their tissues will be of the best possible texture. On +rich land, which is maintained in this condition of porosity +and mellowness, agriculture will produce its best results, +and will encounter the fewest possible chances of failure. +Of course, there are not many such soils to be found, and +such absolute balance between warmth and moisture in the +soil cannot be maintained at all times, and under all circumstances, +but the more nearly it is maintained, the more +nearly perfect will be the results of cultivation.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Chemical Action in the Soil.</span></span>—Plants receive certain of +their constituents from the soil, through their roots. The +raw materials from which these constituents are obtained +are the minerals of the soil, the manures which are artificially +applied, water, and certain substances which are +taken from the air by the absorptive action of the soil,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +or are brought to it by rains, or by water flowing over the +surface from other land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The mineral matters, which constitute the ashes of +plants, when burned, are not mere accidental impurities +which happen to be carried into their roots in solution in +the water which supplies the sap, although they vary in +character and proportion with each change in the mineral +composition of the soil. It is proven by chemical +analysis, that the composition of the ashes, not only of +different species of plants, but of different parts of the +same plant, have distinctive characters,—some being rich +in phosphates, and others in silex; some in potash, and others +in lime,—and that these characters are in a measure +the same, in the same plants or parts of plants, without +especial reference to the soil on which they grow. The +minerals which form the ashes of plants, constitute but a +very small part of the soil, and they are very sparsely distributed +throughout the mass; existing in the interior of +its particles, as well as upon their surfaces. As roots cannot +penetrate to the interior of pebbles and compact particles +of earth, in search of the food which they require, +but can only take that which is exposed on their surfaces, +and, as the oxydizing effect of atmospheric air is useful in +preparing the crude minerals for assimilation, as well as in +decomposing the particles in which they are bound up,—a +process which is allied to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rusting</span></span> of metals,—the more +freely atmospheric air is allowed, or induced, to circulate +among the inner portions of the soil, the more readily are +its fertilizing parts made available for the use of roots. +By no other process, is air made to enter so deeply, nor to +circulate so readily in the soil, as by under-draining, and +the deep cultivation which under-draining facilitates.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the manures which are applied to the land, those of +a mineral character are affected by draining, in the same +manner as the minerals which are native to the soil;<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +while organic, or animal and vegetable, manures, (especially +when applied, as is usual, in an incompletely fermented +condition,) absolutely require fresh supplies of +atmospheric air, to continue the decomposition which +alone can prepare them for their proper effect on vegetation.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If kept saturated with water, so that the air is excluded, +animal manures lie nearly inert, and vegetable matters +decompose but incompletely,—yielding acids which are injurious +to vegetation, and which would not be formed in +the presence of a sufficient supply of air. An instance is +cited by H. Wauer where sheep dung was preserved, for +five years, by excessive moisture, which kept it from the +air. If the soil be saturated with water in the spring, and, +in summer, (by the compacting of its surface, which is +caused by evaporation,) be closed against the entrance of +air, manures will be but slowly decomposed, and will act +but imperfectly on the crop,—if, on the other hand, a +complete system of drainage be adopted, manures, (and +the roots which have been left in the ground by the previous +crop,) will be readily decomposed, and will exercise +their full influence on the soil, and on the plants growing +in it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, manures are more or less effective, in proportion +as they are more or less thoroughly mixed with the soil. +In an undrained, retentive soil, it is not often possible to +attain that perfect <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tilth</span></span>, which is best suited for a proper +admixture, and which is easily given after thorough +draining.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The soil must be regarded as the laboratory in which +nature, during the season of growth, is carrying on those +hidden, but indispensable chemical separations, combinations, +and re-combinations, by which the earth is made to +bear its fruits, and to sustain its myriad life. The chief +demand of this laboratory is for free ventilation. The<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +raw material for the work is at hand,—as well in the wet +soil as in the dry; but the door is sealed, the damper is +closed, and only a stray whiff of air can, now and then, +gain entrance,—only enough to commence an analysis, or a +combination, which is choked off when half complete, +leaving food for sorrel, but making none for grass. We +must throw open door and window, draw away the water +in which all is immersed, let in the air, with its all destroying, +and, therefore, all re-creating oxygen, and leave +the forces of nature's beneficent chemistry free play, +deep down in the ground. Then may we hope for the +full benefit of the fertilizing matters which our good soil +contains, and for the full effect of the manures which we +add.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With our land thoroughly improved, as has been described, +we may carry on the operations of farming with +as much certainty of success, and with as great immunity +from the ill effects of unfavorable weather, as can be expected +in any business, whose results depend on such a +variety of circumstances. We shall have substituted certainty +for chance, as far as it is in our power to do so, and +shall have made farming an art, rather than a venture.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc8" id="toc8"></a> +<a name="pdf9" id="pdf9"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER III. - HOW TO GO TO WORK TO LAY OUT A SYSTEM OF DRAINS.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How to lay out the drains; where to place the outlet; +where to locate the main collecting lines; how to arrange +the laterals which are to take the water from the soil and +deliver it at the mains; how deep to go; at what intervals; +what fall to give; and what sizes of tile to use,—these +are all questions of great importance to one who is +about to drain land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the proper adjustment of these points, depend the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">economy</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">effectiveness</span></span> of the work. Time and attention +given to them, before commencing actual operations, will +prevent waste and avoid failure. Any person of ordinary +intelligence may qualify himself to lay out under-drains +and to superintend their construction,—but the knowledge +which is required does not come by nature. Those +who have not the time for the necessary study and practice +to make a plan for draining their land, will find it +economical to employ an engineer for the purpose. In +this era of railroad building, there is hardly a county in +America which has not a practical surveyor, who may +easily qualify himself, by a study of the principles and +directions herein set forth, to lay out an economical plan +for draining any ordinary agricultural land, to stake the +lines, and to determine the grade of the drains, and the +sizes of tile with which they should be furnished.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On this subject Mr. Gisborne says: "If we should give +a stimulus to amateur draining, we shall do a great deal +of harm. We wish we could publish a list of the moneys +which have been squandered in the last 40 years in amateur +draining, either ineffectually or with very imperfect efficiency. +Our own name would be inscribed in the list for a +very respectable sum. Every thoughtless squire supposes +that, with the aid of his ignorant bailiff, he can effect a perfect +drainage of his estate; but there is a worse man behind +the squire and the bailiff,—the draining conjuror. * * * * * * +These fellows never go direct about their +work. If they attack a spring, they try to circumvent +it by some circuitous route. They never can learn that +nature shows you the weakest point, and that you should +assist her,—that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hit him straight in the eye</span></span> is as good a +maxim in draining as in pugilism. * * * * * * +If you wish to drain, we recommend you to take advice. +We have disposed of the quack, but there is a faculty, +not numerous but extending, and whose extension appears +to us to be indispensable to the satisfactory +progress of improvements by draining,—a faculty of +draining engineers. If we wanted a profession for a lad +who showed any congenial talent, we would bring him +up to be a draining engineer." He then proceeds to +speak of his own experience in the matter, and shows that, +after more than thirty years of intelligent practice, he +employed Mr. Josiah Parkes to lay out and superintend +his work, and thus effected a saving, (after paying all professional +charges,) of fully twelve per cent. on the cost of +the draining, which was, at the same time, better executed +than any that he had previously done.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is probable that, in nearly all amateur draining, the +unnecessary frequency of the lateral drains; the extravagant +size of the pipes used; and the number of useless +angles which result from an unskillful arrangement, would +amount to an expense equal to ten times the cost of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +proper superintendence, to say nothing of the imperfect +manner in which the work is executed. A common impression +seems to prevail, that if a 2-inch pipe is good, a +3-inch pipe must be better, and that, generally, if draining +is worth doing at all, it is worth overdoing; while +the great importance of having perfectly fitting connections +is not readily perceived. The general result is, that +most of the tile-draining in this country has been too expensive +for economy, and too careless for lasting efficiency.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is proposed to give, in this chapter, as complete a +description of the preliminary engineering of draining as +can be concentrated within a few pages, and a hope is entertained, +that it will, at least, convey an idea of the importance +of giving a full measure of thought and ingenuity +to the maturing of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">plan</span></span>, before the execution of +the work is commenced. "Farming upon paper" has +never been held in high repute, but draining upon paper +is less a subject for objection. With a good map of the +farm, showing the comparative levels of outlet, hill, dale, +and plain, and the sizes and boundaries of the different +in closures, a profitable winter may be passed,—with pencil +and rubber,—in deciding on a plan which will do the +required work with the least possible length of drain, and +which will require the least possible extra deep cutting; +and in so arranging the main drains as to require the +smallest possible amount of the larger and more costly +pipes; or, if only a part of the farm is to be drained during +the coming season, in so arranging the work that it will +dovetail nicely with future operations. A mistake in actual +work is costly, and, (being buried under the ground,) is +not easily detected, while errors in drawing upon paper +are always obvious, and are remedied without cost.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the purpose of illustrating the various processes +connected with the laying out of a system of drainage, +the mode of operating on a field of ten acres will be detailed,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in connection with a series of diagrams showing +the progress of the work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">A Map of the Land</span></span> is first made, from a careful survey. +This should be plotted to a scale of 50 or 100 feet +to the inch,<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> and should exhibit the location of obstacles +which may interfere with the regularity of the +drains,—such as large trees, rocks, etc., and the existing +swamps, water courses, springs, and open drains. (Fig. 4.)</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next step is to locate the contour lines of the land, +or the lines of equal elevation,—also called the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">horizontal +lines</span></span>,—which serve to show the shape of the surface. To do +this, stake off the field into squares of 50 feet, by first running +a base line through the center of the greatest length of the +field, marking it with stakes at intervals of 50 feet, then stake +other lines, also at intervals of 50 feet, perpendicular to the +base line, and then note the position of the stakes on the +maps; next, by the aid of an engineer's level and staff, ascertain +the height, (above an imaginary plain below the lowest +part of the field,) of the surface of the ground at each stake, +and note this elevation at its proper point on the map. This +gives a plot like Fig. 5. The best instrument with which to +take these levels, is the ordinary telescope-level used by railroad +engineers, shown in Fig. 6, which has a telescope with +cross hairs intersecting each other in the center of the line +of sight, and a "bubble" placed exactly parallel to this +line. The instrument, fixed on a tripod, and so adjusted +that it will turn to any point of the compass without disturbing +the position of the bubble, will, (as will its "line of +sight,") revolve in a perfectly horizontal plane. It is so +placed as to command a view of a considerable stretch of +the field, and its height above the imaginary plane is +measured, an attendant places next to one of the stakes +a levelling rod, (Fig. 7,) which is divided into feet and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fractions of a foot, and is furnished with a movable target, +so painted that its center point may be plainly seen. +The attendant raises and lowers the target, until it comes +exactly in the line of sight; its height on the rod denotes +the height of the instrument above the level of the +ground at that stake, and, as the height of the instrument +above the imaginary plane has been reached, by subtracting +one elevation from the other, the operator determines +the height of the ground at that stake above the imaginary +plane,—which is called the "<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">datum line</span></span>."</p> + +<a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image04.png" width="640" height="812" alt="Illustration: Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS, SPRINGS AND TREES. INTENDED TO REPRESENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING." title="Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS, SPRINGS AND TREES. INTENDED TO REPRESENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS, SPRINGS AND TREES. INTENDED TO REPRESENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING.</div></div> + +<a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image05.png" width="640" height="811" alt="Illustration: Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES." title="Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES.</div></div> + +<a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image06.png" width="640" height="521" alt="Illustration: Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES." title="Fig. 6 - LEVELLING INSTRUMENT.44The instrument from which this cut was taken, (as also Fig. 7) was made by Messrs. Blunt & Nichols, Water st., N. Y." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 6 - LEVELLING INSTRUMENT.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a></div></div> + +<a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image07.png" width="70" height="600" alt="Illustration: Fig. 7 - LEVELLING ROD." title="Fig. 7 - LEVELLING ROD." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 7 - LEVELLING ROD.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next operation is to trace, on the plan, lines following +the same level, wherever the land is of the proper +height for its surface to meet them. For the purpose of +illustrating this operation, lines at intervals of elevation of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +one foot are traced on the plan in Fig. 8. And these lines +show, with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, the +elevation and rate of inclination of all parts +of the field,—where it is level or nearly so, +where its rise is rapid, and where slight. As +the land rises one foot from the position of +one line to the position of the line next above +it, where the distance from one line to the +next is great, the land is more nearly level, +and when it is short the inclination is steeper. +For instance, in the southwest corner of the +plan, the land is nearly level to the 2-foot +line; it rises slowly to the center of the field, +and to the eastern side about one-fourth of +the distance from the southern boundary, +while an elevation coming down between +these two valleys, and others skirting the +west side of the former one and the southern +side of the latter, are indicated by the greater +nearness of the lines. The points at which +the contour lines cross the section lines are +found in the following manner: On the +second line from the west side of the field we +find the elevations of the 4th, 5th and 6th +stakes from the southern boundary to be 1.9, +3.3, and 5.1. The contour lines, representing +points of elevation of 2, 3, 4, and 5 feet above +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">datum line</span></span>, will cross the 50-foot lines at +their intersections, only where these intersections +are marked in even feet. When they are +marked with fractions of a foot, the lines must +be made to cross at points between two intersections,—nearer +to one or the other, according +to their elevations,—thus between 1.9 +and 3.3, the 2-foot and 3-foot contour lines +must cross. The total difference of elevation, between the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +two points is 3.3—1.9=1.4; 10/14 of the space must be given +to the even foot between the lines, and the 2-foot line should +be 1/14 of the space above the point 1.9;—the 3-foot line +will then come 3/14 below the point 3.3. In the same manner, +the line from 3.3 to 5.1 is divided into 18 parts, of +which 10 go to the space between the 4. and 5. lines, 7 are +between 3.3 and the 4-foot line, and 1 between the 5-foot +line and 5.1.</p> + +<a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image08.png" width="640" height="809" alt="Illustration: Fig. 8 - MAP WITH CONTOUR LINES." title="Fig. 8 - MAP WITH CONTOUR LINES." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 8 - MAP WITH CONTOUR LINES.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With these maps, made from observations taken in the +field, we are prepared to lay down, on paper, our system +of drainage, and to mature a plan which shall do the necessary +work with the least expenditure of labor and material. +The more thoroughly this plan is considered, the +more economical and effective will be the work. Having +already obtained the needed information, and having it all +before us, we can determine exactly the location and size of +each drain, and arrange, before hand, for a rapid and satisfactory +execution of the work. The only thing that may +interfere with the perfect application of the plan, is the +presence of masses of underground rock, within the depth +to which the drains are to be laid.<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> Where these are supposed +to exist, soundings should be made, by driving a +3/4-inch pointed iron rod to the rock, or to a depth of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">five</span></span> +feet where the rock falls away. By this means, measuring +the distance from the soundings to the ranges of the +stakes, we can denote on the map the shape and depth of +sunken rocks. The shaded spot on the east side of the +map, (Fig. 8,) indicates a rock three feet from the surface, +which will be assumed to have been explored by sounding.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In most cases, it will be sufficient to have contour lines +taken only at intervals of two feet, and, owing to the +smallness of the scale on which these maps are engraved, +and to avoid complication in the finished plan, where so<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +much else must be shown, each alternate line is omitted. +Of course, where drains are at once staked out on the +land, by a practiced engineer, no contour lines are taken, +as by the aid of the level and rod for the flatter portions, +and by the eye alone for the steeper slopes, he will be able +at once to strike the proper locations and directions; but +for one of less experience, who desires to thoroughly +mature his plan before commencing, they are indispensable; +and their introduction here will enable the novice to +understand, more clearly than would otherwise be possible, +the principles on which the plan should be made.</p> + +<a name="fig15" id="fig15"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image09.png" width="640" height="329" alt="Illustration: Fig. 9 - WELL'S CLINOMETER." title="Fig. 9 - WELL'S CLINOMETER." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 9 - WELL'S CLINOMETER.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For preliminary examinations, and for all purposes in +which great accuracy is not required, the little instrument +shown in Fig. 9,—"Wells' Clinometer,"—is exceedingly +simple and convenient. Its essential parts are a flat side, +or base, on which it stands, and a hollow disk just half +filled with some heavy liquid. The glass face of the disk is +surrounded by a graduated scale that marks the angle at +which the surface of the liquid stands, with reference to +the flat base. The line 0.——0. being parallel to the +base, when the liquid stands on that line, the flat side is +horizontal; the line 90.——90. being perpendicular to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the base, when the liquid stands on that line, the flat side +is perpendicular or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">plumb</span></span>. In like manner, the intervening +angles are marked, and, by the aid of the following tables, +the instrument indicates the rate of fall per hundred feet +of horizontal measurement, and per hundred feet measured +upon the sloping line.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Table No. 1 shows the rise of the slope for 100 feet of +the horizontal measurement. Example: If the horizontal +distance is 100 feet, and the slope is at an angle of 15°, +the rise will be 17-633/1000 feet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Table No. 2 shows the rise of the slope for 100 feet of +its own length. If the sloping line, (at an angle of 15°,) +is 100 feet long, it rises 25.882 feet.</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><thead><tr><th colspan="2" class="tei tei-head tei-head-table" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><span style="font-weight: 700">TABLE No. 1.</span></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Deg.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Feet.</span></span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">5</td><td class="tei tei-cell">8.749</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">10</td><td class="tei tei-cell">17.663</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">15</td><td class="tei tei-cell">26.795</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">20</td><td class="tei tei-cell">36.397</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">25</td><td class="tei tei-cell">46.631</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">30</td><td class="tei tei-cell">57.735</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">35</td><td class="tei tei-cell">70.021</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">40</td><td class="tei tei-cell">83.910</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">45</td><td class="tei tei-cell">100.—</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">50</td><td class="tei tei-cell">119.175</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">55</td><td class="tei tei-cell">142.815</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">60</td><td class="tei tei-cell">173.205</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">65</td><td class="tei tei-cell">214.451</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">70</td><td class="tei tei-cell">274.748</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">75</td><td class="tei tei-cell">373.205</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">80</td><td class="tei tei-cell">567.128</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">85</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1143.01</td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><thead><tr><th colspan="2" class="tei tei-head tei-head-table" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><span style="font-weight: 700">TABLE No. 2</span></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Deg.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Feet.</span></span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">5</td><td class="tei tei-cell">8.716</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">10</td><td class="tei tei-cell">17.365</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">15</td><td class="tei tei-cell">25.882</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">20</td><td class="tei tei-cell">34.202</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">25</td><td class="tei tei-cell">42.262</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">30</td><td class="tei tei-cell">50.—</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">35</td><td class="tei tei-cell">57.358</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">40</td><td class="tei tei-cell">64.279</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">45</td><td class="tei tei-cell">70.711</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">50</td><td class="tei tei-cell">76.604</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">55</td><td class="tei tei-cell">81.915</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">60</td><td class="tei tei-cell">86.602</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">65</td><td class="tei tei-cell">90.631</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">70</td><td class="tei tei-cell">93.969</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">75</td><td class="tei tei-cell">96.593</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">80</td><td class="tei tei-cell">98.481</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">85</td><td class="tei tei-cell">99.619</td> +</tr></tbody></table> + + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the maps before him, showing the surface features +of the field, and the position of the under-ground rock, +the drainer will have to consider the following points:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. Where, and at what depth, shall the outlet be +placed?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. What shall be the location, the length and the depth +of the main drain?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. What subsidiary mains,—or collecting drains,—shall +connect the minor valleys with the main?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. What may best be done to collect the water of large +springs and carry it away?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">5. What provision is necessary to collect the water +that flows over the surface of out-cropping rock, or<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +along springy lines on side hills or under banks?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">6. What should be the depth, the distance apart, the +direction, and the rate of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fall</span></span>, of the lateral drains?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">7. What kind and sizes of tile should be used to form +the conduits?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">8. What provision should be made to prevent the obstruction +of the drains, by an accumulation of silt or sand, +which may enter the tiles immediately after they are laid, +and before the earth becomes compacted about them; and +from the entrance of vermin?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. The outlet should be at the lowest point of the boundary, +unless, (for some especial reason which does not +exist in the case under consideration, nor in any usual +case,) it is necessary to seek some other than the natural +outfall; and it should be deep enough to take the water of +the main drain, and laid on a sufficient inclination for a free +flow of the water. It should, where sufficient fall can be +obtained without too great cost, deliver this water over a +step of at least a few inches in height, so that the action of +the drain may be seen, and so that it may not be liable to +be clogged by the accumulation of silt, (or mud,) in the +open ditch into which it flows.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. The main drain should, usually, be run as nearly in +the lowest part of the principal valley as is consistent with +tolerable straightness. It is better to cut across the point +of a hill, to the extent of increasing the depth for a few +rods, than to go a long distance out of the direct course +to keep in the valley, both because of the cost of +the large tile used in the main, and of the loss of fall +occasioned by the lengthening of the line. The main should +be continued from the outlet to the point at which it is +most convenient to collect the more remote sub-mains, +which bring together the water of several sets of laterals. +As is the case in the tract under consideration, the depth +of the main is often restricted, in nearly level land, toward +the upper end of the flat which lies next to the outlet,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by the necessity for a fall and the difficulty which often +exists in securing a sufficiently low outlet. In such case, +the only rule is to make it as deep as possible. When the +fall is sufficient, it should be placed at such depth as will +allow the laterals and sub-mains which discharge into it +to enter at its top, and discharge above the level of the +water which flows through it.</p> + +<a name="fig16" id="fig16"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image10.png" width="640" height="624" alt="Illustration: Fig. 10 - STONE PIT TO CONNECT SPRING WITH DRAIN." title="Fig. 10 - STONE PIT TO CONNECT SPRING WITH DRAIN." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 10 - STONE PIT TO CONNECT SPRING WITH DRAIN.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. Subsidiary mains, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sub-mains</span></span>, connecting with the +main drains, should be run up the minor valleys of the +land, skirting the +bases of the hills. +Where the valley is +a flat one, with rising +ground at each side, +there should be a +sub-main, to receive +the laterals from +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">each</span></span> hill side. As a +general rule, it may +be stated, that the +collecting drain at +the foot of a slope +should be placed on +the line which is first +reached by the water +flowing directly +down over its surface, before it commences its lateral +movement down the valley; and it should, if possible, be +so arranged that it shall have a uniform descent for its +whole distance. The proper arrangement of these collecting +drains requires more skill and experience than +any other branch of the work, for on their disposition +depends, in a great measure, the economy and success of +the undertaking.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. Where springs exist, there should be some provision +made for collecting their water in pits filled with loose<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +stone, gravel, brush or other rubbish, or furnished with +several lengths of tile set on end, one above the other, or +with a barrel or other vessel; and a line of tile of proper +size should be run directly +to a main, or sub-main +drain. The manner of +doing this by means of a +pit filled with stone is +shown in Fig. 10. The +collection of spring water +in a vertical tile basin is +shown in Fig. 11.</p> + +<a name="fig17" id="fig17"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image11.png" width="640" height="860" alt="Illustration: Fig. 11 - STONE AND TILE BASIN FOR SPRING WITH DRAIN." title="Fig. 11 - STONE AND TILE BASIN FOR SPRING WITH DRAIN." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 11 - STONE AND TILE BASIN FOR SPRING WITH DRAIN.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">5. Where a ledge of +shelving rock, of considerable +size, occurs on land +to be drained, it is best to +make some provision for +collecting, at its base, the +water flowing over its surface, +and taking it at once +into the drains, so that it +may not make the land +near it unduly wet. To +effect this, a ditch should be dug along the base of the rock, +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quite down to it</span></span>, considerably deeper than the level of +the proposed drainage; and this should be filled with small +stones to that level, with a line of tile laid on top of the +stones, a uniform bottom for the tile to rest upon being +formed of cheap strips of board. The tile and stone should +then be covered with inverted sods, with wood shavings, +or with other suitable material, which will prevent the entrance +of earth, (from the covering of the drain,) to choke +them. The water, following down the surface of the rock, +will rise through the stone work and, entering the tile, will +flow off. This method may be used for springy hill sides.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">6. The points previously considered relate only to the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +collection of unusual quantities of water, (from springs +and from rock surfaces,) and to the removal from the land +of what is thus collected, and of that which flows from +the minor or lateral drains.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lateral drains</span></span> themselves constitute the real drainage +of the field, for, although main lines take water from +the land on each side, their action in this regard is not +usually considered, in determining either their depth or +their location, and they play an exceedingly small part in +the more simple form of drainage,—that in which a large +tract of land, of perfectly uniform slope, is drained by parallel +lines of equal length, all discharging into a single +main, running across the foot of the field. The land would +be equally well drained, if the parallel lines were continued +to an open ditch beyond its boundary,—the main tile drain +is only adopted for greater convenience and security. It +will simplify the question if, in treating the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">theory</span></span> of lateral +drains, it be assumed that our field is of this uniform +inclination, and admits of the use of long lines of parallel +drains. In fact, it is best in practice to approximate as +nearly as possible to this arrangement, because deviations +from it, though always necessary in broken land, are +always more expensive, and present more complicated +engineering problems. If all the land to be drained had +a uniform fall, in a single direction, there would be but +little need of engineering skill, beyond that which is required +to establish the depth, fall, and distance apart, at +which the drains should be laid. It is chiefly when the +land pitches in different directions, and with varying inclination, +that only a person skilled in the arrangement of +drains, or one who will give much consideration to the +subject, can effect the greatest economy by avoiding unnecessary +complication, and secure the greatest efficiency +by adjusting the drains to the requirements of the land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Assuming the land to have an unbroken inclination, so +as to require only parallel drains, it becomes important to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +know how these parallel drains, (corresponding to the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lateral drains</span></span> of an irregular system,) should be made.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The history of land draining is a history of the gradual +progress of an improvement, from the accomplishment of +a single purpose, to the accomplishment of several purposes, +and most of the instruction which modern agricultural +writers have given concerning it, has shown too +great dependence upon the teachings of their predecessors, +who considered well the single object which they sought +to attain, but who had no conception that draining was to +be so generally valuable as it has become. The effort, (probably +an unconscious one,) to make the theories of modern +thorough-draining conform to those advanced by the early +practitioners, seems to have diverted attention from some +more recently developed principles, which are of much +importance. For example, about a hundred years ago, +Joseph Elkington, of Warwickshire, discovered that, where +land is made too wet by under-ground springs, a skillful +tapping of these,—drawing off their water through suitable +conduits,—would greatly relieve the land, and for +many years the Elkington System of drainage, being a +great improvement on every thing theretofore practiced, +naturally occupied the attention of the agricultural world, +and the Board of Agriculture appointed a Mr. Johnstone +to study the process, and write a treatise on the subject.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Catch-water drains, made so as to intercept a flow of +surface water, have been in use from immemorial time, and +are described by the earliest writers. Before the advent +of the Draining Tile, covered drains were furnished with +stones, boards, brush, weeds, and various other rubbish, +and their good effect, very properly, claimed the attention +of all improvers of wet land. When the tile first made +its appearance in general practice, it was of what is called +the "horse-shoe" form, and,—imperfect though it was,—it +was better than anything that had preceded it, and was +received with high approval, wherever it became known.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +The general use of all these materials for making drains +was confined to a system of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">partial</span></span> drainage, until the +publication of a pamphlet, in 1833, by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, +who advocated the drainage of the whole field, without +reference to springs. From this plan, but with important +modifications in matters of detail, the modern system +of tile draining has grown. Many able men have +aided its progress, and have helped to disseminate a +knowledge of its processes and its effects, yet there are +few books on draining, even the most modern ones, which +do not devote much attention to Elkington's discovery; +to the various sorts of stone and brush drains; and to the +manufacture and use of horse-shoe tile;—not treating them +as matters of antiquarian interest, but repeating the instructions +for their application, and allowing the reasoning +on which their early use was based, to influence, often to a +damaging extent, their general consideration of the modern +practice of tile draining.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These processes are all of occasional use, even at this +day, but they are based on no fixed rules, and are so much +a matter of traditional knowledge, with all farmers, that +instruction concerning them is not needed. The kind of +draining which is now under consideration, has for its object +the complete removal of all of the surplus water that +reaches the soil, from whatever source, and the assimilation +of all wet soils to a somewhat uniform condition, as to +the ease with which water passes through them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are instances, as has been shown, where a large +spring, overflowing a considerable area, or supplying the +water of an annoying brook, ought to be directly connected +with the under-ground drainage, and its flow neatly +carried away; and, in other cases, the surface flow over +large masses of rock should be given easy entrance into +the tile; but, in all ordinary lands, whether swamps, +springy hill sides, heavy clays, or light soils lying on retentive +subsoil, all ground, in fact, which needs under-draining<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at all, should be laid dry above the level to which +it is deemed best to place the drains;—not only secured +against the wetting of springs and soakage water, but +rapidly relieved of the water of heavy rains. The water +table, in short, should be lowered to the proper depth, and, +by permanent outlets at that depth, be prevented from +ever rising, for any considerable time, to a higher level. +This being accomplished, it is of no consequence to know +whence the water comes, and Elkington's system need +have no place in our calculations. As round pipes, with collars, +are far superior to the "horse-shoe" tiles, and are +equally easy to obtain, it is not necessary to consider the +manner in which these latter should be used,—only to say +that they ought not to be used at all.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The water which falls upon the surface is at once absorbed, +settles through the ground, until it reaches a +point where the soil is completely saturated, and raises the +general water level. When this level reaches the floor of +the drains, the water enters at the joints and is carried +off. That which passes down through the land lying +between the drains, bears down upon that which has already +accumulated in the soil, and forces it to seek an outlet +by rising into the drains.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> For example, if a barrel, +standing on end, be filled with earth which is saturated +with water, and its bung be removed, the water of saturation, +(that is, all which is not held by attraction <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in</span></span> the particles +of earth,) will be removed from so much of the +mass as lies above the bottom of the bung-hole. If a +bucket of water be now poured upon the top, it will not all +run diagonally toward the opening; it will trickle down to +the level of the water remaining in the barrel, and this level +will rise and water will run off at the bottom of the orifice. +In this manner, the water, even below the drainage level,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is changed with each addition at the surface. In a barrel +filled with coarse pebbles, the water of saturation would +maintain a nearly level surface; if the material were more +compact and retentive, a true level would be attained only +after a considerable time. Toward the end of the flow, +the water would stand highest at the points furthest distant +from the outlet. So, in the land, after a drenching +rain, the water is first removed to the full depth, near the +line of the drain, and that midway between two drains +settles much more slowly, meeting more resistance from +below, and, for a long time, will remain some inches +higher than the floor of the drain. The usual condition +of the soil, (except in very dry weather,) would be somewhat +as represented in the accompanying cut, (Fig. 12.)</p> + +<a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image12.png" width="640" height="168" alt="Illustration: Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS." title="Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS.</div><p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">YY are the draings. The curved line b is the line of saturation, which has descended from a, and is approaching c.</span></span></p></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To provide for this deviation of the line of saturation, +in practice, drains are placed deeper than would be necessary +if the water sunk at once to the level of the drain +floor, the depth of the drains being increased with the increasing +distance between them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theoretically, every drop of water which falls on a field +should sink straight down to the level of the drains, and +force a drop of water below that level to rise into the drain +and flow off. How exactly this is true in nature cannot +be known, and is not material. Drains made in pursuance +of this theory will be effective for any actual condition.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">depth</span></span> to which the water table should be withdrawn +depends, not at all on the character of the soil, +but on the requirements of the crops which are to be +grown upon it, and these requirements are the same in all +soils,—consequently the depth should be the same in all.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, then, shall that depth be? The usual practice +of the most experienced drainers seems to have fixed four +feet as about the proper depth, and the arguments against +anything less than this, as well as some reasons for supposing +that to be sufficient, are so clearly stated by Mr. +Gisborne that it has been deemed best to quote his own +words on the subject:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Take a flower-pot a foot deep, filled with dry soil. +Place it in a saucer containing three inches of water. +The first effect will be, that the water will rise through +the hole in the bottom of the pot till the water which +fills the interstices between the soil is on a level with the +water in the saucer. This effect is by gravity. The +upper surface of this water is our water-table. From it +water will ascend by attraction through the whole +body of soil till moisture is apparent at the surface. Put +in your soil at 60°, a reasonable summer heat for nine +inches in depth, your water at 47°, the seven inches' +temperature of Mr. Parke's undrained bog; the attracted +water will ascend at 47°, and will diligently occupy +itself in attempting to reduce the 60° soil to its own +temperature. Moreover, no sooner will the soil hold +water of attraction, than evaporation will begin to carry +it off, and will produce the cold consequent thereon. +This evaporated water will be replaced by water of attraction +at 47°, and this double cooling process will go +on till all the water in the water-table is exhausted. +Supply water to the saucer as fast as it disappears, and +then the process will be perpetual. The system of saucer-watering +is reprobated by every intelligent gardener; it +is found by experience to chill vegetation; besides which,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +scarcely any cultivated plant can dip its roots into stagnant +water with impunity. Exactly the process which +we have described in the flower-pot is constantly in +operation on an undrained retentive soil; the water-table +may not be within nine inches of the surface, but +in very many instances it is within a foot or eighteen +inches, at which level the cold surplus oozes into some +ditch or other superficial outlet. At eighteen inches, +attraction will, on the average of soils, act with considerable +power. Here, then, you have two obnoxious +principles at work, both producing cold, and the one +administering to the other. The obvious remedy is, to +destroy their <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">united</span></span> action; to break through their line +of communication. Remove your water of attraction +to such a depth that evaporation cannot act upon it, or +but feebly. What is that depth? In ascertaining this +point we are not altogether without data. No doubt +depth diminishes the power of evaporation rapidly. Still, +as water taken from a 30-inch drain is almost invariably +two or three degrees colder than water taken from four +feet, and as this latter is generally one or two degrees +colder than water from a contiguous well several feet +below, we can hardly avoid drawing the conclusion that +the cold of evaporation has considerable influence at 30 +inches, a much-diminished influence at four feet, and little +or none below that depth. If the water-table is removed +to the depth of four feet, when we have allowed 18 +inches of attraction, we shall still have 30 inches of defence +against evaporation; and we are inclined to believe +that any prejudicial combined action of attraction +and evaporation is thereby well guarded against. The +facts stated seem to prove that less will not suffice.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"So much on the score of temperature; but this is not +all. Do the roots of esculents wish to penetrate into +the earth—at least, to the depth of some feet? We believe +that they do. We are sure of the brassica tribe,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of grass, and clover. All our experience and observation +deny the doctrine that roots only ramble when they are +stinted of food; that six inches well manured is quite +enough, better than more. Ask the Jerseyman; he +will show you a parsnip as thick as your thigh, and as +long as your leg, and will tell you of the advantages of +14 feet of dry soil. You will hear of parsnips whose +roots descend to unsearchable depths. We will not +appeal to the Kentucky carrot, which was drawn out +by its roots at the antipodes; but Mr. Mechi's, if we +remember right, was a dozen feet or more. Three years +ago, in a midland county, a field of good land, in good +cultivation, and richly manured, produced a heavy crop +of cabbages. In November of that year we saw that +field broken into in several places, and at the depth of +four feet the soil (a tenacious marl, fully stiff enough for +brick-earth) was occupied by the roots of cabbage, not +sparingly—not mere capillæ—but fibres of the size of +small pack-thread. A farmer manures a field of four or +five inches of free soil reposing on a retentive clay, and +sows it with wheat. It comes up, and between the kernel +and the manure, it looks well for a time, but anon it +sickens. An Irish child looks well for five or six years, +but after that time potato-feeding, and filth, and hardship, +begin to tell. You ask what is amiss with the +wheat, and you are told that when its roots reach the +clay, they are poisoned. This field is then thorough-drained, +deep, at least four feet. It receives again from +the cultivator the previous treatment; the wheat comes +up well, maintains throughout a healthy aspect, and +gives a good return. What has become of the poison? +We have been told that the rain water filtered through +the soil has taken it into solution or suspension, and has +carried it off through the drains; and men who assume +to be of authority put forward this as one of the advantages +of draining. If we believed it, we could not<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +advocate draining. We really should not have the face +to tell our readers that water, passing through soils containing +elements prejudicial to vegetation, would carry +them off, but would leave those which are beneficial behind. +We cannot make our water so discriminating; the +general merit of water of deep drainage is, that it contains +very little. Its perfection would be that it should +contain nothing. We understand that experiments are +in progress which have ascertained that water, charged +with matters which are known to stimulate vegetation, +when filtered through four feet of retentive soil, comes +out pure. But to return to our wheat. In the first case, +it shrinks before the cold of evaporation and the cold of +water of attraction, and it sickens because its feet are +never dry; it suffers the usual maladies of cold and wet. +In the second case, the excess of cold by evaporation +is withdrawn; the cold water of attraction is removed +out of its way; the warm air from the surface, rushing +in to supply the place of the water which the drains remove, +and the warm summer rains, bearing down with +them the temperature which they have acquired from +the upper soil, carry a genial heat to its lowest roots. +Health, vigorous growth, and early maturity are the +natural consequences. * * * * * * * * *</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The practice so derided and maligned referring to +deep draining has advanced with wonderful strides. +We remember the days of 15 inches; then a step to 20; a +stride to 30; and the last (and probably final) jump to 50, a +few inches under or over. We have dabbled in them all, +generally belonging to the deep section of the day. We +have used the words 'probably final,' because the first +advances were experimental, and, though they were justified +by the results obtained, no one attempted to explain +the principle on which benefit was derived from +them. The principles on which the now prevailing +depth is founded, and which we believe to be true, go<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +far to show that we have attained all the advantages +which can be derived from the removal of water in +ordinary agriculture. We do not mean that, even in the +most retentive soil, water would not get into drains +which were laid somewhat deeper; but to this there +must be a not very distant limit, because pure clay, lying +below the depth at which wet and drought applied at +surface would expand and contract it, would certainly +part with its water very slowly. We find that, in coal +mines and in deep quarries, a stratum of clay of only a +few inches thick interposed between two strata of pervious +stone will form an effectual bar to the passage of +water; whereas, if it lay within a few feet of the surface, +it would, in a season of heat and drought become +as pervious as a cullender. But when we have got rid +of the cold arising from the evaporation of free water, +have given a range of several feet to the roots of grass +and cereals, and have enabled retentive land to filter +through itself all the rain which falls upon its surface, +we are not, in our present state of knowledge, aware of +any advantage which would arise from further lowering +the surface of water in agricultural land. Smith, of +Deanston, first called prominent attention to the fertilizing +effects of rain filtered through land, and to evils produced +by allowing it to flow off the surface. Any one +will see how much more effectually this benefit will be +attained, and this evil avoided, by a 4-foot than a 2-foot +drainage. The latter can only prepare two feet of soil +for the reception and retention of rain, which two feet, +being saturated, will reject more, and the surplus must +run off the surface, carrying whatever it can find with it. +A 4-foot drainage will be constantly tending to have four +feet of soil ready for the reception of rain, and it will +take much more rain to saturate four feet than two. +Moreover, as a gimlet-hole bored four feet from the surface +of a barrel filled with water will discharge much<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +more in a given time than a similar hole bored at the +depth of two feet, so will a 4-foot drain discharge in a +given time much more water than a drain of two feet. +One is acted on by a 4-foot, and the other by a 2-foot +pressure."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If any single fact connected with tile-drainage is established, +beyond all possible doubt, it is that in the stiffest +clay soils ever cultivated, drains four feet deep will act +effectually; the water will find its way to them, more and +more freely and completely, as the drying of successive +years, and the penetration and decay of the roots of successive +crops, modify the character of the land, and they +will eventually be practically so porous that,—so far as +the ease of drainage is concerned,—no distinction need, in +practice, be made between them and the less retentive +loams. For a few years, the line of saturation between +the drains, as shown in Fig. 11, may stand at all seasons +considerably above the level of the bottom of the tile, but +it will recede year by year, until it will be practically +level, except immediately after rains.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. Josiah Parkes recommends drains to be laid</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">At a minimum depth of four feet</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, designed with the two-fold object of +not only freeing the active soil from stagnant and injurious water, but +of converting the water falling on the surface into an agent for fertilizing; +no drainage being deemed efficient that did not both remove the +water falling on the surface, and 'keep down the subterranean water at +a depth exceeding the power of capillary attraction to elevate it near the +surface.'"</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alderman Mechi says:</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"Ask nineteen farmers out of twenty, who hold strong clay land, and +they will tell you it is of no use placing deep four-foot drains in such soils—the +water cannot get in; a horse's foot-hole (without an opening +under it) will hold water like a basin; and so on. Well, five minutes +after, you tell the same farmers you propose digging a cellar, well +bricked, six or eight feet deep; what is their remark? 'Oh! it's of no +use your making an underground cellar in our soil, you </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">can't keep the +water</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">out</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">!' Was there ever such an illustration of prejudice as this? +What is a drain pipe but a small cellar full of air? Then, again, common +sense tells us, you can't keep a light fluid under a heavy one. You might +as well try to keep a cork under water, as to try and keep air under</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> +water. 'Oh! but then our soil isn't porous.' If not, how can it hold +water so readily? I am led to these observations by the strong controversy +I am having with some Essex folks, who protest that I am mad, or +foolish, for placing 1-inch pipes, at four-foot depth, in strong clays. It +is in vain I refer to the numerous proofs of my soundness, brought forward +by Mr. Parkes, engineer to the Royal Agricultural Society, and +confirmed by Mr. Pusey. They still dispute it. It is in vain I tell them +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">I cannot keep the rainwater out of</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> socketed pipes, twelve feet deep, that +convey a spring to my farm yard. Let us try and convince this large +class of doubters; for it is of </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">national</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> importance. Four feet of good +porous clay would afford a far better meal to some strong bean, or other +tap roots, than the usual six inches; and a saving of $4 to $5 per acre, +in drainage, is no trifle.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"The shallow, or non-drainers, assume that tenacious subsoils are impervious +or non-absorbent. This is entirely an erroneous assumption. +If soils were impervious, how could they get wet?</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"I assert, and pledge my agricultural reputation for the fact, that there +are no earths or clays in this kingdom, be they ever so tenacious, that +will not readily receive, filter, and transmit rain water to drains placed +five or more feet deep.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"A neighbor of mine drained twenty inches deep in strong clay; the +ground cracked widely; the contraction destroyed the tiles, and the +rains washed the surface soils into the cracks and choked the drains. He +has since abandoned shallow draining.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"When I first began draining, I allowed myself to be overruled by +my obstinate man, Pearson, who insisted that, for top water, two feet +was a sufficient depth in a veiny soil. I allowed him to try the experiment +on two small fields; the result was, that nothing prospered; and +I am redraining those fields at </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">one-half</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> the cost, five and six feet deep, +at intervals of 70 and 80 feet.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"I found iron-sand rocks, strong clay, silt, iron, etc., and an enormous +quantity of water, all </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">below</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> the 2-foot drains. This accounted at +once for the sudden check the crops always met with in May, when they +wanted to send their roots down, but could not, without going into stagnant +water."</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"There can be no doubt that it is the </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">depth</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> of the drain which regulates +the escape of the surface water in a given time; regard being had, +as respects extreme distances, to the nature of the soil, and a due capacity +of the pipe. </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">The deeper the drain, even in the strongest soils, the quicker +the water escapes.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> This is an astounding but certain fact.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"That deep and distant drains, where a sufficient fall can be obtained, +are by far the most profitable, by affording to the roots of the plants a +greater range for food."</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course, where the soil is underlaid by rock, less than +four feet from the surface; and where an outlet at that +depth cannot be obtained, we must, per force, drain less<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +deeply, but where there exists no such obstacle, drains +should be laid at a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">general</span></span> depth of four-feet,—general, +not uniform, because the drain should have a uniform inclination, +which the surface of the land rarely has.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Distance between the Drains.</span></span>—Concerning this, +there is less unanimity of opinion among engineers, than +prevails with regard to the question of depth.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In tolerably porous soils, it is generally conceded that 40 +or even 50 feet is sufficiently near for 4-foot drains, but, for +the more retentive clays, all distances from 18 feet to 50 +feet are recommended, though those who belong to the +more narrow school are, as a rule, extending the limit, +as they see, in practice, the complete manner in which +drains at wider intervals perform their work. A careful +consideration of the experience of the past twenty years, +and of the arguments of writers on drainage, leads to the +belief that there are few soils, which need draining at all, +on which it will be safe to place 4-foot drains at much +wider intervals than 40 feet. In the lighter loams there +are many instances of the successful application of +Professor Mapes' rule, that "3-foot drains should be +placed 20 feet apart, and for each additional foot in +depth the distance may be doubled; for instance, 4-foot +drains should be 40 feet apart, and 5-foot drains 80 feet +apart." But, with reference to the greater distance, +(80 feet,) it is not to be recommended in stiff clays, for +any depth of drain. Where it is necessary, by reason of +insufficient fall, or of underground rock, to go only three +feet deep, the drains should be as near together as 20 feet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At first thought, it may seem akin to quackery to recommend +a uniform depth and distance, without reference +to the character of the land to be drained; and it is unquestionably +true that an exact adaptation of the work to +the varying requirements of different soils would be beneficial, +though no system can be adopted which will make<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +clay drain as freely as sand. The fact is, that the adjustment +of the distances between drains is very far from +partaking of the nature of an exact science, and there is +really very little known, by any one, of the principles on +which it should be based, or of the manner in which the +bearing of those principles, in any particular case, is affected +by several circumstances which vary with each +change of soil, inclination and exposure.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the essays on drainage which have been thus far +published, there is a vagueness in the arguments on this +branch of the subject, which betrays a want of definite +conviction in the minds of the writers; and which tends +quite as much to muddle as to enlighten the ideas of the +reader. In so far as the directions are given, whether fortified +by argument or not, they are clearly empirical, and +are usually very much qualified by considerations which +weigh with unequal force in different cases.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In laying out work, any skillful drainer will be guided, +in deciding the distance between the lines, by a judgment +which has grown out of his former experience; and which +will enable him to adapt the work, measurably, to the +requirements of the particular soil under consideration; +but he would probably find it impossible to so state the +reasons for his decision, that they would be of any general +value to others.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Probably it will be a long time before rules on this subject, +based on well sustained <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">theory</span></span>, can be laid down with distinctness, +and, in the mean time, we must be guided by +the results of practice, and must confine ourselves to a +distance which repeated trial, in various soils, has proven +to be safe for all agricultural land. In the drainage of +the Central Park, after a mature consideration of all that +had been published on the subject, and of a considerable +previous observation and experience, it was decided to +adopt a general depth of four feet, and to adhere as closely +as possible to a uniform distance of forty feet. No instance<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was known of a failure to produce good results by draining +at that distance, and several cases were recalled where +drains at fifty and sixty feet had proved so inefficient that +intermediate lines became necessary. After from seven +to ten years' trial, the Central Park drainage, by its results, +has shown that,—although some of the land is of a +very retentive character,—this distance is not too great; +and it is adopted here for recommendation to all who have +no especial reason for supposing that greater distances +will be fully effective in their more porous soils.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As has been before stated, drains at that distance, (or +at any distance,) will not remove all of the water of saturation +from heavy clays so rapidly as from more porous +soil; but, although, in some cases, the drainage may be +insufficient during the first year, and not absolutely perfect +during the second and third years, the increased porosity +which drainage causes, (as the summer droughts +make fissures in the earth, as decayed roots and other +organic deposits make these fissures permanent, and as +chemical action in the aërated soil changes its character,) +will finally bring clay soils to as perfect a condition as they +are capable of attaining, and will invariably render them +excellent for cultivation.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Direction of the Laterals</span></span> should be <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">right up and +down the slope of the land</span></span>, in the line of steepest descent. +For a long time after the general adoption of thorough-draining, +there was much discussion of this subject, and +much variation in practice. The influence of the old rules +for making surface or "catch-water" drains lasted for a +long time, and there was a general tendency to make tile +drains follow the same directions. An important requirement +of these was that they should not take so steep an +inclination as to have their bottoms cut out and their +banks undermined by the rapid flow of water, and that +they should arrest and carry away the water flowing +down over the surface of hill sides. The arguments for the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +line of steepest descent were, however, so clear, and +drains laid on that line were so universally successful in +practice, that it was long ago adopted by all,—save those +novices who preferred to gain their education in draining +in the expensive school of their own experience.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The more important reasons why this direction is the +best are the following: First, it is the quickest way to +get the water off. Its natural tendency is to run straight +down the hill, and nothing is gained by diverting it from +this course. Second, if the drain runs obliquely down the +hill, the water will be likely to run out at the joints of the +tile and wet the ground below it; even if it do not, +mainly, run past the drain from above into the land below, +instead of being forced into the tile. Third, a drain +lying obliquely across a hillside will not be able to draw +the water from below up the hill toward it, and the +water of nearly the whole interval will have to seek its +outlet through the drain below it. Fourth, drains running +directly down the hill will tap any porous water +bearing strata, which may crop out, at regular intervals, and +will thus prevent the spewing out of the water at the surface, +as it might do if only oblique drains ran for a long +distance just above or just below them. Very steep, and +very springy hill sides, sometimes require very frequent +drains to catch the water which has a tendency to flow to +the surface; this, however, rarely occurs.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In laying out a plan for draining land of a broken surface, +which inclines in different directions, it is impossible +to make the drains follow the line of steepest descent, and +at the same time to have them all parallel, and at uniform +distances. In all such cases a compromise must be made +between the two requirements. The more nearly the parallel +arrangement can be preserved, the less costly will +the work be, while the more nearly we follow the steepest +slope of the ground, the more efficient will each drain be. +No rule for this adjustment can be given, but a careful<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +study of the plan of the ground, and of its contour lines, +will aid in its determination. On all irregular ground it +requires great skill to secure the greatest efficiency consistent +with economy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fall</span></span> required in well made tile drains is very much +less than would be supposed, by an inexperienced person, +to be necessary. Wherever practicable, without too great +cost, it is desirable to have a fall of one foot in one hundred +feet, but more than this in ordinary work is not especially +to be sought, although there is, of course, no +objection to very much greater inclination.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One half of that amount of fall, or six inches in one +hundred feet, is quite sufficient, if the execution of the +work is carefully attended to.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The least rate of fall which it is prudent to give to a +drain, in using ordinary tiles, is 2.5 in 1,000, or three inches +in one hundred feet, and even this requires very careful +work.<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> A fall of six inches in one hundred feet is recommended +whenever it can be easily obtained—not as being +more effective, but as requiring less precision, and consequently +less expense.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Kinds and Sizes of Tiles.</span></span>—Agricultural drain-tiles are +made of clay similar to that which is used for brick. +When burned, they are from twelve inches to fourteen +inches long, with an interior diameter of from one to +eight inches, and with a thickness of wall, (depending on +the strength of the clay, and the size of the bore,) of from +one-quarter of an inch to more than an inch. They are +porous, to the extent of absorbing a certain amount of +water, but their porosity has nothing to do with their use +for drainage,—for this purpose they might as well be of +glass. The water enters them, not through their walls,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but at their joints, which cannot be made so tight that +they will not admit the very small amount of water that +will need to enter at each space. Gisborne says:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"If an acre of land be intersected with parallel drains +twelve yards apart, and if on that acre should fall the +very unusual quantity of one inch of rain in twelve +hours, in order that every drop of this rain may be discharged +by the drains in forty-eight hours from the commencement +of the rain—(and in a less period that quantity +neither will, not is it desirable that it should, filter +through an agricultural soil)—the interval between two +pipes will be called upon to pass two-thirds of a tablespoonful +of water per minute, and no more. Inch pipes, +lying at a small inclination, and running only half-full, +will discharge more than double this quantity of water +in forty-eight hours."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tiles may be made of any desired form of section,—the +usual forms are the "horse-shoe," the "sole," the "double-sole," +and the "round." The latter may be used with +collars, and they constitute the "pipes and collars," frequently +referred to in English books on drainage.</p> + +<a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image13.png" width="640" height="127" alt="Illustration: Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE." title="Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Horse-shoe tiles</span></span>, Fig. 13, are condemned by all modern +engineers. Mr. Gisborne disposes of them by an argument +of some length, the quotation +of which in these pages is +probably advisable, because +they form so much better conduits +than stones, and to that extent have been so successfully +employed, that they are still largely used in this country +by "amateurs."</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"We shall shock some and surprise many of our readers, when we +state confidently that, in average soils, and, still more, in those which +are inclined to be tender, horse shoe tiles form the weakest and most +failing conduit which has ever been used for a deep drain. It is so, however; +and a little thought, even if we had no experience, will tell us +that it must be so. A doggrel song, quite destitute of humor, informs +us that tiles of this sort were used in 1760 at Grandesburg Hall, in Suffolk,</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> +by Mr. Charles Lawrence, the owner of the estate. The earliest of +which we had experience were of large area and of weak form. Constant +failures resulted from their use, and the cause was investigated; many +of the tiles were found to be choked up with clay, and many to be broken +longitudinally through the crown. For the first evil, two remedies +were adopted; a sole of slate, of wood, or of its own material, was +sometimes placed under the tile, but the more usual practice was to form +them with club-feet. To meet the case of longitudinal fracture, the tiles +were reduced in size, and very much thickened in proportion to their +area. The first of these remedies was founded on an entirely mistaken, +and the second on no conception at all of the cause of the evil to which +they were respectively applied. The idea was, that this tile, standing on +narrow feet, and pressed by the weight of the refilled soil, sank into the +floor of the drain; whereas, in fact, the floor of the drain rose into the +tile. Any one at all conversant with collieries is aware that when a </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">strait</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> +work (which is a small subterranean tunnel six feet high and four feet +wide or thereabouts) is driven in coal, the rising of the floor is a more +usual and far more inconvenient occurrence than the falling of the roof: +the weight of the two sides squeezes up the floor. We have seen it +formed into a very decided arch without fracture. Exactly a similar +operation takes place in the drain. No one had till recently dreamed of +forming a tile drain, the bottom of which a man was not to approach +personally within twenty inches or two feet. To no one had it then occurred +that width at the bottom of the drain was a great evil. For the +convenience of the operator the drain was formed with nearly perpendicular +sides, of a width in which he could stand and work conveniently, +shovel the bottom level with his ordinary spade, and lay the tiles by his +hand; the result was a drain with nearly perpendicular sides, and a wide +bottom. No sort of clay, particularly when softened by water standing +on it or running over it, could fail to rise under such circumstances; and +the deeper the drain the greater the pressure and the more certain the +rising. A horse-shoe tile, which may be a tolerable secure conduit in a +drain of two feet, in one of four feet becomes an almost certain failure. +As to the longitudinal fracture—not only is the tile subject to be broken +by one of those slips which are so troublesome in deep draining, and to +which the lightly-filled material, even when the drain is completed, +offers an imperfect resistance, but the constant pressure together of the +sides, even when it does not produce a fracture of the soil, catches hold +of the feet of the tile, and breaks it through the crown. Consider the +case of a drain formed in clay when dry, the conduit a horse-shoe tile. +When the clay expands with moisture, it necessarily presses on the tile +and breaks it through the crown, its weakest part.</span><a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> When the Regent's</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Park was first drained, large conduits were in fashion, and they were +made circular by placing one horse-shoe tile upon another. It would be +difficult to invent a weaker conduit. On re-drainage, innumerable instances +were found in which the upper tile was broken through the +crown, and had dropped into the lower. Next came the D form, tile and +sole in one, and much reduced in size—a great advance; and when some +skillful operator had laid this tile bottom upwards we were evidently on +the eve of pipes. For the D tile a round pipe moulded with a flat-bottomed +solid sole is now generally substituted, and is an improvement; +but is not equal to pipes and collars, nor generally cheaper than they +are."</span></p> +</div> + +<a name="fig20" id="fig20"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image14.png" width="640" height="108" alt="Illustration: Fig. 14 - SOLE TILE." title="Fig. 14 - SOLE TILE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 14 - SOLE TILE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One chief objection to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sole-tiles</span></span> is, that, in the drying +which they undergo, preparatory to the burning, the +upper side is contracted, by +the more rapid drying, and +they often require to be trimmed +off with a hatchet before +they will form even tolerable joints; another is, that they +cannot be laid with collars, which form a joint so perfect +and so secure, that their use, in the smaller drains, should +be considered indispensable.</p> + +<a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image15.png" width="640" height="119" alt="Illustration: Fig. 15 - DOUBLE-SOLE TILE." title="Fig. 15 - DOUBLE-SOLE TILE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 15 - DOUBLE-SOLE TILE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">double-sole tiles</span></span>, which can be laid either side up +give a much better joint, +but they are so heavy as to +make the cost of transporation +considerably greater. +They are also open to the grave objection that they cannot +be fitted with collars.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Experience, in both public and private works in this +country, and the cumulative testimony of English and +French engineers, have demonstrated that the only tile +which it is economical to use, is the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">best</span></span> that can be found, +and that the best,—much the best—thus far invented, is +the "pipe, or round tile, and collar,"—and these are unhesitatingly +recommended for use in all cases. Round +tiles of small sizes should not be laid without collars, as the +ability to use these constitutes their chief advantage; +holding them perfectly in place, preventing the rattling<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in of loose dirt in laying, and giving twice the space for +the entrance of water at the joints. A chief advantage +of the larger sizes is, that they may be laid on any side +and thus made to fit closely. The usual sizes of these +tiles are 1-1/4 inches, 2-1/4 inches, and 3-1/2 inches in interior diameter. +Sections of the 2-1/4 inch make collars for the 1-1/4 +inch, and sections of the 3-1/2 inch make collars for the 2-1/4 +inch. The 3-1/2 inch size does not need collars, as it is easily +secured in place, and is only used where the flow of water +would be sufficient to wash out the slight quantity of foreign +matters that might enter at the joints.</p> + +<a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image16.png" width="640" height="130" alt="Illustration: Fig. 16 - ROUND TILE AND COLLAR, AND THE SAME AS LAID." title="Fig. 16 - ROUND TILE AND COLLAR, AND THE SAME AS LAID." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 16 - ROUND TILE AND COLLAR, AND THE SAME AS LAID.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The size of tile</span></span> to be used is a question of consequence. +In England, 1-inch pipes are frequently used, but 1-1/4 inch<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> +are recommended for the smallest drains. Beyond this +limit, the proper size to select is, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the smallest that can convey +the water which will ordinarily reach it after a heavy +rain</span></span>. The smaller the pipe, the more concentrated the +flow, and, consequently, the more thoroughly obstructions +will be removed, and the occasional flushing of the pipe, +when it is taxed, for a few hours, to its utmost capacity, +will insure a thorough cleansing. No inconvenience can +result from the fact that, on rare occasions, the drain is +unable, for a short time, to discharge all the water that +reaches it, and if collars are used, or if the clay be well +packed about the pipes, there need be no fear of the tile +being displaced by the pressure. An idea of the drying +capacity of a 1-1/4-inch tile may be gained from observing +its <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">wetting</span></span> capacity, by connecting a pipe of this size with<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a sufficient body of water, at its surface, and discharging, +over a level dry field, all the water which it will carry. +A 1-1/4-inch pipe will remove all the water which would fall +on an acre of land in a very heavy rain, in 24 hours,—much +less time than the water would occupy in getting to +the tile, in any soil which required draining; and tiles of +this size are ample for the draining of two acres. In like +manner, 2-1/2-inch tile will suffice for eight, and 3-1/2-inch tile +for twenty acres. The foregoing estimates are, of course, +made on the supposition that only the water which falls +on the land, (storm water,) is to be removed. For main +drains, when greater capacity is required, two tiles may be +laid, (side by side,) or in such cases the larger sizes of +sole tiles may be used, being somewhat cheaper. Where +the drains are laid 40 feet apart, about 1,000 tiles per acre +will be required, and, in estimating the quantity of tiles of +the different sizes to be purchased, reference should be +had to the following figures; the first 2,000 feet of drains +require a collecting drain of 2-1/4-inch tile, which will take +the water from 7,000 feet; and for the outlet of from +7,000 to 20,000 feet 3-1/2-inch tile may be used. Collars, +being more subject to breakage, should be ordered in somewhat +larger quantities.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course, such guessing at what is required, which is +especially uncertain if the surface of the ground is so +irregular as to require much deviation from regular parallel +lines, is obviated by the careful preparation of a plan +of the work, which enables us to measure, beforehand, the +length of drain requiring the different sizes of conduit, +and, as tiles are usually made one or two inches more than +a foot long, a thousand of them will lay a thousand feet,—leaving +a sufficient allowance for breakage, and for such +slight deviations of the lines as may be necessary to pass +around those stones which are too large to remove. In very +stony ground, the length of lines is often materially increased, +but in such ground, there is usually rock enough<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +or such accumulations of boulders in some parts, to reduce +the length of drain which it is possible to lay, at +least as much as the deviations will increase it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is always best to make a contract for tile considerably +in advance. The prices which are given in the advertisements +of the makers, are those at which a single thousand,—or +even a few hundred,—can be purchased, and +very considerable reductions of price may be secured on +large orders. Especially is this the case if the land is so +situated that the tile may be purchased at either one of +two tile works,—for the prices of all are extravagantly +high, and manufacturers will submit to large discounts +rather than lose an important order.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is especially recommended, in making the contract, +to stipulate that every tile shall be hard-burned, and that +those which will not give a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">clear ring</span></span> when struck with +a metallic instrument, shall be rejected, and the cost of +their transportation borne by the maker. The tiles used +in the Central Park drainage were all tested with the aid +of a bit of steel which had, at one end, a cutting edge. +With this instrument each tile was "sounded," and its +hardness was tested by scraping the square edge of the +bore. If it did not "ring" when struck, or if the edge +was easily cut, it was rejected. From the first cargo there +were many thrown out, but as soon as the maker saw that +they were really inspected, he sent tile of good quality +only. Care should also be taken that no <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">over-burned</span></span> +tile,—such as have been melted and warped, or very much +contracted in size by too great heat,—be smuggled into +the count.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A little practice will enable an ordinary workman to +throw out those which are imperfect, and, as a single tile +which is so underdone that it will not last, or which, from +over-burning, has too small an orifice, may destroy a long +drain, or a whole system of drains, the inspection should +be thorough.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The collars should be examined with equal care. Concerning +the use of these, Gisborne says:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"To one advantage which is derived from the use of +collars we have not yet adverted—the increased facility +with which free water existing in the soil can find entrance +into the conduit. The collar for a 1-1/2-inch pipe +has a circumference of three inches. The whole space +between the collar and the pipe on each side of the +collar is open, and affords no resistance to the entrance +of water; while at the same time the superincumbent +arch of the collar protects the junction of two +pipes from the intrusion of particles of soil. We confess +to some original misgivings that a pipe resting only +on an inch at each end, and lying hollow, might prove +weak and liable to fracture by weight pressing on it +from above; but the fear was illusory. Small particles +of soil trickle down the sides of every drain, and the +first flow of water will deposit them in the vacant space +between the two collars. The bottom, if at all soft, will +also swell up into any vacancy. Practically, if you reopen +a drain well laid with pipes and collars, you will +find them reposing in a beautiful nidus, which, when they +are carefully removed, looks exactly as if it had been +moulded for them."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cost of collars should not be considered an objection +to their use; because, without collars it would not be +safe, (as it is difficult to make the orifices of two pieces +come exactly opposite to each other,) to use less than 2-inch +tiles, while, with collars, 1-1/4-inch are sufficient for the +same use, and, including the cost of collars, are hardly +more expensive.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is usual, in all works on agricultural drainage, to insert +tables and formulæ for the guidance of those who +are to determine the size of tile required to discharge the +water of a certain area. The practice is not adopted here,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for the reason that all such tables are without practical +value. The smoothness and uniformity of the bore; the +rate of fall; the depth of the drain, and consequent +"head," or pressure, of the water; the different effects of +different soils in retarding the flow of the water to the +drain; the different degrees to which angles in the line of +tile affect the flow; the degree of acceleration of the flow +which is caused by greater or less additions to the stream +at the junction of branch drains; and other considerations, +arising at every step of the calculation, render it +impossible to apply delicate mathematical rules to work +which is, at best, rude and unmathematical in the extreme. +In sewerage, and the water supply of towns, such tables +are useful,—though, even in the most perfect of these +operations, engineers always make large allowances for +circumstances whose influence cannot be exactly measured,—but +in land drainage, the ordinary rules of hydraulics +have to be considered in so many different bearings, +that the computations of the books are not at all reliable. +For instance, Messrs. Shedd & Edson, of Boston, have +prepared a series of tables, based on Smeaton's experiments, +for the different sizes of tile, laid at different inclinations, +in which they state that 1-1/2-inch tile, laid with a +fall of one foot in a length of one hundred feet, will discharge +12,054.81 gallons of water in 24 hours. This is +equal to a rain-fall of over 350 inches per year on an acre +of land. As the average annual rain-fall in the United +States is about 40 inches, at least one-half of which is removed +by evaporation, it would follow, from this table, +that a 1-1/2-inch pipe, with the above named fall, would +serve for the drainage of about 17 acres. But the calculation +is again disturbed by the fact that the rain-fall is +not evenly distributed over all the days of the year,—as +much as six inches having been known to fall in a single +24 hours, (amounting to about 150,000 gallons per acre,) +and the removal of this water in a single day would require<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a tile nearly five inches in diameter, laid at the +given fall, or a 3-inch tile laid at a fall of more than 7-1/2 feet +in 100 feet. But, again, so much water could not reach a +drain four feet from the surface, in so short a time, and +the time required would depend very much on the character +of the soil. Obviously, then, these tables are worthless +for our purpose. Experience has fully shown that the sizes +which are recommended below are ample for practical +purposes, and probably the areas to be drained by the +given sizes might be greatly increased, especially with reference +to such soils as do not allow water to percolate very +freely through them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In connection with this subject, attention is called to the +following extract from the Author's Report on the Drainage, +which accompanies the "Third Annual Report of the +Board of Commissioners of the Central Park:"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In order to test the efficiency of the system of drainage +employed on the Park, I have caused daily observations +to be taken of the amount of water discharged from the +principal drain of 'the Green,' and have compared it +with the amount of rain-fall. A portion of the record of +those observations is herewith presented.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In the column headed 'Rain-Fall,' the amount of +water falling on one acre during the entire storm, is given +in gallons. This is computed from the record of a rain-gauge +kept on the Park.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Under the head of 'Discharge,' the number of gallons +of water drained from one acre during 24 hours is given. +This is computed from observations taken, once a day or +oftener, and supposes the discharge during the entire +day to be the same as at the time of taking the observations. +It is, consequently, but approximately correct:</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="5"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Date.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Hour.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rain-fall.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Discharge.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Remarks.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 13.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">10 a.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">49,916 galls.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">184 galls.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Ground dry. No rain since 3d inst.; 2 inches rain fell between 5.15 and 5.45 p.m. and 1-5th of an inch between 5.45 and 7.15.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 14.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">4,968 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 15.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,325 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 16.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">8 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,104 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 16.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6 p.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">33,398 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7,764 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Ground saturated at a depth of 2 feet when this rain commenced.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 17.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">4,319 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 18.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 a.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">2,208 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 19.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,325 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 20.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">993 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 21.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">662 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 22.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">560 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 23.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">10 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,698 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">515 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">This slight rain only affected the ratio of decrease.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">July 24.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">442 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Nothing worthy of note until Aug. 3.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 3.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">8,490 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">191 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rain from 3 p.m. to 3.30 p.m.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 4.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">13,018 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">184 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 4.45 p.m. to 12 m.n.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 5.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">45,288 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">368 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 12 m. to 6 p.m.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 5.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6 p.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">8,280 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 6.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 a.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">3,954 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 7.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">2,208 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 8.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">828 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 9.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">662 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 12.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">368 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rain 12 m. Aug. 12 to 7 a.m. Aug. 13.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 13.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">19,244 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,104 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 14.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">736 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 24.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,132 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">191 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 3 a.m. to 4.15 a.m.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 25.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">5,547 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9,936 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 3.30 p.m. 24th, to 7 a.m. 25th.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 25.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7 p.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">566 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7,740 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 7 a.m. to 12 m.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 26.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 a.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">3,974 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 26.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6 p.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">2,208 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 27.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 a.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">566 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,529 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 4 p.m. to 6 p.m.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Aug. 28.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">993 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 11.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">566 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">165 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 12 m.n. (10th) to 7 a.m. (11th.)</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 12.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">5,094 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">147 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 12 m. (11th) to 7 a.m. (12th.)</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 13.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">566 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">132 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 4 p.m. to 6 p.m.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 16.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">15,848 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">110 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 12 m. to 12 m.n.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 17.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">27,552 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,104 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rain continued until 12 m.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 17.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">5 p.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">6,624 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 18.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">8 a.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">566 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4,968 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 19.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6-1/2 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">2,208 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 19.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4 p.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,805 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 20.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 a.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">566 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,324 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rain f'm 12 m. (19th) to 7 a.m. (20th.)</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 21.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">5,094 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">945 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 3.20 p.m. (20th) to 6 a.m. (21st.)</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 22.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">10,185 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,656 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">" 12 m. (21st) to 7 a.m. (22d.)</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 23.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">40,756 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7,948 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rain continued until 7 a.m. (23d.)</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 24.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">4,968 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 25.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">566 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2,984 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Sep. 26.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">2,484 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Oct. 1.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">828 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">There was not enough rain during this period to materially affect the flow of water.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Nov. 18.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">83 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Nov. 19.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,132 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">184 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rain 4.50 p.m. (18th) to 8 a.m. (19th.)</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Nov. 20.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">119 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Nov. 22.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">29,336 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6,624 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rain all of the previous night.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Nov. 22.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2 p.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">6,624 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Nov. 23.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 a.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">4,968 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Nov. 24.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,711 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Nov. 24.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2 p.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">1,417 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Dec. 17.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 a.m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">552 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Dec. 18.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">4,968 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rain during the previous night.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Dec. 30.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">10 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">581 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The tract drained by this system, though very swampy, +before being drained, is now dry enough to walk upon, +almost immediately after a storm, except when underlaid +by a stratum of frozen ground."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The area drained by the main at which these gaugings +were made, is about ten acres, and, in deference to the +prevailing mania for large conduits, it had been laid with +6-inch sole-tile. The greatest recorded discharge in 24 +hours was (August 25th,) less than 100,000 gallons from +the ten acres,—an amount of water which did not half fill +the tile, but which, according to the tables referred to, +would have entirely filled it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In view of all the information that can be gathered +on the subject, the following directions are given as perfectly +reliable for drains four feet or more in depth, laid +on a well regulated fall of even three inches in a hundred +feet:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For 2 acres 1-1/4 inch pipes (with collars.)</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For 8 acres 2-1/4 inch pipes (with collars.)</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For 20 acres 3-1/2 inch pipes</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For 40 acres 2 3-1/2 inch pipes or one 5-inch sole-tile.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For 50 acres 6 inch pipes sole-tile.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For 100 acres 8 inch pipes or two 6-inch sole-tiles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not pretended that these drains will immediately +remove all the water of the heaviest storms, but they will +always remove it fast enough for all practical purposes, +and, if the pipes are securely laid, the drains will only be +benefited by the occasional cleansing they will receive +when running "more than full." In illustration of this +statement, the following is quoted from a paper communicated +by Mr. Parkes to the Royal Agricultural Society of +England in 1843:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Mr. Thomas Hammond, of Penshurst, (Kent,) now +uses no other size for the parallel drains than the inch +tile in the table, (No. 5,) having commenced with No.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +4,<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> and it may be here stated, that the opinion of all the +farmers who have used them in the Weald, is that a bore +of an inch area is abundantly large. A piece of 9 acres, +now sown with wheat, was observed by the writer, 36 +hours after the termination of a rain which fell heavily +and incessantly during 12 hours on the 7th of November. +This field was drained in March, 1842, to the depth +of 30 to 36 inches, at a distance of 24 feet asunder, the +length of each drain being 235 yards.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Each, drain emptied itself through a fence bank into +a running stream in a road below it; the discharge +therefore was distinctly observable. Two or three of +the pipes had now ceased running; and, with the exception +of one which tapped a small spring and gave a +stream about the size of a tobacco pipe, the run from +the others did not exceed the size of a wheat straw. +The greatest flow had been observed by Mr. Hammond +at no time to exceed half the bore of the pipes. The +fall in this field is very great, and the drains are laid in +the direction of the fall, which has always been the practice +in this district. The issuing water was transparently +clear; and Mr. Hammond states that he has +never observed cloudiness, except for a short time after +very heavy flushes of rain, when the drains are quickly +cleared of all sediment, in consequence of the velocity +and force of the water passing through so small a channel. +Infiltration through the soil and into the pipes, must, +in this case, be considered to have been perfect; and +their observed action is the more determinate and valuable +as regards time and effect, as the land was saturated +with moisture previous to this particular fall of rain, +and the pipes had ceased to run when it commenced. +This piece had, previous to its drainage, necessarily +been cultivated in narrow stretches, with an open water<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +furrow between them; but it was now laid quite plain, +by which one-eighth of the continuation of acreage has +been saved. Not, however, being confident as to the +soil having already become so porous as to dispense entirely +with surface drains, Mr. Hammond had drawn +two long water furrows diagonally across the field. On +examining these, it appeared that very little water had +flowed along any part of them during these 12 hours of +rain,—no water had escaped at their outfall; the entire +body of rain had permeated the mass of the bed, and +passed off through the inch pipes; no water perceptible +on the surface, which used to carry it throughout. The +subsoil is a brick clay, but it appears to crack very +rapidly by shrinkage consequent to drainage."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Obstructions.</span></span>—The danger that drains will become +obstructed, if not properly laid out and properly made, is +very great, and the cost of removing the obstructions, +(often requiring whole lines to be taken up, washed, and +relaid with the extra care that is required in working in +old and soft lines,) is often greater than the original cost +of the improvement. Consequently, the possibility of tile +drains becoming stopped up should be fully considered +at the outset, and every precaution should be taken to +prevent so disastrous a result.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The principal causes of obstruction are <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">silt, vermin</span></span>, and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">roots</span></span>.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Silt</span></span> is earth which is washed into the tile with the +water of the soil, and which, though it may be carried +along in suspension in the water, when the fall is good, +will be deposited in the eddies and slack-water, which +occur whenever there is a break in the fall, or a defect in +the laying of the tile.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Whenever it is possible to avoid it, no drain should +have a decreasing rate of fall as it approaches its outlet.</span></span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the first hundred feet from the upper end of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +drain has a fall of three inches, the next hundred feet +should not have less than three inches, lest the diminished +velocity cause silt, which required the speed which that +fall gives for its removal, to be deposited and to choke +the tile. This defect of grade is shown in Fig. 17. If the +second hundred feet has an inclination of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">more</span></span> than +three inches, (Fig. 18,) the removal of silt will be even better +secured than if the fall continued at the original rate. +Some silt will enter newly made drains, in spite of our +utmost care, but the amount should be very slight, and +if it is evenly deposited throughout the whole length of +the drain, (as it sometimes is when the rate of fall is very +low,) it will do no especial harm; but it becomes dangerous +when it is accumulated within a short distance, by a +decreasing fall, or by a single badly laid tile, or imperfect +joint, which, by arresting the flow, may cause as much +mischief as a defective grade.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Owing to the general conformation of the ground, it is +sometimes absolutely necessary to adopt such a grade as +is shown in Fig. 19,—even to the extent of bringing the +drain down a rapid slope, and continuing it with the least +possible fall through level ground. When such changes +must be made, they should be effected by angles, and not +by curves. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">increasing</span></span> the fall, curves in the grade are +always advisable, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">decreasing</span></span> it they are always objectionable, +except when the decreased fall is still considerable,—say, +at least 2 feet in 100 feet. The reason for making +an absolute angle at the point of depression is, that it +enables us to catch the silt at that point in a silt basin, +from which it may be removed as occasion requires.</p> + +<a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image19.png" width="640" height="257" alt="Illustration: Fig. 19 - THREE PROFILES OF DRAINS, WITH DIFFERENT INCLINATIONS." title="Fig. 19 - THREE PROFILES OF DRAINS, WITH DIFFERENT INCLINATIONS." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 19 - THREE PROFILES OF DRAINS, WITH DIFFERENT INCLINATIONS.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Silt Basin</span></span> is a chamber, below the grade of the drain, +into which the water flows, becomes comparatively quiet, +and deposits its silt, instead of carrying it into the tile +beyond. It may be large or small, in proportion to the +amount of drain above, which it has to accommodate. For +a few hundred feet of the smallest tile, it may be only a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +6-inch tile placed on end and sunk so as to receive and +discharge the water at its top. For a large main, it may +be a brick reservoir with a capacity of 2 or 3 cubic feet. +The position of a silt basin is shown in Fig. 19.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The quantity of silt which enters the drain depends very +much on the soil. Compact clays yield very little, and +wet, running sands, (quicksands,) a great deal. In a soil +of the latter sort, or one having a layer of running sand at +the level of the drain, the ditch should be excavated a little +below the grade of the drain, and then filled to that +level with a retentive clay, and rammed hard. In all cases +when the tile is well laid, (especially if collars are used,) +and a stiff earth is well packed around the tile, silt will +not enter the drain to an injurious extent, after a few +months' operation shall have removed the loose particles +about the joints, and especially after a few very heavy +rains, which, if the tiles are small, will sometimes wash +them perfectly clean, although they may have been half +filled with dirt.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermin</span></span>,—field mice, moles, etc.,—sometimes make +their nests in the tile and thus choke them, or, dying +in them, stop them up with their carcases. Their entrance +should be prevented by placing a coarse wire cloth +or grating in front of the outlets, which afford the only +openings for their entrance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roots.</span></span>—The roots of many water-loving trees,—especially +willows,—will often force their entrance into the +joints of the tile and fill the whole bore with masses of +fibre which entirely prevent the flow of water. Collars +make it more difficult for them to enter, but even these +are not a sure preventive. Gisborne says:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"My own experience as to roots, in connection with +deep pipe draining, is as follows: I have never known +roots to obstruct a pipe through which there was not a +perennial stream. The flow of water in summer and +early autumn appears to furnish the attraction. I have<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +never discovered that the roots of any esculent vegetable +have obstructed a pipe. The trees which, by my own +personal observation, I have found to be most dangerous, +have been red willow, black Italian poplar, alder, +ash, and broad-leaved elm. I have many alders in close +contiguity with important drains, and, though I have +never convicted one, I cannot doubt that they are dangerous. +Oak, and black and white thorns, I have not +detected, nor do I suspect them. The guilty trees have +in every instance been young and free growing; I have +never convicted an adult. These remarks apply solely +to my own observation, and may of course be much +extended by that of other agriculturists. I know an instance +in which a perennial spring of very pure and (I +believe) soft water is conveyed in socket pipes to a +paper mill. Every junction of two pipes is carefully +fortified with cement. The only object of cover being +protection from superficial injury and from frost, the +pipes are laid not far below the sod. Year by year these +pipes are stopped by roots. Trees are very capricious in +this matter. I was told by the late Sir R. Peel that he +sacrificed two young elm trees in the park at Drayton +Manor to a drain which had been repeatedly stopped by +roots. The stoppage was nevertheless repeated, and +was then traced to an elm tree far more distant than +those which had been sacrificed. Early in the autumn +of 1850 I completed the drainage of the upper part of a +boggy valley, lying, with ramifications, at the foot of +marly banks. The main drains converge to a common +outlet, to which are brought one 3-inch pipe and three of 4 +inches each. They lie side by side, and water flows perennially +through each of them. Near to this outlet did +grow a red willow. In February, 1852, I found the +water breaking out to the surface of the ground about +10 yards above the outlet, and was at no loss for the +cause, as the roots of the red willow showed themselves<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at the orifice of the 3-inch and of two of the 4-inch pipes. +On examination I found that a root had entered a joint +between two 3-inch pipes, and had traveled 5 yards to +the mouth of the drain, and 9 yards up the stream, +forming a continuous length of 14 yards. The root which +first entered had attained about the size of a lady's little +finger; and its ramifications consisted of very fine and +almost silky fibres, and would have cut up into half a +dozen comfortable boas. The drain was completely +stopped. The pipes were not in any degree displaced. +Roots from the same willow had passed over the 3-inch +pipes, and had entered and entirely stopped the first +4-inch drain, and had partially stopped the second. At +a distance of about 50 yards a black Italian poplar, +which stood on a bank over a 4-inch drain, had completely +stopped it with a bunch of roots. The whole of +this had been the work of less than 18 months, including +the depth of two winters. A 3-inch branch of the same +system runs through a little group of black poplars. +This drain conveys a full stream in plashes of wet, and +some water generally through the winter months, but +has not a perennial flow. I have perceived no indication +that roots have interfered with this drain. I draw +no general conclusions from these few facts, but they +may assist those who have more extensive experience in +drawing some, which may be of use to drainers."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having considered some of the principles on which our +work should be based, let us now return to the map of the +field, and apply those principles in planning the work to be +done to make it dry.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Outlet</span></span> should evidently be placed at the present +point of exit of the brook which runs from the springs, +collects the water of the open ditches, and spreads over +the flat in the southwest corner of the tract, converting +it into a swamp. Suppose that, by going some distance +into the next field, we can secure an outlet of 3 feet and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +9 inches (3.75) below the level of the swamp, and that we +decide to allow 3 inches drop between the bottom of the +tile at that point, and the reduced level of the brook to +secure the drain against the accumulation of sand, which +might result from back water in time of heavy rain. This +fixes the depth of drain at the outlet at 3-1/2 (3.50) feet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At that side of the swamp which lies nearest to the +main depression of the up-land, (See Fig. 21,) is the proper +place at which to collect the water from so much of +the field as is now drained by the main brook, and at that +point it will be well to place a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">silt basin</span></span> or well, built up +to the surface, which may, at any time, be uncovered for +an observation of the working of the drains. The land +between this point and the outlet is absolutely level, requiring +the necessary fall in the drain which connects the +two, to be gained by raising the upper end of it. As the +distance is nearly 200 feet, and as it is advisable to give a +fall at least five-tenths of a foot per hundred feet to so important +an outlet as this, the drain at the silt basin may +be fixed at only 2-1/2 feet. The basin being at the foot of +a considerable rise in the ground, it will be easy, within a +short distance above, to carry the drains which come to it +to a depth of 4 feet,—were this not the case, the fall between +the basin and the outlet would have to be very +much reduced.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Main Drains.</span></span>—The valley through which the brook +now runs is about 80 feet wide, with a decided rise in the +land at each side. If one main drain were laid in the center +of it, all of the laterals coming to the main would first +run down a steep hillside, and then across a stretch of +more level land, requiring the grade of each lateral to be +broken at the foot of the hill, and provided with a silt +basin to collect matters which might be deposited when +the fall becomes less rapid. Consequently, it is best to +provide two mains, or collecting drains, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>,) one +lying at the foot of each hill, when they will receive the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +laterals at their greatest fall; but, as these are too far +apart to completely drain the valley between them, and +are located on land higher than the center of the valley, a +drain, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">B</span></span>,) should be run up, midway between them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The collecting drain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span>, will receive the laterals from the +hill to the west of it, as far up as the 10-foot contour line, +and, above that point,—running up a branch of the valley,—it +will receive laterals from both sides. The drain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">B</span></span>, +may be continued above the dividing point of the valley, +and will act as one of the series of laterals. The drain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>, +will receive the laterals and sub-mains from the rising +ground to the east of it, and from both sides of the minor +valley which extends in that direction.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Most of the valley which runs up from the easterly side +of the swamp must be drained independently by the drain +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">E</span></span>, which might be carried to the silt basin, did not its +continuation directly to the outlet offer a shorter course +for the removal of its water. This drain will receive laterals +from the hill bordering the southeasterly side of the +swamp, and, higher up, from both sides of the valley in +which it runs.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In laying out these main drains, more attention should +be given to placing them where they will best receive the +water of the laterals, and on lines which offer a good and +tolerably uniform descent, than to their use for the immediate +drainage of the land through which they pass. +Afterward, in laying out the laterals, the use of these lines +as local drains should, of course, be duly considered.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Lateral Drains</span></span> should next receive attention, and +in their location and arrangement the following rules +should be observed:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1st. They should run down the steepest descent of the +land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2d. They should be placed at intervals proportionate to +their depth;—if 4 feet deep, at 40 feet intervals; if 3 feet +deep, at 20 feet intervals.</p> + +<a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image20.png" width="640" height="832" alt="Illustration: Fig. 20 - MAP WITH DRAINS AND CONTOUR LINES." title="Fig. 20 - MAP WITH DRAINS AND CONTOUR LINES." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 20 - MAP WITH DRAINS AND CONTOUR LINES.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3d. They should, as nearly as possible, run parallel to +each other.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On land of perfectly uniform character, (all sloping in +the same direction,) all of these requirements may be +complied with, but on irregular land it becomes constantly +necessary to make a compromise between them. Drains +running down the line of steepest descent cannot be parallel,—and, +consequently, the intervals between them cannot +be always the same; those which are farther apart at +one end than at the other cannot be always of a depth +exactly proportionate to their intervals.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the adjustment of the lines, so as to conform as nearly +to these requirements as the shape of the ground will +allow, there is room for the exercise of much skill, and on +such adjustment depend, in a great degree, the success and +economy of the work. Remembering that on the map, the +line of steepest descent is exactly perpendicular to the contour +lines of the land, it will be profitable to study carefully +the system of drains first laid out, erasing and making +alterations wherever it is found possible to simplify +the arrangement.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strictly speaking, all <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">angles</span></span> are, to a certain extent, +wasteful, because, if two parallel drains will suffice to drain +the land between them, no better drainage will be effected +by a third drain running across that land. Furthermore, +the angles are practically supplied with drains at less intervals +than are required,—for instance, at <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C 7 a</span></span> on the +map the triangles included within the dotted line <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">x</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">y</span></span>, +will be doubly drained. So, also, if any point of a +4-foot drain will drain the land within 20 feet of it, +the land included within the dotted line forming a +semi-circle about the point <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C 14</span></span>, might drain into the +end of the lateral, and it no more needs the action of +the main drain than does that which lies between the +laterals. Of course, angles and connecting lines are indispensable, +except where the laterals can run independently<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +across the entire field, and discharge beyond it. +The longer the laterals can be made, and the more angles +can be avoided, the more economical will the arrangement +be; and, until the arrangement of the lines has been made +as nearly perfect as possible, the time of the drainer can +be in no way so profitably spent as in amending his plan.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The series of laterals which discharge through the +mains <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">D</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">E</span></span>, on the accompanying map, have +been very carefully considered, and are submitted to the +consideration of the reader, in illustration of what has +been said above.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At one point, just above the middle of the east side of +the field, the laterals are placed at a general distance of +20 feet, because, as will be seen by reference to Fig. 4, a +ledge of rock, underground, will prevent their being made +more than 3 feet deep.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The line from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H</span></span> to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">I</span></span>, (Fig. 20,) at the north side of +the field, connecting the heads of the laterals, is to be a +stone and tile drain, such as is described on page 60, intended +to collect the water which follows the surface of +the rock. (See Fig. 4.)</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The swamp is to be drained by itself, by means of two +series of laterals discharging into the main lines <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">F</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">G</span></span>, +which discharge at the outlet, by the side of the main +drain from the silt-basin. By this arrangement, these +laterals, especially at the north side of the swamp, being +accurately laid, with very slight inclinations, can be placed +more deeply than if they ran in an east and west direction, +and discharged into the main, which has a greater inclination, +and is only two and a half feet deep at the basin. +Being 3-1/2 (3.50) feet deep at the outlet, they may +be made fully 3 feet deep at their upper ends, and, being +only 20 feet apart, they will drain the land as well as is +possible. The drains being now laid out, over the whole +field, the next thing to be attended to is</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Ordering of the Tile.</span></span>—The main line from the outlet +up to the silt-basin, should be of 3-1/2-inch tiles, of which +about 190 feet will be required. The main drain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span> should +be laid with 2-1/4-inch tiles to the point marked <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">m</span></span>, near its +upper end, as the lateral entering there carries the water +of a spring, which is supposed to fill a 1-1/4-inch tile. The +length of this drain, from the silt-basin to that point is +575 feet. The main drain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span> will require 2-1/4 inch tiles from +the silt-basin to the junction with the lateral, which is +marked <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span> 10, above which point there is about 1,700 feet +of drain discharging into it, a portion of which, being a +stone-and-tile drain at the foot of a rock, may be supposed +to receive more water than that which lies under the rest +of the land;—distance 450 feet. The main drain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">E</span></span> requires +2-1/4-inch tiles from the outlet to the point marked <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">o</span></span>, a distance +of 380 feet. This tile will, in addition to its other +work, carry as much water from the spring, on the line of +its fourth lateral, as would fill a 1-1/4-inch pipe.<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The length of the main drains above the points indicated, +and of all the laterals, amounts to about 12,250 feet. +These all require 1-1/4-inch tiles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Allowing about five per cent. for breakage, the order in +round numbers, will be as follows:<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3-1/2-inch round tiles 200 feet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2-1/4-inch round tiles 1,500 feet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1-1/4-inch round tiles 13,000 feet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3-1/2-inch round tiles 1,600</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2-1/4-inch round tiles 13,250</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Order, also, 25 6-inch sole-tiles, to be used in making +small silt-basins.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It should be arranged to have the tiles all on the ground +before the work of ditching commences, so that there may +be no delay and consequent danger to the stability of the +banks of the ditches, while waiting for them to arrive. As +has been before stated, it should be especially agreed with +the tile-maker, at the time of making the contract, that +every tile should be perfect;—of uniform shape, and +neither too much nor too little burned.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Staking Out.</span></span>—Due consideration having been given to +such preliminaries as are connected with the mapping of +the ground, and the arrangement, on paper, of the drains +to be made, the drainer may now return to his field, and, +while awaiting the arrival of his tiles, make the necessary +preparation for the work to be done. The first step is to +fix certain prominent points, which will serve to connect +the map with the field, by actual measurements, and this +will very easily be done by the aid of the stakes which +are still standing at the intersections of the 50-foot lines, +which were used in the preliminary levelling.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Commencing at the southwest corner of the field, and +measuring toward the east a distance of 34 feet, set a pole +to indicate the position of the outlet. Next, mark the +center of the silt-basin at the proper point, which will be +found by measuring 184 feet up the western boundary, and +thence toward the east 96 feet, on a line parallel with the +nearest row of 50-foot stakes. Then, in like manner, fix +the points <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C1</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C6</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C9</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C10</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C17</span></span>, and the angles +of the other main lines, marking the stakes, when placed, +to correspond with the same points on the map. Then +stake the angles and the upper ends of the laterals, and +mark these stakes to correspond with the map.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will greatly facilitate this operation, if the plan of +the drains which is used in the field, from which the horizontal<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lines should be omitted, have the intersecting 50-foot +lines drawn upon it, so that the measurements may +be made from the nearest points of intersection.<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having staked these guiding points of the drains, it is +advisable to remove all of the 50-foot stakes, as these are +of no further use, and would only cause confusion. It +will now be easy to set the remaining stakes,—placing one +at every 50 feet of the laterals, and at the intersections +of all the lines.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A system for marking the stakes is indicated on the +map, (in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span> series of drains,) which, to avoid the confusion +which would result from too much detail on such a +small scale, has been carried only to the extent necessary +for illustration. The stakes of the line <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span> are marked <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C1</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C2</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C3</span></span>, etc. The stakes of the sub-main <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7</span></span>, are marked +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7a</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7b</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7c</span></span>, etc. The stakes of the lateral which +enters this drain at <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7a</span></span>, are marked <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7a/1</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7a/2</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7a/3,</span></span> etc. +etc. This system, which connects the lettering of each +lateral with its own sub-main and main, is perfectly simple, +and avoids the possibility of confusion. The position +of the stakes should all be lettered on the map, at the +original drawing, and the same designating marks put on +the stakes in the field, as soon as set.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grade Stakes</span></span>, (pegs about 8 or 10 inches long,) should +be placed close at the sides of the marked stakes, and +driven nearly their full length into the ground. The tops +of these stakes furnish fixed points of elevation from +which to take the measurements, and to make the computations +necessary to fix the depth of the drain at each +stake. If the measurements were taken from the surface +of the ground, a slight change of position in placing the +instrument, would often make a difference of some inches +in the depth of the drain.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Taking the Levels.</span></span>—For accurate work, it is necessary +to ascertain the comparative levels of the tops of all of +the grade stakes; or the distance of each one of them +below an imaginary horizontal plane. This plane, (in which +we use only such lines as are directly above the drains,) +may be called the "Datum Line." Its elevation should +be such that it will be above the highest part of the land, +and, for convenience, it is fixed at the elevation of the levelling +instrument when it is so placed as to look over the +highest part of the field.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Levelling Instruments</span></span> are of various kinds. The best +for the work in hand, is the common railroad level, which +is shown in Fig. 6. This is supported on three legs, which +bring it to about the level of the eye. Its essential parts +are a telescope, which has two cross-hairs intersecting each +other in the line of sight, and which may be turned on its +pivot toward any point of the horizon; a bubble glass +placed exactly parallel to the line of sight, and firmly +secured in its position so as to turn with the telescope; +and an apparatus for raising or depressing any side of the +instrument by means of set-screws. The instrument is +firmly screwed to the tripod, and placed at a point convenient +for looking over a considerable part of the highest +land. By the use of the set-screws, the plane in which the +instrument revolves is brought to a level, so that in whatever +direction the instrument is pointed, the bubble will be +in the center of the glass. The line of sight, whichever +way it is turned, is now in our imaginary plane. A convenient +position for the instrument in the field under consideration, +would be at the point, east of the center, marked +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">K</span></span>, which is about 3 feet below the level of the highest +part of the ground. The telescope should stand about 5 +feet above the surface of the ground directly under it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Levelling-Rod</span></span>, (See Fig. 7,) is usually 12 feet long, +is divided into feet and hundredths of a foot, and has a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +movable target which may be placed at any part of its +entire length. This is carried by an attendant, who holds +it perpendicularly on the top of the grade-stake, while the +operator, looking through the telescope, directs him to +move the target up and down until its center is exactly in +the line of sight. The attendant then reads the elevation, +and the operator records it as the distance below the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">datum-line</span></span> of the top of the grade-stake. For convenience, +the letterings of the stakes should be systematically +entered in a small field book, before the work commences, +and this should be accompanied by such a sketch of the +plan as will serve as a guide to the location of the lines on +the ground.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following is the form of the field book for the main +drain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>, with the levels recorded:</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Lettering of the Stake</span></span>.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Depth from Datum Line</span></span>.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Silt Basin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">18.20</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 1</td><td class="tei tei-cell">15.44</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 2</td><td class="tei tei-cell">14.36</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 3</td><td class="tei tei-cell">12.85</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 4</td><td class="tei tei-cell">12.18</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 5</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.79</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 6</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.69</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 7</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.55</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 8</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.37</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 9</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.06</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 10</td><td class="tei tei-cell">8.94</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 11</td><td class="tei tei-cell">8.52</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 12</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7.86</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 13</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7.70</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 14</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7.39</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 15</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7.06</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C 16</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6.73</td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The levelling should be continued in this manner, until +the grades of all the points are recorded in the field book.</p> + +<a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image21.png" width="640" height="354" alt="Illustration: Fig. 21 - PROFILE OF DRAIN C." title="Fig. 21 - PROFILE OF DRAIN C." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 21 - PROFILE OF DRAIN C.</div><p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Horizontal Scale, 66 ft. to the inch.<br /> +Vertical Scale, 15 ft. to the inch.<br /><br /> +1 to 17. Numbers of Stakes.<br /> +(82) etc. Distances between Stakes.<br /> +18.20 etc. Depths from <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">datum-line</span></span> to surface.<br /> +2.50 etc. Depths of ditch.<br /> +20.70 etc. Depths from <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">datum-line</span></span> to drain.</p></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If, from too great depression of the lower parts of the +field, or too great distances for observation, it becomes +necessary to take up a new position with the instrument, +the new level should be connected, by measurement, with<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the old one, and the new observations should be computed +to the original plane.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not necessary that these levels should be noted on +the map,—they are needed only for computing the depth +of cutting, and if entered on the map, might be mistaken +for the figures indicating the depth, which it is more important +to have recorded in their proper positions, for convenience +of reference during the work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Depth and Grade of the Drains.</span></span>—Having now +staked out the lines upon the land, and ascertained and +recorded the elevations at the different stakes, it becomes +necessary to determine at what depth the tile shall be +placed at each point, so as to give the proper fall to each +line, and to bring all of the lines of the system into accord. +As the simplest means of illustrating the principle on +which this work should be done, it will be convenient to +go through with the process with reference to the main +drain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>, of the plan under consideration. A profile of this +line is shown in Fig. 21, where the line is broken at stake +No. 7, and continued in the lower section of the diagram. +The topmost line, from "Silt Basin" to "17," is the horizontal +datum-line. The numbers above the vertical lines indicate +the stakes; the figures in brackets between these, the +number of feet between the stakes; and the heavy figures +at the left of the vertical lines, the recorded measurements +of depth from the datum-line to the surface of the ground, +which is indicated by the irregular line next below the +datum-line. The vertical measurements are, of course, +very much exaggerated, to make the profile more marked, +but they are in the proper relation to each other.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The depth at the silt-basin is fixed at 2-1/2 feet (2.50.) +The rise is rapid to stake 3, very slight from there to stake +7, very rapid from there to stake 10, a little less rapid from +there to stake 11, and still less rapid from there to +stake 17.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To establish the grade by the profile alone, the proper<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +course would be to fix the depth at the stakes at which +the inclination is to be changed, to draw straight lines between +the points thus found, and then to measure the +vertical distance from these lines to the line indicating the +surface of the ground at the different stakes; thus, fixing +the depth at stake 3, at 4 feet and 13 hundredths,<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> the line +drawn from that point to the depth of 2.50, at the silt-basin, +will be 3 feet and 62 hundredths (3.62) below stake +1, and 3 feet and 92 hundredths (3.92) below stake 2. At +stake 7 it is necessary to go sufficiently deep to pass from 7 +to 10, without coming too near the surface at 9, which is at +the foot of a steep ascent. A line drawn straight from +4.59 feet below stake 10 to 4.17 feet at stake 17, would be +unnecessarily deep at 11, 12, 13, and 14; and, consequently +it is better to rise to 4.19 feet at 11. So far as +this part of the drain is concerned, it would be well to +continue the same rise to 12, but, in doing so, we would +come too near the surface at 13, 14, and 15; or must considerably +depress the line at 16, which would either make +a bad break in the fall at that point, or carry the drain +too deep at 17.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the arrangement adopted, the grade is broken at 3, +7, 10, and 11. Between these points, it is a straight line, with +the rate of fall indicated in the following table, which +commences at the upper end of the drain and proceeds toward +its outlet:</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="6"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">From Stake, Depth.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">To Stake, Depth.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Distance</span></span>.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Total Fall</span></span>.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Rate of Fall. Per 100 Ft.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">No. 17...4.17 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">No. 11...4.19 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">246 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2.46 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1.09 ft.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">No. 11...4.19 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">No. 10...4.59 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">82 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2.00 ft.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">No. 10...4.59 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">No. 7...4.47 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">91 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2.49 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2.83 ft.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">No. 7...4.47 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">No. 3...4.13 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">173 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">96 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">56 ft.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">No. 3...4.13 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">S. Basin 2.25 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">186 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3.47 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1.87 ft.</td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will be seen that the fall becomes more rapid as we +ascend from stake 7, but below this point it is very much<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +reduced, so much as to make it very likely that silt will +be deposited, (see page 91), and the drain, thereby, obstructed. +To provide against this, a silt-basin must be +placed at this point which will collect the silt and prevent +its entrance into the more nearly level tile below. The +construction of this silt-basin is more particularly described +in the next chapter. From stake 7 to the main silt-basin +the fall is such that the drain will clear itself.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The drawing of regular profiles, for the more important +drains, will be useful for the purpose of making the beginner +familiar with the method of grading, and with the +principles on which the grade and depth are computed; +and sometimes, in passing over very irregular surfaces, this +method will enable even a skilled drainer to hit upon the +best adjustment in less time than by computation. Ordinarily, +however, the form of computation given in the following +table, which refers to the same drain, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>,) will be +more expeditious, and its results are mathematically more +correct.<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a></p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="8"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Fall. Feet and Decimals.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Depth from Datum Line.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">No. of Stake.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Distance Between Stakes.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Per 100 Feet.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Between Stakes.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">To Drain.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">To Surface.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Depth of Drain.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Remarks.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Silt Basin.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">20.70 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">18.20 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2.50 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C. 1. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 82 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 2 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1.64 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">19.06 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">15.44 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3.48 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C. 2. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">39 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .78 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">18.28 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">14.36 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3.83 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C. 3. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">65 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">1.30 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">16.98 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">12.85 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.13 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C. 4. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">51 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">.56 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .28 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">16.70 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">12.18 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.52 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C. 5. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">43 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .24 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">16.46 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.79 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.67 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C. 6. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">47 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .26 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">16.20 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.69 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.51 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C. 7. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">32 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .18 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">16.02 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.55 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.47 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Silt-Basin here. Made deep at Nos. 7 and 10 to pass a depression of the surface at No. 9.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C. 8. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 2.83 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">1.16 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">14.86 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.37 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3.49 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C. 9. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">12 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .34 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">14.52 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.06 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3.46 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C.10. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">38 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .99 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">13.53 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 8.94 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.59 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C.11. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 2.00 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .82 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">12.61 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 8.52 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.19 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C.12. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 1.09 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .44 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">12.27 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 7.86 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.41 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C.13. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .44 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.83 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 7.70 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.13 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C.14. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .44 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">11.39 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 7.39 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.00 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C.15. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .44 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">10.95 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 7.06 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3.89 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C.16. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .44 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">10.51 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 6.73 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3.88 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">C.17. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 ft.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">do. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"> .44 ft. </td><td class="tei tei-cell">10.07 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> 5.90 "</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4.17 ft </td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Note.</span></span>—The method of making the foregoing computation +is this:</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">1st. Enter the lettering of the stakes in the first column, commencing +at the lower end of the drain.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">2d. Enter the distances between each two stakes in the second column, +placing the measurement on the line with the number of the +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">upper</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> stake of the two.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">3d. In the next to the last column enter, on the line with each stake, +its depth below the datum-line, as recorded in the field book of levels, +(See page 105.)</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">4th. On the first line of the last column, place the depth of the lower +end of the drain, (this is established by the grade of the main or other +outlet at which it discharges.)</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">5th. Add this depth to the first number of the line next preceding it, +and enter the sum obtained on the first line of the fifth column, as the +depth of the </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">drain</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> below the datum-line.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">6th. Having reference to the grade of the surface, (as shown by the +figures in the sixth column,) as well as to any necessity for placing the +drain at certain depths at certain places, enter the desired depth, </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">in pencil,</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> +in the last column, opposite the stakes marking those places. Then add +together this depth and the corresponding surface measurement in the +column next preceding, and enter the sum, </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">in pencil</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, in the fifth column, +as the depth from the datum-line to the desired position of the drain. +(In the example in hand, these points are at Nos. 3, 7, 10, 11, and 17.)</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">7th. Subtract the second amount in the fifth column from the first +amount for the total fall between the two points—in the example, "3" +from "Silt-Basin." Divide this total fall, (in feet and hundredths,) by +one hundredth of the total number of feet between them. The result +will be the rate of fall per 100 feet, and this should be entered, in the +third column, opposite each of the intermediate distances between the +points.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">Example:</span></p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Depth of the Drain at the Silt-Basin</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">20.45 feet.</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Depth of the Drain at the Stake No. 3</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">16.98 feet.</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">——</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Difference</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">3.47 feet.</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Distance between the two</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">186.— feet.</span></td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">1.86)3.47(1.865 or 1.87</span></p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: right; margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">1 86</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +——</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +1 610</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +1 488</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +——</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +1 220</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +1 116</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +——</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +1 040</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +930</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +——</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +110</span></p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">8th. Multiply the numbers of the second column by those of the third +and divide the product by 100. The result will be the amount of fall between +the stakes, (fourth column.)—Example: 1.87×82=153÷100=1.53.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">9th. Subtract the first number of the fourth column from the first +number of the fifth column, (on the line above it,) and place the remainder +on the next line of the fifth column.—Example: 20.70-1.64= +19.06.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">Then, from this new amount, subtract the second number of the +fourth column, for the next number of the fifth, and so on, until, in +place of the entry in pencil, (Stake 3,) we place the exact result of the +computation.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">Proceed in like manner with the next interval,—3 to 7.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">10th. Subtract the numbers in the sixth column from those in the +fifth, and the remainders will be the depths to be entered in the last.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">Under the head of "Remarks," note any peculiarity of the drain +which may require attention in the field.</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The main lines <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">D</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">E</span></span>, and the drain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">B</span></span>, should +next be graded on the plan set forth for <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>, and their laterals, +all of which have considerable fall, and being all so +steep as not to require silt-basins at any point,—can, by +a very simple application of the foregoing principles, be +adjusted at the proper depths. In grading the stone and +tile drain, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H, I</span></span>,) it is only necessary to adopt the depth of +the last stakes of the laterals, with which it is connected, +as it is immaterial in which direction the water flows. The +ends of this drain,—from H to the head of the drain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C10</span></span>, +and from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">I</span></span> to the head of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C17</span></span>,—should, of course, have a +decided fall toward the drains.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The laterals which are placed at intervals of 20 feet, +over the underground rock on the east side of the field, +should be continued at a depth of about 3 feet for nearly +their whole length, dropping in a distance of 8 or 10 feet +at their lower ends to the top of the tile of the main. The +intervals between the lower ends of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7c</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7d</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C7e</span></span>, +being considerably more than 20 feet, the drains may be +gradually deepened, throughout their whole length from 3 +feet at the upper ends to the depth of the top of the main +at the lower ends.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The main drains <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">F</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">G</span></span>, being laid in flat land, their<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +outlets being fixed at a depth of 3.50, (the floor of the +main outlet,) and it being necessary to have them as deep +as possible throughout their entire length, should be +graded with great care on the least admissible fall. This, +in ordinary agricultural drainage, may be fixed at .25, or +3 inches, per 100 feet. Their laterals should commence +with the top of their 1/4 tile even with the top of the 2-1/2 collar +of the main,—or .15 higher than the grade of the main,—and +rise, at a uniform inclination of .25, to the upper end.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having now computed the depth at which the tile is to +lie, at each stake, and entered it on the map, we are ready +to mark these depths on their respective stakes in the field, +when the preliminary engineering of the work will be +completed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been deemed advisable in this chapter to consider +the smallest details of the work of the draining engineer. +Those who intend to drain in the best manner will find +such details important. Those who propose to do their +work less thoroughly, may still be guided by the principles +on which they are based. Any person who will +take the pains to mature the plans of his work as closely +as has been here recommended, will as a consequence +commence his operations in the field much more understandingly. +The advantage of having everything decided +beforehand,—so that the workmen need not be delayed for +want of sufficient directions, and of making, on the map, +such alterations as would have appeared necessary in the +field, thus saving the cost of cutting ditches in the wrong +places, will well repay the work of the evenings of a +whole winter.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc26" id="toc26"></a> +<a name="pdf27" id="pdf27"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER IV. - HOW TO MAKE THE DRAINS.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Knowing, now, precisely what is to be done; having +the lines all staked out, and the stakes so marked as to be +clearly designated; knowing the precise depth at which +the drain is to be laid, at every point; having the requisite +tiles on the ground, and thoroughly inspected, the operator +is prepared to commence actual work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He should determine how many men he will employ, +and what tools they will require to work to advantage. It +may be best that the work be done by two or three +men, or it may be advisable to employ as many as can +work without interfering with each other. In most cases,—especially +where there is much water to contend with,—the +latter course will be the most economical, as the ditches +will not be so liable to be injured by the softening of their +bottoms, and the caving in of their sides.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Tools Required</span></span> are a subsoil plow, two garden +lines, spades, shovels, and picks; narrow finishing spades, +a finishing scoop, a tile pick, a scraper for filling the +ditches, a heavy wooden maul for compacting the bottom +filling, half a dozen boning-rods, a measuring rod, and a +plumb rod. These should all be on hand at the outset, so +that no delay in the work may result from the want of +them.</p> + +<a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image22.png" width="640" height="832" alt="Illustration: Fig. 22 - SET OF TOOLS." title="Fig. 22 - SET OF TOOLS." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 22 - SET OF TOOLS.</div><p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Flat Spades of +various lengths +and widths, Bill-necked +Scoop (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span>); +Tile-layer (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">B</span></span>); +Pick-axe (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>); and +Scoop Spades, and +Shovel.</p></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Writers on drainage, almost without exception, recommend +the use of elaborate sets of tools which are intended<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for cutting very narrow ditches,—only wide enough at the +bottom to admit the tile, and not allowing the workmen +to stand in the bottom of the ditch. A set of these tools +is shown in Fig. 22.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Possibly there may be soils in which these implements, +in the hands of men skilled in their use, could be employed +with economy, but they are very rare, and it is not believed +to be possible, under any circumstances, to regulate +the bottom of the ditch so accurately as is advisable, unless +the workman can stand directly upon it, cutting it +more smoothly than he could if the point of his tool were +a foot or more below the level on which he stands.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On this subject, Mr. J. Bailey Denton, one of the first +draining engineers of Great Britain, in a letter to Judge +French, says:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"As to tools, it is the same with them as it is with the +art of draining itself,—too much rule and too much drawing +upon paper; all very right to begin with, but very +prejudicial to progress. I employ, as engineer to the +General Land Drainage Company, and on my private +account, during the drainage season, as many as 2,000 +men, and it is an actual fact, that not one of them uses +the set of tools figured in print. I have frequently purchased +a number of sets of the Birmingham tools, and +sent them down on extensive works. The laborers would +purchase a few of the smaller tools, such as Nos. 290, +291, and 301, figured in Morton's excellent Cyclopædia +of Agriculture, and would try them, and then order +others of the country blacksmith, differing in several +respects; less weighty and much less costly, and moreover, +much better as working tools. All I require of the +cutters, is, that the bottom of the drain should be evenly +cut, to fit the size of the pipe. The rest of the work +takes care of itself; for a good workman will economize +his labor for his own sake, by moving as little earth as +practicable; thus, for instance, a first-class cutter, in<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +clays, will get down 4 feet with a 12-inch opening, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ordinarily</span></span>; +if he wishes to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">show off</span></span>, he will sacrifice his +own comfort to appearance, and will do it with a 10-inch +opening."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Central Park work, sets of these tools were procured, +at considerable expense, and every effort was made +to compel the men to use them, but it was soon found that, +even in the easiest digging, there was a real economy in +using, for the first 3 feet of the ditch, the common spade, +pick, and shovel,—finishing the bottoms with the narrow +spade and scoop hereafter described, and it is probable +that the experience of that work will be sustained by that +of the country at large.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Marking the Lines.</span></span>—To lay a drain directly under the +position of its stakes, would require that enough earth be +left at each point to hold the stake, and that the ditch be +tunneled under it. This is expensive and unnecessary. It +is better to dig the ditches at one side of the lines of +stakes, far enough away for the earth to hold them +firmly in their places, but near enough to allow measurements +to be taken from the grade pegs. If the ditch be +placed always to the right, or always to the left, of the line, +and at a uniform distance, the general plan will remain the +same, and the lines will be near enough to those marked +on the map to be easily found at any future time. In fact, +if it be known that the line of tiles is two feet to the right +of the position indicated, it will only be necessary, at any +time, should it be desired to open an old drain, to +measure two feet to the right of the surveyed position to +strike the line at once.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In soils of ordinary tenacity, ditches 4 feet deep need +not be more than twenty (20) inches wide at the surface, +and four (4) inches wide at the bottom. This will allow, +in each side, a slope of eight (8) inches, which is sufficient +except in very loose soils, and even these may be braced +up, if inclined to cave in. There are cases where the soil<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +contains so much running sand, and is so saturated with +water, that no precautions will avail to keep up the banks. +Ditches in such ground will sometimes fall in, until the excavation +reaches a width of 8 or 10 feet. Such instances, +however, are very rare, and must be treated as the occasion +suggests.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of the garden lines should be set at a distance of +about 6 inches from the row of stakes, and the other at a +further distance of 20 inches. If the land is in grass, the +position of these lines may be marked with a spade, and +they may be removed at once; but, if it is arable land, it +will be best to leave the lines in position until the ditch is +excavated to a sufficient depth to mark it clearly. Indeed, +it will be well to at once remove all of the sod and surface +soil, say to a depth of 6 inches, (throwing this on the same +side with the stakes, and back of them.) The whole force +can be profitably employed in this work, until all of the +ditches to be dug are scored to this depth over the entire +tract to be drained, except in swamps which are still too +wet for this work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Water Courses.</span></span>—The brooks which carry the water +from the springs should be "jumped" in marking out +the lines, as it is desirable that their water be kept in separate +channels, so far as possible, until the tiles are ready +to receive it, as, if allowed to run in the open ditches, it +would undermine the banks and keep the bottom too soft +for sound work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this object, commence at the southern boundary +of our example tract, 10 or 15 feet east of the point of +outlet, and drive a straight, temporary, shallow ditch to a +point a little west of the intersection of the main line <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">D</span></span> +with its first lateral; then carry it in a northwesterly +direction, crossing <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span> midway between the silt-basin and +stake <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C 1</span></span>, and thence into the present line of the brook, +turning all of the water into the ditch. A branch of this<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ditch may be run up between the lines <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">F</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">G</span></span> to receive +the water from the spring which lies in that direction. +This arrangement will keep the water out of the way +until the drains are ready to take it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Outlet.</span></span>—The water being all discharged through +the new temporary ditch, the old brook, beyond the +boundary, should be cleared out to the final level (3.75,) +and an excavation made, just within the boundary, sufficient +to receive the masonry which is to protect the outlet. +A good form of outlet is shown in Fig. 23. It may +be cheaply made by any farmer, especially if he have good +stone at hand;—if not, brick may be used, laid on a solid +foundation of stout planks, which, (being protected from +the air and always saturated with water,) will last a very +long time.</p> + +<a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image23.png" width="640" height="333" alt="Illustration: Fig. 23 - OUTLET, SECURED WITH MASONRY AND GRATING." title="Fig. 23 - OUTLET, SECURED WITH MASONRY AND GRATING." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 23 - OUTLET, SECURED WITH MASONRY AND GRATING.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If made of stone, a solid floor, at least 2 feet square, +should be placed at, or below, the level of the brook. If +this consist of a single stone, it will be better than if of +several smaller pieces. On this, place another layer extending +the whole width of the first, but reaching only +from its inner edge to its center line, so as to leave a foot<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in width of the bottom stone to receive the fall of the +water. This second layer should reach exactly the grade +of the outlet (3.50) or a height of 3 inches from the brook +level. On the floor thus made, there should be laid the +tiles which are to constitute the outlets of the several +drains; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, one 3-1/2-inch tile for the line from the silt-basin, +two 1-1/4-inch for the lines <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">F</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">G</span></span>, and one 2-1/4-inch +for the main line <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">E</span></span>. These tiles should lie close to each +other and be firmly cemented together, so that no water +can pass outside of them, and a rubble-work of stone may +with advantage be carried up a foot above them. Stone +work, which may be rough and uncemented, but should +always be solid, may then be built up at the sides, and +covered with a secure coping of stone. A floor and sloping +sides of stone work, jointed with the previously described +work, and well cemented, or laid in strong clay or +mortar, may, with benefit, be carried a few feet beyond the +outlet. This will effectually prevent the undermining of +the structure. After the entire drainage of the field is +finished, the earth above these sloping sides, and that back +of the coping, should be neatly sloped, and protected by +sods. An iron grating, fine enough to prevent the entrance +of vermin, placed in front of the tile, at a little distance +from them,—and secured by a flat stone set on edge and +hollowed out, so as merely to allow the water to flow freely +from the drains,—the stone being cemented in its place so +as to allow no water to pass under it,—will give a substantial +and permanent finish to the structure.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An outlet finished in this way, at an extra cost of a few +dollars, will be most satisfactory, as a lasting means of +securing the weakest and most important part of the system +of drains. When no precaution of this sort is taken, +the water frequently forces a passage under the tile for some +distance up the drains, undermining and displacing them, +and so softening the bottom that it will be difficult, in +making repairs, to secure a solid foundation for the work.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Usually, repairs of this sort, aside from the annoyance attending +them, will cost more than the amount required to +make the permanent outlet described above. As well constructed +outlets are necessarily rather expensive, as much +of the land as possible should be drained to each one that +it is necessary to make, by laying main lines which will +collect all of the water which can be brought to it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Main Silt-Basin.</span></span>—The silt-basin, at which the +drains are collected, may best be built before any drains +are brought to it, and the work may proceed simultaneously +with that at the outlet. It should be so placed that +its center will lie exactly under the stake which marks its +position, because it will constitute one of the leading landmarks +for the survey of the drains.<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before removing the stake and grade stake, mark their +position by four stakes, set at a distance from it of 4 or 5 +feet, in such positions that two lines, drawn from those +which are opposite to each other, will intersect at the point +indicated; and place near one of them a grade stake, +driven to the exact level of the one to be removed. This +being done, dig a well, 4 feet in diameter, to a depth of +2-1/2 feet below the grade of the outlet drain, (in the example +under consideration this would be 5 feet below the +grade stake.) If much water collects in the hole, widen +it, in the direction of the outlet drain, sufficiently to give +room for baling out the water. Now build, in this well, +a structure 2 feet in interior diameter, such as is shown in +Fig. 24, having its bottom 2 feet, in the clear, below the +grade of the outlet, and carry its wall a little higher than +the general surface of the ground. At the proper height +insert, in the brick work, the necessary for tiles all incoming +and outgoing drains; in this case, a 3-1/2-inch tile for<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the outlet, 2-1/4-inch for the mains <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>, and 1-1/4-inch for +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">B</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">D</span></span>.</p> + +<a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image24.png" width="640" height="961" alt="Illustration: Fig. 24 - SILT-BASIN, BUILT TO THE SURFACE." title="Fig. 24 - SILT-BASIN, BUILT TO THE SURFACE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 24 - SILT-BASIN, BUILT TO THE SURFACE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This basin being finished and covered with a flat stone +or other suitable material, connect it with the outlet by an +open ditch, unless the bottom +of the ditch, when laid open to the proper depth, be +found to be of muck or quicksand. +In such case, it will be best to lay the tile at +once, and cover it in for the +whole distance, as, on a soft +bottom, it would be difficult +to lay it well when the full +drainage of the field is flowing +through the ditch. The +tiles should be laid with all +care, on a perfectly regulated +fall,—using strips of board +under them if the bottom +is shaky or soft,—as on this line +depends the success of all the +drains above it, which might +be rendered useless by a +single badly laid tile at this point, or by any other cause +of obstruction to the flow.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the work is progressing in the field above, there +will be a great deal of muddy water and some sticks, +grass, and other rubbish, running from the ditches above +the basin, and care must be taken to prevent this drain +from becoming choked. A piece of wire cloth, or basket +work, placed over the outlet in the basin, will keep out the +coarser matters, and the mud which would accumulate in +the tile may be removed by occasional flushing. This is +done by crowding a tuft of grass,—or a bit of sod,—into<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the lower end of the tile (at the outlet,) securing it there +until the water rises in the basin, and then removing it. +The rush of water will be sufficient to wash the tile clean.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This plan is not without objections, and, as a rule, it is +never well to lay any tiles at the lower end of a drain +until all above it is finished; but when a considerable outlet +must be secured through soft land, which is inclined to +cave in, and to get soft at the bottom, it will save labor +to secure the tile in place before much water reaches it, +even though it require a daily flushing to keep it clean.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Opening the Ditches.</span></span>—Thus far it has been sought to +secure a permanent outlet, and to connect it by a secure +channel, with the silt-basin, which is to collect the +water of the different series of drains. The next step +is to lay open the ditches for these. It will be best to +commence with the main line <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span> and its laterals, as they +will take most of the water which now flows through the +open brook, and prevent its interference with the rest of +the work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first work is the opening of the ditches to a depth +of about 3 feet, which may be best done with the common +spade, pick, and shovel, except that in ground which is +tolerably free from stones, a subsoil plow will often take +the place of the pick, with much saving of labor. It <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">may</span></span> +be drawn by oxen working in a long yoke, which will allow +them to walk one on each side of the ditch, but this is dangerous, +as they are liable to disturb the stakes, (especially +the grade stakes,) and to break down the edges of the +ditches. The best plan is to use a small subsoil plow, +drawn by a single horse, or strong mule, trained to walk +in the ditch. The beast will soon learn to accommodate +himself to his narrow quarters, and will work easily in a +ditch 2-1/2 feet deep, having a width of less than afoot at the +bottom; of course there must be a way provided for him +to come out at each end. Deeper than this there is no<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +economy in using horse power, and even for this depth it +will be necessary to use a plow having only one stilt.</p> + +<a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image25.png" width="76" height="480" alt="Illustration: Fig. 25 - FINISHING SPADE." title="Fig. 25 - FINISHING SPADE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 25 - FINISHING SPADE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before the main line is cut into the open brook, this +should be furnished with a wooden trough, which will +carry the water across it, so that the ditch shall +receive only the filtration from the ground. +Those laterals west of the main line, which are +crossed by the brook, had better not be opened +at present,—not until the water +of the spring is admitted to and +removed by the drain.</p> + +<a name="fig32" id="fig32"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image26.png" width="103" height="480" alt="Illustration: Fig. 26 - FINISHING SCOOP." title="Fig. 26 - FINISHING SCOOP." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 26 - FINISHING SCOOP.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The other laterals and the +whole of the main line, having +been cut to a depth of 3 feet, +take a finishing spade, (Fig. 25,) +which is only 4 inches wide at +its point, and dig to within 2 or +3 inches of the depth marked +on the stakes, making the bottom +tolerably smooth, with the +aid of the finishing scoop, (Fig. 26,) and +giving it as regular an inclination as can be +obtained by the eye alone.</p> + +<a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image27.png" width="640" height="862" alt="Illustration: Fig. 27 - BRACING THE SIDES IN SOFT LAND." title="Fig. 27 - BRACING THE SIDES IN SOFT LAND." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 27 - BRACING THE SIDES IN SOFT LAND.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the ground is "rotten," and the banks +of the ditches incline to cave in, as is often +the case in passing wet places, the earth which is thrown +out in digging must be thrown back sufficiently far from<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the edge to prevent its weight from increasing the +tendency; and the sides of the ditch +may be supported by bits of board +braced apart as is shown in Fig. 27.</p> + +<a name="fig34" id="fig34"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image28.png" width="121" height="480" alt="Illustration: Fig. 28 - MEASURING STAFF." title="Fig. 28 - MEASURING STAFF." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 28 - MEASURING STAFF.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The manner of opening +the ditches, which +is described above, +for the main <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span> and +its laterals, will apply +to the drains of the +whole field and to all +similar work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Grading the Bottoms.</span></span>—The next step +in the work is to grade the bottoms of the +ditches, so as to afford a bed for the tiles +on the exact lines which are indicated by +the figures marked on the different stakes.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The manner in which this is to be +done may be illustrated by describing the +work required for the line from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">C10</span></span> to +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">C17</span></span>, (Fig. 20,) after it has been opened, +as described above, to within 2 or 3 inches +of the final depth.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A measuring rod, or square, such as is +shown in Fig. 28,<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> is set at <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">C10</span></span>, so that +the lower side of its arm is at the mark +4.59 on the staff, (or at a little less than 4.6 +if it is divided only into feet and tenths,) +and is held upright in the ditch, with its +arm directly over the grade stake. The +earth below it is removed, little by little, until it will touch +the top of the stake and the bottom of the ditch at the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +same time. If the ground is soft, it should be cut out +until a flat stone, a block of wood, or a piece of tile, or of +brick, sunk in the bottom, will have its surface at the exact +point of measurement. This point is the bottom of the +ditch on which the collar of the tile is to lie at that stake. +In the same manner the depth is fixed at <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C11</span></span> (4.19,) and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C12</span></span> (4.41,) as the rate of fall changes at each +of these points, and at <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C15</span></span> (3.89,) and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C17</span></span> +(4.17,) because (although the fall is uniform +from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C12</span></span> to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C17</span></span>,) the distance is too great +for accurate sighting.</p> + +<a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image29.png" width="97" height="480" alt="Illustration: Fig. 29 - BONING ROD." title="Fig. 29 - BONING ROD." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 29 - BONING ROD.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having provided <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">boning-rods</span></span>, which are +strips of board 7 feet long, having horizontal +cross pieces at their upper ends, (see Fig. +29,) set these perpendicularly on the spots +which have been found by measurement to +be at the correct depth opposite stakes 10, +11, 12, 15, and 17, and fasten each in its +place by wedging it between two strips of +board laid across the ditch, so as to clasp it, +securing these in their places by laying stones +or earth upon their ends.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As these boning-rods are all exactly 7 feet +long, of course, a line sighted across their +tops will be exactly 7 feet higher, at all +points, than the required grade of the ditch +directly beneath it, and if a plumb rod, (similar to +the boning-rod, but provided with a line and plummet,) +be set perpendicularly on any point of the bottom of +the drain, the relation of its cross piece to the line of sight +across the tops of the boning-rods will show whether the +bottom of the ditch at that point is too high, or too low, +or just right. The manner of sighting over two boning-rods +and an intermediate plumb-rod, is shown in Fig. 31.</p> + +<a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image30.png" width="640" height="385" alt="Illustration: Fig. 30 - POSITION OF WORKMAN AND USE OF FINISHING SCOOP." title="Fig. 30 - POSITION OF WORKMAN AND USE OF FINISHING SCOOP." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 30 - POSITION OF WORKMAN AND USE OF FINISHING SCOOP.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Three persons are required to finish the bottom of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ditch; one to sight across the tops of the boning-rods, one +to hold the plumb-rod at different points as the finishing +progresses, and one in the ditch, (see Fig. 30,) provided +with the finishing spade and scoop,—and, in hard ground, +with a pick,—to cut down or fill up as the first man calls +"too high," or, "too low." An inch or two of filling maybe +beaten sufficiently hard with the back of the scoop, +but if several inches should be required, it should be well +rammed with the top of a pick, or other suitable instrument, +as any subsequent settling would disarrange the fall.</p> + +<a name="fig37" id="fig37"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image31.png" width="640" height="81" alt="Illustration: Fig. 31 - SIGHTING BY THE BONING-RODS." title="Fig. 31 - SIGHTING BY THE BONING-RODS." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 31 - SIGHTING BY THE BONING-RODS.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the lateral drains are to be laid first, they should be +the first graded, and as they are arranged to discharge into +the tops of the mains, their water will still flow off, +although the main ditches are not yet reduced to their final<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +depth. After the laterals are laid and filled in, the main +should be graded, commencing at the upper end; the tiles +being laid and covered as fast as the bottom is made ready, +so that it may not be disturbed by the water of which the +main carries so much more than the laterals.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Tile-Laying.</span></span>—Gisborne says: "It would be scarcely +more absurd to set a common blacksmith to eye needles +than to employ a common laborer to lay pipes and collars." +The work comes under the head of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">skilled labor,</span></span> +and, while no very great exercise of judgment is required +in its performance, the little that is required is imperatively +necessary, and the details of the work should be +deftly done. The whole previous outlay,—the survey and +staking of the field, the purchase of the tiles, the digging +and grading of the ditches—has been undertaken that we +may make the conduit of earthenware pipes which is now +to be laid, and the whole may be rendered useless by a +want of care and completeness in the performance of this +chief operation. This subject, (in connection with that of +finishing the bottoms of the ditches,) is very clearly treated +in Mr. Hoskyns' charming essay,<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> as follows:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It was urged by Mr. Brunel, as a justification for more +attention and expense in the laying of the rails of the +Great Western, than had been ever thought of upon +previously constructed lines, that all the embankments +and cuttings, and earthworks and stations, and law and +parliamentary expenses—in fact, the whole of the outlay +encountered in the formation of a railway, had for its +main and ultimate object <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a perfectly smooth and level +line of rail</span></span>; that to turn stingy at this point, just when +you had arrived at the great ultimatum of the whole +proceedings, viz: the iron wheel-track, was a sort of +saving which evinced a want of true preception of the +great object of all the labor that had preceded it. It<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +may seem curious to our experiences, in these days, that +such a doctrine could ever have needed to be enforced +by argument; yet no one will deem it wonderful who +has personally witnessed the unaccountable and ever new +difficulty of getting proper attention paid to the leveling +of the bottom of a drain, and the laying of the tiles in +that continuous line, where one single depression or irregularity, +by collecting the water at that spot, year +after year, tends toward the eventual stoppage of the +whole drain, through two distinct causes, the softening +of the foundation underneath the sole, or tile flange, and +the deposit of soil inside the tile from the water collected +at the spot, and standing there after the rest had run off. +Every depression, however slight, is constantly doing +this mischief in every drain where the fall is but trifling; +and if to the two consequences above mentioned, we +may add the decomposition of the tile itself by the +action of water long stagnant within it, we may deduce +that every tile-drain laid with these imperfections in +the finishing of the bottom, has a tendency toward +obliteration, out of all reasonable proportion with +that of a well-burnt tile laid on a perfectly even inclination, +which, humanly speaking, may be called a permanent +thing. An open ditch cut by the most skillful +workman, in the summer, affords the best illustration of +this underground mischief. Nothing can look smoother +and more even than the bottom, until that uncompromising +test of accurate levels, the water, makes its appearance: +all on a sudden the whole scene is changed, the +eye-accredited level vanishes as if some earthquake had +taken place: here, there is a gravelly <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">scour</span></span>, along which +the stream rushes in a thousand little angry-looking ripples; +there, it hangs and looks as dull and heavy as if it +had given up running at all, as a useless waste of energy; +in another place, a few dead leaves or sticks, or a morsel +of soil broken from the side, dams back the water for a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +considerable distance, occasioning a deposit of soil along +the whole reach, greater in proportion to the quantity +and the muddiness of the water detained. All this shows +the paramount importance of perfect evenness in the +bed on which the tiles are laid. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The worst laid tile is +the measure of the goodness and permanence of the +whole drain</span></span>, just as the weakest link of a chain is the +measure of its strength."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The simple laying of the smaller sizes of pipes and collars +in the lateral drains, is an easy matter. It requires +care and precision in placing the collar equally under the +end of each pipe, (having the joint at the middle of +the collar,) in having the ends of the pipes actually touch +each other within the collars, and in brushing away any +loose dirt which may have fallen on the spot on which the +collar is to rest. The connection of the laterals with +the mains, the laying of the larger sizes of tiles so as to +form a close joint, the wedging of these larger tiles firmly +into their places, and the trimming which is necessary in +going around sharp curves, and in putting in the shorter +pieces which are needed to fill out the exact length of the +drain, demand more skill and judgment than are often +found in the common ditcher. Still, any clever workman, +who has a careful habit, may easily be taught all that is +necessary; and until he is thoroughly taught,—and not +only knows how to do the work well, but, also, understands +the importance of doing it well,—the proprietor +should carefully watch the laying of every piece.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Never have tiles laid by the rod, but always by the +day.</span></span> "The more haste, the less speed," is a maxim which +applies especially to tile-laying.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the proprietor or the engineer does not overlook the +laying of each tile as it is done, and probably he will not, +he should carefully inspect every piece before it is covered. +It is well to walk along the ditches and touch each tile +with the end of a light rod, in such a way as to see<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +whether it is firm enough in its position not to be displaced +by the earth which will fall upon it in filling the +ditches.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Preparatory to laying, the tiles should be placed along +one side of the ditch, near enough to be easily reached by +a man standing in it. When collars are to be used, one of +these should be slipped over one end of each tile. The +workman stands in the ditch, with his face toward its +upper end. The first tile is laid with a collar on its lower +end, and the collar is drawn one-half of its length forward, +so as to receive the end of the next tile. The upper end +of the first tile is closed with a stone, or a bit of broken +tile placed firmly against it. The next tile has its nose +placed into the projecting half of the collar of the first +one, and its own collar is drawn forward to receive the +end of the third, and thus to the end of the drain, the +workman walking backward as the work progresses. By +and by, when he comes to connect the lateral with the +main, he may find that a short piece of tile is needed to +complete the length; this should not be placed next to the +tile of the main, where it is raised above the bottom of +the ditch, but two or three lengths back, leaving the connection +with the main to be made with a tile of full +length. If the piece to be inserted is only two or three +inches long, it may be omitted, and the space covered by +using a whole 2½-inch tile in place of the collar. In turning +corners or sharp curves, the end of the tile may be +chipped off, so as to be a little thinner on one side, which +will allow it to be turned at a greater angle in the collar.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the drain turns a right angle, it will be better to dig +out the bottom of the ditch to a depth of about eight +inches, and to set a 6-inch tile on end in the hole, perforating +its sides, so as to admit the ends of the pipes at +the proper level. This 6-inch tile, (which acts as a small +silt-basin,) should stand on a board or on a flat stone, and +its top should be covered with a stone or with a couple of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +bricks. Wood will last almost forever below the level of +the drain, where it will always be saturated with water, +but in the drier earth above the tile, it is much more liable +to decay.</p> + +<a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image32.png" width="355" height="480" alt="Illustration: Fig. 32 - PICK FOR DRESSING AND PREFORATING TILE." title="Fig. 32 - PICK FOR DRESSING AND PREFORATING TILE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 32 - PICK FOR DRESSING AND PREFORATING TILE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The trimming and perforating of the tile is done with a +"tile-pick," (Fig. 32,) the hatchet end, +tolerably sharp, being used for the +trimming, and the point, for making +the holes. This is done by striking +lightly around the circumference of +the hole until the center piece falls in, +or can be easily knocked in. If the +hole is irregular, and does not fit the +tile nicely, the open space should be +covered with bits of broken tile, to +keep the earth out.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As fast as the laterals are laid and inspected, they should +be filled in to the depth of at least a foot, to protect the +tiles from being broken by the falling of stones or lumps +of earth from the top, and from being displaced by water +flowing in the ditch. Two or three feet of the lower +end may be left uncovered until the connection with the +main is finished.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the main drains, when the tiles are of the size with +which collars are used, the laying is done in the same manner. +If it is necessary to use 3-1/2-inch tiles, or any larger +size, much more care must be given to the closing of the +joints. All tiles, in manufacture, dry more rapidly at the +top, which is more exposed to the air, than at the bottom, +and they are, therefore, contracted and made shorter at +the top. This difference is most apparent in the larger +sizes. The large <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">round</span></span> tiles, which can be laid on any side, +can easily be made to form a close joint, and they +should be secured in their proper position by stones or +lumps of earth, wedged in between them and the sides of +the ditch. The sole tiles must lie with the shortest sides<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +up, and, usually, the space between two tiles, at the top, +will be from one-quarter to one-half of an inch. To +remedy this defect, and form a joint which may he protected +against the entrance of earth, the bottom should he +trimmed off, so as to allow the tops to come closer together. +Any opening, of less than a quarter of an inch, +can he satisfactorily covered,—more than that should not +be allowed. In turning corners, or in passing around +curves, with large tiles, their ends must he beveled off +with the pick, so as to fit nicely in this position.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The best covering for the joints of tiles which are +laid without collars, is a scrap of tin, bent so as to fit their +shape,—scraps of leather, or bits of strong wood shavings, +answer a very good purpose, though both of these latter require +to be held in place by putting a little earth over their +ends as soon as laid on the tile. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Very small</span></span> grass ropes +drawn over the joints, (the ends being held down with +stones or earth,) form a satisfactory covering, but care +should be taken that they be not too thick. A small handful +of wood shavings, thrown over the joints, also answers +a good purpose. Care, however, should always be taken, +in using any material which will decay readily, to have no +more than is necessary to keep the earth out, lest, in its +decay, it furnish material to be carried into the tile and obstruct +the flow. This precaution becomes less necessary +in the case of drains which always carry considerable +streams of water, but if they are at times sluggish in their +flow, too much care cannot be given to keep them free +of all possible causes of obstruction. As nothing is gained +by increasing the quantity of loose covering beyond what +is needed to close the joints, and as such covering is only +procured with some trouble, there is no reason for its extravagant +use.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There seems to remain in the minds of many writers on +drainage a glimmering of the old fallacy that underdrains, +like open drains, receive their water from above, and it is<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +too commonly recommended that porous substances be +placed above the tile. If, as is universally conceded, the +water rises into the tile from below, this is unnecessary. +The practice of covering the joints, and even covering the +whole tile, (often to the depth of a foot,) with tan-bark, +turf, coarse gravel, etc., is in no wise to be commended; +and, while the objections to it are not necessarily very +grave in all cases, it always introduces an element of insecurity, +and it is a waste of money, if nothing worse.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tile layer need not concern himself with the question, +of affording entrance room for the water. Let him, so far +as the rude materials at hand will allow, make the joints +perfectly tight, and when the water comes, it will find +ample flaws in his work, and he will have been a good +workman if it do not find room to flow in a current, carrying +particles of dirt with it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In ditches in which water is running at the time of laying +the tiles, the process should follow closely after the +grading, and the stream may even be dammed back, section +after section, (a plugged tile being placed under the +dam, to be afterwards replaced by a free one,) and graded, +laid and covered before the water breaks in. There is one +satisfaction in this kind of work,—that, while it is difficult +to lay the drain so thoroughly well as in a dry ditch, the +amount of water is sufficient to overcome any slight tendency +to obstruction.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Connections.</span></span>—As has been before stated, lateral drains +should always enter at the top of the main. Even in the +most shallow work, the slightly decreased depth of the +lateral, which this arrangement requires, is well compensated +for by the free outlet which it secures.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the tile of the main, which is to receive a side +drain, has been fitted to its place, and the point of junction +marked, it should be taken up and perforated; then +the end of the tile of the lateral should be so trimmed as<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to fit the hole as accurately as may be, the large tile replaced +in its position, and the small one laid on it,—reaching +over to the floor of the lateral ditch. Then connect +it with the lateral as previously laid, fill up solidly +the space under the tile which reaches over to the top +of the main, (so that it cannot become disturbed in filling,) +and lay bits of tile, or other suitable covering, +around the connecting joint.<a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a></p> + +<a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image33.png" width="640" height="194" alt="Illustration: Fig. 33 - LATERAL DRAIN ENTERING AT TOP." title="Fig. 33 - LATERAL DRAIN ENTERING AT TOP." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 33 - LATERAL DRAIN ENTERING AT TOP.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the main drain is laid with collars, it should be +so arranged that, by +substituting a full +tile in the place of +the collar,—leaving, +within it, a +space between the +smaller pipes,—a +connection can be made with this larger tile, as is represented +in Figures 33 and 34.</p> + +<a name="fig40" id="fig40"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image34.png" width="640" height="240" alt="Illustration: Fig. 34 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF JOINT." title="Fig. 34 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF JOINT." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 34 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF JOINT.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Silt-Basins</span></span> should be used at all points where a drain, +after running for any considerable distance at a certain +rate of fall, changes to a less rapid fall,—unless, indeed, +the diminished fall be still +sufficiently great for the +removal of silty matters, +(say two feet or more in a +hundred). They may be +made in any manner which +will secure a stoppage of +the direct current, and afford room below the floor of the +tile for the deposit of the silt which the water has carried +in suspension; and they may be of any suitable material;—even +a sound flour barrel will serve a pretty good<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +purpose for many years. +The most complete form +of basin is that represented +in Figure 24.</p> + +<a name="fig41" id="fig41"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image35.png" width="640" height="943" alt="Illustration: Fig. 35 - SQUARE BRICK SILT-BASIN." title="Fig. 35 - SQUARE BRICK SILT-BASIN." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 35 - SQUARE BRICK SILT-BASIN.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the object is +only to afford room for +the collection of the silt +of a considerable length +of drain, and it is not +thought worth while to +keep open a communication +with the surface, for +purposes of inspection, a +square box of brick +work, (Fig. 35,) having +a depth of one and a +half or two feet below +the floor of the drain,—tiles +for the drains being +built in the walls, and +the top covered with a +broad stone,—will answer +very well.</p> + +<a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image36.png" width="640" height="879" alt="Illustration: Fig. 36 - SILT-BASIN OF VITRIFIED PIPE." title="Fig. 36 - SILT-BASIN OF VITRIFIED PIPE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 36 - SILT-BASIN OF VITRIFIED PIPE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A good sort of basin, to reach +to the surface of the ground, may +be made of large, vitrified drain +pipes,—such as are used for town +sewerage,—having a diameter of +from six to twelve inches, according +to the requirements of the work. +This basin is shown in Figure 36.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Figure 37 represents a basin made +of a 6-inch tile,—similar to that +described on page 130, for turning a +short corner. A larger basin of +the same size, cheaper than if built<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of brick, may be made by using a large vitrified drain +pipe in the place of the one shown in the cut. These +vitrified pipes may be perforated in the +manner described for the common tile.</p> + +<a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image37.png" width="603" height="726" alt="Illustration: Fig. 37 - TILE SILT-BASIN." title="Fig. 37 - TILE SILT-BASIN." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 37 - TILE SILT-BASIN.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In laying the main line <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>, (Fig. 21,) +an underground basin of brick work, +(Fig. 35,) or its equivalent, should be +placed at stake 7, because at that point +the water, which has been flowing on an +inclination of 1.09, 2.00 and 2.83 per 100, +continues its course over the much less +fall of only 0.56 per 100.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If, among the tiles which have passed the inspection, +there are some which, from over burning, are smaller than +the average, they should be laid at the upper ends of the +laterals. The cardinal rule of the tile layer should be +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">never to have a single tile in the finished drain of smaller +size, of more irregular shape, or less perfectly laid, than +any tile above it</span></span>. If there is to be any difference in the +quality of the drain, at different points, let it grow better +as it approaches the outlet and has a greater length +above depending upon its action.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Covering the Tiles, and Filling-in the Ditches.</span></span>—The +best material for covering the tiles is that which will the +most completely surround them, so as to hold them in +their places; will be the least likely to have passages for +the flow of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">streams</span></span> of water into the joints, and will afford +the least silt to obstruct the drain. Clay is the best +of all available materials, because it is of the most uniform +character throughout its mass, and may be most perfectly +compacted around the tiles. As has been before stated, +all matters which are subject to decay are objectionable, +because they will furnish fine matters to enter the joints, +and by their decrease of bulk, may leave openings in the +earth through which streams of muddy water may find<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +their way into the tiles. Gravel is bad, and will remain +bad until its spaces are filled with fine dirt deposited by +water, which, leaving only a part of its impurities here, +carries the rest into the drain. A gravelly loam, free +from roots or other organic matter, if it is strong enough +to be worked into a ball when wet, will answer a very +good purpose.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ordinarily, the earth which was thrown out from the +bottom of the ditch, and which now lies at the top of the +dirt heap, is the best to be returned about the tiles, being +first freed from any stones it may contain which are large +enough to break or disturb the tiles in falling on to them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the bottom of the ditch consists of quicksand or +other silty matters, clay or some other suitable earth +should be sought in that which was excavated from a less +depth, or should be brought from another place. A thin +layer of this having been placed in the bottom of the +ditch when grading, a slight covering of the same about +the tiles will so encase them as to prevent the entrance of +the more "slippy" soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first covering of fine earth, free from stones and +clods, should be sprinkled gently over the tiles, no full +shovelfuls being thrown on to them until they are covered +at least six inches deep. When the filling has reached a +height of from fifteen to twenty inches, the men may jump +into the ditch and tramp it down evenly and regularly, +not treading too hard in any one place at first. When +thus lightly compacted about the tile, so that any further +pressure cannot displace them, the filling should be repeatedly +rammed, (the more the better,) by two men +standing astride the ditch, facing each other, and working +a maul, such as is shown in Figure 38, and which may +weigh from 80 to 100 pounds.</p> + +<a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image38.png" width="640" height="1700" alt="Illustration: Fig. 38 - MAUL FOR RAMMING." title="Fig. 38 - MAUL FOR RAMMING." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 38 - MAUL FOR RAMMING.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Those to whom this recommendation is new, will, doubtless, +think it unwise. The only reply to their objection +must be that others who shared their opinion, have, by<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +long observation and experience, been convinced of its +correctness. They may practically convince themselves +of the value of this sort of covering by a simple and inexpensive +experiment: Take two large, water-tight hogsheads, +bore through the side of each, a few inches from +the bottom, a hole just large enough +to admit a 1-1/4-inch tile; cover the bottom +to the hight of the lower edge of +the hole with strong, wet clay, beaten +to a hard paste; on this, lay a line of +pipes and collars,—the inner end sealed +with putty, and the tile which passes +through the hole so wedged about with +putty, that no water could pass out +between it and the outside of the hole. +Cover the tile in one hogshead with +loose gravel, and then fill it to the top +with loose earth. Cover the tile in the +other, twenty inches deep, with ordinary +stiff clay, (not wet enough to +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">puddle</span></span>, but sufficiently moist to pack +well,) and ram it thoroughly, so as +to make sure that the tiles are completely +clasped, and that there is no +crack nor crevice through which water +can trickle, and then fill this hogshead +to the top with earth, of the +same character with that used in +the other case. These hogsheads should stand where +the water of a small roof, (as that of a hog-pen,) may +be led into them, by an arrangement which shall give +an equal quantity to each;—this will give them rather +more than the simple rain-fall, but will leave them +exposed to the usual climatic changes of the season. A +vessel, of a capacity of a quart or more, should be connected +with each outlet, and covered from the dust,—<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +these will act as silt-basins. During the first few storms +the water will flow off much more freely from the first +barrel; but, little by little, the second one, as the water +finds its way through the clay, and as the occasional drying, +and repeated filtration make it more porous, will increase +in its flow until it will, by the end of the season, +or, at latest, by the end of the second season, drain as +well as the first, if, indeed, that be not by this time somewhat +obstructed with silt. The amount of accumulation +in the vessels at the outlet will show which process has +best kept back the silt, and the character of the deposit +will show which would most probably be carried off by +the gentle flow of water in a nearly level drain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is no argument against this experiment that its results +cannot be determined even in a year, for it is not pretended +that drains laid in compact clay will dry land so completely +during the first month as those which give more +free access to the water; only that they will do so in a +comparatively short time; and that, as drainage is a work +for all time, (practically as lasting as the farm itself,) the +importance of permanence and good working for long +years to come, is out of all proportion to that of the temporary +good results of one or two seasons, accompanied +with doubtful durability.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been argued that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">surface water</span></span> will be more +readily removed by drains having porous filling. Even if +this were true to any important degree,—which it is not,—it +would be an argument against the plan, for the remedy +would be worse than the disease. If the water flow from +the surface down into the drain, it will not fail to carry +dirt with it, and instead of the clear water, which alone +should rise into the tiles from below, we should have a +trickling flow from above, muddy with wasted manure +and silty earth.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The remaining filling of the ditch</span></span> is a matter of simple +labor, and may be done in whatever way may be most<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +economical under the circumstances of the work. If the +amount to be filled is considerable, so that it is desirable +to use horse-power, the best way will be to use a scraper, +such as is represented in Figure 39, which is a strongly +ironed plank, 6 feet long and 18 inches wide, sharp shod +at one side, and supplied with handles at the other. It is +propelled by means of the curved rods, which are attached +to its under side by flexible joints. These rods +are connected by a chain which has links large enough to +receive the hook of an ox-chain. This scraper may be +used for any straight-forward work by attaching the power +to the middle of the chain. By moving the hook a few +links to the right or left, it will act somewhat after the +manner of the mould-board of a plow, and will, if skillfully +handled, shoot the filling rapidly into the ditch.</p> + +<a name="fig45" id="fig45"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image39.png" width="640" height="241" alt="Illustration: Fig. 39 - BOARD SCRAPER FOR FILLING DITCHES." title="Fig. 39 - BOARD SCRAPER FOR FILLING DITCHES." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 39 - BOARD SCRAPER FOR FILLING DITCHES.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the work is done by hand, mix the surface soil and +turf with the subsoil filling for the whole depth. If with +a scraper, put the surface soil at the bottom of the loose +filling, and the subsoil at the top, as this will be an imitation, +for the limited area of the drains, of the process of +"trenching," which is used in garden cultivation.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the ditches are filled, they will be higher than +the adjoining land, and it will be well to make them still +more so by digging or plowing out a small trench at each +side of the drain, throwing the earth against the mound, +which will prevent surface water, (during heavy rains,) +from running into the loose filling before it is sufficiently<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +settled. A cross section of a filled drain provided with +these ditches is shown in Figure 40.</p> + +<a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image40.png" width="640" height="638" alt="Illustration: Fig. 40 - CROSS-SECTION OF DITCH (FILLED), WITH FURROW AT EACH SIDE." title="Fig. 40 - CROSS-SECTION OF DITCH (FILLED), WITH FURROW AT EACH SIDE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 40 - CROSS-SECTION OF DITCH (FILLED), WITH FURROW AT EACH SIDE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order that the silt-basins may be examined, and their +accumulations of earth removed, +during the early action +of the drains, those parts +of the ditches which are above +them may be left open, care +being taken, by cutting surface +ditches around them, to +prevent the entrance of water +from above. During this time +the covers of the basins +should be kept on, and should +be covered with inverted sods +to keep loose dirt from getting +into them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Collecting the Water ©f Springs.</span></span>—The lateral which +connects with the main drain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span>, (Fig. 21,) at the point +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">m</span></span>, and which is to take the water of the spring at the +head of the brook, should not be opened until the main +has been completed and filled into the silt-basin,—the +brook having, meantime, been carried over the other +ditches in wooden troughs. This lateral may now be +made in the following way: Dig down to the tile of +the main, and carry the lateral ditch back, a distance of +ten feet. In the bottom of this, place a wooden trough, +at least six feet long, laid at such depth that its channel +shall be on the exact grade required for laying the tiles, +and lay long straw, (held down by weights,) lengthwise +within it. Make an opening in the tile of the main and +connect the trough with it. The straw will prevent any +coarse particles of earth from being carried into the tile, +and the flow of the water will be sufficient to carry on to +the silt-basin any finer matters. Now open the ditch to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and beyond the spring, digging at least a foot below the +grade in its immediate vicinity, and filling to the exact +grade with small stones, broken bricks, or other suitable +material. Lay the tiles from the upper end of the ditch +across the stone work, and down to the wooden trough. +Now spread a sufficient layer of wood shavings over the +stone work to keep the earth from entering it, cover +the tiles and fill in the ditch, as before directed, and then +remove the straw from the wooden trough and lay tiles +in its place. In this way, the water of even a strong +spring may be carried into a finished drain without danger. +In laying the tile which crosses the stone work, it is well +to use full 2-1/2-inch tiles in the place of collars, leaving the +joints of these, and of the 1-1/4-inch tiles, (which should +join near the middle of the collar tile,) about a quarter of +an inch open, to give free entrance to the water.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The stone and tile drain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H, I</span></span>, is simply dug out to the +surface of the rock, if this is not more than two feet below +the grade of the upper ends of the laterals with which it +connects, and then filled up with loose stones to the line of +grade. If the stones are small, so as to form a good bottom +for the tiles, they may be laid directly upon it; if not, a +bottom for them may be made of narrow strips of cheap +boards. Before filling, the tiles and stone work should be +covered with shavings, and the filling above these should +consist of a strong clay, which will remain in place after +the shavings rot away.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Amending the Map.</span></span>—When the tiles are laid, and before +they are covered, all deviations of the lines, as in passing +around large stones and other obstructions, which +may have prevented the exact execution of the original plan, +and the location and kind of each underground silt-basin +should also be carefully noted, so that they may be transferred +to the map, for future reference, in the event of repairs +becoming necessary. In a short time after the work<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is finished, the surface of the field will show no trace of +the lines of drain, and it should be possible, in case of +need, to find any point of the drains with precision, so that +no labor will be lost in digging for it. It is much cheaper +to measure over the surface than to dig four feet trenches +through the ground.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc47" id="toc47"></a> +<a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER V. - HOW TO TAKE CARE OF DRAINS AND DRAINED LAND.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far as tile drains are concerned, if they are once well +laid, and if the silt-basins have been emptied of silt until +the water has ceased to deposit it, they need no care nor +attention, beyond an occasional cleaning of the outlet +brook. Now and then, from the proximity of willows, or +thrifty, young, water-loving trees, a drain will be obstructed +by roots; or, during the first few years after the work +is finished, some weak point,—a badly laid tile, a loosely +fitted connection between the lateral and a main, or an +accumulation of silt coming from an undetected and persistent +vein of quicksand,—will be developed, and repairs +will have to be made. Except for the slight danger +from roots, which must always be guarded against to the +extent of allowing no young trees of the dangerous class +to grow near a drain through which a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">constant</span></span> stream of +water flows, it may be fairly assumed that drains which +have been kept in order for four or five years have passed +the danger of interruption from any cause, and they may +be considered entirely safe.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A drain will often, for some months after it is laid, run +muddy water after rains. Sometimes the early deposit of +silt will nearly fill the tile, and it will take the water of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +several storms to wash it out. If the tiles have been laid +in packed clay, they cannot long receive silt from without, +and that which makes the flow turbid, may be assumed to +come from the original deposit in the conduit. Examinations +of newly laid drains have developed many instances +where tiles were at first half filled with silt, and three +months later were entirely clean. The muddiness of the +flow indicates what the doctors call "an effort of nature +to relieve herself," and nature may be trusted to succeed, +at least, until she abandons the effort. If we are sure that +a drain has been well laid, we need feel no anxiety because +it fails to take the water from the ground so completely +as it should do, until it settles into a flow of clear water +after the heaviest storms.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the case of art actual stoppage, which will generally +be indicated by the "bursting out" of the drain, i.e., the +wetting of the land as though there were a spring under +it, or as though its water had no underground outlet, +(which is the fact,) it will be necessary to lay open the +drain until the obstruction is found.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this work, the real value of the map will be shown, +by the facility which it offers for finding any point of any +line of drains, and the exact locality of the junctions with +the mains, and of the silt-basins. In laying out the plan +on the ground, and in making his map, the surveyor will +have had recourse to two or more fixed points; one of +them, in our example, (fig. 21,) would probably be the +center of the main silt-basin, and one, a drilled hole or +other mark on the rock at the north side of the field. By +staking out on the ground the straight line connecting +these two points, and drawing a corresponding line on the +map; we shall have a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">base-line</span></span>, from which it will be easy, +by perpendicular offsets, to determine on the ground any +point upon the map. By laying a small square on the +map, with one of its edges coinciding with the base-line, +and moving it on this line until the other edge meets the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +desired point, we fix, at the angle of the square, the point +on the base-line from which we are to measure the length +of the offset. The next step is to find, (by the scale,) the +distance of this point from the nearest end of the base-line, +and from the point sought. Then measure off, in the +field, the corresponding distance on the base-line, and, from +the point thus found, measure on a line perpendicular to +the base line, the length of the offset; the point thus +indicated will be the locality sought. In the same manner, +find another point on the same drain, to give the range on +which to stake it out. From this line, the drains which +run parallel to it, can easily be found, or it may be used +as a base-line, from which to find, by measuring offsets, +other points near it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The object of this staking is, to find, in an inexpensive +and easy way, the precise position of the drains, for which +it would be otherwise necessary to grope in the dark, +verifying our guesses by digging four-foot trenches, at +random.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If there is a silt-basin, or a junction a short distance below +the point where the water shows itself, this will be the +best place to dig. If it is a silt-basin, we shall probably +find that this has filled up with dirt, and has stopped the +flow. In this case it should be cleaned out, and a point +of the drain ten feet below it examined. If this is found +to be clear, a long slender stick may be pushed up as far +as the basin and worked back and forth until the passage +is cleared. Then replace the tile below, and try with the +stick to clean the tiles above the basin, so as to tap the +water above the obstruction. If this cannot be done, or +if the drain ten feet below is clogged, it will be necessary +to uncover the tiles in both directions until an opening is +found, and to take up and relay the whole. If the wetting +of the ground is sufficient to indicate that there is +much water in the drain, only five or six tiles should be +taken up at a time, cleaned and relaid,—commencing at<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the lower end,—in order that, when the water commences +to flow, it may not disturb the bottom of the ditch for the +whole distance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the point opened is at a junction with the main, examine +both the main and the lateral, to see which is +stopped, and proceed with one or the other, as directed +above. In doing this work, care should be taken to send +as little muddy water as possible into the drain below, and +to allow the least possible disturbance of the bottom.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If silt-basins have been placed at those points at which +the fall diminishes, the obstruction will usually be found to +occur at the outlets of these, from a piling up of the silt in +front of them, and to extend only a short distance below and +above. It is not necessary to take up the tiles until they +are found to be entirely clean, for, if they are only one-half +or one-third full, they will probably be washed clean +by the rush of water, when that which is accumulated +above is tapped. The work should be done in settled fair +weather, and the ditches should remain open until the effect +of the flow has been observed. If the tiles are made +thoroughly clean by the time that the accumulated water +has run off, say in 24 hours, they may be covered up; if +not, it may be necessary to remove them again, and clean +them by hand. When the work is undertaken it should +be thoroughly done, so that the expense of a new opening +need not be again incurred.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is worse than useless to substitute larger sizes of tiles +for those which are taken up. The obstruction, if by silt, +is the result of a too sluggish flow, and to enlarge the +area of the conduit would only increase the difficulty. If +the tiles are too small to carry the full flow which follows +a heavy rain, they will be very unlikely to become choked, +for the water will then have sufficient force to wash them +clean, while if they are much larger than necessary, a deposit +of silt to one half of their height will make a broad,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +flat bed for the stream, which will run with much less +force, and will be more likely to increase the deposit.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the drains are obstructed by the roots of willows, or +other trees, the proprietor must decide whether he will +sacrifice the trees or the drains; both he cannot keep, unless +he chooses to go to the expense of laying in cement +all of the drains which carry constant streams, for a distance +of at least 50 feet from the dangerous trees. The +trouble from trees is occasionally very great, but its occurrence +is too rare for general consideration, and must be +met in each case with such remedies as circumstances suggest +as the best.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The gratings over the outlets of silt-basins which open +at the surface of the ground, are sometimes, during the +first year of the drainage, obstructed by a fungoid growth +which collects on the cross bars. This should be occasionally +rubbed off. Its character is not very well understood, +and it is rarely observed in old drains. The decomposition +of the grass bands which are used to cover the joints of +the larger tiles may encourage its formation.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the surface soil have a good proportion of sand, +gravel, or organic matter, so as to give it the consistency +which is known as "loamy," it will bear any treatment +which it may chance to receive in cultivation, or as pasture +land; but if it be a decided clay soil, no amount of draining +will enable us to work it, or to turn cattle upon it +when it is wet with recent rains. It will much sooner +become dry, because of the drainage, and may much sooner +be trodden upon without injury; but wet clay cannot be +worked or walked over without being more or less <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">puddled</span></span>, +and, thereby, injured for a long time.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No matter how thoroughly heavy clay pasture lands +may be under-drained, the cattle should be removed from +them when it rains, and kept off until they are comparatively +dry. Neglect of this precaution has probably led<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to more disappointment as to the effects of drainage than +any other circumstances connected with it. The injury +from this cause does not extend to a great depth, and in +the Northern States it would always be overcome by the +frosts of a single winter; as has been before stated, it is +confined to stiff clay soils, but as these are the soils which +most need draining, the warning given is important.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc49" id="toc49"></a> +<a name="pdf50" id="pdf50"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER VI. - WHAT DRAINING COSTS.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Draining is expensive work. This fact must be accepted +as a very stubborn one, by every man who proposes to +undertake the improvement. There is no royal road to +tile-laying, and the beginner should count the cost at the +outset. A good many acres of virgin land at the West +might be bought for what must be paid to get an efficient +system of drains laid under a single acre at home. Any +man who stops at this point of the argument will probably +move West,—or do nothing.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet, it is susceptible of demonstration that, even at the +West, in those localities where Indian Corn is worth as +much as fifty cents per bushel at the farm, it will pay to +drain, in the best manner, all such land as is described in +the first chapter of this book as in need of draining. Arguments +to prove this need not be based at all on cheapness +of the work; only on its effects and its permanence.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In fact, so far as draining with tiles is concerned, cheapness +is a delusion and a snare, for the reason that it implies +something less than the best work, a compromise between +excellence and inferiority. The moment that we come +down from the best standard, we introduce a new element +into the calculation. The sort of tile draining which it is +the purpose of this work to advocate is a system so complete<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in every particular, that it may be considered as an +absolutely permanent improvement. During the first +years of the working of the drains, they will require more +or less attention, and some expense for repairs; but, in +well constructed work, these will be very slight, and will +soon cease altogether. In proportion as we resort to cheap +devices, which imply a neglect of important parts of the +work, and a want of thoroughness in the whole, the expense +for repairs will increase, and the duration of the usefulness +of the drains will diminish.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Drains which are permanently well made, and which +will, practically, last for all time, may be regarded as a +good investment, the increased crop of each year, paying +a good interest on the money that they cost, and the +money being still represented by the undiminished value +of the improvement. In such a case the draining of the +land may be said to cost, not $50 per acre,—but the interest +on $50 each year. The original amount is well invested, +and brings its yearly dividend as surely as though +it were represented by a five-twenty bond.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With badly constructed drains, on the other hand, the +case is quite different. In buying land which is subject +to no loss in quantity or quality, the farmer considers, not +so much the actual cost, as the relation between the yearly +interest on the cost, and the yearly profit on the crop,—knowing +that, a hundred years hence, the land will still be +worth his money.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if the land were bounded on one side by a river which +yearly encroached some feet on its bank, leaving the field +a little smaller after each freshet; or if, every spring, some +rods square of its surface were sure to be covered three feet +deep with stones and sand, so that the actual value of the +property became every year less, the purchaser would +compare the yearly value of the crops, not only with the +interest on the price, but, in addition to this, with so much<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the prime value as yearly disappears with the destruction +of the land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is exactly so with the question of the cost of drainage. +If the work is insecurely done, and is liable, in five +years or in fifty, to become worthless; the increase of the +crops resulting from it, must not only cover the yearly +interest on the cost, but the yearly depreciation as well. +Therefore what may seem at the time of doing the work +to be cheapness, is really the greatest extravagance. It is +like building a brick wall with clay for mortar. The bricks +and the workmanship cost full price, and the small saving on +the mortar will topple the wall over in a few years, while, +if well cemented, it would have lasted for centuries. The +cutting and filling of the ditches, and the purchase and +transportation of the tiles, will cost the same in every +case, and these constitute the chief cost; if the proper +care in grading, tile-laying and covering, and in making +outlets be stingily withheld,—saving, perhaps, one-tenth +of the expense,—what might have been a permanent improvement +to the land, may disappear, and the whole outlay +be lost in ten years. A saving of ten per cent. in +the cost will have lost us the other ninety in a short time.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, while cheapness is to be shunned, economy is to be +sought in every item of the work of draining, and should +be studied, by proprietor and engineer, from the first examination +of the land, to the throwing of the last shovelful +of earth on to the filling of the ditch. There are few +operations connected with the cultivation of the soil in +which so much may be imperceptibly lost through neglect, +and carelessness about little details, as in tile-draining. In +the original levelling of the ground, the adjustment of the +lines, the establishing of the most judicious depth and inclination +at each point of the drains, the disposition of +surface streams during the prosecution of the work, and in +the width of the excavation, the line which divides +economy and wastefulness is extremely narrow and the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +most constant vigilance, together with the best judgment +and foresight, are needed to avoid unnecessary cost. In +the laying and covering of the tile, on the other hand, it +is best to disregard a little slowness and unnecessary care +on the part of the workmen, for the sake of the most perfect +security of the work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Details of Cost.</span></span>—The items of the work of drainage +may be classified as follows:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. Engineering and Superintendence.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. Digging the ditches.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. Grading the bottoms.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. Tile and tile-laying.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">5. Covering the tile and filling the ditches.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">6. Outlets and silt-basins.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Engineering and Superintendence.</span></span>—It is not easy to +say what would be the proper charge for this item of the +work. In England, the Commissioners under the Drainage +Acts of Parliament, and the Boards of Public Works, +fix the charge for engineering at $1.25 per acre. That is in a +country when the extent of lands undergoing the process +of draining is very great, enabling one person to superintend +large tracts in the same neighborhood at the same +time, and with little or no outlay for travelling expenses. +In this country, where the improvement is, thus far, confined +to small areas, widely separated; and where there +are comparatively few engineers who make a specialty of +the work, the charge for services is necessarily much +higher, and the amount expended in travelling much +greater. In most cases, the proprietor of the land must +qualify himself to superintend his own operations, (with +the aid of a country surveyor, or a railroad engineer in the +necessary instrumental work.) As draining becomes more +general, the demand for professional assistance will, without +doubt, cause local engineers to turn their attention to +the subject, and their services may be more cheaply obtained. +At present, it would probably not be prudent to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +estimate the cost of engineering and superintendence, including +the time and skill of the proprietor, at less than +$5 per acre, even where from 20 to 50 acres are to be +drained at once.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Digging the Ditches.</span></span>—The labor required for the +various operations constitutes the principal item of cost in +draining, and the price of labor is now so different in different +localities, and so unsettled in all, that it is difficult +to determine a rate which would be generally fair. It will +be assumed that the average wages of day laborers of the +class employed in digging ditches, is $1.50 per day, and +the calculation will have to be changed for different districts, +in proportion to the deviation of the actual rate of +wages from this amount. There is a considerable advantage +in having the work done at some season, (as after the +summer harvest, or late in the fall,) when wages are comparatively +low.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cutting of the ditches should always be let by the +rod. When working at day's work, the men will invariably +open them wider than is necessary, for the sake of the +greater convenience of working, and the extra width +causes a corresponding waste of labor.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A 4-foot ditch, in most soils, need be only 20 inches wide +at the surface, and 4 inches at the bottom. This gives a +mean width of 12 inches, and requires the removal of +nearly 2-1/2 cubic yards of earth for each rod of ditch; but +an increase to a mean width of 16 inches, (which day +workmen will usually reach, while piece workmen almost +never will,) requires the removal of 3-1/4 cubic yards to the +rod. As the increased width is usually below the middle +of the drain, the extra earth will all have to be raised from +2 to 4 feet, and the extra 3/4 yards will cost as much as a +full yard taken evenly from the whole side, from top to +bottom.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In clay soils, free from stones or "hard pan," but so +stiff as to require considerable picking, ordinary workmen,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +after a little practice, will be able to dig 3-1/2 rods of ditch +per day, to an average depth of 3.80,—leaving from 2 to +3 inches of the bottom of 4-foot ditches to be finished by +the graders. This makes the cost of digging about 43 +cents per rod. In loamy soil the cost will be a little less +than this, and in very hard ground, a little more. In +sandy and peaty soils, the cost will not be more than 30 +cents. Probably 43 cents would be a fair average for soils +requiring drainage, throughout the country.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is about 17 cents for each yard of earth removed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In soft ground, the caving in of the banks will require a +much greater mean width than 12 inches to be thrown out, +and, if the accident could not have been prevented by +ordinary care on the part of the workman, (using the bracing +boards shown in Fig. 28,) he should receive extra pay +for the extra work. In passing around large stones it may +also be necessary to increase the width.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following table will facilitate the calculations for +such extra work:</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="6"></colgroup><thead><tr><th colspan="6" class="tei tei-head tei-head-table" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><span style="font-weight: 700">CUBIC YARDS OF EXCAVATION IN DITCHES OF VARIOUS WIDTH.</span></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Length of Ditch.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell">12 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inches Wide.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell">18 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inches Wide.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell">24 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inches Wide.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell">30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inches Wide.</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell">36 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inches Wide.</span></span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Yds. Feet.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Yds. Feet.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Yds. Feet.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Yds. Feet.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Yds. Feet.</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">1 Yard.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">0 12</td><td class="tei tei-cell">0 18</td><td class="tei tei-cell">0 24</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1 3</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1 9</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">1 Rod.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2 12</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3 18</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4 24</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6 3</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7 9</td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Men will, in most soils, work best in couples,—one +shovelling out the earth, and working forward, and the +other, (moving backward,) loosening the earth with a +spade or foot-pick, (Fig. 41.) In stony land, the men should +be required to keep their work well closed up,—excavating +to the full depth as they go. Then, if they strike a +stone too large to be taken out within the terms of their +contract, they can skip a sufficient distance to pass it, and +the digging of the omitted part may be done by a faithful +day workman. This will usually be cheaper and more +satisfactory than to pay the contractors for extra work.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image41.png" width="147" height="480" alt="Illustration: Fig. 41 - FOOT PICK." title="Fig. 41 - FOOT PICK." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 41 - FOOT PICK.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Concerning the amount of work that one man can do +in a day, in different soils, digging ditches 4 feet deep, +French says: "In the writer's own field, +where the pick was used to loosen the lower +two feet of earth, the labor of opening and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">filling</span></span> drains 4 feet deep, and of the mean +width of 14 inches, all by hand labor, has +been, in a mile of drains, being our first experiments, +about one day's labor to 3 rods +in length. The excavated earth of such a +drain measures not quite 3 cubic yards, +(exactly, 2.85.)" In a subsequent work, +in a sandy soil, two men opened, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">laid</span></span>, and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">refilled</span></span> 14 rods in one day;—the mean width +being 12 inches.<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In the same season, the same men opened, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">laid</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">filled</span></span> 70 rods of 4-foot drain of +the same mean width of 12 inches, in the +worst kind of clay soil, where the pick +was constantly used. It cost 35 days' labor to complete +the job, being 50 cents <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per</span></span> rod for the labor alone." Or, +under the foregoing calculation of $1.50 per day, 75 +cents per rod. These estimates, in common with nearly +all that are published, are for the entire work of digging, +grading, tile-laying, and refilling. Deducting the time required +for the other work, the result will be about as +above estimated; for the rough excavation, 3 1/2-rods to the +day's work, costing, at $1.50 per day, 43 cents to the rod.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grading</span></span> is the removal of 2 or 3 inches in depth, and +about 4 inches in width, of the soil at the bottom of the +ditch. It is chiefly done with the finishing scoop, which, +(being made of two thin plates, one of iron and one of +steel, welded together, the iron wearing away and leaving<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the sharp steel edge always prominent,) will work in a +very hard clay without the aid of the pick. Three men,—the +one in the ditch being a skillful workman, and the +others helping him when not sighting the rods,—will grade +about 100 rods per day, making the cost about 6 cents per +rod. Until they acquire the skill to work thus rapidly, they +should not be urged beyond what they can readily do in +the best manner, as this operation, (which is the preparing +of the foundation for the tiles,) is probably the most important +of the whole work of draining.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tiles and Tile-Laying.</span></span>—After allowing for breakage, it +will take about 16 tiles and 16 collars to lay a rod in +length of drain. The cost of these will, of course, be +very much affected by the considerations of the nearness +of the tile-kiln and the cost of transportation. They +should, in no ordinary case, cost, delivered on the ground, +more than $8 per thousand for 1-1/4-inch tiles, and $4 per +thousand for the collars, making a total of $12 for both, +equal to about 19 cents per rod. The laying of the tiles, +may be set down at 2 cents per rod,—based on a skilled +man laying 100 rods daily, and receiving $2 per day.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Covering and filling</span></span> will probably cost 10 cents per +rod, (if the scraper, Fig. 39, can be successfully used for +the rough filling, the cost will be reduced considerably +below this.)</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The four items of the cost of making one rod of lateral +drain are as follows:</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Digging the ditches</td><td class="tei tei-cell">- - - .43</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Grading</td><td class="tei tei-cell">- - - .06</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Tiles and laying</td><td class="tei tei-cell">- - - .21</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">Covering and filling</td><td class="tei tei-cell">- - - .10</td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell">- - -.80 cts.</td> +</tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the drains are placed at intervals of 40 feet, there are +required 64 rods to the acre,—this at 80 cents per rod will +make the cost per acre,—for the above items,—$51.20.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How much should be allowed for main drains, outlets, +and silt-basins, it is impossible to say, as, on irregular +ground, no two fields will require the same amount of this +sort of work. On very even land, where the whole surface, +for hundreds of acres, slopes gradually in one or two +directions, the outlay for mains need not be more than +two per cent. of the cost of the laterals. This would allow +laterals of a uniform length of 800 feet to discharge into +the main line, at intervals of 40 feet, if we do not consider +the trifling extra cost of the larger tiles. On less +regular ground, the cost of mains will often be considerably +more than two per cent. of the cost of the laterals; +but in some instances the increase of main lines will be +fully compensated for by the reduction in the length of +the laterals, which, owing to rocks, hills too steep to need +drains at regular intervals, and porous, (gravelly,) streaks +in the land, cannot be profitably made to occupy the whole +area so thoroughly.<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Probably 7-1/2 per cent. of the cost of the laterals for +mains, outlets, and silt-basins will be a fair average allowance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This will bring the total cost of the work to about $60 +per acre, made up as follows:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cost of the finished drains per acre - - - $51.20</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">7-1/2 per cent. added for mains, etc. - - - 3.83</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Engineering and Superintendence - - - 5.00</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course this is an arbitrary calculation, an estimate +without a single ascertained fact to go upon,—but it is as<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +close as it can be made to what would probably be the +cost of the best work, on average ground, at the present +high prices of labor and material. Five years ago the +same work could have been done for from $40 to $45 per +acre, and it will be again cheaper when wages fall, and +when a greater demand for draining tiles shall have caused +more competition in their manufacture. With a large +general demand, such as has existed in England for the last +20 years, they would now be sold for one-half of their present +price here, and the manufacture would be more profitable.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are many light lands on retentive subsoils, which +could be drained, at present prices, for $50 or less per acre, +and there are others, which are very hard to dig, on which +thorough-draining could not now be done for $60.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cost and the promise of the operation in each instance, +must guide the land owner in deciding whether or +not to undertake the improvement.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In doubtful cases, there is one compromise which may +be safely made,—that is, to omit each alternate drain, and +defer its construction until labor is cheaper.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is doing half the work,—a very different thing +from half-doing the work. In such cases, the lines should +be laid out as though they were to be all done at once, and, +finally, when the omitted drains are made, it should be in +pursuance of the original plan. Probably the drains which +are laid will produce more than one-half of the benefit +that would result if they were all laid, but they will rarely +be satisfactory, except as a temporary expedient, and the +saving will be less than would at first seem likely, for when +the second drains are laid; the cultivation of the land +must be again interrupted; the draining force must be +again brought together; the levels of the new lines must +be taken, and connected with those of the old ones; and +great care must be taken, selecting the dryest weather for<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the work,—to admit very little, if any, muddy water into +the old mains.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This practice of draining by installments is not recommended; +it is only suggested as an allowable expedient, +when the cost of the complete work could not be borne +with out inconvenience.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If any staid and economical farmer is disposed to be +alarmed at the cost of draining, he is respectfully reminded +of the miles of expensive stone walls and other +fences, in New England and many other parts of the +country, which often are a real detriment to the farms, occupying, +with their accompanying bramble bushes and +head lands, acres of valuable land, and causing great +waste of time in turning at the ends of short furrows in +plowing;—while they produce no benefit at all adequate +to their cost and annoyance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It should also be considered that, just as the cost of +fences is scarcely felt by the farmer, being made when his +teams and hands could not be profitably employed in ordinary +farming operations, so the cost of draining will be +reduced in proportion to the amount of the work which +he can "do within himself,"—without hiring men expressly +for it. The estimate herein given is based on the +supposition that men are hired for the work, at wages +equal to $1.50 per day,—while draining would often +furnish a great advantage to the farmer in giving employment +to farm hands who are paid and subsisted by the year.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc52" id="toc52"></a><a name="pdf53" id="pdf53"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER VII. - "WILL IT PAY?"</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Starting with the basis of $60, as the cost of draining +an acre of ordinary farm land;—what is the prospect that +the work will prove remunerative?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In all of the older States, farmers are glad to lend their +surplus funds, on bond and mortgage on their neighbors' +farms, with interest at the rate of 7, and often 6 per cent.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In view of the fact that a little attention must be given +each year to the outlets, and, to the silt-basins, as well, +for the first few years, it will be just to charge for the use +of the capital 8-1/3 per cent.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This will make a yearly charge on the land, for the benefits +resulting from such a system of draining as has been +described, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">of five dollars per acre</span></span>.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Will it Pay?</span></span>—Will the benefits accruing, year after +year,—in wet seasons and in dry,—with root crops and +with grain,—with hay and with fruit,—in rotations of crops +and in pasture,—be worth $5 an acre?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On this question depends the value of tile-draining as a +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">practical</span></span> improvement, for if there is a self-evident proposition +in agriculture, it is that what is not profitable, +one year with another, is <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></span> practical.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To counterbalance the charge of $5, as the yearly cost<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the draining, each acre must produce, in addition to +what it would have yielded without the improvement:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">10 bushels of Corn at .50 per bushel.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3 bushels of Wheat at $1.66 per bushel.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">5 bushels of Rye at 1.00 per bushel.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">12-1/2 bushels of Oats at .40 per bushel.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">10 bushels of Potatoes at .50 per bushel.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">6-2/3 bushels of Barley at .75 per bushel.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1,000 pounds of Hay at 10.00 per ton.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">50 pounds of Cotton at .10 per pound.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">20 pounds of Tobacco at .25 per pound.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Surely this is not a large increase,—not in a single case,—and +the prices are generally less than may be expected +for years to come.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The United States Census Report places the average +crop of Indian Corn, in Indiana and Illinois, at 33 bushels +per acre. In New York it was but 27 bushels, and in Pennsylvania +but 20 bushels. It would certainly be accounted +extremely liberal to fix the average yield of such soils as +need draining, at 30 bushels per acre. It is extremely unlikely +that they would yield this, in the average of seasons, +with the constantly recurring injury from backward +springs, summer droughts, and early autumn frosts.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heavy, retentive soils, which are cold and late in the +spring, subject to hard baking in midsummer, and to become +cold and wet in the early fall, are the very ones which are +best suited, when drained, to the growth of Indian Corn. +They are "strong" and fertile,—and should be able to +absorb, and to prepare for the use of plants, the manure +which is applied to them, and the fertilizing matters which +are brought to them by each storm;—but they cannot properly +exercise the functions of fertile soils, for the reason +that they are strangled with water, chilled by evaporation, +or baked to almost brick-like hardness, during nearly the +whole period of the growth and ripening of the crop.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +The manure which has been added to them, as well as their +own chemical constituents, are prevented from undergoing +those changes which are necessary to prepare them for the +uses of vegetation. The water of rains, finding the spaces +in the soil already occupied by the water of previous rains, +cannot enter to deposit the gases which it contains,—or, +if the soil has been dried by evaporation under the influence +of sun and wind, the surface is almost hermetically +sealed, and the water is only slowly soaked up, much of +it running off over the surface, or lying to be removed +by the slow and chilling process of evaporation. In wet +times and in dry, the air, with its heat, its oxygen, and its +carbonic acid, (its universal solvent,) is forbidden to enter +and do its beneficent work. The benefit resulting from +cultivating the surface of the ground is counteracted by +the first unfavorable change of the weather; a single heavy +rain, by saturating the soil, returning it to nearly its original +condition of clammy compactness. In favorable +seasons, these difficulties are lessened, but man has no control +over the seasons, and to-morrow may be as foul as +to-day has been fair. A crop of corn on undrained, retentive +ground, is subject to injury from disastrous changes +of the weather, from planting until harvest. Even supposing +that, in the most favorable seasons, it would yield +as largely as though the ground were drained, it would +lose enough in unfavorable seasons to reduce the average +more than ten (10) bushels per acre.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The average crop, on such land, has been assumed to be +30 bushels per acre; it would be an estimate as moderate +as this one is generous, to say that, with the same cultivation +and the same manure, the average crop, after draining, +would be 50 bushels, or an increase equal to twice as +much as is needed to pay the draining charge. If the +method of cultivation is improved, by deep plowing, ample +manuring, and thorough working,—all of which may +be more profitably applied to drained than to undrained<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +land,—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">average</span></span> crop,—of a series of years,—will not +be less than 60 bushels.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cost of extra harvesting will be more than repaid +by the value of the extra fodder, and the increased cultivation +and manuring are lasting benefits, which can be +charged, only in small part, to the current crop. Therefore, +if it will pay to plow, plant, hoe and harvest for 30 +bushels of corn, it will surely pay much better to double +the crop at a yearly extra cost of $5, and, practically, it +amounts to this;—the extra crop is nearly all clear gain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The quantity of Wheat required to repay the annual +charge for drainage is so small, that no argument is needed +to show that any process which will simply prevent +"throwing out" in winter, and the failure of the plant in +the wetter parts of the field, will increase the product +more than that amount,—to say nothing of the general +importance to this crop of having the land in the most +perfect condition, (in winter as well as in summer.)</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is stated that, since the general introduction of drainage +in England, (within the past 25 years,) the wheat +crop of that country has been more than doubled. Of +course, it does not necessarily follow that the amount <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per +acre</span></span> has been doubled, large areas which were originally +unfit for the growth of this crop, having been, by draining, +excellently fitted for its cultivation;—but there can be no +doubt that its yield has been greatly increased on all +drained lands, nor that large areas, which, before being +drained, were able to produce fair crops only in the best +seasons, are now made very nearly independent of the +weather.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not susceptible of demonstration, but it is undoubtedly +true, that those clay or other heavy soils, which are +devoted to the growth of wheat in this country, would, +if they were thoroughly under-drained, produce, on the +average of years, at least double their present crop.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. John Johnston, a venerable Scotch farmer, who has<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +long been a successful cultivator in the Wheat region of +Western New York,—and who was almost the pioneer of +tile-draining in America,—has laid over 50 miles of drains +within the last 30 years. His practice is described in +Klippart's Land Drainage, from which work we quote the +following:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Mr. Johnston says he never saw 100 acres in any one +farm, but a portion of it would pay for draining. Mr. +Johnston is no rich man who has carried a favorite hobby +without regard to cost or profit. He is a hardworking +Scotch farmer, who commenced a poor man, borrowed +money to drain his land, has gradually extended his +operations, and is now reaping the benefits, in having +crops of 40 bushels of wheat to the acre. He is a gray-haired +Nestor, who, after accumulating the experience +of a long life, is now, at 68 years of age, written to by +strangers in every State of the Union for information, +not only in drainage matters, but all cognate branches +of farming. He sits in his homestead, a veritable Humboldt +in his way, dispensing information cheerfully +through our agricultural papers and to private correspondents, +of whom he has recorded 164 who applied to +him last year. His opinions are, therefore, worth more +than those of a host of theoretical men, who write without +practice." * * * * *</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Although his farm is mainly devoted to wheat, yet a +considerable area of meadow and some pasture has been +retained. He now owns about 300 acres of land. The +yield of wheat has been 40 bushels this year, and in former +seasons, when his neighbors were reaping 8, 10, or +15 bushels, he has had 30 and 40." * * * * *</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Mr. Johnston says tile-draining pays for itself in two +seasons, sometimes in one. Thus, in 1847, he bought a +piece of 10 acres to get an outlet for his drains. It was +a perfect quagmire, covered with coarse aquatic grasses, +and so unfruitful that it would not give back the seed<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sown upon it. In 1848 a crop of corn was taken from it, +which was measured and found to be <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">eighty bushels</span></span> per +acre, and as, because of the Irish famine, corn was worth +$1 per bushel that year, this crop paid not only all the expense +of drainage, but the first cost of the land as well.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Another piece of 20 acres, adjoining the farm of the +late John Delafield, was wet, and would never bring +more than 10 bushels of corn per acre. This was drained +at a great cost, nearly $30 per acre. The first crop after +this was 83 bushels and some odd pounds per acre. It +was weighed and measured by Mr. Delafield, and the +County Society awarded a premium to Mr. Johnston. +Eight acres and some rods of this land, at one side, averaged +94 bushels, or the trifling increase of 84 bushels +per acre over what it would bear before those insignificant +clay tiles were buried in the ground. But this increase +of crop is not the only profit of drainage; for Mr. +Johnston says that, on drained land, one half the usual +quantity of manure suffices to give maximum crops. It +is not difficult to find a reason for this. When the soil +is sodden with water, air can not enter to any extent, +and hence oxygen can not eat off the surfaces of soil-particles +and prepare food for plants; thus the plant +must in great measure depend on the manure for sustenance, +and, of course, the more this is the case, the more +manure must be applied to get good crops. This is one +reason, but there are others which we might adduce if +one good one were not sufficient.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Mr. Johnston says he never made money until he +drained, and so convinced is he of the benefits accruing +from the practice, that he would not hesitate,—as he did +not when the result was much more uncertain than at +present,—to borrow money to drain. Drains well laid, +endure, but unless a farmer intends doing the job well, +he had best leave it alone and grow poor, and move out +West, and all that sort of thing. Occupiers of apparently<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +dry land are not safe in concluding that they need +not go to the expense of draining, for if they will but +dig a three-foot ditch in even the driest soil, water will +be found in the bottom at the end of eight hours, and +if it does come, then draining will pay for itself +speedily."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some years ago, the Rural New Yorker published a +letter from one of its correspondents from which the following +is extracted:—</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"I recollect calling upon a gentleman in the harvest field, when something +like the following conversation occurred:</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Your wheat, sir, looks very fine; how many acres have you in this +field?'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'In the neighborhood of eight, I judge.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Did you sow upon fallow?'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'No sir. We turned over green sward—sowed immediately upon the +sod, and dragged it thoroughly—and you see the yield will probably be +25 bushels to the acre, where it is not too wet.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Yes sir, it is mostly very fine. I observed a thin strip through it, +but did not notice that it was wet.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Well, it is not </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">very</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> wet. Sometimes after a rain, the water runs +across it, and in spring and fall it is just wet enough to heave the wheat +and kill it.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">I inquired whether a couple of good drains across the lot would not +render it dry.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Perhaps so—but there is not over an acre that is killed out.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Have you made an estimate of the loss you annually sustain from +this wet place?'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'No, I had not thought much about it.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Would $30 be too high?'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'O yes, double.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Well, let's see; it cost you $3 to turn over the sward? Two bushels +of seed, $2; harrowing in, 75 cents; interest, taxes, and fences, +$5.25; 25 bushels of wheat lost, $25.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Deduct for harvesting—--'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'No; the straw would pay for that.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Very well, all footed $36.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'What will the wheat and straw on this acre be worth this year?'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Nothing, as I shall not cut the ground over.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Then it appears that you have lost, in what you have actually expended, +and the wheat you would have harvested, had the ground been +dry, $36, a pretty large sum for one acre.'</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">'Yes I see,' said the farmer."</span></p> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Rye may be grown, with tolerable advantage, on +lands which are less perfectly drained than is necessary +for Wheat, there can be no doubt that an increase of more +than the six and two-thirds bushels needed to make up the +drainage charge will be the result of the improvement.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Oats will thrive in soils which are too wet for +many other crops, the ability to plant early, which is secured +by an early removal from the soil of its surplus water, +will ensure, one year with another, more than twelve +and a half bushels of increased product.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the case of Potatoes, also, the early planting will be +a great advantage; and, while the cause of the potato-rot +is not yet clearly discovered, it is generally conceded +that, even if it does not result directly from too great +wetness of the soil, its development is favored by this +condition, either from a direct action on the tubers, or +from the effect in the air immediately about the plants, +of the exhalations of a humid soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An increase of from five to ten per cent. on a very ordinary +crop of potatoes, will cover the drainage charge, +and with facilities for marketing, the higher price of the +earlier yield is of much greater consequence.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Barley will not thrive in wet soil, and there is no question +that drainage would give it much more than the increased +yield prescribed above.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to hay, there are many wet, rich soils which produce +very large crops of grass, and it is possible that drainage +might not always cause them to yield a thousand pounds +more of hay to the acre, but the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quality</span></span> of the hay from +the drained soil, would, of itself, more than compensate +for the drainage charge. The great benefit of the improvement, +with reference to this crop, however, lies in +the fact that, although wet, grass lands,—and by "wet" is +meant the condition of undrained, retentive clays, and +heavy loams, or other soils requiring drainage,—in a very +few years "run out," or become occupied by semi-aquatic<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and other objectionable plants, to the exclusion of the +proper grasses; the same lands, thoroughly drained, may +be kept in full yield of the finest hay plants, as long as the +ground is properly managed. It must, of course, be manured, +from time to time, and care should be taken to prevent +the puddling of its surface, by men or animals, +while it is too wet from recent rain. With proper attention +to these points, it need not be broken up in a lifetime, +and it may be relied on to produce uniformly good crops, +always equal to the best obtained before drainage.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far as Cotton and Tobacco are concerned, there are +not many instances recorded of the systematic drainage +of lands appropriated to their cultivation, but there is +every reason to suppose that they will both be benefitted +by any operation which will have the effect of placing the +soil in a better condition for the uses of all cultivated +plants. The average crop of tobacco is about 700 lbs., +and that of cotton probably 250 lbs. An addition of one-fifth +to the cotton crop, and of only one thirty-fifth to the +tobacco crop, would make the required increase.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The failure of the cotton crop, during the past season, +(1866,) might have been entirely prevented, in many districts, +by the thorough draining of the land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The advantages claimed for drainage with reference to +the above-named staple crops, will apply with equal, if not +greater force, to all garden and orchard culture. In fact, +with the exception of osier willows, and cranberries, there +is scarcely a cultivated plant which will not yield larger +and better crops on drained than on undrained land,—enough +better, and enough larger, to pay much more than +the interest on the cost of the improvement.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet, this advantage of draining, is, by no means, the +only one which is worthy of consideration. Since the +object of cultivation is to produce remunerative crops, of +course, the larger and better the crops, the more completely +is the object attained;—and to this extent the greatest<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +benefit resulting from draining, lies in the increased yield. +But there is another advantage,—a material and moral +advantage,—which is equally to be considered.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Instances of the profit resulting from under-draining, +(coupled, as it almost always is, with improved cultivation,) +are frequently published, and it would be easy to +fortify this chapter with hundreds of well authenticated +cases. It is, however, deemed sufficient to quote the following, +from an old number of one of the New York +dailies:—</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"Some years ago, the son of an English farmer came to the United +States, and let himself as a farm laborer, in New York State, on the following +conditions: Commencing work at the first of September, he was +to work ten hours a day for three years, and to receive in payment a +deed of a field containing twelve acres—securing himself by an agreement, +by which his employer was put under bonds of $2,000 to fulfill his +part of the contract; also, during these three years, he was to have the +control of the field; to work it at his own expense, and to give his employer +one-half the proceeds. The field lay under the south side of a +hill, was of dark, heavy clay resting on a bluish-colored, solid clay subsoil, +and for many years previous, had not been known to yield anything +but a yellowish, hard, stunted vegetation.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"The farmer thought the young man was a simpleton, and that he, +himself, was most wise and fortunate; but the former, nothing daunted +by this opinion, which he was not unconscious that the latter entertained +of him, immediately hired a set of laborers, and set them to work in +the field trenching, as earnestly as it was well possible for men to labor. +In the morning and evening, before and after having worked his ten +hours, as per agreement, he worked with them, and continued to work +in this way until, about the middle of the following November, he had +finished the laying of nearly 5,000 yards of good tile under-drains. He +then had the field plowed deep and thoroughly, and the earth thrown up +as much as possible into ridges, and thus let it remain during the winter. +Next spring he had the field again plowed as before, then cross-plowed +and thoroughly pulverized with a heavy harrow, then sowed it +with oats and clover. The yield was excellent—nothing to be compared +to it had ever before been seen upon that field. Next year it gave two +crops of clover, of a rich dark green, and enormously heavy and luxuriant; +and the year following, after being manured at an expense of some +$7 an acre, nine acres of the field yielded 936 bushels of corn, and 25 +wagon loads of pumpkins; while from the remaining three acres were +taken 100 bushels of potatoes—the return of this crop being upwards +of $1,200. The time had now come for the field to fall into the young</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> +man's possession, and the farmer unhesitatingly offered him $1,500 to +relinquish his title to it; and when this was unhesitatingly refused, he +offered $2,000, which was accepted.</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"The young man's account stood thus</span></p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Half proceeds of oats and straw, first year</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">$165 00</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Half value of sheep pasturage, first year</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">25 00</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Half of first crops of clover, first year</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">112 50</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Half of second crops of clover, including seed, second year</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">135 00</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Half of sheep pasturage, second year</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">15 00</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Half of crops of corn, pumpkins and potatoes, third year</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">690 00</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Received from farmer, for relinquishment of title</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">2,000 00</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">———</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Account Dr.</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">$3,142 50</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">To under-draining, labor and tiles</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">$325 00</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">To labor and manure, three seasons</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">475 00</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">To labor given to farmer, $16 per month, 36 months</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">576 00—1,376 00</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">———</span></td> +</tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> +<td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">Balance in his favor</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span style="font-size: 90%">$1,766 50</span></td> +</tr></tbody></table> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Draining makes the farmer, to a great extent, the +master of his vocation. With a sloppy, drenched, cold, +uncongenial soil, which is saturated with every rain, and +takes days, and even weeks, to become sufficiently dry to +work upon, his efforts are constantly baffled by unfavorable +weather, at those times when it is most important that +his work proceed without interruption. Weeks are lost, +at a season when they are all too short for the work to be +done. The ground must be hurriedly, and imperfectly +prepared, and the seed is put in too late, often to rot in the +over-soaked soil, requiring the field to be planted again at +a time which makes it extremely doubtful whether the +crop will ripen before the frost destroys it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The necessary summer cultivation, between the rows, +has to be done as the weather permits; and much more +of it is required because of the baking of the ground. +The whole life of the farmer, in fact, becomes a constant +struggle with nature, and he fights always at a disadvantage. +What he does by the work of days, is mainly undone +by a single night's storm. Weeds grow apace, and +the land is too wet to admit of their being exterminated. +By the time that it is dry enough, other pressing work<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +occupies the time; and if, finally, a day comes when they +may be attacked, they offer ten times the resistance that +they would have done a week earlier. The operations of +the farm are carried on more expensively than if the +ability to work constantly allowed a smaller force to be +employed. The crops which give such doubtful promise, +require the same cultivation as though they were certain +to be remunerative, and the work can be done only with +increased labor, because of the bad condition of the soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From force of tradition and of habit, the farmer accepts +his fate and plods through his hard life, piously ascribing +to the especial interference of an inscrutable Providence, +the trials which come of his own neglect to use the means +of relief which Providence has placed within his reach.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Trouble enough he must have, at any rate, but not necessarily +all that he now has. It is not within the scope +of the best laid drains to control storm or sunshine,—but +it is within their power to remove the water of the storm, +rapidly and sufficiently, and to allow the heat of the sunshine +to penetrate the soil and do its hidden work. No +human improvement can change any of the so-called +"phenomena" of nature, or prevent the action of the +least of her laws; but their effects upon the soil and its +crops may be greatly modified, and that which, under certain +circumstances, would have caused inconvenience or +loss, may, by a change of circumstances, be made positively +beneficial.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the practice of agriculture, which is pre-eminently +an economic art, draining will be prosecuted because of +the pecuniary profit which it promises, and,—very properly,—it +will not be pursued, to any considerable extent, +where the money, which it costs, will not bring money in +return. Yet, in a larger view of the case, its collateral +advantages are of even greater moment than its mere +profits. It is the foundation and the commencement of +the most intelligent farming. It opens the way for other<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +improvements, which, without it, would produce only +doubtful or temporary benefits; and it enables the farmer +so to extend and enlarge his operations, with fair promise +of success, as to raise his occupation from a mere waiting +upon the uncertain favors of nature, to an intelligent +handling of her forces, for the attainment of almost certain +results.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rude work of an unthinking farmer, who scratches +the surface soil with his plow, plants his seed, and trusts +to the chances of a greater or less return, is unmitigated +drudgery,—unworthy of an intelligent man; but he +who investigates all of the causes of success and failure in +farming, and adapts every operation to the requirements +of the circumstances under which he works; doing everything +in his power that may tend to the production of the +results which he desires, and, so far as possible, avoiding +everything that may interfere with his success,—leaving +nothing to chance that can be secured, and securing all +that chance may offer,—is engaged in the most ennobling, +the most intelligent and the most progressive of all industrial +avocations.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the cultivation of retentive soils, drainage is the key +to all improvement, and its advantage is to be measured +not simply by the effect which it directly produces in increasing +production, but, in still greater degree, by the +extent to which it prepares the way for the successful application +of improved processes, makes the farmer independent +of weather and season, and offers freer scope to +intelligence in the direction of his affairs.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc54" id="toc54"></a> +<a name="pdf55" id="pdf55"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER VIII. - HOW TO MAKE DRAINING TILES.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Draining tiles are made of burnt clay, like bricks and +earthen-ware.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In general terms, the process is as follows:—The clay is +mixed with sand, or other substances which give it the proper +consistency, and is so wetted as to form a plastic mass, to +which may be given any desired form, and which is sufficiently +stiff to retain its shape. Properly prepared clay is +forced through the aperture of a die of the shape of the outside +of the tile, while a plug,—held by a support in the rear +of the die,—projects through the aperture, and gives the +form to the bore of the tile. The shape of the material +of the tile, as it comes from the die, corresponds to the +open space, between the plug and the edge of the aperture. +The clay is forced out in a continuous pipe, which +is cut to the desired length by a wire, which is so thin as +to pass through the mass without altering the shape of the +pipe. The short lengths of pipe are dried in the air as +thoroughly as they can be, and are then burned in a kiln, +similar to that used for pottery.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Materials.</span></span>—The range of earths which may be used in +the manufacture of tiles is considerable, though clay is +the basis of all of them. The best is, probably, the clay<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which is almost invariably found at the bottom of muck +beds, as this is finer and more compact than that which is +dug from dry land, and requires but little preparation. +There is, also, a peculiar clay, found in some localities, +which is almost like quick-sand in its nature, and which is +excellent for tile-making,—requiring no freezing, or washing +to prepare it for the machine. As a general rule, any +clay which will make <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">good</span></span> bricks will make tiles. When +first taken from the ground, these clays are not usually adhesive, +but become so on being moistened and kneaded.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is especially important that no limestone <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pebbles</span></span> be +mixed with the clay, as the burning would change these +to quicklime, which, in slaking, would destroy the tiles. +The presence of a limey earth, however, mixed through +the mass, is a positive advantage, as in this intimate +admixture, the lime forms, under the heat of the +kiln, a chemical combination with the other ingredients; +and, as it melts more readily than some of them, it hastens +the burning and makes it more complete. What is +known as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">plastic clay</span></span>, (one of the purest of the native +clays,) is too strong for tile-making, and must be "tempered," +by having other substances mixed with it, to give +it a stiffer quality.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The clay which is best for brick-making, contains +Silica, and Alumina in about the following proportions:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Silica ... 55 to 75 per cent.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alumina ... 35 to 25 per cent.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Variable quantities of other materials are usually found +in connection with the clay, in its native condition. The +most common of these are the following:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Magnesia 1 to 5 per cent.—sometimes 20 to 30 per cent.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lime 0 to 19 per cent.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Potash 0 to 5 per cent.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Oxyd of iron 0 to 19 per cent.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"These necessary elements give fusibility to earthenware,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and, therefore, allow its constituent substances to +combine in such a manner as to form a resisting body; +and thus is performed with a temperature lower in proportion +as the necessary elements are more abundant."<a id="noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the earth of the locality where tiles are to be +made is not sufficiently strong for the purpose, and plastic +clay can be cheaply obtained from a distance, a small +quantity of this may be used to give strength and tenacity +to the native material.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The compound must always contain a proper proportion +of clay and sand. If too little <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">clay</span></span> is used, the mass will +not be sufficiently tough to retain its compactness as it +passes through the die of the tile machine; if too little +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sand</span></span>, the moulded tiles will not be strong enough to bear +handling, and they will crack and warp in drying and burning. +Within the proper limits, the richer earths may be +moulded much thinner, and tiles made from them may, +consequently, be made lighter for transportation, without +being too weak. The best materials for tempering stiff +clays are sand, pounded brick or tile, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">scoria</span></span>, from +smelting furnaces.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Preparation Of Earths.</span></span>—The clay from which tiles are +to be made, should be thrown out in the fall, (the upper +and lower parts of the beds being well mixed in the operation,) +and made into heaps on the surface, not more than +about 3 feet square and 3 feet high. In this form, it is left +exposed to the freezing and thawing of winter, which will +aid very much in modifying its character,—making it less +lumpy and more easily workable. Any stones which may +appear in the digging, should, of course, be removed, and +most earths will be improved by being passed through a +pair of heavy iron rollers, before they are piled up for the +winter. The rollers should be made of cast iron, about +15 inches in diameter, and 30 inches long, and set as close<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +together as they can be, and still be revolved by the power +of two horses. The grinding, by means of these rollers, +may add 50 cents per thousand to the cost of the tiles, +but it will greatly improve their quality.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the spring, the clay should be prepared for tempering, +by the removal of such pebbles as it may still contain. +The best way to do this is by "washing," though, if there +be only a few coarse pebbles, they may be removed by +building the clay into a solid cone 2 or 3 feet high, and +then paring it off into thin slices with a long knife having +a handle at each end. This paring will discover any pebbles +larger than a pea that may have remained in the clay.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Washing</span></span> is the process of mixing the clay with a considerable +quantity of water, so as to form a thin paste, in +which all stones and gravel will sink to the bottom; the +liquid portion is then drawn off into shallow pits or vats, +and allowed to settle, the clear water being finally removed +by pumping or by evaporation, according to the +need for haste. For washing small quantities of clay, a +common mortar bed, such as is used by masons, will answer, +if it be supplied with a gate for draining off the +muddy water after the gravel has settled; but, if the work +is at all extensive, a washing mill will be required. It +may be made in the form of a circular trough, with scrapers +for mixing the clay and water attached to a circular +horse-sweep.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Another convenient mixing machine may be constructed +in the following manner: Take a large hollow log, of suitable +length, say five or six feet; hew out the inequalities +with an adz, and close up the ends with pieces of strong +plank, into which bearing have been cut to support a revolving +shaft. This shaft should be sufficiently thick to +permit being transfixed with wooden pins long enough to +reach within an inch or two of the sides of the log or +trough, and they should be so beveled as to form in their +aggregate shape an interrupted screw, having a direction<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +toward that end of the box where the mixed clay is designed +to pass out. In order to effect the mixing more +thoroughly, these pins may be placed sufficiently far apart +to permit the interior of the box to be armed with other +pins extending toward the center, between which they +can easily move. The whole is placed either horizontally +or vertically, and supplied with clay and water in proper +quantities, while the shaft is made to revolve by means of +a sweep, with horse power, running water or steam, as +the case may be. The clay is put into the end farthest +from the outlet, and is carried forward to it and mixed +by the motion, and mutual action and re-action of the pins +in the shaft and in the sides of the box. Iron pins may, +of course, be substituted for the wooden ones, and have +the advantage of greater durability and of greater strength +in proportion to their size, and the number may therefore +be greater in a machine of any given length. The fluid +mass of clay and water may be permitted to fall upon a +sieve or riddle, of heavy wire, and afterward be received +in a settling vat, of suitable size and construction, to drain +off the water and let the clay dry out sufficiently by subsequent +evaporation. A machine of this construction +may be made of such a size that it may be put in motion +by hand, by means of a crank, and yet be capable of +mixing, if properly supplied, clay enough to mold 800 +or 1000 pieces of drain pipe per day."<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. Parkes, in a report to the Royal Agricultural Society +of England, in 1843, says:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It is requisite that the clay be well washed and sieved +before pugging, for the manufacture of these tiles, or the +operation of drawing them would be greatly impeded, by +having to remove stones from the small space surrounding +the die, which determines the thickness of the pipe. +But it results from this necessary washing, that the substance<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the pipe is uniformly and extremely dense, +which, consequently, gives it immense strength, and ensures +a durability which cannot belong to a more porous, +though thicker, tile.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The clay is brought from the pug-mill so dry that, +when squeezed through the machine, not a drop of water +exudes,—moisture is, indeed, scarcely apparent on the +surface of the raw pipe. Hence, the tiles undergo little +or no change of figure while drying, which takes place +very rapidly, because of their firm and slight substance."</p> + +<a name="fig56" id="fig56"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image42.png" width="640" height="921" alt="Illustration: Fig. 42 - PUG-MILL." title="Fig. 42 - PUG-MILL." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 42 - PUG-MILL.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tempering.</span></span>—After the fine clay is relieved of the water +with which it was washed, and has become tolerably dry, it +should be mixed with the sand, or other tempering material, +and passed through the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pug-Mill</span></span>, (Fig. 42,) which will +thoroughly mix its various ingredients, +and work the whole into a +homogeneous mass, ready for the +tile machine. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pug-mill</span></span> is +similar to that used in brick-yards, +only, as the clay is worked much +stiffer for tiles than for bricks, +iron knives must be substituted +for the wooden pins. These +knives are so arranged as to cut +the clay in every part, and, by +being set at an angle, they force it +downward toward the outlet gate +at the bottom. The clay should +be kept at the proper degree of moisture from the time of +tempering, and after passing through the pug-mill it +should be thoroughly beaten to drive out the air, and the +beaten mass should be kept covered with wet cloths to +prevent drying.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Moulding the Tiles.</span></span>—Machines for moulding tiles are<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of various styles, with much variation in the details of +their construction, but they all act on the same general +principle;—that of forcing the clay through a ring-shaped +aperture in an iron plate, forming a continuous pipe, which +is carried off on an endless apron, or on rollers, and cut +by wires into the desired lengths. The plates with the +ring-shaped apertures are called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dies</span></span>; the openings are +of any desired form, corresponding to the external shape +of the tiles; and the size and shape +of the bore, is determined by the +core or plug, which is held in the +centers of the apertures. The construction +of the die plates, and the +manner of fastening the plugs, +which determine the bore of the tiles, is shown in Fig. 43. +The view taken is of the inside of the plate.</p> + +<a name="fig57" id="fig57"></a><div class="floatright tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 2.00em"><img src="images/image43.png" width="640" height="325" alt="Illustration: Fig. 43 - PLATE OF DIES." title="Fig. 43 - PLATE OF DIES." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 43 - PLATE OF DIES.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The machine consists usually of a strong iron chest, +with a hinged cover, into which the clay is placed, having +a piston moving in it, connected by a rod or bar, having +cog-teeth, with a cog-wheel, which is moved by horse or +hand power, and drives the piston forward with steadiness, +forcing the clay through the openings in the die-plate. +The clay issues in continuous lines of pipe. The machines +most in use in this country are connected directly with +the pug-mill, and as the clay is pugged, it at once passes +into the box, and is pressed out as tiles. These machines +are usually run by horse-power.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. Barral, in his voluminous work on drainage,<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> describes, +as follows, a cheap hand machine which can be +made by any country wheelwright, and which has a capacity +of 3,000 tiles per day (Fig. 44):</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Imagine a simple, wooden box, divided into two compartments. +In the rear compartment there stands a +vertical post, fastened with two iron bolts, having heads<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at one end, and nuts and screws at the other. The box +is thus fixed to its support. We simply place this support +on the ground and bind its upper part with a rope +to a tree, a stake, or a post. The front compartment is +the reservoir for the clay, presenting at its front an +orifice, in which we fix the desired die with a simple bolt. +A wooden piston, of which the rod is jointed with a +lever, which works in a bolt at the top of the supporting +post, gives the necessary pressure. When the chest is +full of clay, we bear down on the end of the lever, +and the moulded tiles run out on a table supplied with +rollers. Raising the piston, it comes out of the box, +which is again packed with clay. The piston is replaced +in the box; pressure is again applied to the lever, and +so on. When the line of tiles reaches the end of the +table, we lower a frame on which brass wires are +stretched, and cut it into the usual lengths."</p> + +<a name="fig58" id="fig58"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image44.png" width="640" height="316" alt="Fig. 44 - CHEAP WOODEN MACHINE." title="Fig. 44 - CHEAP WOODEN MACHINE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 44 - CHEAP WOODEN MACHINE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The workmen must attend well to the degree of moisture +of the clay which is put into the machine. It should +be dry enough to show no undue moisture on its surface +as it comes out of the die-plate, and sufficiently moist not<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to be crumbled in passing the edge of the mould. The +clay for small (thin) tiles must, necessarily, be more moist +than that which is to pass through a wider aperture; and +for the latter there may, with advantage, be more sand in +the paste than would be practicable with the former.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the tiles are cut into lengths, they are removed +by a set of mandrils, small enough to pass easily into +them, such as are shown in Fig. 45, (the number of fingers +corresponding with the +number of rows of tiles +made by the machine,) and +are placed on shelves made +of narrow strips sawn from +one-inch boards, laid with spaces between them to allow +a free circulation of air.</p> + +<a name="fig59" id="fig59"></a><div class="floatleft tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 2.00em"><img src="images/image45.png" width="640" height="118" alt="Fig. 45 - MANDRIL FOR CARRYING TILES FROM MACHINE." title="Fig. 45 - MANDRIL FOR CARRYING TILES FROM MACHINE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 45 - MANDRIL FOR CARRYING TILES FROM MACHINE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Drying and Rolling.</span></span>—Care must be taken that freshly +made tiles be not dried too rapidly. They should be +sheltered from the sun and from strong winds. Too rapid +drying has the effect of warping them out of shape, and, +sometimes, of cracking the clay. To provide against this +injury, the drying is done under sheds or other covering, +and the side which is exposed to the prevailing winds is +sometimes boarded up.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the first drying, the tiles are placed in single layers +on the shelves. When about half dried,—at which time +they are usually warped more or less from their true +shape,—it is well to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">roll</span></span> them. This is done by passing +through them a smooth, round stick, (sufficiently smaller +than the bore to enter it easily, and long enough to project +five or six inches beyond each end of the tile,) and,—holding +one end of the stick in each hand,—rolling them +carefully on a table. This operation should be performed +when the tiles are still moist enough not to be broken by +the slight bending required to make them straight. After +rolling, the tiles may be piled up in close layers, some<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +four or five feet high, (which will secure them against +further warping,) and left until they are dry enough for +burning,—that is, as dry as they can be made by exposure +to the air.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Burning.</span></span>—Tiles are burned in kilns in which, by the +effect of flame acting directly upon them, they are raised +to a heat sufficient to melt some of their more easily fusible +ingredients, and give to them a stone-like hardness.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Kilns are of various construction and of various sizes. +As this book is not intended for the instruction of those +who are engaged in the general manufacture of tiles, only +for those who may find it necessary to establish local +works, it will be sufficient to describe a temporary earthen +kiln which may be cheaply built, and which will answer +an excellent purpose, where only 100,000 or 200,000 tiles +per season will be required.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Directions for its construction are set forth in a letter +from Mr. T. Law Hodges, of England, to the late Earl +Spencer, published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural +Society for the year 1843, as follows:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The form of the clay-kiln is circular, 11 feet in diameter, +and 7 feet high. It is wholly built of damp, clayey +earth, rammed firmly together, and plastered, inside and +out, with loam (clay?). The earth to form the walls is dug +out around the base, leaving a circular trench about four +feet wide and as many deep, into which the fire-holes of +the kiln open. If wood be the fuel used, three fire-holes +will be sufficient; if coal, four will be needed. About +1,200 common brick will be wanted to build these fire-holes +and flues; if coal is used, rather fewer bricks will +be wanted, but, then, some iron bars are necessary,—six +bars to each fire-hole.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The earthen walls are four feet thick at the floor of +the kiln, seven feet high, and tapering to a thickness of +two feet at the top; this will determine the slope of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +exterior face of the kiln. The inside of the wall is carried +up perpendicularly, and the loam plastering inside +becomes, after the first burning, like a brick wall. The +kiln may be safely erected in March, or whenever the +danger of injury from frost is over. After the summer +use of it, it must be protected, by faggots or litter, +against the wet and frost of winter. A kiln of these +dimensions will contain 32,500 1-1/4-inch tiles, * * * +or 12,000 2-1/4-inch tiles. * * *</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In good weather, this kiln can be filled, burnt, and +discharged once in every fortnight, and fifteen kilns +may be obtained in a good season, producing 487,500 +1-1/4-inch tiles, and in proportion for the other sizes.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It requires 2 tons 5 cwt. of good coals to burn the +above kiln, full of tiles."</p> + +<a name="fig60" id="fig60"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image46.png" width="640" height="239" alt="Fig. 46 - CLAY-KILN." title="Fig. 46 - CLAY-KILN." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 46 - CLAY-KILN.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A sectional view of this kiln is shown in Fig. 46, in +which <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C, C</span></span> represent sections of the outer trench; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A</span></span>, one +of the three fire-holes; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">B, B</span></span>, sections of a circular +passage inside of the wall, connected with the fire-holes, +and serving as a flue for the flames, which, at suitable intervals, +pass through openings into the floor of the kiln. +The whole structure should be covered with a roof of +rough boards, placed high enough to be out of the reach +of the fire. A door in the side of the kiln serves for putting<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in and removing the tiles, and is built up, temporarily, +with bricks or clay, during the burning. Mr. Hodges +estimates the cost of this kiln, all complete, at less than +$25. Concerning its value, he wrote another letter in +1848, from which the following is extracted:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The experience of four years that have elapsed since +my letter to the late Earl Spencer, published in the 5th +volume of the proceedings of the Royal Agricultural +Society, page 57, has thoroughly tested the merits of +the temporary clay-kilns for the burning of draining-pipes +described in that letter.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I am well aware that there were persons, even among +those who came to see it, who pronounced at once upon +the construction and duration of the kiln as unworthy +of attention. How far their expectations have been realized, +and what value belongs to their judgment, the following +short statement will exhibit:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The kiln, in question, was constructed, in 1844, at a +cost of £5.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It was used four times in that year, burning each +time between 18,000 and 19,000 draining pipes, of 1-3/4 +inches in diameter.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In 1845, it was used nine times, or about once a fortnight, +burning each time the same quantity of nearly +19,000 pipes.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In 1846, the same result.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In 1847, it has been used twelve times, always burning +the same quantity. In the course of the last year a +trifling repair in the bottom of the kiln, costing rather +less than 10 shillings, was necessary, and this is the only +cost for repair since its erection. It is now as good as +ever, and might be worked at least once a fortnight +through the ensuing season.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The result of this experiment of four years shows not +only the practical value of this cheap kiln, but Mr. +Hatcher, who superintends the brick and tile-yard at Benenden,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +where this kiln stands, expresses himself strongly +in favor of this kiln, as always producing better and +more evenly burned pipes than either of his larger and +better built brick-kilns can do."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The floor of the kiln is first covered with bricks, placed +on end, at a little distance from each other, so as to allow +the fire to pass between them, and the tiles are placed <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">on +end</span></span> on these. This position will afford the best draft for +the flames. After the kiln is packed full, the door-way is +built up, and a slow fire is started,—only enough at first +to complete the drying of the tiles, and to do this so +slowly as not to warp them out of shape. They will be +thoroughly dry when the smoke from the top of the kiln +loses its dark color and becomes transparent. When the +fires are well started, the mouths of the fire-holes may be +built up so as to leave only sufficient room to put in fresh +fuel, and if the wind is high, the fire-holes, on the side +against which it blows, should be sheltered by some sort +of screen which will counteract its influence, and keep up +an even heat on all sides.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The time required for burning will be from two days and +a night to four days and four nights, according to the dryness +of the tiles, the state of the weather, and the character +of the fuel. The fires should be drawn when the tiles in the +hottest part of the kiln are burned to a "ringing" hardness. +By leaving two or three holes in the door-way, +which can be stopped with loose brick, a rod may be run +in, from time to time, to take out specimen tiles from the +hottest part of the kiln, which shall have been so placed +as to be easily removed. The best plan, however,—the +only prudent plan, in fact,—will be to employ an intelligent +man who is thoroughly experienced in the burning +of brick and pottery, and whose judgment in the management +of the fires, and in the cooling off of the kiln, will +save much of the waste that would result from inexperienced +management. After the burning is completed, from<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +40 to 60 hours must be allowed for the cooling of the kiln +before it is opened. If the cold air is admitted while it is +still very hot, the unequal contraction of the material will +cause the tiles to crack, and a large portion of them may +be destroyed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If any of the tiles are too much burned, they will be +melted, and may stick together, or, at least, have their +shape destroyed. Those which are not sufficiently burned +would not withstand the action of the water in the +soil, and should not be used. For the first of these accidents +there is no remedy; for the latter, reburning will +be necessary, and under-done tiles may be left, (or replaced,) +in the kiln in the position which they occupied at the +first burning, and the second heat will probably prove sufficient. +There is less danger of unequal burning in circular +than in square kilns. Soft wood is better than hard, +as making a better flame. It should be split fine, and well +seasoned.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Arrangement of the Tilery.</span></span>—Such a tilery as is described +above should have a drying shed from 60 to 80 +feet long, and from 12 to 18 feet wide. This shed may be +built in the cheapest and roughest manner, the roof being +covered with felting, thatch, or hemlock boards, as economy +may suggest. It should have a tier of drying shelves, +(made of slats rather than of boards,) running the whole +length of each side. A narrow, wooden tram-way, down +the middle, to carry a car, by which the green tiles may +be taken from the machine to the shelves, and the dry +ones from the shelves to the kiln, will greatly lessen the +cost of handling.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The pug-mill and tile-machine, as well as the clay pit +and the washing-mill, should be at one end of the shed, +and the kiln at the other, so that, even in rainy weather, +the work may proceed without interruption. A shed of +the size named will be sufficient to dry as many tiles of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +assorted sizes as can be burned in the clay-kiln described +above.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Cost of Tiles.</span></span>—It would be impossible, at any +time, to say what should be the precise cost of tiles in a +given locality, without knowing the prices of labor and +fuel; and in the present unsettled condition of the currency, +any estimate would necessarily be of little value. +Mr. Parker's estimated the cost of inch pipes in England at +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span>, (about $1.50,) per thousand, when made on the estate +where they were to be used, by a process similar to that +described herein. Probably they could at no time have +been made for less than twice that cost in the United States,—and +they would now cost much more; though if the clay +is dug out in the fall, when the regularly employed farm +hands are short of work, and if the same men can cut and +haul the wood during the winter, the hands hired especially +for the tile making, during the summer season, (two men +and two or three boys,) cannot, even at present rates of +wages, bring the cost of the tiles to nearly the market +prices. If there be only temporary use for the machinery, +it may be sold, when no longer needed, for a good percentage +of its original cost, as, from the slow movement +to which it is subjected, it is not much worn by its work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is no reason why tiles should cost more to make +than bricks. A common brick contains clay enough to +make four or five 1-1/4-inch tiles, and it will require about +the same amount of fuel to burn this clay in one form as +in the other. This advantage in favor of tiles is in a +measure offset by the greater cost of handling them, and +the greater liability to breakage.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foregoing description of the different processes of +the manufacture of draining tiles has been given, in order +that those who find it necessary, or desirable, to establish +works to supply the needs of their immediate localities +may commence their operations understandingly, and form<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +an approximate opinion of the promise of success in the +undertaking.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Probably the most positive effect of the foregoing description, +on the mind of any man who contemplates establishing +a tilery, will be to cause him to visit some successful +manufactory, during the busy season, and examine for +himself the mode of operation. Certainly it would be unwise, +when such a personal examination of the process is +practicable, to rely entirely upon the aid of written descriptions; +for, in any work like tile-making, where the selection, +combination and preparation of the materials, the +means of drying, and the economy and success of the +burning must depend on a variety of conditions and circumstances, +which change with every change of locality, it is +impossible that written directions, however minute, should +be a sufficient guide. Still, in the light of such directions, +one can form a much better idea of the bearing of the +different operations which he may witness, than he could +possibly do if the whole process were new to him.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If a personal examination of a successful tilery is impracticable, +it will be necessary to employ a practical +brick-maker, or potter, to direct the construction and operation +of the works, and in any case, this course is advisable.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In any neighborhood where two or three hundred acres +of land are to be drained, if suitable earths can be readily +obtained, it will be cheaper to establish a tile-yard, than +to haul the necessary tiles, in wagons, a distance of ten or +twenty miles. Then again, the prices demanded by the +few manufacturers, who now have almost a monopoly of +the business, are exorbitantly high,—at least twice what +it will cost to make the tiles at home, with the cheap +works described above, so that if the cost of transportation +on the quantity desired would be equal to the cost of +establishing the works, there will be a decided profit in +the home manufacture. Probably, also, a tile-yard, in a +neighborhood where the general character of the soil is<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +such as to require drainage, will be of value after the object +for which it was made has been accomplished.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While setting forth the advantage to the farmer of +everything which may protect him against monopolies, +whether in the matter of draining-tile, or of any other +needful accessory of his business, or which will enable +him to procure supplies without a ruinous outlay for transportation, +it is by no means intended that every man shall +become his own tile-maker.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this branch of manufacture, as in every other, organized +industry will accomplish results to which individual +labor can never attain. A hundred years ago, +when our mill-made cloths came from England, and cost +more than farmers could afford to pay, they wore home-spun, +which was neither so handsome nor so good as the +imported article; but, since that time, the growing population +and the greater demand have caused cloth mills to +be built here, greater commercial facilities have placed +foreign goods within easy reach, and the house loom has +fallen into general disuse.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At present, the manufacture of draining tiles is confined +to a few, widely separated localities, and each manufacturer +has, thus far, been able to fix his own scale of +charges. These, and the cost of transportation to distant +points, make it difficult, if not impossible, for many farmers +to procure tiles at a cost low enough to justify their +use. In such cases, small works, to supply local demand, +may enable many persons to drain with tiles, who, otherwise, +would find it impossible to procure them cheaply +enough for economical use; and the extension of under-draining, +causing a more general acquaintance with its +advantages, would create a sufficient demand to induce +an increase of the manufacture of tiles, and a consequent +reduction of price.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc61" id="toc61"></a> +<a name="pdf62" id="pdf62"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER IX. - THE RECLAIMING OF SALT MARSHES.</span></h1> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">"Adjoining to it is Middle Moor, containing about 2,500 acres, spoken +of by Arthur Young as 'a watery desert,' growing sedge and rushes, +and inhabited by frogs and bitterns;—it is now fertile, well cultivated, +and profitable land."</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foregoing extract, from an account of the Drainage +of the Fens on the eastern coast of England, is a text +from which might be preached a sermon worthy of the +attention of all who are interested in the vast areas of +salt marsh which form so large a part of our Atlantic +coast, from Maine to Florida.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hundreds of thousands of acres that might be cheaply +reclaimed, and made our most valuable and most salubrious +lands, are abandoned to the inroads of the sea;—fruitful +only in malaria and musquitoes,—always a dreary +waste, and often a grave annoyance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A single tract, over 20,000 acres in extent, the center +of which is not seven miles from the heart of New York +City, skirts the Hackensack River, in New Jersey, serving +as a barrier to intercourse between the town and the +country which lies beyond it, adding miles to the daily +travel of the thousands whose business and pleasure require +them to cross it, and constituting a nuisance and +an eyesore to all who see it, or come near it. How long it<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +will continue in this condition it is impossible to say, but +the experience of other countries has proved that, for an +expense of not more than fifty dollars per acre, this tract +might be made better, for all purposes of cultivation, than +the lands adjoining it, (many of which are worth, for market +gardening, over one thousand dollars per acre,) and +that it might afford profitable employment, and give homes, +to all of the industrious poor of the city. The work of +reclaiming it would be child's play, compared with the +draining of the Harlaem Lake in Holland, where over 40,000 +acres, submerged to an average depth of thirteen feet, +have been pumped dry, and made to do their part toward +the support of a dense population.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Hackensack meadows are only a conspicuous example +of what exists over a great extent of our whole seaboard;—virgin +lands, replete with every element of fertility, +capable of producing enough food for the support of +millions of human beings, better located, for residence and +for convenience to markets, than the prairies of the Western +States,—all allowed to remain worse than useless; +while the poorer uplands near them are, in many places, +teeming with a population whose lives are endangered, +and whose comfort is sadly interfered with by the insects +and the miasma which the marsh produces.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The inherent wealth of the land is locked up, and all of +its bad effects are produced, by the water with which it is +constantly soaked or overflowed. Let the waters of the +sea be excluded, and a proper outlet for the rain-fall and +the upland wash be provided,—both of which objects +may, in a great majority of cases, be economically accomplished,—and +this land may become the garden of the +continent. Its fertility will attract a population, (especially +in the vicinity of large towns,) which could no +where else live so well nor so easily.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The manner in which these salt marshes were formed +may be understood from the following account of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +"Great Level of the Fens" of the eastern coast of England, +which is copied, (as is the paragraph at the head of +this chapter,) from the Prize Essay of Mr. John Algernon +Clarke, written for the Royal Agricultural Society in 1846.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The process is not, of course, always the same, nor are +the exact influences, which made the English Fens, generally, +operating in precisely the same manner here, but the +main principle is the same, and the lesson taught by the +improvement of the Fens is perfectly applicable in our case.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"This great level extends itself into the six counties of +Cambridge, Lincoln, Huntington, Northampton, Suffolk +and Norfolk, being bounded by the highlands of each. +It is about seventy miles in length, and varies from +twenty to forty miles in breadth, having an area of more +than 680,000 acres. Through this vast extent of flat +country, there flow six large rivers, with their tributary +streams; namely, the Ouse, the Cam, the Nene, the Welland, +the Glen, and the Witham.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"These were, originally, natural channels for conveying +the upland waters to the sea, and whenever a heavier +downfall of rain than usual occurred, and the swollen +springs and rivulets caused the rivers to overflow, they +must necessarily have overflowed the land to a great extent.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"This, however, was not the principal cause of the inundation +of the Fens: these rivers were not allowed a +free passage to the ocean, being thus made incapable of +carrying off even the ordinary amount of upland water +which, consequently, flowed over the land. The obstruction +was two-fold; first, the outfalls became blocked up +by the deposits of silt from the sea waters, which accumulated +to an amazing thickness. The well known +instances of boats found in 1635 eight feet below the +Wisbeck River, and the smith's forge and tools found at +Skirbeck Shoals, near Boston, buried with silt sixteen feet +deep, show what an astonishing quantity of sediment<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +formerly choked up the mouths of these great rivers. +But the chief hindrance caused by the ocean, arose from +the tide rushing twice every day for a very great distance +up these channels, driving back the fresh waters, +and overflowing with them, so that the whole level became +deluged with deep water, and was, in fact, one +great bay.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In considering the state of this region as it first attracted +the enterprise of man to its improvement, we +are to conceive a vast, wild morass, with only small, detached +portions of cultivated soil, or islands, raised above +the general inundation; a most desolate picture when +contrasted with its present state of matchless fertility."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Salt marshes are formed of the silty deposits of rivers +and of the sea. The former bring down vegetable mould +and fine earth from the uplands, and the latter contribute +sea weeds and grasses, sand and shells, and millions of +animalculæ which, born for life in salt water only, die, +and are deposited with the other matters, at those points +where, from admixture with the fresh flow of the rivers, the +water ceases to be suitable for their support. It is estimated +that these animalculæ alone are the chief cause of +the obstructions at the mouths of the rivers of Holland, +which retard their flow, and cause them to spread over the +flat country adjoining their banks. It is less important, +however, for the purposes of this chapter, to consider the +manner in which salt marshes are formed, than to discuss +the means by which they may be reclaimed and made +available for the uses of agriculture. The improvement +may be conveniently considered under three heads:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First—The exclusion of the sea water.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Second—The removal of the causes of inundation from +the upland.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Third—The removal of the rain-fall and water of filtration.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Exclusion of the Sea</span></span> is of the first importance, +because not only does it saturate the land with water,—but +this water, being salt, renders it unfertile for the +plants of ordinary cultivation, and causes it to produce +others which are of little, or no value.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only means by which the sea may be kept out is, +by building such dykes or embankments as shut out the +highest tides, and, on shores which are exposed to the action +of the waves, will resist their force. Ordinarily, the +best, because the cheapest, material of which these embankments +can be made, is the soil of the marsh itself. +This is rarely,—almost never,—a pure peat, such as is +found in upland swamps; it contains a large proportion of +sand, blue clay, muscle mud, or other earthy deposits, which +give it great weight and tenacity, and render it excellent +for forming the body of the dyke. On lands which are +overflowed to a considerable extent at each high tide, +(twice a day,) it will be necessary to adopt more expensive, +and more effective measures, but on ordinary salt meadows, +which are deeply covered only at the spring tides, (occurring +every month,) the following plan will be found practical +and economical.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Locating the line of the embankment</span></span> far enough back +from the edge of the meadow to leave an ample flat outside +of it to break the force of the waves, if on the open +coast, or to resist the inroads of the current if on the bank +of an estuary or a river,—say from ten to one hundred +yards, according to the danger of encroachment,—set a +row of stakes parallel to the general direction of the shore, +to mark the outside line of the base of the dyke. Stake +out the inside line at such distance as will give a pitch or +inclination to the slopes of one and a half to one on the +outside, and of one to one on the inside, and will allow +the necessary width at the top, which should be at least +two feet higher than the level of the highest tide that is +known ever to have occurred at that place. The width<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the top should never be less than four feet, and in exposed +localities it should be more. If a road will be needed +around the land, it is best, if a heavy dyke is required, to +make it wide enough to answer this purpose, with still +wider places, at intervals, to allow vehicles to turn or to pass +each other. Ordinarily, however, especially if there be a +good stretch of flat meadow in front, the top of the dyke +need not be more than four feet wide. Supposing such a +dyke to be contemplated where the water has been known +to rise two feet above the level of the meadows, requiring +an embankment four feet high, it will be necessary to allow +for the base a width of fourteen feet;—four feet for +the width of the top, six feet for the reach of the front +slope, (1-1/2 to 1,) and four feet for the reach of the back +slope, (1 to 1.)</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having staked out two parallel lines, fourteen feet apart, +and erected, at intervals of twenty or thirty feet, frames +made of rough strips of board of the exact shape of the +section of the proposed embankment, the workmen may +remove the sod to a depth of six inches, laying it all on +the outside of the position of the proposed embankment. +The sod from the line of the ditch, from which the earth +for the embankment is to be taken, should also be removed +and placed with the other. This ditch should be always +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">inside</span></span> of the dyke, where it will never be exposed to the +action of the sea. It should be, at the surface, broader +than the base of the dyke, and five feet deep in the center, +but its sides may slope from the surface of the ground directly +to the center line of the bottom. This is the best +form to give it, because, while it should be five feet deep, +for future uses as a drain, its bottom need have no width. +The great width at the surface will give such a pitch to +the banks as to ensure their stability, and will yield a large +amount of sod for the facing of the dyke. The edge of +this ditch should be some feet away from the inner line of +the embankment, leaving it a firm support or shoulder at<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the original level of the ground, the sod not being removed +from the interval. The next step in the work should +be to throw, or wheel, the material from the ditch on to +the place which has been stripped for the dyke, building +it up so as to conform exactly to the profile frames, +these remaining in their places, to indicate the filling necessary +to make up for the settling of the material, as the +water drains out of it.</p> + +<a name="fig63" id="fig63"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image47.png" width="640" height="175" alt="Fig. 47 - DYKE AND DITCH." title="Fig. 47 - DYKE AND DITCH." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 47 - DYKE AND DITCH.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As fast as a permanent shape can be given to the outer +face of the dyke, it should be finished by having the sod +placed against it, being laid flatwise, one on top of another, +(like stone work,) in the most solid manner possible. +This should be continued to the top of the slope, and the +flat top of the dyke should also be sodded,—the sods on +the top, and on the slope, being firmly beaten to their places +with the back of the spade or other suitable implement. +This will sufficiently protect the exposed parts of the work +against the action of any waves that may be formed on +the flat between the dyke and the deep water, while the +inner slope and the banks of the ditch, not being exposed +to masses of moving water, will retain their shape and +will soon be covered with a new growth.<a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> A sectional +view of the above described dyke and ditch is shown in +the accompanying diagram, (Fig. 47.)</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In all work of this character, it is important to regulate +the amount of work laid out to be done between the +spring tides, to the laboring force employed, so that no unfinished +work will remain to be submerged and injured. +When the flood comes, it should find everything finished +up and protected against its ravages, so that no part of it +need be done over again.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the land is crossed by creeks, the dyke should be finished +off and sodded, a little back from each bank, and +when the time comes for closing the channel, sufficient +force should be employed to complete the dam at a single +tide, so that the returning flow shall not enter to wash +away the material which has been thrown in.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If, as is often the case, these creeks are not merely tidal +estuaries, but receive brooks or rivers from the upland, +provision must be made, as will be hereafter directed, for +either diverting the upland flow, or for allowing it to pass +out at low water, through valve gates or sluices. When +the dam has been made, the water behind it should never +be allowed to rise to nearly the level of the full tide, and, +as soon as possible, grass and willows should be grown on +the bank, to add to its strength by the binding effect of +their roots.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the dyke is completed across the front of the +whole flat,—from the high land on one side to the high +land on the other, the creeks should be closed, one after +the other, commencing with the smallest, so that the experience +gained in their treatment may enable the force +to work more advantageously on those which carry more +water.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the flow of water in the creek is considerable, a row +of strong stakes, or piles, should be firmly driven into the +bottom mud, across the whole width of the channel, at intervals +of not more than one or two feet, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fascines</span></span>,—bundles +of brush bound together,—should be made ready +on the banks, in sufficient quantity to close the spaces between<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the piles. These will serve to prevent the washing +away of the filling during construction. The pile driving, +and the preparation of the fascines may be done before +the closing of the channel with earth is commenced, and +if upland clay or gravel, to be mixed with the local material, +can be economically brought to the place by boats or +wagons, it will be an advantage. Everything being in +readiness, a sufficient force of laborers to finish the dam in +six hours should commence the work a little before dead +low-water, and, (with the aid of wheelbarrows, if necessary,) +throw the earth in rapidly <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">behind</span></span> the row of stakes +and fascines, giving the dam sufficient width to resist the +pressure of the water from without, and keeping the work +always in advance of the rising of the tide, so that, during +the whole operation, none of the filling shall be washed +away by water flowing over its top.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the creek has a sloping bottom, the work may be +commenced earlier,—as soon as the tide commences to recede,—and +pushed out to the center of the channel by the +time the tide is out. When the dam is built, it will be +best to heavily sod, or otherwise protect its surface against +the action of heavy rains, which would tend to wash it +away and weaken it; and the bed of the creek should be +filled in back of the dam for a distance of at least fifty +yards, to a height greater than that at which water will +stand in the interior drains,—say to within three feet of +the surface,—so that there shall never be a body of water +standing within that distance of the dam.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is a necessary precaution against the attacks of muskrats, +which are the principal cause of the insecurity of all +salt marsh embankments. It should be a cardinal rule +with all who are engaged in the construction of such +works, never to allow two bodies of water, one on each +side of the bank to be nearer than twenty-five yards of each +other, and fifty yards would be better. Muskrats do not +bore through a bank, as is often supposed, to make a passage<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from one body of water to another, (they would find +an easier road over the top); but they delight in any elevated +mound in which they can make their homes above +the water level and have its entrance beneath the surface, +so that their land enemies cannot invade them. When +they enter for this purpose, only from one side of the dyke, +they will do no harm, but if another colony is, at the same +time, boring in from the other side, there is great danger +that their burrows will connect, and thus form a channel for +the admission of water, and destroy the work. A disregard +of this requirement has caused thousands of acres of +salt marsh that had been enclosed by dykes having a +ditch on each side, (much the cheapest way to make them,) +to be abandoned, and it has induced the invention of various +costly devices for the protection of embankments +against these attacks.<a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the creek or estuary to be cut off is very wide, +the embankment may be carried out, at leisure, from each +side, until the channel is only wide enough to allow the +passage of the tide without too great a rush of water +against the unfinished ends of the work; but, even in these +cases, there will be economy in the use of fascines and piles +from the first, or of stones if these can be readily procured. +In wide streams, partial obstructions of the water<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +course will sometimes induce the deposit of silt in such +quantities as will greatly assist the work. No written description +of a single process will suffice for the direction +of those having charge of this most delicate of all drainage +operations. Much must be left to the ingenuity of +the director of the work, who will have to avail himself +of the assistance of such favorable circumstances as may, +in the case in hand, offer themselves.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the barrier to be built will require a considerable outlay, +it should be placed in the hands of a competent engineer, +and it will generally demand the full measure of his +skill and experience.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The work cannot be successful, unless the whole line of +the water-front is protected by a continuous bank, sufficiently +high and strong in all of its parts to resist the action +of the highest tides and the strongest waves to which +it will be subjected. As it is always open to inspection, at +each ebb tide, and can always be approached for repair, it +will be easy to keep it in good condition; and, if properly +attended to, it will become more solid and effective with +age.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The removal of the causes of inundation from the upland</span></span> +is often of almost equal importance with the shutting +out of the sea, since the amount of water brought down +by rivers, brooks, and hill-side wash, is often more than +can be removed by any practicable means, by sluice gates, +or pumps.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will be quite enough for the capacity of these means +of drainage, to remove the rain-water which falls on the +flat land, and that which reaches it by under-ground +springs and by infiltration,—its proper drainage-water in +short,—without adding that which, coming from a higher +level, may be made to flow off by its own fall.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Catch-water drains, near the foot of the upland, may be +so arranged as to receive the surface water of the hills and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +carry it off, always on a level above that of the top of the +embankment, and these drains may often be, with advantage, +enlarged to a sufficient capacity to carry the streams +as well. If the marsh is divided by an actual river, it +may be best to embank it in two separate tracts; losing +the margins, that have been recommended, outside of +the dykes, and building the necessary additional length +of these, rather than to contend with a large body of water. +But, frequently, a very large marsh is traversed by a +tortuous stream which occupies a large area, and which, +although the tidal water which it contains gives it the appearance +of a river, is only the outlet of an insignificant +stream, which might be carried along the edge of the upland +in an ordinary mill-race. In such case it is better to +divert the stream and reclaim the whole area.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When a stream is enclosed between dykes, its winding +course should be made straight in order that its water may +be carried off as rapidly as possible, and the land which it +occupies by its deviations, made available for cultivation. +In the loose, silty soil of a salt marsh, the stream may be +made to do most of the work of making its new bed, by +constructing temporary "jetties," or other obstructions to +its accustomed flow, which shall cause its current to deposit +silt in its old channel, and to cut a new one out of the +opposite bank. In some instances it may be well to make an +elevated canal, straight across the tract, by constructing +banks high enough to confine the stream and deliver it +over the top of the dyke; in others it may be more expedient +to carry the stream over, or through, the hill which +bounds the marsh, and cause it to discharge through an +adjoining valley. Improvements of this magnitude, which +often affect the interest of many owners, or of persons interested +in the navigation of the old channel, or in mill +privileges below the point at which the water course is to +be diverted, will generally require legislative interference.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +But they not seldom promise immense advantages for a +comparatively small outlay.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The instance cited of the Hackensack Meadows, in New +Jersey, is a case in point. Its area is divided among many +owners, and, while ninety-nine acres in every hundred are +given up to muskrats, mosquitoes, coarse rushes and +malaria, the other one acre may belong to the owner of an +adjacent farm who values the salt hay which it yields him, +and the title to the whole is vested in many individual +proprietors, who could never be induced to unite in an improvement +for the common benefit. Then again, thanks +to the tide that sets back in the Hackensack River, it is +able to float an occasional vessel to the unimportant villages +at the northern end of the meadows, and the right +of navigation can be interfered with only by governmental +action. If the Hackensack River proper, that part of it +which only serves as an outlet for the drainage of the high +land north of the meadows, could be diverted and carried +through the hills to the Passaic; or confined within straight +elevated banks and made to discharge at high water mark +at the line of the Philadelphia Rail-road;—the wash of +the highlands, east and west of the meadows, being also +carried off at this level,—the bridge of the railroad might +be replaced by an earth embankment, less than a quarter +of a mile in length, effecting a complete exclusion of the +tidal flow from the whole tract.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This being done, a steam-pump, far less formidable than +many which are in profitable use in Europe for the same +purpose, would empty, and keep empty, the present bed +of the river, which would form a capital outlet for the +drainage of the whole area. Twenty thousand acres, of +the most fertile land, would thus be added to the available +area of the State, greatly increasing its wealth, and inducing +the settlement of thousands of industrious inhabitants.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the circumstances under which upland water reaches<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lands of the class under consideration vary with every +locality, no specific directions for the treatment of individual +cases can be given within the limits of this chapter; +but the problem will rarely be a difficult one.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The removal of the rain-fall and water of filtration</span></span> +is the next point to be considered.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far as the drainage of the land, in detail, is concerned, +it is only necessary to say that it may be accomplished, as +in the case of any other level land which, from the slight +fall that can be allowed the drains, requires close attention +and great care in the adjustment of the grades.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The main difficulty is in providing an outlet for the +drains. This can only be done by artificial means, as the +water must be removed from a level lower than high-water +mark,—sometimes lower than low-water.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If it is only required that the outlet be at a point somewhat +above the level of ordinary low-water, it will be sufficient +to provide a sufficient reservoir, (usually a large +open ditch,) to contain the drainage water that is discharged +while the tide stands above the floor of the outlet +sluice-way, and to provide for its outflow while the +level of the tide water is below the point of discharge. +This is done by means of sluices having self-acting valves, +(or tide-gates,) opening outward, which will be closed by +the weight of the water when the tide rises against them, +being opened again by the pressure of the water from +within, as soon the tide falls below the level of the water +inside of the bank.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The gates and sluices may be of wood or iron,—square +or round. The best would be galvanized iron pipes and +valves; but a square wooden trunk, closed with a heavy +oak gate that fits closely against its outer end, and moves +freely on its hinges, will answer capitally well, if carefully +and strongly made. If the gate is of wood, it will be +well to have it lie in a slightly slanting position, so that its +own weight will tend to keep it closed when the tide first<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +commences to rise above the floor, and might trickle in, +before it had acquired sufficient head to press the gate +against the end of the trunk.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As this outlet has to remove, in a short time, all of the +water that is delivered by the drains and ditches during +several hours, it should, of course, be considerably larger +than would be required for a constantly flowing drain from +the same area; but the immense gates,—large enough for +a canal lock,—which are sometimes used for the drainage +of a few acres of marsh, are absurd. Not only are they +useless, they are really objectionable, inasmuch as the +greater extent of their joints increases the risk of leakage +at the time of high water.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The channel for the outflow of the water may sometimes, +with advantage, be open to the top of the dyke or +dam,—a canal instead of a trunk; but this is rarely the +better plan, and is only admissible where the discharge is +into a river or small bay, too small for the formation of +high waves, as these would be best received on the face +of a well sodded, sloping bank.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The height, above absolute low water, at which the outlet +should be placed, will depend on the depth of the outlet +of the land drain, and the depth of storage room required +to receive the drainage water during the higher stages of +the tide. Of course, it must not be higher than the floor +of the land drain outlet, and, except for the purpose of +affording storage room, it need not be lower, although all +the drainage will discharge, not only while the tide water +is below the bottom of the gate, but as long as it remains +lower than the level of the water inside. It is well to place +the mouth of the trunk nearly as low as ordinary low-water +mark. This will frequently render it necessary to carry +a covered drain, of wood or brick, through the mud, out +as far as the tide usually recedes,—connected with the +valve gate at the outlet of the trunk, by a covered box<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which will keep rubbish from obstructing it, or interfering +with its action.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">When the outlet of the land-drains is below low-water +mark</span></span>, it is of course necessary to pump out the drainage +water. This is done by steam or by wind, the latter being +economical only for small tracts which will not bear +the cost of a steam pump. Formerly, this work was done +entirely by windmills, but these afford only an uncertain +power, and often cause the entire loss of crops which are +ready for the harvest, by obstinately refusing to work for +days after a heavy rain has deluged the land. In grass +land they are tolerably reliable, and on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">small</span></span> tracts in +cultivation, it is easy, by having a good proportion of +open ditches, to afford storage room sufficient for general +security; but in the reclaiming of large areas, (and it is +with these that the work is most economical,) the steam +pump may be regarded as indispensable. It is fast superseding +the windmills which, a few years ago, were the sole +dependence in Holland and on the English Fens. The +magnitude of the pumping machinery on which the agriculture +of a large part of Holland depends, is astonishing.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are such immense areas of salt marsh in the +United States which may be tolerably drained by the use +of simple valve gates, discharging above low-water mark, +that it is not very important to consider the question of +pumping, except in cases where owners of small tracts, +from which a sufficient tidal outlet could not be secured, +(without the concurrence of adjoining proprietors who +might refuse to unite in making the improvement,) may +find it advisable to erect small pumps for their own use. +In such cases, it would generally be most economical to +use wind-power, especially if an accessory steam pump be +provided for occasional use, in emergency. Certainly, the +tidal drainage should first be resorted to, for when the +land has once been brought into cultivation, the propriety +of introducing steam pumps will become more apparent,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and the outlay will be made with more confidence of profitable +return, and, in all cases, the tidal outlet should be +depended on for the outflow of all water above its level. +It would be folly to raise water by expensive means, which +can be removed, even periodically, by natural drainage.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When pumps are used, their discharge pipes should pass +through the embankment, and deliver the water at low-water +mark, so that the engine may have to operate only +against the actual height of the tide water. If it delivered +above high-water mark, it would work, even at low tide, +against a constant head, equal to that of the highest tides.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc64" id="toc64"></a><a name="pdf65" id="pdf65"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER X. - MALARIAL DISEASES.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far as remote agricultural districts are concerned, it +is not probable that the mere question of health would induce +the undertaking of costly drainage operations, although +this consideration may operate, in connection with +the need for an improved condition of soil, as a strong +argument in its favor. As a rule, "the chills" are accepted +by farmers, especially at the West, as one of the slight +inconveniences attending their residence on rich lands; +and it is not proposed, in this work, to urge the evils of +this terrible disease, and of "sun pain," or "day neuralgia," +as a reason for draining the immense prairies over which +they prevail. The diseases exist,—to the incalculable detriment +of the people,—and thorough draining would remove +them, and would doubtless bring a large average return +on the investment;—but the question is, after all, +one of capital; and the cost of such draining as would +remove fever-and-ague from the bottom lands and prairies +of the West, and from the infected agricultural districts +at the East, would be more than the agricultural capital +of those districts could spare for the purpose.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the vicinity of cities and towns, however, where +more wealth has accumulated, and where the number of +persons subjected to the malarial influence is greater, there +can be no question as to the propriety of draining, even +if nothing but improved health be the object.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then again, there are immense tracts near the large +cities of this country which would be most desirable for +residence, were it not that their occupancy, except with +certain constant precautions, implies almost inevitable suffering +from fever-and-ague, or neuralgia.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Very few neighborhoods within thirty miles of the city +of New York are entirely free from these scourges, whose +influence has greatly retarded their occupation by those +who are seeking country homes; while many, who have +braved the dangers of disease in these localities, have had +sad cause to regret their temerity.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Probably the most striking instance of the effect of +malaria on the growth and settlement of suburban districts, +is to be found on Staten Island. Within five miles +of the Battery; accessible by the most agreeable and best +managed ferry from the city; practically, nearer to Wall +street than Murray Hill is; with most charming views of +land and water; with a beautifully diversified surface, and +an excellent soil; and affording capital opportunities for sea +bathing, it should be, (were it not for its sanitary reputation, +it inevitably would be,) one vast residence-park. Except +on its extreme northern end, and along its higher +ridges, it has,—and, unfortunately, it deserves,—a most unenviable +reputation for insalubrity. Here and there, on the +southern slope also, there are favored places which are unaccountably +free from the pest, but, as a rule, it is, during the +summer and autumn, unsafe to live there without having +constant recourse to preventive medication, or exercising +unusual and inconvenient precautions with regard to exposure +to mid-day sun and evening dew. There are always +to be found attractive residences, which are deserted by<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +their owners, and are offered for sale at absurdly low prices. +There are isolated instances of very thorough and very +costly draining, which has failed of effect, because so extensive +a malarial region cannot be reclaimed by anything +short of a systematic improvement of the whole.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been estimated that the thorough drainage of the +low lands, valleys and ponds of the eastern end of the +island, including two miles of the south shore, would at +once add $5,000,000 to the market value of the real estate +of that section. There can be no question that any radical +improvement in this respect would remove the only obstacle +to the rapid settlement of the island by those who +wish to live in the country, yet need to be near to the +business portion of the city. The hope of such improvement +being made, however, seems as remote as ever,—although +any one at all acquainted with the sources of miasm, +in country neighborhoods, can readily see the cause +of the difficulty, and the means for its removal are as +plainly suggested.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Staten Island is, by no means, alone in this respect. All +who know the history of the settlement of the other suburbs +of New York are very well aware that those places +which are free from fever-and-ague and malarial neuralgia, +are extremely rare.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The exact cause of fever-and-ague and other malarial +diseases is unknown, but it is demonstrated that, whatever +the cause is, it is originated under a combination of circumstances, +one of which is undue moisture in the soil. +It is not necessary that land should be absolutely marshy +to produce the miasm, for this often arises on cold, springy +uplands which are quite free from deposits of muck. +Thus far, the attention of scientific investigators, given +to the consideration of the origin of malarial diseases, has +failed to discover any well established facts concerning it; +but there have been developed certain theories, which<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +seem to be sustained by such knowledge as exists on the +subject.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. Bartlett, in his work on the Fevers of the United +States, says:—"The essential, efficient, producing cause +of periodical fever,—the poison whose action on +the system gives rise to the disease,—is a substance or +agent which has received the names of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">malaria</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">marsh +miasm</span></span>. The nature and composition of this poison are +wholly unknown to us. Like most other analogous +agents, like the contagious principle of small-pox and of +typhus, and like the epidemic poison of scarletina and +cholera, they are too subtle to be recognized by any +of our senses, they are too fugitive to be caught by any +of our contrivances.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"As always happens in such cases and under similar +circumstances, in the absence of positive knowledge, we +have been abundantly supplied with conjecture and speculation; +what observation has failed to discover, hypothesis +has endeavored and professed to supply. It is +quite unnecessary even to enumerate the different substances +to which malaria has been referred. Amongst +them are all of the chemical products and compounds +possible in wet and marshy localities; moisture alone; +the products of animal and vegetable decomposition; +and invisible living organisms. * * * * Inscrutable, +however, as the intimate nature of the substances +or agents may be, there are some few of its laws and +relations which are very well ascertained. One of these +consists in its connection with low, or wet, or marshy +localities. This connection is not invariable and exclusive, +that is, there are marshy localities which are not +malarious, and there are malarious localities which are +not marshy; but there is no doubt whatever that it generally +exists."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a report to the United States Sanitary Commission, +Dr. Metcalfe states, that all hypotheses, even the most<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +plausible, are entirely unsupported by positive knowledge, +and he says:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"This confession of ignorance still leaves us in possession +of certain knowledge concerning malaria, from which +much practical good may be derived.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"1st. It affects, by preference, low and moist localities.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"2d. It is almost never developed at a lower temperature +than 60° Fahrenheit.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"3d. Its evolution or active agency is checked by a +temperature of 32°.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"4th. It is most abundant and most virulent as we approach +the equator and the sea-coast.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"5th. It has an affinity for dense foliage, which has the +power of accumulating it, when lying in the course of +winds blowing from malarious localities.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"6th. Forests, or even woods, have the power of obstructing +and preventing its transmission, under these +circumstances.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"7th. By atmospheric currents it is capable of being +transported to considerable distances—probably as far as +five miles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"8th. It may be developed, in previously healthy places, +by turning up the soil; as in making excavations for +foundations of houses, tracks for railroads, and beds for +canals.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"9th. In certain cases it seems to be attracted and absorbed +by bodies of water lying in the course of such +winds as waft it from the miasmatic source.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"10th. Experience alone can enable us to decide as to +the presence or absence of malaria, in any given locality.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"11th. In proportion as countries, previously malarious, +are cleared up and thickly settled, periodical fevers disappear—in +many instances to be replaced by the typhoid +or typhus."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">La Roche, in a carefully prepared treatise on "Pneumonia; +its Supposed Connection with Autumnal Fevers," recites<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +various theories concerning the mode of action of +marsh miasm, and finds them insufficient to account for +the phenomena which they produce. He continues as +follows:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"All the above hypotheses failing to account for the effects +in question, we are naturally led to the admission +that they are produced by the morbific influence of some +special agent; and when we take into consideration all +the circumstances attending the appearance of febrile +diseases, the circumscribed sphere of their prevalence, +the suddenness of their attack, the character of their +phenomena, etc., we may safely say that there is nothing +left but to attribute them to the action of some +poison dissolved or suspended in the air of the infected +locality; which poison, while doubtless requiring for its +development and dissemination a certain degree of heat, +and terrestrial and atmospheric moisture, a certain +amount of nightly condensation after evaporation, and +the presence of fermenting or decomposing materials, +cannot be produced by either of these agencies alone, +and though indicated by the chemist, betrays its presence +by producing on those exposed to its influence the +peculiar morbid changes characterizing fever."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He quotes the following from the Researches of Dr. +Chadwick:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In considering the circumstances external to the residence, +which affect the sanitary condition of the population, +the importance of a general land-drainage is developed +by the inquiries as to the cause of the prevalent +diseases, to be of a magnitude of which no conception had +been formed at the commencement of the investigation. +Its importance is manifested by the severe consequences +of its neglect in every part of the country, as well as by +its advantages in the increasing salubrity and productiveness +wherever the drainage has been skillful and effectual."</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">La Roche calls attention to these facts:—That the acclimated +residents of a malarious locality, while they are +less subject than strangers to active fever, show, in their +physical and even in their mental organization, evident +indications of the ill effects of living in a poisonous atmosphere,—an +evil which increases with successive generations, +often resulting in a positive deterioration of the +race; that the lower animals are affected, though in a less +degree than man; that deposits of organic matter which +are entirely covered with water, (as at the bottom of a +pond,) are not productive of malaria; that this condition +of saturation is infinitely preferable to imperfect drainage; +that swamps which are shaded from the sun's heat by +trees, are not supposed to produce disease; and that +marshes which are exposed to constant winds are not +especially deleterious to persons living in their immediate +vicinity,—while winds frequently carry the emanations of +miasmatic districts to points some miles distant, where +they produce their worst effects. This latter statement is +substantiated by the fact that houses situated some miles +to the leeward of low, wet lands, have been especially insalubrious +until the windows and doors on the side toward +the source of the miasm were closed up, and openings +made on the other side,—and thenceforth remained free +from the disease, although other houses with openings on +the exposed sides continued unhealthy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The literature relating to periodical fevers contains nothing +else so interesting as the very ingenious article of Dr. J. +H. Salisbury, on the "Cause of Malarious Fevers," contributed +to the "American Journal of Medical Science," for +January, 1866. Unfortunately, while there is no evidence +to controvert the statements of this article, they do not +seem to be honored with the confidence of the profession,—not +being regarded as sufficiently authenticated to form a +basis for scientific deductions. Dr. Salisbury claims to have +discovered the cause of malarial fever in the spores of a very<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +low order of plant, which spores he claims to have invariably +detected in the saliva, and in the urine, of fever patients, +and in those of no other persons, and which he collected +on plates of glass suspended over all marshes and +other lands of a malarious character, which he examined, +and which he was never able to obtain from lands which +were not malarious. Starting from this point, he proceeds, +(with circumstantial statements that seem to the unprofessional +mind to be sufficient,) to show that the plant producing +these spores is always found, in the form of a whitish, +green, or brick-colored incrustation, on the surface of +fever producing lands; that the spores, when detached +from the parent plant, are carried in suspension <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">only in +the moist exhalations of wet lands</span></span>, never rising higher, +(usually from 35 to 60 feet,) nor being carried farther, than +the humid air itself; that they most accumulate in the upper +strata of the fogs, producing more disease on lands +slightly elevated above the level of the marsh than at its +very edge; that fever-and-ague are never to be found +where this plant does not grow; that it may be at once +introduced into the healthiest locality by transporting +moist earth on which the incrustation is forming; that the +plant, being introduced into the human system through +the lungs, continues to grow there and causes disease; +and that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quinia</span></span> arrests its growth, (as it checks the multiplication +of yeast plants in fermentation,) and thus suspends +the action of the disease.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Probably it would be impossible to prove that the foregoing +theory is correct, though it is not improbable that it +contains the germ from which a fuller knowledge of the disease +and its causes will be obtained. It is sufficient for +the purposes of this work to say that, so far as Dr. Salisbury's +opinion is valuable, it is,—like the opinion of all +other writers on the subject,—fully in favor of perfect +drainage as the one great preventive of all malarial diseases.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The evidence of the effect of drainage</span></span> in removing the +cause of malarial diseases is complete and conclusive. Instances +of such improvement in this country are not rare, +but they are much less numerous and less conspicuous +here than in England, where draining has been much more +extensively carried out, and where greater pains have been +taken to collect testimony as to its effects.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If there is any fact well established by satisfactory experience, +it is that thorough and judicious draining will +entirely remove the local source of the miasm which produces +these diseases.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The voluminous reports of various Committees of the +English Parliament, appointed to investigate sanitary +questions, are replete with information concerning experience +throughout the whole country, bearing directly on +this question.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. Whitley, in his report to the Board of Health, (in +1864,) of an extended tour of observation, says of one +town that he examined:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Mr. Nicholls, who has been forty years in practice +here, and whom I was unable to see at the time of my +visit, writes: Intermittent and remittent are greatly on +the decline since the improved state of drainage of +the town and surrounding district, and more particularly +marked is this alteration, since the introduction of the +water-works in the place. Although we have occasional +outbreaks of intermittent and remittent, with neuralgic +attacks, they yield more speedily to remedies, and are +not attended by so much enlargement of the liver or +spleen as formerly, and dysentery is of rare occurrence."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. Whitley sums up his case as follows:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It would appear from the foregoing inquiry, that intermittent +and remittent fevers, and their consequences, +can no longer be regarded as seriously affecting the +health of the population, in many of the districts, in which +those diseases were formerly of a formidable character.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Thus, in Norfolk, Lincolnshire, and Cambridgeshire, +counties in which these diseases were both frequent and +severe, all the evidence, except that furnished by the +Peterborough Infirmary, and, in a somewhat less degree, +in Spaulding, tends to show that they are at the present +time, comparatively rare and mild in form."</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb"> </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He mentions similar results from his investigations in +other parts of the kingdom, and says:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It may, therefore, be safely asserted as regards England +generally, that:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The diseases which have been made the subject of the +present inquiry, have been steadily decreasing, both in +frequency and severity, for several years, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">and this decrease +is attributed, in nearly every case, mainly to one +cause,—improved land drainage;</span></span>" again:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The change of local circumstances, unanimously declared +to be the most immediate in influencing the prevalence +of malarious diseases, is land drainage;" and +again:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Except in a few cases in which medical men believed +that these affections began to decline previously to the +improved drainage of the places mentioned, the decrease +in all of the districts where extensive drainage has been +carried out, was stated to have commenced about the +same time, and was unhesitatingly attributed to that +cause."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A select Committee of the House of Commons, appointed +to investigate the condition and sanitary influence +of the Thames marshes, reported their minutes of evidence, +and their deductions therefrom, in 1854, The following +is extracted from their report:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It appears from the evidence of highly intelligent and +eminent gentlemen of the medical profession, residing in +the neighborhood of the marshes on both sides of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Thames below London Bridge, that the diseases prevalent +in these districts are highly indicative of malarious +influences, fever-and-ague being very prevalent; and +that the sickness and mortality are greatest in those localities +which adjoin imperfectly drained lands, and far +exceed the usual average; and that ague and allied disorders +frequently extend to the high grounds in the vicinity. +In those districts where a partial drainage has +been effected, a corresponding improvement in the health +of the inhabitants is perceptible."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the evidence given before the committee, Dr. P. +Bossey testified that the malaria from salt marshes varied +in intensity, being most active in the morning and in the +Summer season. The marshes are sometimes covered by +a little fog, usually not more than three feet thick, +which is of a very offensive odor, and detrimental to +health. Away from the marshes, there is a greater tendency +to disease on the side toward which the prevailing +winds blow.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. James Stewart testified that the effect of malaria +was greatest when very hot weather succeeds heavy rain +or floods. He thought that malaria could be carried <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">up</span></span> +a slope, but has never been known to descend, and that, +consequently, an intervening hill affords sufficient protection +against marsh malaria. He had known cases where +the edges of a river were healthy and the uplands malarious.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Santa Maura and Zante, where he had been stationed +with the army, he had observed that the edge of a marsh +would be comparatively healthy, while the higher places +in the vicinity were exceedingly unhealthy. He thought +that there were a great many mixed diseases which began +like ague and terminated very differently; those diseases +would, no doubt, assume a very different form if they +were not produced by the marsh air; many diseases are +very difficult to treat, from being of a mixed character<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +beginning like marsh fevers and terminating like inflammatory +fevers, or diseases of the chest.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. George Farr testified that rheumatism and tic-doloreux +were very common among the ladies who live at the +Woolwich Arsenal, near the Thames marshes. Some of +these cases were quite incurable, until the patients removed +to a purer atmosphere.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">W. H. Gall, M. D., thought that the extent to which +malaria affected the health of London, must of course be +very much a theoretical question; "but it is very remarkable +that diseases which are not distinctly miasmatic, do +become much more severe in a miasmatic district. Influenzas, +which prevailed in England in 1847, were very +much more fatal in London and the surrounding parts +than they were in the country generally, and influenza +and ague poisons are very nearly allied in their effects. +Marsh miasms are conveyed, no doubt, a considerable +distance. Sufficiently authentic cases are recorded to +show that the influence of marsh miasm extends several +miles." Other physicians testify to the fact, that near +the Thames marshes, the prevalent diseases are all of them +of an aguish type, intermittent and remittent, and that +they are accompanied with much dysentery. Dr. John +Manly said that, when he first went to Barking, he found a +great deal of ague, but since the draining, in a population +of ten thousand, there are not half-a-dozen cases annually +and but very little remittent.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following Extract is taken from the testimony +of Sir Culling Eardly, Bart.:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Chairman:—I believe you reside at Belvidere, in the +parish of Erith?—Yes.—Ch.: Close to these marshes?—Yes.—Ch.: +Can you speak from your own knowledge, +of the state of these marshes, with regard to public +health?—Sir C.: I can speak of some of the results +which have been produced in the neighborhood, from the +condition of the marshes; the neighborhood is in one<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +continual state of ague. My own house is protected, from +the height of its position, and a gentleman's house is less +liable to the influence of malaria than the houses of the +lower classes. But even in my house we are liable to +ague; and to show the extraordinary manner in which +the ague operates, in the basement story of this house +where my men-servants sleep, we have more than once +had bad ague. In the attics of my house, where my +maid-servants sleep, we have never had it. Persons are +deterred from settling in the neighborhood by the aguish +character of the country. Many persons, attracted +by the beauty of the locality, wish to come down and +settle; but when they find the liability to ague, they +are compelled to give up their intention. I may mention +that the village of Erith itself, bears marks of the influence +of malaria. It is more like one of the desolate +towns of Italy, Ferrara, for instance, than a healthy, +happy, English village. I do not know whether it is +known to the committee, that Erith is the village described +in Dickens' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Household Words</span></span>, as Dumble-down-deary, +and that it is a most graphic and correct description +of the state of the place, attributable to the unhealthy +character of the locality."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He also stated that the ague is not confined to the +marshes, but extends to the high lands near them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The General Board of Health, of England, at the close +of a voluminous report, publish the following "Conclusions +as to the Drainage of Suburban Lands:—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"1. Excess of moisture, even on lands not evidently wet, +is a cause of fogs and damps.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"2. Dampness serves as a medium for the conveyance of +any decomposing matter that may be evolved, and adds +to the injurious effects of such matters in the air:—in +other words the excess of moisture may be said to increase +or aggravate atmospheric impurities.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"3. The evaporation of the surplus moisture lowers the +temperature, produces chills, and creates or aggravates +the sudden and injurious changes or fluctuations by +which health is injured."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In view of the foregoing opinions as to the cause of malaria, +and of the evidence as to the effect of draining in removing +the unhealthy condition in which those causes +originate, it is not too much to say that,—in addition to +the capital effect of draining on the productive capacity of +the land,—the most beneficial sanitary results may be confidently +expected from the extension of the practice, especially +in such localities as are now unsafe, or at least +undesirable for residence.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In proportion to the completeness and efficiency of the +means for the removal of surplus water from the soil:—in +proportion, that is, to the degree in which the improved +tile drainage described in these pages is adopted,—will be +the completeness of the removal of the causes of disease. +So far as the drying of malarious lands is concerned, it is +only necessary to construct drains in precisely the same +manner as for agricultural improvement.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The removal of the waste of houses, and of other filth, +will be considered in the next chapter.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc66" id="toc66"></a> +<a name="pdf67" id="pdf67"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHAPTER XI. - HOUSE DRAINAGE AND TOWN SEWERAGE IN +THEIR RELATIONS TO THE PUBLIC HEALTH.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following is extracted from a report made by the +General Board of Health to the British Parliament, concerning +the administration of the Public Health Act and +the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Acts +from 1848 to 1854.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Where instances have been favorable for definite observation, +as in broad blocks of buildings, the effects of +sanitary improvement have been already manifested to an +extent greater than could have been anticipated, and than +can be readily credited by those who have not paid attention +to the subject.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In one favorable instance, that of between 600 and 700 +persons of the working class in the metropolis, during a +period of three years, the average rate of mortality has +been reduced to between 13 and 14 in 1000. In another +instance, for a shorter period, among 500 persons, the +mortality has been reduced as low as even 7 in 1000. +The average rate of mortality for the whole metropolis +being 23 in 1000.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In another instance, the abolishing of cess-pools and +their replacement by water-closets, together with the +abolishing of brick drains and their replacement by impermeable<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and self-cleansing stone-ware pipes, has been +attended with an immediate and extraordinary reduction +of mortality. Thus, in Lambeth Square, occupied by a +superior class of operatives, in the receipt of high wages, +the deaths, which in ordinary times were above the general +average, or more than 30 in 1000, had risen to a rate +of 55 in 1000. By the abolishing of cess-pools, which +were within the houses, and the substitution of water-closets, +and with the introduction of tubular, self-cleansing +house-drains, the mortality has been reduced to 13 in 1000.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The reduction of the mortality was effected precisely +among the same occupants, without any change in their +habits whatever."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Sewers are less important than the House-Drains and +Water-Closets, and if not carrying much water, may become +cess-pools. In the case of the Square just referred +to, when cess-pools and drains of deposit were removed +without any alteration whatever in the adjacent sewers, +fevers disappeared from house to house, as these receptacles +were filled up, and the water-closet apparatus substituted, +merely in consequence of the removal of the decomposing +matter from beneath the houses to a distant +sewer of deposit or open water course.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"If the mortality were at the same rate as in the model +dwellings, or in the improved dwellings in Lambeth +Square, the annual deaths for the whole of the metropolis +would be 25,000 less, and for the whole of England and +Wales 170,000 less than the actual deaths.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"If the reduced rate of mortality in these dwellings +should continue, and there appears to be no reason to +suppose that it will not, the extension to all towns which +have been affected, of the improvements which have been +applied in these buildings, would raise the average age +at death to about forty-eight instead of twenty-nine, the +present average age at death of the inhabitants of towns +in all England and Wales."</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The branch of the Art of Drainage which relates to the +removal of the fecal and other refuse wastes of the population +of towns, is quite different from that which has been +described in the preceding pages, as applicable to the agricultural +and sanitary improvement of lands under cultivation, +and of suburban districts. Still, the fact that town +and house drainage affords a means for the preservation +of valuable manures, justifies its discussion in an agricultural +work, and "draining for health" would stop far short +of completeness were no attention paid to the removal of +the cause of diseases, which are far more fatal than those +that originate in an undrained condition of the soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The extent to which these diseases, (of which typhoid +fever is a type,) are prevented by sanitary drainage, is +strikingly shown in the extract which commences this +chapter. Since the experience to which this report refers, +it has been found that the most fatal epidemics of the +lower portions of London originated in the choked condition +of the street sewers, whose general character, as well +as the plan of improvement adopted are described in the +following "Extracts from the Report of the Metropolitan +Board of Works," made in 1866.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The main sewers discharged their whole contents direct +into the Thames, the majority of them capable of +being emptied only at the time of low water; consequently, +as the tide rose, the outlets of the sewers were +closed, and the sewage was dammed back, and became +stagnant; the sewage and impure waters were also +constantly flowing from the higher grounds, in some instances +during 18 out of the 24 hours, and thus the thick +and heavy substances were deposited, which had to be +afterwards removed by the costly process of hand labor. +During long continued or copious falls of rain, more particularly +when these occurred at the time of high water +in the river, the closed outlets not having sufficient storage +capacity to receive the increased volume of sewage,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the houses and premises in the low lying districts, especially +on the south side of the river, became flooded by +the sewage rising through the house drains, and so continued +until the tide had receded sufficiently to afford a +vent for the pent-up waters, when the sewage flowed +and deposited itself along the banks of the river, evolving +gases of a foul and offensive character.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"This state of things had a most injurious effect upon +the condition of the Thames; for not only was the sewage +carried up the river by the rising tide, at a time +when the volume of pure water was at its minimum, and +quite insufficient to dilute and disinfect it, but it was +brought back again into the heart of the metropolis, there +to mix with each day's fresh supply, until the gradual +progress towards the sea of many day's accumulation +could be plainly discerned; the result being that the portion +of the river within the metropolitan district became +scarcely less impure and offensive than the foulest of the +sewers themselves. * * * * * *</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The Board, by the system they have adopted, have +sought to abolish the evils which hitherto existed, by +constructing new lines of sewers, laid in a direction at +right angles to that of the existing sewers, and a little +below their levels, so as to intercept their contents and +convey them to an outfall, on the north side of the Thames +about 11-1/4 miles, and on the south side about 14 miles, +below London Bridge. By this arrangement as large a +proportion of the sewage as practicable is carried away +by gravitation, and a constant discharge for the remainder +is provided by means of pumping. At the outlets, +the sewage is delivered into reservoirs situate on the +banks of the Thames, and placed at such levels as enable +them to discharge into the river at or about the time of +high water. The sewage thus becomes not only at +once diluted by the large volume of water in the river at +the time of high water, but is also carried by the ebb<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +26 miles below London Bridge, and its return by the following +flood-tide within the metropolitan area, is effectually +prevented."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The details of this stupendous enterprise are of sufficient +interest to justify the introduction here of the "General +Statistics of the Works" as reported by the Board.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"A few statistics relative to the works may not prove +uninteresting. The first portion of the works was commenced +in January 1859, being about five months after +the passing of the Act authorising their execution. +There are 82 miles of main intercepting sewers in London. +In the construction of the works 318,000,000 of bricks, +and 880,000 cubic yards of concrete have been used, +and 3,500,000 cubic yards of earth excavated. The cost, +when completed, will have been about £4,200,000. The +total pumping power employed is 2,300 nominal +horse power: and if the engines were at full work, night +and day, 44,000 tons of coals per annum would be used; +but the average consumption is estimated at 20,000 tons. +The sewage to be intercepted by the works on the north +side of the river, at present amounts to 10,000,000 cubic +feet, and on the south side 4,000,000 cubic feet per day; +but provision is made for an anticipated increase in these +quantities, in addition to the rainfall, amounting to a total +of 63,000,000 cubic feet per day, which is equal to a +lake of 482 acres, three feet deep, or 15 times as large as +the Serpentine in Hyde Park."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A very large portion of the sewage has to be lifted +thirty-six feet to the outfall sewer. The works on the +north side of the Thames were formally opened, by the +Prince of Wales, in April 1865.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the hope that the immense amount of sewage, for +which an escape has been thus provided, might be profitably +employed in agriculture, advertisements were inserted in +the public journals asking for proposals for carrying out +such a scheme; and arrangements were subsequently made<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for an extension of the works, by private enterprise, by the +construction of a culvert nine and a half feet in diameter, +and forty miles in length, capable of carrying 12,000,000 +cubic feet of sewage per day to the barren sands on the +coast of Essex; the intention being to dispose of the liquid +to farmers along the line, and to use the surplus for the +fertilization of 7000 acres, (to be subsequently increased,) +which are to be reclaimed from the sea by embankments +and valve sluice-gates.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The estimated cost of this enterprise is about $10,000,000.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The work which has been done, and which is now in +contemplation, in England, is suggestive of what might, +with advantage, be adopted in the larger cities in America. +Especially in New York an improved means of outlet +is desirable, and it is doubtful whether the high rate +of mortality of that city will be materially reduced before +effective measures are devised for removing the vast +accumulations of filth, which ebb and flow in many of the +larger sewers, with each change of the tide; and which +are deposited between the piers along the river-sides.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be practicable to construct a main receiving +sewer under the river streets, skirting the city, from the +vicinity of Bellevue Hospital on the east side, passing near +the outer edge of the Battery, and continuing to the high +land near 60th street on the west side; having its water +level at least twenty feet below the level of the street, and +receiving all of the sewage which now flows into the river. +At the Battery, this receiving sewer might be connected, +by a tunnel, with the Brooklyn shore, its contents being +carried to a convenient point south of Fort Hamilton,—where +their discharge, (by lifting steam pumps), into the +waters of the Lower Bay, would be attended with no inconvenience. +The improvement being carried out to this point, +it would probably not be long before the advantages to +result from the application of the sewage to the sandy +soil on the south side of Long Island would be manifest.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The effect of such an improvement on the health of the +city,—which is now in constant danger from the putrefying +filth of the sewers, (these being little better than covered +cess-pools under the streets,)—would, no doubt, equal the +improvement that has resulted from similar work in +London.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foregoing relates only to the main outlets for town +sewage. The arterial drainage, (the lateral drains of the +system,) which receives the waste of the houses and the +wash of the streets, is entirely dependent on the outlet +sewers, and can be effective only when these are so constructed +as to afford a free outfall for the matters that it delivers +to them. In many towns, owing to high situation, +or to a rapid inclination of surface, the outfall is naturally +so good as to require but little attention. In all cases, the +manner of constructing the collecting drains is a matter of +great importance, and in this work a radical change has +been introduced within a few years past.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Formerly, immense conduits of porous brick work, in all +cases large enough to be entered to be cleansed, by hand +labor, of their accumulated deposits, were considered necessary +for the accommodation of the smallest discharge. The +consequence of this was, that, especially in sewers carrying +but little water, the solid matters contained in the sewage +were deposited by the sluggish flow, frequently causing +the entire obstruction of the passages. Such drains always +required frequent and expensive cleansing by hand, and the +decomposition of the filth which they contained produced +a most injurious effect on the health of persons living near +their connections with the street. The foul liquids with +which they were filled, passing through their porous +walls, impregnated the earth near them, and sometimes +reached to the cellars of adjacent houses, which were in +consequence rendered extremely unhealthy. Many such +sewers are now in existence, and some such are still being +constructed. Not only are they unsatisfactory, they are<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +much more expensive in construction, and require much +attention and labor for repairs, and cleansing, than do the +stone-ware pipe sewers which are now universally adopted +wherever measures are taken to investigate their comparative +merits. An example of the difference between the old +and modern styles of sewers is found in the drainage of the +Westminster School buildings, etc., in London.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The new drainage conveys the house and surface drainage +of about two acres on which are fifteen large houses. +The whole length of the drain is about three thousand feet, +and the entire outlet is through two nine inch pipes. The +drainage is perfectly removed, and the pipes are always +clean, no foul matters being deposited at any point. This +drainage has been adopted as a substitute for an old system +of sewerage of which the main was from 4 feet high, by +3 feet 6 inches wide, to 17 feet high and 6 or 7 feet wide. +The houses had cess-pools beneath them, which were filled +with the accumulations of many years, while the sewers +themselves were scarcely less offensive. This condition +resulted in a severe epidemic fever of a very fatal character.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An examination instituted to discover the cause of the +epidemic resulted in the discovery of the facts set forth +above, and there were removed from the drains and cess-pools +more than 550 loads of ordure. The evaporating +surface of this filth was more than 2000 square yards.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Since the new drainage, not only has there been no recurrence +of epidemic fever, but "a greater improvement in +the general health of the population has succeeded than +might be reasonably expected in a small block of houses, +amidst an ill-conditioned district, from which it cannot be +completely isolated."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The principle which justifies the use of pipe sewers is precisely +that which has been described in recommending small +tiles for agricultural drainage,—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">to wit</span></span>: that the rapidity of +a flow of water, and its power to remove obstacles, is in proportion +to its depth as compared with its width. It has been<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +found in practice, that a stream which wends its sluggish +way along the bottom of a large brick culvert, when concentrated +within the area of a small pipe of regular form, +flows much more rapidly, and will carry away even whole +bricks, and other substances which were an obstacle to its +flow in the larger channel. As an experiment as to the +efficacy of small pipes Mr. Hale, the surveyor, who was +directed by the General Board of Health of London to +make the trial, laid a 12-inch pipe in the bottom of a sewer +5 feet and 6 inches high, and 3 feet and 6 inches wide. +The area drained was about 44 acres. He found the velocity +of the stream in the pipe to be four and a half times +greater than that of the same amount of water in the +sewer. The pipe at no time accumulated silt, and the +force of the water issuing from the end of the pipe kept +the bottom of the sewer perfectly clear for the distance of +12 feet, beyond which point some bricks and stones were +deposited, their quantity increasing with the distance from +the pipe. He caused sand, pieces of bricks, stones, mud, +etc., to be put into the head of the pipe. These were all +carried clear through the pipe, but were deposited in the +sewer below it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been found by experiment that in a flat bottomed +sewer, four feet wide, having a fall of eight inches in one +hundred feet, a stream of water one inch depth, runs very +sluggishly, while the same water running through a 12-inch +pipe, laid on the same inclination, forms a rapid +stream, carrying away the heavy silt which was deposited +in the broad sewer. As a consequence of this, it has been +found, where pipe sewers are used, even on almost imperceptible +inclinations, that silt is very rarely deposited, and +the waste matters of house and street drainage are carried +immediately to the outlet, instead of remaining to ferment +and poison the atmosphere of the streets through which +they pass. In the rare cases of obstruction which occur, +the pipes are very readily cleansed by flushing, at a tithe<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the cost of the constant hand-work required in brick +sewers.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the first six or seven hundred feet at the head of a +sewer, a six inch pipe will remove all of the house and +street drainage, even during a heavy rain fall; and if the +inclination is rapid, (say 6 inches to 100 feet,) the acceleration +of the flow, caused partly by the constant additions +to the water, pipes of this size may be used for considerably +greater distances. It has been found by actual trial +that it is not necessary to increase the size of the pipe +sewer in exact proportion to the amount of drainage that +it has to convey, as each addition to the flow, where +drainage is admitted from street openings or from houses, +accelerates the velocity of the current, pipes discharging +even eight times as much when received at intervals along +the line as they would take from a full head at the upper +end of the sewer.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For a district inhabited by 10,000 persons, a 12-inch pipe +would afford a sufficient outlet, unless the amount of road +drainage were unusually large, and for the largest sewers, +pipes of more than 18 inches diameter are rarely used, +these doing the work which, under the old system, was alloted +to a sewer 6 feet high and 3 feet broad.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course, the connections by which the drainage of +roads is admitted to these sewers, must be provided with +ample silt-basins, which require frequent cleaning out. In +the construction of the sewers, man-holes, built to the surface, +are placed at sufficient intervals, and at all points +where the course of the sewer changes, so that a light placed +at one of these may be seen from the next one;—the contractor +being required to lay the sewer so that the light +may be thus seen, a straight line both of inclination and +direction is secured.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rules which regulate the laying of land-drains apply +with equal force in the making of sewers, that is no +part of the pipe should be less perfect, either in material<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +or construction, than that which lies above it; and where +the inclination becomes less, in approaching the outlet, silt-basins +should be employed, unless the decreased fall is still +rapid. The essential point of difference is, that while land +drains may be of porous material, and should have open +joints for the admission of water, sewer pipes should be +of impervious glazed earthen-ware, and their joints should +be securely cemented, to prevent the escape of the sewage, +which it is their province to remove, not to distribute. +Drains from houses, which need not be more than 3 or 4 +inches in diameter, should be of the same material, and +should discharge with considerable inclination into the +pipes, being connected with a curving branch, directing +the fluid towards the outlet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In laying a sewer, it is customary to insert a pipe with +a branch opposite each house, or probable site of a house.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is important that, in towns not supplied with waterworks, +measures be taken to prevent the admission of too +much solid matter in the drainage of houses. Water being +the motive power for the removal of the solid parts of the +sewage, unless there be a public supply which can be +turned on at pleasure, no house should deliver more solid +matter than can be carried away by its refuse waters.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The drainage of houses is one of the chief objects of +sewerage.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In addition to the cases cited above of the model lodging +houses in Lambeth Square, and of the buildings at Westminster, +it may be well to refer to a remarkable epidemic +which broke out in the Maplewood Young Ladies' Institute +in Pittsfield, Mass., in 1864, which was of so violent and +fatal a character as to elicit a special examination by a +committee of physicians. The family consisted, (pupils, +servants, and all,) of one hundred and twelve persons. Of +these, fifty-one were attacked with well-defined typhoid +fever during a period of less than three weeks. Of this<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +number thirteen died. The following is extracted from +the report of the committee:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Of the 74 resident pupils heard from, 66 are reported +as having had illness of some kind at the close of the +school or soon after. This is a proportion of 33/37 or nearly +90 per cent. Of the same 74, fifty-one had typhoid fever, +or a proportion of nearly 69 per cent. If all the people +in the town, say 8000, had been affected in an equal proportion, +more than 7000 would have been ill during these +few weeks, and about 5500 of them would have had +typhoid fever, and of these over 1375 would have died. +If it would be a more just comparison to take the whole +family at Maplewood into the account, estimating the +number at 112, fifty-six had typhoid fever, or 50 per +cent., and of these fifty-six, sixteen died, or over 28.5 per +cent. These proportions applied to the whole population +of 8000, would give 4000 of typhoid fever in the same +time; and of these 1140 would have died. According +to the testimony of the practising physicians of Pittsfield, +the number of cases of typhoid fever, during this period, +aside from those affected by the influences at Maplewood, +was small, some physicians not having had any, others +had two or three." These cases amounted to but eight, +none of which terminated fatally.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The whole secret of this case was proven to have been +the retention of the ordure and waste matter from the +kitchens and dormitories in privies and vaults, underneath +or immediately adjoining the buildings, the odor from +these having been offensively perceptible, and under certain +atmospheric conditions, having pervaded the whole +house.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The committee say "it would be impossible to bring +this report within reasonable limits, were we to discuss the +various questions connected with the origin and propagation +of typhoid fever, although various theoretical views +are held as to whether the poison producing the disease<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is generated in the bodies of the sick, and communicated +from them to the well, or whether it is generated in +sources exterior to the bodies of fever patients, yet all +authorities maintain that a peculiar poison is concerned +in its production.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Those who hold to the doctrine of contagion admit +that, to give such contagion efficacy in the production of +wide spread results, filth or decaying organic matter is +essential; while those who sustain the theory of non-contagion—the +production of the poison from sources +without the bodies of the sick—contend that it has its +entire origin in such filth—in decomposing matter, especially +in fermenting sewage, and decaying human excreta.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The injurious influence of decomposing azotised matter, +in either predisposing to or exciting severe disease, and +particularly typhoid fever, is universally admitted among +high medical authorities."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The committee were of the opinion "that the disease +at Maplewood essentially originated in the state of the +privies and drainage of the place; the high temperature, +and other peculiar atmospheric conditions developing, in +the organic material thus exposed, a peculiar poison, +which accumulated in sufficient quantity to pervade +the whole premises, and operated a sufficient length of +time to produce disease in young and susceptible persons. + * * * * * * To prevent the poison of +typhoid fever when taken into the system, from producing +its legitimate effects, except by natural agencies, +would require as positive a miracle as to restore a severed +head, or arrest the course of the heavenly bodies in their +spheres. * * * The lesson for all, for the future, is +too obvious to need further pointing out; and the committee +cannot doubt that they would hazard little in +predicting that the wisdom obtained by this sad experience, +will be of value in the future management of this<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +institution, and secure precautions which will forever +prevent the recurrence of such a calamity."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The results of all sanitary investigation indicate clearly +the vital necessity for the complete and speedy removal +from human habitations of all matters which, by their decomposition, +may tend to the production of disease, +and early measures should be taken by the authorities of +all towns, especially those which are at all compactly built, +to secure this removal. The means by which this is to be +effected are to be found in such a combination of water-supply +and sewerage, as will furnish a constant and copious +supply of water to dissolve or hold in suspension the whole +of the waste matters, and will provide a channel through +which they may be carried away from the vicinity of residences. +If means for the application of the sewage water +to agricultural lands can be provided, a part if not the +whole of the cost of the works will be thus returned.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Concerning the details of house drainage, it would be +impossible to say much within the limits of this book. The +construction of water-closets, soil-pipes, sinks, etc., are too +will be understood to need a special description here.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The principal point, (aside from the use of pipes instead +of brick-sewers and brick house-drains,) is what is called +in London the system of Back Drainage, where only +principal main lines of sewers are laid under the streets, +all collecting sewers passing through the centres of the +blocks in the rear of the houses. Pipes for water supply +are disposed in the same manner, as it is chiefly at +the rears of houses that water is required, and that drainage +is most necessary; and this adjustment saves the cost, +the annoyance and the loss of fall, which accompany the +use of pipes running under the entire length of each house. +Much tearing up of pavements, expensive ditching in hard +road-ways, and interference with traffic is avoided, while +very much less ditching and piping is necessary, and repairs +are made with very little annoyance to the occupants of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +houses. The accompanying diagrams, (Figs. 48-49,) illustrate +the difference between the old system of drainage +with brick sewers under the streets, and brick drains under +the houses, and pipe sewers under main streets and through +the back yards of premises. A measurement of these two +methods will show that the lengths of the drains in the +new system, are to those of the old, as 1 to 2-1/4;—the fall of +the house drains, (these having much less length,) would +be 10 times more in the one case than in the other;—the +main sewers would have twice the fall, their area would be +only 1/30], and their cubic contents only 1/73.</p> + +<a name="fig68" id="fig68"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image48.png" width="640" height="776" alt="Fig. 48 - OLD STYLE HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE." title="Fig. 48 - OLD STYLE HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 48 - OLD STYLE HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Experience in England has shown that if the whole cost +of water supply and pipe sewers is, with its interest, divided +over a period of thirty years,—so that at the end of that +time it should all be repaid,—the annual charge would not +be greater than the cost of keeping house-drains and cess-pools<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pools clean. The General Board of Health state that "the +expense of cleansing the brick house-drains and cess-pools +for four or five years, would pay the expense of properly +constructed water-closets and pipe-drains, for the greater +number of old premises."</p> + +<a name="fig69" id="fig69"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image49.png" width="640" height="668" alt="Fig. 49 - MODERN HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE." title="Fig. 49 - MODERN HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Fig. 49 - MODERN HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of the reports of this body, which has added more +than any other organization to the world's knowledge on +these subjects, closes with the following:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Conclusions obtained as to house drainage, and the +sewerage and cleansing of the sites of towns."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That no population living amidst impurities, arising +from the putrid emanations from cess-pools, drains and +sewers of deposit, can be healthy or free from the attacks +of devastating epidemics.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That as a primary condition of salubrity, no ordure<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and town refuse can be permitted to remain beneath or +near habitations.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That by no means can remedial operations be so conveniently, +economically, inoffensively, and quickly effected +as by the removal of all such refuse dissolved or suspended +in water.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That it has been subsequently proved by the operation +of draining houses with tubular drains, in upwards of +19,000 cases, and by the trial of more than 200 miles of +pipe sewers, that the practice of constructing large brick +or stone sewers for general town drainage, which detain +matters passing into them in suspension in water, which +accumulate deposit, and which are made large enough +for men to enter them, and remove the deposit by hand +labor, without reference to the area to be drained, has +been in ignorance, neglect or perversion of the above +recited principles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That while sewers so constructed are productive of +great injury to the public health, by the diffusion into +houses and streets of the noxious products of the decomposing +matters contained in them, they are wasteful from +the increased expense of their construction and repair, +and from the cost of ineffectual efforts to keep them free +from deposit.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That the house-drains, made as they have heretofore +been, of absorbent brick or stone, besides detaining substances +in suspension, accumulating foul deposit, and +being so permeable as to permit the escape of the liquid +and gaseous matters, are also false in principle and wasteful +in the expense of construction, cleansing and repair.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That it results from the experience developed in these +inquiries, that improved tubular house-drains and sewers +of the proper sizes, inclinations, and material, detain and +accumulate no deposit, emit no offensive smells, and require +no additional supplies of water to keep them clear.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That the offensive smells proceeding from any works +intended for house or town drainage, indicate the fact +of the detention and decomposition of ordure, and afford +decisive evidence of mal-construction or of ignorant or +defective arrangement.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That the method of removing refuse in suspension in +water by properly combined works, is much better than +that of collecting it in pits or cess-pools near or underneath +houses, emptying it by hand labor, and removing +it by carts.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That it is important for the sake of economy, as well +as for the health of the population, that the practice of +the removal of refuse in suspension in water, and by combined +works, should be applied to all houses, especially +those occupied by the poorer classes."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Later investigations of the subject have established two +general conclusions applicable to the subject, namely, that:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In towns all offensive smells from the decomposition +of animal and vegetable matter, indicate the generation +and presence of the causes of insalubrity and of preventable +disease, at the same time that they prove defective +local administration;</span></span> +and correlatively, that:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In rural districts all continuous offensive smells from +animal and vegetable decomposition, indicate preventable +loss of fertilizing matter, loss of money, and bad +husbandry.</span></span>"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The principles herein set forth, whether relating to sanitary +improvement, to convenience and decency of living, +or to the use of waste matters of houses in agricultural +improvement, are no less applicable in America than elsewhere; +and the more general adoption of improved house +drainage and sewerage, and of the use of sewage matters +in agriculture, would add to the health and prosperity of +its people, and would indicate a great advance in civilization.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc70" id="toc70"></a> +<a name="pdf71" id="pdf71"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">INDEX</span></h1> + + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Absorption and Filtration, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>-39</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Angles to be, as far as possible, avoided, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref">99</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Baking of clay soils by evaporation, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref">30</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Barley, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bartlett, Dr., quotation from, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Base-line, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Boning-rods, (with illustrations), <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref">125</a>-126</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Central Park, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>-86</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cess-pools, cause of epidemics, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Chadwick, Dr., quotation from, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Clay Soils, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref">75</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Clay Soils, Baking of by Evaporation, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref">30</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Clay Soils, Made mellow by draining, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>-30</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Clay Soils, Shrinkage of, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref">28</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Clinometer, (illustration), <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref">56</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Collars, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref">84</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Connections, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Connections (illustrations), <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Corn, Indian, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cost of draining, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref">150</a>-153-158</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cotton, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Covering and filling, cost of, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref">157</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Covering for the joints of tiles, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Covering tiles, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Datum-line, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>-104</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Denton, J. Bailey, quotation from, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref">115</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Distance between drains, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref">73</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Diseases, malarial, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref">208</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ditches, cost of digging, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Draining, amateur, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref">47</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Draining, indications of the need of, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref">9</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Draining, its effect on farming, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref">171</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Draining, tiles, how made, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref">174</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Draining, tiles, materials for, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref">174</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Draining, tools, (illustration), <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref">114</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Draining, what it costs, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref">150</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Draining, will it pay? <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Draining, when necessary, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref">7</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drains, Cubic yards of excavation in, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drains, and drained land, care of, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drains, lateral, should be parallel, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref">99</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drains, how they act, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref">21</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drains, obstructed, how cleared, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drains, old, how formed, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drains, rate of fall, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref">90</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drains, their action in the Central Park, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref">86</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drained Soil, capacity for receiving water of rains, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref">23</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drainage of dwelling houses, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drought, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>-40</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Economy versus cheapness, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref">152</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Engineering and Superintendence, cost of, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Engineers, draining, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref">47</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Epidemic at Maplewood Young Ladies' Institute, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Epidemics caused by cess-pools, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Epidemics caused by ordure beneath houses, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Evaporation, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref">33</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Evaporation, amount of, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref">34</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Evaporation, effect on temperature, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>-35</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Evaporation, heat lost during, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref">34</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Fall, rate of in drains, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref">77</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Fallacies in draining, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref">62</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Fen-lands of England, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref">193</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Fever and Ague, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref">208</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Fever and Ague, exact cause unknown, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Filtration and absorption, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>-39</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Filling, illustration of—ditch with, furrows, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Filling, maul for ramming, (illustration), <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Filling, scraper for, (illustration), <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Filling, the ditches, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Finishing tools, (illustration), <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Finishing scoop, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Finishing scoop, how used, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Foot-pick, (illustration), <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Four-foot drains, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref">70</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Germination of seeds, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref">13</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gisborne, Thos., quotations from, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>-31-35-47-66-78-84-93-127</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Grading, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref">124</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Grading, cost of, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Grade stakes, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Grades, computation for, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref">109</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Grades, how to establish, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref">107</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gratings in Silt-basins, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hackensack meadows, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref">203</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hay, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Heat, amount of lost during evaporation, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref">34</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">House drainage, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">House drainage, back drain system, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">House drainage bad, indicated by offensive smells, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Indications of the need of draining, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref">9</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Injury from standing water in the subsoil, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref">15</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Impervious soil, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref">31</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">John Johnson, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Land requiring draining, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref">7</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lateral drains, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>-97</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lateral drains, direction of, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref">75</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lateral drains, shallow, how connected with deep main, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref">111</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">La Roche, quotations from, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Levels, how to take for drains, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref">104</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Levelling instrument, (illustration), <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref">52</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Levelling rod, (illustration), <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref">53</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Location of main drains, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref">58</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Madden, Dr., quotation from, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref">12</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Main drain, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref">96</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Main drain, location of, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref">58</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malaria <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malaria borne by winds, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>-214-219</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malaria conclusions of the General Board of Health of England, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malaria facts concerning, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malaria spread of, prevented by hills, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malarial diseases, evidence of the effect of drainage in removing, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malarial diseases, reports to the British Parliament concerning, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malarial diseases, rheumatism and tic-douloureux, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malarious localities, effects of residence in, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref">214</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maps, amending the, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maps, description of, (illustrations), <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>-50-51-54-98</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maps, importance of, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref">48</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Marking the lines, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref">116</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mechi, Alderman, quotations from, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>-71</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mellowness or Porosity, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref">41</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Measuring staff (illustration), <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref">124</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Metcalf, Dr., quotation from, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Movement of water in the ground, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref">32</a>-64-65</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mortality, rate of reduced by improved house drainage, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Neuralgia, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref">208</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">New York, suggestions for sewer outlets, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Oats, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Obstructions, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref">90</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Opening ditches, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Outlet, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref">95</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Outlet, how made (with illustrations), <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref">118</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Outlet, location of, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref">58</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Parkes, Josiah, quotations from, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>-71-88-178</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Porosity, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref">41</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Profile of a drain, (illustration), <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">106</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Profit, instances of, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref">167</a>-170</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Production, amount of increase of, necessary to make draining profitable, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Puddling, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref">8</a>-31-148</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pumping, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pumping, London sewage, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref">226</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Rock, sounding for, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref">55</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Rock, how to collect water from, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref">60</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roots, depth to which they reach, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>-67</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roots, as a cause of obstruction, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>-148</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Rye, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salisbury's, Dr., theory concerning malarious fever, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref">214</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, catch water drains, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, construction of embankment, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, dyke and ditch, (illustration), <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref">197</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, exclusion of the sea, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, how formed, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, inundations from upland , <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, location and size of embankment, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, management of creeks, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>-200</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, management of rivers, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, muskrats, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, outlet for under drainage, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref">204</a>-205</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, pumping, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, rain-fall and filtration, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref">204</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salt marshes, valve-gates and sluices, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref">204</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Scraper for filling ditches, (illustration), <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Seeds, germination of, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref">13</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sewage, use of in agriculture, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref">226</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sewers, defects of large, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>-238</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sewers, description of the London outfall, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref">225</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sewers, efficacy of glazed earthern pipes, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref">229</a>-230-238</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sewers, experiments of Hale on pipe sewers, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref">230</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sewers, imperfect, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref">224</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sewers, of brick, defective, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>-235-238</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sewerage, conclusions of General Board of Health, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sewerage, of New York, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Shrinkage of clay soils, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref">28</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sides of ditches in soft land, how braced, (illustration), <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref">124</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Silt, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref">90</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Silt, basins, (illustrations), <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>-135-136</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Silt, basins, how made, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Silt, basins, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>-96-134</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Silt, in tiles, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sources of the water in the soil, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref">10</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Springs, how to collect the water of, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>-60-141</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Staking out the lines, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Staten Island, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Steam pumps, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Stone and tile drains, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sub-mains, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref">59</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Teams used in opening ditches, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Temperature, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>-66</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Temperature, affected by draining, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref">36</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tile laying, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tile-pick, (illustration), <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref">131</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, and tile laying, cost of, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref">157</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, capacity for discharging water, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>-86</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, double-style, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref">80</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, drain—essential characteristics, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref">22</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, how made, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref">174</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, horse-shoe, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref">78</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, kinds and sizes, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref">77</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, ordering, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>-101</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, objections to large sizes, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, pipes and collars, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref">81</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, rapidity with which they receive water, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref">78</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, sizes of, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref">81</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, sizes required for different areas, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref">88</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, should be well formed, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref">83</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, sole, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref">80</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiles, trimming and perforating, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref">131</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tile making, material for, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref">174</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tile preparation of earths, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tile rolling and drying, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tile washing the clay, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tobacco, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tools required, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref">113</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Town drainage, conclusions of General Board of Health, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Undrained land not reliable for cultivation, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref">18</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vermin as a cause of obstruction, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref">93</a></td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Water, depth of, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref">66</a>-70</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Water, in the sub-soil, injurious effects of, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref">15</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Water, movement of in the ground, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref">32</a>-64-65</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Water, objections to excess of, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref">11</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Water, the best vehicle for removing ordure, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Water, when beneficial and when injurious, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref">24</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Water-courses and brooks, how treated during draining operations, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref">117</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Water-table, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref">22</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Wind-mills, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Wheat, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>-167</td></tr></tbody></table> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">DRAINING ENGINEERING.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The undersigned is prepared to assume the personal +direction of works of Agricultural and Town Drainage, +and Water Supply, in any part of the country; or to send +advice and information, by letter, for the guidance of +others.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Persons sending maps of their land, with contour lines, +(see Fig. 8, page 54,) accompanied by such information as +can be given in writing, will be furnished with explicit instructions +concerning the arrangement and depth of the +drains required; kinds and sizes of tiles to be used; management +of the work, etc., etc.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The lines of drains will be laid down, on the maps, for +the direction of local engineers,—and, when required, the +grades will be calculated and noted at the positions of the +stakes.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For particulars, address</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">GEO. E. WARING, JR.,<br /> +P. O. Box 290,<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Newport</span></span>, R. I.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE SMALL FRUIT CULTURIST.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">BY</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">ANDREW S. FULLER.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: 700">Beautifully Illustrated.</span></span></span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have heretofore had no work especially devoted to small +fruits, and certainly no treatises anywhere that give the information +contained in this. It is to the advantage of special works that the +author can say all that he has to say on any subject, and not be +restricted as to space, as he must be in those works that cover the +culture of all fruits—great and small.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This book covers the whole ground of Propagating Small Fruits, +their Culture, Varieties, Packing for Market, etc. While very full on +the other fruits, the Currants and Raspberries have been more carefully +elaborated than ever before, and in this important part of his +book, the author has had the invaluable counsel of Charles Downing. +The chapter on gathering and packing the fruit is a valuable one, +and in it are figured all the baskets and boxes now in common use. +The book is very finely and thoroughly illustrated, and makes an +admirable companion to the Grape Culturist, by the same author.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">CONTENTS:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. I. Barberry</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. II. Strawberry</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. III. Raspberry</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. IV. Blackberry</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. V. Dwarf Cherry</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. VI. Currant</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. VII. Gooseberry</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. VIII. Cornelian Cherry</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. IX. Cranberry</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. X. Huckleberry</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. XI. Sheperdia</span></span>.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chap. XII. Preparation for gathering Fruit</span></span>.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sent post-paid. Price $1.50.</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb"> </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">ORANGE JUDD & CO., 245 Broadway, New-York.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE GRAPE CULTURIST</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">BY</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">ANDREW S. FULLER.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">NEW AND ENLARGED EDITION.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">THE STANDARD WORK</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE HARDY GRAPE, +AS IT NOT ONLY DISCUSSES PRINCIPLES, +BUT</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">ILLUSTRATES PRACTICE</span></span>.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Every thing is made perfectly plain, and its teachings +may be followed upon.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">ONE VINE OR A VINEYARD</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The following are some of the topics that are treated:</span></span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Growing New Varieties From Seed.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Propagation by Single Buds or Eyes.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Propagating Houses and their Management fully described.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">How to Grow.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Cuttings in Open Air, and how to Make Layers.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Grafting the Grape—A Simple and Successful Method.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Hybridizing and Crossing—Mode of Operation.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Soil and Situation—Planting and Cultivation.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Pruning, Training, and Trellises—all the Systems Explained.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Garden Culture—How to Grow Vines in a Door-Yard.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Insects, Mildew, Sun-Scald, and other Troubles.</span></span><br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Description of the Valuable and the Discarded Varieties.</span></span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sent post-paid. Price $1.50.</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb"> </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Orange Judd & Co., 245 Broadway.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">AMERICAN POMOLOGY</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">APPLES.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By Doct. JOHN A. WARDER,</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">PRESIDENT OHIO POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY; VICE-PRESIDENT AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL +SOCIETY.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">293 ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This volume has about 750 pages, the first 375 of which are devoted +to the discussion of the general subjects of propagation, nursery +culture, selection and planting, cultivation of orchards, care of +fruit, insects, and the like; the remainder is occupied with descriptions +of apples. With the richness of material at hand, the trouble +was to decide what to leave out. It will be found that while the +old and standard varieties are not neglected, the new and promising +sorts, especially those of the South and West, have prominence. +A list of selections for different localities by eminent orchardists is +a valuable portion of the volume, while the Analytical Index or +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catalogue Raisonné</span></span>, as the French would say, is the most extended +American fruit list ever published, and gives evidence of a fearful +amount of labor.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">CONTENTS.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Chapter I.—INTRODUCTORY.<br /> +Chapter II.—HISTORY OF THE APPLE.<br /> +Chapter III.—PROPAGATION. - Buds and Cuttings—Grafting—Budding—The Nursery.<br /> +Chapter IV.—DWARFING.<br /> +Chapter V.—DISEASES.<br /> +Chapter VI.—THE SITE FOR AN ORCHARD.<br /> +Chapter VII.—PREPARATION OF SOIL FOR AN ORCHARD.<br /> +Chapter VIII.—SELECTION AND PLANTING.<br /> +Chapter IX.—CULTURE, Etc.<br /> +Chapter X.—PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING.<br /> +Chapter XI.—THINNING.<br /> +Chapter XII.—RIPENING AND PRESERVING FRUITS.<br /> +Chapter XIII and XIV.—INSECTS.<br /> +Chapter XV.—CHARACTERS OF FRUITS AND THEIR VALUE—TERMS USED.<br /> +Chapter XVI.—CLASSIFICATION. - Necessity for—Basis of—Characters—Shape—Its Regularity—Flavor—Color—Their several Values, etc. Description of Apples.<br /> +Chapter XVII.—FRUIT LISTS—CATALOGUE AND INDEX OF FRUITS.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sent Post-Paid. Price $3.00.</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb"> </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">ORANGE JUDD & CO., 245 Broadway, New-York</p> +</div> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">GARDENING FOR PROFIT</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Market and Family Garden.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">By Peter Henderson.</span></span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">FINELY ILLUSTRATED.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the first work on Market Gardening ever published in this +country. Its author is well known as a market gardener of eighteen +years' successful experience. In this work he has recorded this +experience, and given, without reservation, the methods necessary +to the profitable culture of the commercial or</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">MARKET GARDEN.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is a work for which there has long been a demand, and one +which will commend itself, not only to those who grow vegetables +for sale, but to the cultivator of the</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">FAMILY GARDEN,</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">to whom it presents methods quite different from the old ones generally +practiced. It is an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ORIGINAL AND PURELY AMERICAN</span></span> work, and +not made up, as books on gardening too often are, by quotations +from foreign authors.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Every thing is made perfectly plain, and the subject treated in all +its details, from the selection of the soil to preparing the products +for market.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">CONTENTS.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Men fitted for the Business of Gardening.<br /> +The Amount of Capital Required, and<br /> +Working Force per Acre.<br /> +Profits of Market Gardening.<br /> +Location, Situation, and Laying Out.<br /> +Soils, Drainage, and Preparation.<br /> +Manures, Implements.<br /> +Uses and Management of Cold Frames.<br /> +Formation and Management of Hot-beds.<br /> +Forcing Pits or Green-houses.<br /> +Seeds and Seed Raising.<br /> +How, When, and Where to Sow Seeds.<br /> +Transplanting, Insects.<br /> +Packing of Vegetables for Shipping.<br /> +Preservation of Vegetables in Winter.<br /> +Vegetables, their Varieties and Cultivation.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the last chapter, the most valuable kinds are described, and +the culture proper to each is given in detail.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sent post-paid, price $1.50.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">ORANGE JUDD & CO., 245 Broadway, New-York.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The American Agricultural Annual</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">FOR 1870.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A YEAR BOOK</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">WANTED BY EVERY BODY.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This valuable Year Book has now reached its fourth number. +In its general features it follows the plan of the three numbers +that have preceded it, and, like them, is beautifully illustrated.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">CONTENTS.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Almanac and Calendar for 1870. Agricultural and Kindred Journals. Agricultural +and Kindred Books. Prospect and Retrospect. Immigration. Home +Markets. Coöperation among Farmers. Commercial Fertilizers. The Crops +and the Weather. Thorough Drainage. Agricultural Exhibitions. Poultry +Societies and Shows. Importation of Live Stock. Death of Distinguished +Agriculturists. Inventions affecting Agriculture. Novelties in Agricultural +Seeds, etc. Oats. Sanford Corn. Potato Fever. Adobe or Earth-wall Building—by +E. G. Potter. Potatoes Worth Raising—by Dr. F. M. Hexamer. +Yield of Potatoes in 1869. Wheat Hoe. How to Train a Heifer. Care of Hen +and Chickens. Cultivation of Root Crops. Kohl Rabi. Dry Earth—the Earth-Closet +Principle in the Barn. General Agricultural Matters. Characteristics +of Different Breeds of Thoroughbred Stock. Earth-Closets—Success of the +System. Progress in Fish Culture. Cold Spring Trout Ponds. Bellows Falls +Trout Pond. Montdale Ponds. S. H. Ainsworth's Ponds and Race. Mumford +Ponds. Poheganut Trout Ponds. Breeds of Fish. Fish as Farm Stock—by +W. Clift. The Stocking of Ponds and Brooks. English Agricultural Implements. +Inventions affecting Milk, and Cheese-making—by Gardner B. Weeks. +Notes on Veterinary Subjects. Coöperation in Swine-breeding. Letter from +Dr. Calvin Cutter. Steaming Fodder for Milch Cows—by S. M. and D. Wells. +The Harvester, Reaper, and Mower—by Isaac W. White. Improvement in +Drain Tiles. Farmer's Directory.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sent post-paid. Price, fancy paper covers, 50 cents;</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Cloth, 75 cents.</span></span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Either of these Annuals for the three preceding years may be +had at the same prices.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">ORANGE JUDD & CO.,</span></span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">245 Broadway, New-York.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The American Horticultural Annual</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">FOR 1870.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A YEAR BOOK</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">FOR EVERY HOME.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fourth number of this beautiful serial is now ready. It +contains a popular record of horticultural progress during the +past year, with other valuable articles, many of which are +illustrated with elegant engravings.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">CONTENTS.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Calendars for each Month in the Year. Astronomical Memoranda. Number +of Trees, Plants, etc., required to Set an Acre. Hardy and Tender Vegetables. +Postage on Horticultural Matter. Tables of Quantities of Seed. The +Retinisporas—By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Josiah Hoopes</span></span>. Selecting and Saving Seeds—By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Wm G. +Comstock</span></span>. Inarching the Grapevine—By "Al Fresco." Apples in 1869—with +Descriptions of New Varieties—By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">J. A. Warder</span></span>. Pears in 1869—with +Notes on some of the Newer Varieties—By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">P. Barry</span></span>. Quinces in 1869. +Plums in 1869. Peaches in 1869—New Varieties—By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">F. R. Elliott</span></span>. Cherries +in 1869—with Notes of New Varieties and Comments on the Nomenclature +of Older Sorts. Native Grapes in 1869. Notes on the Small Fruits in 1869—By +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A. S. Fuller</span></span>. Hardy Trees and Shrubs in 1869. New Roses Tested in +1869—By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">John Saul</span></span>. The American Pomological Society. New and Interesting +Bedding and other Plants Tested in 1869—By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Peter Henderson</span></span>. New +or Noteworthy Vegetables in 1869—By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Jas. J. H. Gregory</span></span>, and others. Horticultural +implements, etc., in 1869. Horticultural and Kindred Journals. +Books upon Horticulture and Allied Subjects, published in 1869. List of +Nurserymen, Seedsmen, etc.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sent post-paid. Price, fancy paper covers, 50 cents;</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Cloth, 75 cents.</span></span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Either of these Annuals for the three preceding years may be +had at the same prices.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">ORANGE JUDD & CO.</span></span>,</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">245 Broadway New-York.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">[Established in 1842.]</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A Good, Cheap, and very Valuable Paper for +Every Man, Woman and Child,</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">IN CITY, VILLAGE and COUNTRY,</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">THE</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST,</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">FOR THE</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">FARM, GARDEN AND HOUSEHOLD,</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Including a Special Department of Interesting and +Instructive Reading for CHILDREN and YOUTH</span></span>.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Agriculturist</span></span> is a large periodical of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Forty-four pages</span></span>, quarto, not octavo, +beautifully printed, and filled with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">plain, practical, reliable, original</span></span> matter, including +hundreds of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">beautiful</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">instructive</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Engravings</span></span> in every annual volume.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It contains each month a Calendar of Operations to be performed on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Farm,</span></span> +in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Orchard</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Garden,</span></span> in and around the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Dwelling,</span></span> etc.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The thousands of hints and suggestions given in every volume are prepared by practical, +intelligent <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">working men,</span></span> who know what they talk and write about. The +articles are thoroughly edited, and every way reliable.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Household Department</span></span> is valuable to every Housekeeper, affording +very many useful hints and directions calculated to lighten and facilitate in-door work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Department for Children and Youth,</span></span> is prepared with special care +not only to amuse, but also to inculcate knowledge and sound moral principles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Terms.</span></span>—The circulation of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">American Agriculturist</span></span>, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">about 150,000</span></span>) is so +large that it can be furnished at the low price of $1.50 a year; four copies, one year, for +$5; ten copies, one year, for $12; twenty or more copies, one year, $1 each; single +copies, 15 cents each. An extra copy to the one furnishing a club of ten or twenty.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">TRY IT A YEAR.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">ORANGE JUDD & CO.,</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Publishers & Proprietors,</span></span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">No. 245 Broadway, New-York City.</span></span></p> +</div> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Puddling</span></span> is the kneading or rubbing of clay with water, a process by +which it becomes almost impervious, retaining this property until thoroughly +dried, when its close union is broken by the shrinking of its +parts. Puddled clay remains impervious as long as it is saturated with +water, and it does not entirely lose this quality until it has been pulverized +in a dry state.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A small proportion of clay is sufficient to injure the porousness of +the soil by puddling.—A clay subsoil is puddled by being plowed +over when too wet, and the injury is of considerable duration. Rain +water collected in hollows of stiff land, by the simple movement given +it by the wind, so puddles the surface that it holds the water while the +adjacent soil is dry and porous.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The term <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">puddling</span></span> will often be used in this work, and the reader will +understand, from this explanation, the meaning with which it is employed.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By leaving a space between the wall and the plastering, this moisture +is prevented from being an annoyance, and if the inclosed space is not +open from top to bottom, so as to allow a circulation of air, but little +vapor will come in contact with the wall, and but an inconsiderable +amount will be deposited.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The maps in this book are, for convenience, drawn to a scale of 160 +feet to the inch.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The instrument from which this cut was taken, (as also Fig. 7) was +made by Messrs. Blunt & Nichols, Water st., N. Y.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The slight deviations caused by carrying the drains around large +stones, which are found in cutting the ditches, do not affect the general +arrangement of the lines.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The low price at which this instrument is sold, $1.50, places it within +the reach of all.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Except from quite near to the drain, it is not probable that the +water in the soil runs laterally towards it.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some of the drains in the Central Park have a fall of only 1 in +1,000, and they work perfectly; but they are large mains, laid with an +amount of care, and with certain costly precautions, (including precisely +graded wooden floors,) which could hardly be expected in private work.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tile has been said, by great authorities, to be broken by contraction, +under some idea that the clay envelops the tile and presses it when it contracts. +That is nonsense. The contraction would liberate the tile. Drive a stake into +wet clay; and when the clay is dry, observe whether it clasps the stake tighter or +has released it, and you will no longer have any doubt whether expansion or contraction +breaks the tile. Shrink is a better word than contract.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Taking the difference of friction into consideration, 1-1/4 inch pipes +have fully twice the discharging capacity of 1-inch pipes.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No. 5 was one inch in diameter; No. 4, about 1-1/3 inches.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the springs, when running at their greatest volume, be found to +require more than 1-1/4-inch tiles, due allowance must be made for the +increase.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Owing to the irregularity of the ground, and the necessity for placing +some of the drains at narrower intervals, the total length of tile exceeds +by nearly 50 per cent. what would be required if it had a uniform slope, +and required no collecting drains. It is much greater than will be required +in any ordinary case, as a very irregular surface has been adopted +here for purposes of illustration.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The stakes used may be 18 inches long, and driven one-half of their +length into the ground. They should have one side sufficiently smooth +to be distinctly marked with red chalk.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The depth of 4.13, in Fig. 21, as well as the other depths at the points +at which the grade changes, happen to be those found by the computation, +as hereafter described, and they are used here for illustration.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The figures in this table, as well as in the next preceding one, are +adopted for the published profile of drain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C</span></span>, Fig. 21, to avoid confusion. +In ordinary cases, the points which are fixed as the basis of the computation +are given in round numbers;—for instance, the depth at <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C3</span></span> would +be assumed to be 4.10 or 4.20, instead of 4.13. The fractions given in the +table, and in Fig. 21, arise from the fact that the decimals are not absolutely +correct, being carried out only for two figures.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href="#noteref_17">17.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The drains, which are removed a little to one side of the lines of +stakes, may be turned toward the basin from a distance of 3 or 4 feet.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href="#noteref_18">18.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foot of the measuring rod should be shod with iron to prevent +its being worn to less than the proper length.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href="#noteref_19">19.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Talpa, or the Chronicles of a Clay Farm."</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href="#noteref_20">20.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When chips of tile, or similar matters, are used to cover openings in +the tile-work, it is well to cover them at once with a mortar made of +wet clay, which will keep them in place until the ditches are filled.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href="#noteref_21">21.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Surely such soil ought not to require thorough draining; where men +can go so easily, water ought to find its way alone.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href="#noteref_22">22.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The land shown in Fig. 21, is especially irregular, and, for the purpose +of illustrating the principles upon which the work should be done, +an effort has been made to make the work as complete as possible in all +particulars. In actual work on a field similar to that, it would not +probably be good economy to make all the drains laid in the plan, but +as deviations from the plan would depend on conditions which cannot +well be shown on such a small scale, they are disregarded, and the system +of drains is made as it would be if it were all plain sailing.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href="#noteref_23">23.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Klippart's Land Drainage.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href="#noteref_24">24.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Klippart's Land Drainage.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href="#noteref_25">25.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Drainage des Terres Arables, Paris, 1856.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href="#noteref_26">26.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ends of the work, while the operations are suspended during +spring tides, will need an extra protection of sods, but that lying out of +reach of the eddies that will be formed by the receding water will not be +materially affected.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href="#noteref_27">27.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The latest invention of this sort, is that of a series of cast iron plates, +set on edge, riveted together, and driven in to such a depth as to reach +from the top of the dyke to a point below low-water mark. The best +that can be said of this plan is, that its adoption would do no harm. Unless +the plates are driven deeply into the clay underlying the permeable +soil, (and this is sometimes very deep,) they would not prevent the +slight infiltration of water which could pass under them as well as +through any other part of the soil, and unless the iron were very thick, +the corrosive action of salt water would soon so honeycomb it that the +borers would easily penetrate it; but the great objection to the use of +these plates is, that they would be very costly and ineffectual. A dyke, +made as described above, of the material of the locality, having a ditch +only on the inside, and being well sodded on its outer face, would be far +cheaper and better.</p></dd></dl> + </div> + + +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAINING FOR PROFIT, AND DRAINING FOR HEALTH*** +</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader72" id="rightpageheader72"></a><a name="pgtoc73" id="pgtoc73"></a><a name="pdf74" id="pdf74"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">October 4, 2006 </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Posted to Project Gutenberg</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt"> + <span class="tei tei-name">Steven Giacomelli,<br /></span> + <span class="tei tei-name">Joshua Hutchinson and<br /></span> + <span class="tei tei-name">The Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /></span> + <span class="tei tei-name">(This file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)</span> + </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader75" id="rightpageheader75"></a><a name="pgtoc76" id="pgtoc76"></a><a name="pdf77" id="pdf77"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named + 19465-h.html or + 19465-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found + in: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/6/19465/" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style="font-size: 90%">/dirs/1/9/4/6/19465/</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old + editions will be renamed.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the works from public domain print editions means that + no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the + Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United + States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. + Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this + license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works + to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered + trademark, and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, + unless you receive specific permission. If you do not charge + anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the rules is + very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as + creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. + They may be modified and printed and given away — you may do + practically <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anything</span></em> with public domain eBooks. + Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially + commercial redistribution.</p></div><hr class="page" /><div id="pglicense" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader78" id="rightpageheader78"></a><a name="pgtoc79" id="pgtoc79"></a><a name="pdf80" id="pdf80"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The Full Project Gutenberg License</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Please read this before you distribute or use this + work.</span></em></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free + distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing + this work (or any other work associated in any way with the + phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“Project Gutenberg”</span>), you agree to comply with all the terms + of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License (<a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">available with this file</a> or online + at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a>).</p><div id="pglicense1" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Section 1.</span></h2><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">General Terms of Use & Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ + electronic works</span></h2><div id="pglicense1A" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">1.A.</span></h3><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic + work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to + and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual + property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree + to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease + using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic + works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a + copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not + agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may + obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the + fee as set forth in paragraph <a href="#pglicense1E8" class="tei tei-ref">1.E.8.</a></p></div><div id="pglicense1B" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">1.B.</span></h3><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-q">“Project Gutenberg”</span> is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or + associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be + bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you + can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the + full terms of this agreement. See paragraph <a href="#pglicense1C" class="tei tei-ref">1.C</a> below. There are a lot of things you can + do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this + agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic + works. See paragraph <a href="#pglicense1E" class="tei tei-ref">1.E</a> below.</p></div><div id="pglicense1C" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">1.C.</span></h3><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (<span class="tei tei-q">“the Foundation”</span> or PGLAF), owns a compilation + copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the + individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the + United States. If an individual work is in the public domain in the + United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim + a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, + displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all + references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support + the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by + freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this + agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can + easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in + the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it + without charge with others.</p></div><div id="pglicense1D" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">1.D.</span></h3><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern + what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in + a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check + the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement + before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or + creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. + The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status + of any work in any country outside the United States.</p></div><div id="pglicense1E" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">1.E.</span></h3><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:</p><div id="pglicense1E1" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.E.1.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate + access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any + copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“Project Gutenberg”</span> + appears, or with which the phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“Project Gutenberg”</span> is associated) is + accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed: + + </p><div class="block tei tei-q" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">This eBook is for the use of + anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no + restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License included with this eBook or + online at </span><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org" class="tei tei-xref"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span></a></p></div></div><div id="pglicense1E2" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.E.2.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from the public + domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with + permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and + distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or + charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with + the phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“Project Gutenberg”</span> associated with or appearing on the work, you + must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs <a href="#pglicense1E1" class="tei tei-ref">1.E.1</a> through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for + the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs + <a href="#pglicense1E8" class="tei tei-ref">1.E.8</a> or 1.E.9.</p></div><div id="pglicense1E3" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.E.3.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission + of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both + paragraphs <a href="#pglicense1E1" class="tei tei-ref">1.E.1</a> through 1.E.7 and any + additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will + be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission + of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.</p></div><div id="pglicense1E4" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.E.4.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from + this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work + associated with Project Gutenberg™.</p></div><div id="pglicense1E5" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.E.5.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this + electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without + prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph <a href="#pglicense1E1" class="tei tei-ref">1.E.1</a> with active links or immediate access + to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.</p></div><div id="pglicense1E6" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.E.6.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, + compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including + any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access + to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than + <span class="tei tei-q">“Plain Vanilla ASCII”</span> or other format used in the official + version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ web site (http://www.gutenberg.org), you must, at + no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a + means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon + request, of the work in its original <span class="tei tei-q">“Plain Vanilla ASCII”</span> or + other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License + as specified in paragraph <a href="#pglicense1E1" class="tei tei-ref">1.E.1.</a></p></div><div id="pglicense1E7" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.E.7.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, + copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with + paragraph <a href="#pglicense1E8" class="tei tei-ref">1.E.8</a> or 1.E.9.</p></div><div id="pglicense1E8" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.E.8.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to + or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that</p><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label">• </th><td class="tei tei-item"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to + calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the + Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this + paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days + following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to + prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly + marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in <a href="#pglicense4" class="tei tei-ref">Section 4, <span class="tei tei-q">“Information about donations to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”</span></a></p></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label">• </th><td class="tei tei-item"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does + not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such + a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a + physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other + copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.</p></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label">• </th><td class="tei tei-item"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">You provide, in accordance with paragraph <a href="#pglicense1F3" class="tei tei-ref">1.F.3</a>, a full refund of any money paid for a + work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is + discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the + work.</p></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label">• </th><td class="tei tei-item"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.</p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div id="pglicense1E9" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.E.9.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or + group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, + you must obtain permission in writing from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael + Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set + forth in <a href="#pglicense3" class="tei tei-ref">Section 3</a> below.</p></div></div><div id="pglicense1F" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">1.F.</span></h3><div id="pglicense1F1" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.F.1.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, + do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread public domain works + in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ + electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may + contain <span class="tei tei-q">“Defects,”</span> such as, but not limited to, incomplete, + inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other + intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other + medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be + read by your equipment.</p></div><div id="pglicense1F2" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.F.2.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES — Except for the <span class="tei tei-q">“Right of + Replacement or Refund”</span> described in <a href="#pglicense1F3" class="tei tei-ref">paragraph + 1.F.3</a>, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any + other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, + disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including + legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT + LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE + PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK + OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO + YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL + DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.</p></div><div id="pglicense1F3" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.F.3.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND — If you discover a defect in + this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a + refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written + explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received + the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your + written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the + defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a + refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity + providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to + receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy + is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further + opportunities to fix the problem.</p></div><div id="pglicense1F4" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.F.4.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in + <a href="#pglicense1F3" class="tei tei-ref">paragraph 1.F.3</a>, this work is provided + to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR + IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR + FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.</p></div><div id="pglicense1F5" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.F.5.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or + the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any + disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of + the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be + interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by + the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any + provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.</p></div><div id="pglicense1F6" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h4 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">1.F.6.</h4><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">INDEMNITY — You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the + trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone + providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this + agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion + and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all + liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly + or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: + (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, + modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any + Defect you cause.</p></div></div></div><div id="pglicense2" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Section 2.</span></h2><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™</span></h2><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works + in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including + obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the + efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks + of life.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the + assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™'s goals and + ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for + generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a + secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn + more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see + Sections <a href="#pglicense3" class="tei tei-ref">3</a> and <a href="#pglicense4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a> and the Foundation web page at <a href="http://www.pglaf.org" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.pglaf.org</a>.</p></div><div id="pglicense3" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Section 3.</span></h2><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation</span></h2><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation + organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax + exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or + federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter + is posted at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf</a>. Contributions + to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. + federal laws and your state's laws.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. + S. Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are + scattered throughout numerous locations. Its business office is + located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) + 596-1887, email business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date + contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and + official page at <a href="http://www.pglaf.org" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.pglaf.org</a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For additional contact information: + + </p><div class="block tei tei-address" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span class="tei tei-addrLine"><span style="font-size: 90%">Dr. Gregory B. Newby</span></span><br /><span class="tei tei-addrLine"><span style="font-size: 90%">Chief Executive and Director</span></span><br /><span class="tei tei-addrLine"><span style="font-size: 90%">gbnewby@pglaf.org</span></span><br /></div></div><div id="pglicense4" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Section 4.</span></h2><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation</span></h2><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without wide spread public + support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number + of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in + machine readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment + including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are + particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the + IRS.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating + charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United + States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a + considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up + with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where + we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND + DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state + visit <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate</a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we + have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition + against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who + approach us with offers to donate.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make + any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from + outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation methods and + addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including + checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please + visit: <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate</a></p></div><div id="pglicense5" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Section 5.</span></h2><h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic + works.</span></h2><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-name">Professor Michael S. Hart</span> is the + originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that + could be freely shared with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and + distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer + support.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of + which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. unless a copyright + notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in + compliance with any particular paper edition.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's + eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, + compressed (zipped), HTML and others.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Corrected <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">editions</span></em> of our eBooks replace the old file + and take over the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file + is renamed. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Versions</span></em> based on separate sources are treated + as new eBooks receiving new filenames and etext numbers.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search + facility: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to + make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and + how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.</p></div></div></div> +</div> + +</div> + + </div> +</body></html> diff --git a/19465-h/images/image01.png b/19465-h/images/image01.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e8587ea --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image01.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image02.png b/19465-h/images/image02.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..93727ae --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image02.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image03.png b/19465-h/images/image03.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ce05c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image03.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image04.png b/19465-h/images/image04.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fcc98cf --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image04.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image05.png b/19465-h/images/image05.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..39b2cae --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image05.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image06.png b/19465-h/images/image06.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb92a14 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image06.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image07.png b/19465-h/images/image07.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..87937e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image07.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image08.png b/19465-h/images/image08.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d42f5d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image08.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image09.png b/19465-h/images/image09.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ff11248 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image09.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image10.png b/19465-h/images/image10.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2101efe --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image10.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image11.png b/19465-h/images/image11.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f6cdf57 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image11.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image12.png b/19465-h/images/image12.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..53b0d83 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image12.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image13.png b/19465-h/images/image13.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..90a28b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image13.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image14.png b/19465-h/images/image14.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..46feea3 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image14.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image15.png b/19465-h/images/image15.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ac444f --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image15.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image16.png b/19465-h/images/image16.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aed5449 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image16.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image19.png b/19465-h/images/image19.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e6573b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image19.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image20.png b/19465-h/images/image20.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..75b2119 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image20.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image21.png b/19465-h/images/image21.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a063a31 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image21.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image22.png b/19465-h/images/image22.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a3bbb2b --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image22.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image23.png b/19465-h/images/image23.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..28a6de5 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image23.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image24.png b/19465-h/images/image24.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3919b50 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image24.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image25.png b/19465-h/images/image25.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..884e7b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image25.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image26.png b/19465-h/images/image26.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5179a6e --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image26.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image27.png b/19465-h/images/image27.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..63a4d62 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image27.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image28.png b/19465-h/images/image28.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d462acd --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image28.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image29.png b/19465-h/images/image29.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5dff71a --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image29.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image30.png b/19465-h/images/image30.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5370ff7 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image30.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image31.png b/19465-h/images/image31.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cd383ac --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image31.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image32.png b/19465-h/images/image32.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c56e7a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image32.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image33.png b/19465-h/images/image33.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bf05263 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image33.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image34.png b/19465-h/images/image34.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f73a844 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image34.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image35.png b/19465-h/images/image35.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..310bc1f --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image35.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image36.png b/19465-h/images/image36.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a422b75 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image36.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image37.png b/19465-h/images/image37.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f0ee562 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image37.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image38.png b/19465-h/images/image38.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ea92aa --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image38.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image39.png b/19465-h/images/image39.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..208b2a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image39.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image40.png b/19465-h/images/image40.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..312c0be --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image40.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image41.png b/19465-h/images/image41.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..49d69e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image41.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image42.png b/19465-h/images/image42.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d14544 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image42.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image43.png b/19465-h/images/image43.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8983b38 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image43.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image44.png b/19465-h/images/image44.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..89cc9c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image44.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image45.png b/19465-h/images/image45.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d4d5280 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image45.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image46.png b/19465-h/images/image46.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b2e28d --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image46.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image47.png b/19465-h/images/image47.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d053211 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image47.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image48.png b/19465-h/images/image48.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f76134c --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image48.png diff --git a/19465-h/images/image49.png b/19465-h/images/image49.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ab3db71 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465-h/images/image49.png |
