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diff --git a/19465.txt b/19465.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ff11280 --- /dev/null +++ b/19465.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8754 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Draining for Profit, and Draining for +Health by George E. Waring + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health + +Author: George E. Waring + +Release Date: October 4, 2006 [Ebook #19465] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAINING FOR PROFIT, AND DRAINING FOR HEALTH*** + + + + + +Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health + + +by George E. Waring + + + + +Edition 1, (October 4, 2006) + + + + + + New York + Orange Judd & Company, + 245 Broadway. + + + + + + Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by + ORANGE JUDD & CO. + +At the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for this + Southern District of New-York. + + Lovejoy & Son, + Electrotypers and Stereotypers. + 15 Vandewater street N.Y. + + + + + +In presenting this book to the public the writer desires to say that, +having in view the great importance of thorough work in land draining, and +believing it advisable to avoid every thing which might be construed into +an approval of half-way measures, he has purposely taken the most radical +view of the whole subject, and has endeavored to emphasize the necessity +for the utmost thoroughness in all draining operations, from the first +staking of the lines to the final filling-in of the ditches. + +That it is sometimes necessary, because of limited means, or limited time, +or for other good reasons, to drain partially or imperfectly, or with a +view only to temporary results, is freely acknowledged. In these cases the +occasion for less completeness in the work must determine the extent to +which the directions herein laid down are to be disregarded; but it is +believed that, even in such cases, the principles on which those +directions are founded should be always borne in mind. + +NEWPORT, R.I., 1867. + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +Fig. 1 - A DRY SOIL. +Fig. 2 - A WET SOIL. +Fig. 3 - A DRAINED SOIL. +Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS, SPRINGS AND TREES. INTENDED TO +REPRESENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING. +Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES. +Fig. 6 - LEVELLING INSTRUMENT. +Fig. 7 - LEVELLING ROD. +Fig. 8 - MAP WITH CONTOUR LINES. +Fig. 9 - WELL'S CLINOMETER. +Fig. 10 - STONE PIT TO CONNECT SPRING WITH DRAIN. +Fig. 11 - STONE AND TILE BASIN FOR SPRING WITH DRAIN. +Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS. +Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE. +Fig. 14 - SOLE TILE. +Fig. 15 - DOUBLE-SOLE TILE. +Fig. 16 - ROUND TILE AND COLLAR, AND THE SAME AS LAID. +Fig. 19 - THREE PROFILES OF DRAINS, WITH DIFFERENT INCLINATIONS. +Fig. 20 - MAP WITH DRAINS AND CONTOUR LINES. +Fig. 21 - PROFILE OF DRAIN C. +Fig. 22 - SET OF TOOLS. +Fig. 23 - OUTLET, SECURED WITH MASONRY AND GRATING. +Fig. 24 - SILT-BASIN, BUILT TO THE SURFACE. +Fig. 25 - FINISHING SPADE. +Fig. 26 - FINISHING SCOOP. +Fig. 27 - BRACING THE SIDES IN SOFT LAND. +Fig. 28 - MEASURING STAFF. +Fig. 29 - BONING ROD. +Fig. 30 - POSITION OF WORKMAN AND USE OF FINISHING SCOOP. +Fig. 31 - SIGHTING BY THE BONING-RODS. +Fig. 32 - PICK FOR DRESSING AND PREFORATING TILE. +Fig. 33 - LATERAL DRAIN ENTERING AT TOP. +Fig. 34 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF JOINT. +Fig. 35 - SQUARE BRICK SILT-BASIN. +Fig. 36 - SILT-BASIN OF VITRIFIED PIPE. +Fig. 37 - TILE SILT-BASIN. +Fig. 38 - MAUL FOR RAMMING. +Fig. 39 - BOARD SCRAPER FOR FILLING DITCHES. +Fig. 40 - CROSS-SECTION OF DITCH (FILLED), WITH FURROW AT EACH SIDE. +Fig. 41 - FOOT PICK. +Fig. 42 - PUG-MILL. +Fig. 43 - PLATE OF DIES. +Fig. 44 - CHEAP WOODEN MACHINE. +Fig. 45 - MANDRIL FOR CARRYING TILES FROM MACHINE. +Fig. 46 - CLAY-KILN. +Fig. 47 - DYKE AND DITCH. +Fig. 48 - OLD STYLE HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE. +Fig. 49 - MODERN HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE. + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER I. - LAND TO BE DRAINED AND THE REASONS WHY. +CHAPTER II. - HOW DRAINS ACT, AND HOW THEY AFFECT THE SOIL +CHAPTER III. - HOW TO GO TO WORK TO LAY OUT A SYSTEM OF DRAINS. +CHAPTER IV. - HOW TO MAKE THE DRAINS. +CHAPTER V. - HOW TO TAKE CARE OF DRAINS AND DRAINED LAND. +CHAPTER VI. - WHAT DRAINING COSTS. +CHAPTER VII. - "WILL IT PAY?" +CHAPTER VIII. - HOW TO MAKE DRAINING TILES. +CHAPTER IX. - THE RECLAIMING OF SALT MARSHES. +CHAPTER X. - MALARIAL DISEASES. +CHAPTER XI. - HOUSE DRAINAGE AND TOWN SEWERAGE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO THE +PUBLIC HEALTH. +INDEX + + + + + + +CHAPTER I. - LAND TO BE DRAINED AND THE REASONS WHY. + + +Land which requires draining hangs out a sign of its condition, more or +less clear, according to its circumstances, but always unmistakable to the +practiced eye. Sometimes it is the broad banner of standing water, or +dark, wet streaks in plowed land, when all should be dry and of even +color; sometimes only a fluttering rag of distress in curling corn, or +wide-cracking clay, or feeble, spindling, shivering grain, which has +survived a precarious winter, on the ice-stilts that have stretched its +crown above a wet soil; sometimes the quarantine flag of rank growth and +dank miasmatic fogs. + +To recognize these indications is the first office of the drainer; the +second, to remove the causes from which they arise. + +If a rule could be adopted which would cover the varied circumstances of +different soils, it would be somewhat as follows: All lands, of whatever +texture or kind, in which _the spaces between the particles of soil_ are +filled with water, (whether from rain or from springs,) within less than +four feet of the surface of the ground, except during and _immediately_ +after heavy rains, require draining. + +Of course, the _particles_ of the soil cannot be made dry, nor should they +be; but, although they should be moist themselves, they should be +surrounded with air, not with water. To illustrate this: suppose that +water be poured into a barrel filled with chips of wood until it runs over +at the top. The spaces between the chips will be filled with water, and +the chips themselves will absorb enough to become thoroughly wet;--this +represents the worst condition of a wet soil. If an opening be made at the +bottom of the barrel, the water which fills the spaces between the chips +will be drawn off, and its place will be taken by air, while the chips +themselves will remain wet from the water which they hold by absorption. A +drain at the bottom of a wet field draws away the water from the free +spaces between its particles, and its place is taken by air, while the +particles hold, by attraction, the moisture necessary to a healthy +condition of the soil. + +There are vast areas of land in this country which do not need draining. +The whole range of sands, gravels, light loams and moulds allow water to +pass freely through them, and are sufficiently drained by nature, +_provided_, they are as open at the bottom as throughout the mass. A sieve +filled with gravel will drain perfectly; a basin filled with the same +gravel will not drain at all. More than this, a sieve filled with the +stiffest clay, if not "puddled,"(1) will drain completely, and so will +heavy clay soils on porous and well drained subsoils. Money expended in +draining such lands as do not require the operation is, of course, wasted; +and when there is doubt as to the requirement, tests should be made before +the outlay for so costly work is encountered. + +There is, on the other hand, much land which only by thorough-draining can +be rendered profitable for cultivation, or healthful for residence, and +very much more, described as "ordinarily dry land," which draining would +greatly improve in both productive value and salubrity. + +*The Surface Indications* of the necessity for draining are various. Those +of actual swamps need no description; those of land in cultivation are +more or less evident at different seasons, and require more or less care +in their examination, according to the circumstances under which they are +manifested. + +If a plowed field show, over a part or the whole of its surface, a +constant appearance of dampness, indicating that, as fast as water is +dried out from its upper parts, more is forced up from below, so that +after a rain it is much longer than other lands in assuming the light +color of dry earth, it unmistakably needs draining. + +A pit, sunk to the depth of three or four feet in the earth, may collect +water at its bottom, shortly after a rain;--this is a sure sign of the need +of draining. + +All tests of the condition of land as to water,--such as trial pits, +etc.,--should be made, when practicable, during the wet spring weather, or +at a time when the springs and brooks are running full. If there be much +water in the soil, even at such times, it needs draining. + +If the water of heavy rains stands for some time on the surface, or if +water collects in the furrow while plowing, draining is necessary to bring +the land to its full fertility. + +Other indications may be observed in dry weather;--wide cracks in the soil +are caused by the drying of clays, which, by previous soaking, have been +pasted together; the curling of corn often indicates that in its early +growth it has been prevented, by a wet subsoil, from sending down its +roots below the reach of the sun's heat, where it would find, even in the +dryest weather, sufficient moisture for a healthy growth; any _severe_ +effect of drought, except on poor sands and gravels, may be presumed to +result from the same cause; and a certain wiryness of grass, together with +a mossy or mouldy appearance of the ground, also indicate excessive +moisture during some period of growth. The effects of drought are, of +course, sometimes manifested on soils which do not require draining,--such +as those poor gravels, which, from sheer poverty, do not enable plants to +form vigorous and penetrating roots; but any soil of ordinary richness, +which contains a fair amount of clay, will withstand even a severe +drought, without great injury to its crop, if it is thoroughly drained, +and is kept loose at its surface. + +Poor crops are, when the cultivation of the soil is reasonably good, +caused either by inherent poverty of the land, or by too great moisture +during the season of early growth. Which of these causes has operated in a +particular case may be easily known. Manure will correct the difficulty in +the former case, but in the latter there is no real remedy short of such a +system of drainage as will thoroughly relieve the soil of its surplus +water. + +*The Sources of the Water* in the soil are various. Either it falls +directly upon the land as rain; rises into it from underlying springs; or +reaches it through, or over, adjacent land. + +The _rain water_ belongs to the field on which it falls, and it would be +an advantage if it could all be made to pass down through the first three +or four feet of the soil, and be removed from below. Every drop of it is +freighted with fertilizing matters washed out from the air, and in its +descent through the ground, these are given up for the use of plants; and +it performs other important work among the vegetable and mineral parts of +the soil. + +The _spring water_ does not belong to the field,--not a drop of it,--and it +ought not to be allowed to show itself within the reach of the roots of +ordinary plants. It has fallen on other land, and, presumably, has there +done its appointed work, and ought not to be allowed to convert our soil +into a mere outlet passage for its removal. + +The _ooze water_,--that which soaks out from adjoining land,--is subject to +all the objections which hold against spring water, and should be rigidly +excluded. + +But the _surface water_ which comes over the surface of higher ground in +the vicinity, should be allowed every opportunity, which is consistent +with good husbandry, to work its slow course over our soil,--not to run in +such streams as will cut away the surface, nor in such quantities as to +make the ground inconveniently wet, but to spread itself in beneficent +irrigation, and to deposit the fertilizing matters which it contains, then +to descend through a well-drained subsoil, to a free outlet. + +From whatever source the water comes, it cannot remain stagnant in any +soil without permanent injury to its fertility. + +*The Objection to too much Water in the Soil* will be understood from the +following explanation of the process of germination, (sprouting,) and +growth. Other grave reasons why it is injurious will be treated in their +proper order. + +The first growth of the embryo plant, (in the seed,) is merely a change of +form and position of the material which the seed itself contains. It +requires none of the elements of the soil, and would, under the same +conditions, take place as well in moist saw-dust as in the richest mold. +The conditions required are, the exclusion of light; a certain degree of +heat; and the presence of atmospheric air, and moisture. Any material +which, without entirely excluding the air, will shade the seed from the +light, yield the necessary amount of moisture, and allow the accumulation +of the requisite heat, will favor the chemical changes which, under these +circumstances, take place in the living seed. In proportion as the heat is +reduced by the chilling effect of evaporation, and as atmospheric air is +excluded, will the germination of the seed be retarded; and, in case of +complete saturation for a long time, absolute decay will ensue, and the +germ will die. + +The accompanying illustrations, (Figures 1, 2 and 3,) from the "Minutes of +Information" on Drainage, submitted by the General Board of Health to the +British Parliament in 1852, represent the different conditions of the soil +as to moisture, and the effect of these conditions on the germination of +seeds. The figures are thus explained by Dr. Madden, from whose lecture +they are taken: + + + "Soil, examined mechanically, is found to consist entirely of + particles of all shapes and sizes, from stones and pebbles down to + the finest powder; and, on account of their extreme irregularity + of shape, they cannot lie so close to one another as to prevent + there being passages between them, owing to which circumstance + soil in the mass is always more or less _porous_. If, however, we + proceed to examine one of the smallest particles of which soil is + made up, we shall find that even this is not always solid, but is + much more frequently porous, like soil in the mass. A considerable + proportion of this finely-divided part of soil, _the impalpable + matter_, as it is generally called, is found, by the aid of the + microscope, to consist of _broken down vegetable tissue_, so that + when a small portion of the finest dust from a garden or field is + placed under the microscope, we have exhibited to us particles of + every variety of shape and structure, of which a certain part is + evidently of vegetable origin. + + [Illustration: Fig. 1 - A DRY SOIL.] + + Fig. 1 - A DRY SOIL. + + + "In these figures I have given a very rude representation of these + particles; and I must beg you particularly to remember that they + are not meant to represent by any means accurately what the + microscope exhibits, but are only designed to serve as a plan by + which to illustrate the mechanical properties of the soil. On + referring to Fig. 1, we perceive that there are two distinct + classes of pores,--first, the large ones, which exist _between_ the + particles of soil, and second, the very minute ones, which occur + in the particles themselves; and you will at the same time notice + that, whereas all the larger pores,--those between the particles of + soil,--communicate most freely with each other, so that they form + canals, the small pores, however freely they may communicate with + one another in the interior of the particle in which they occur, + have no direct connection with the pores of the surrounding + particles. Let us now, therefore, trace the effect of this + arrangement. In Fig. 1 we perceive that these canals and pores are + all empty, the soil being _perfectly dry_; and the canals + communicating freely at the surface with the surrounding + atmosphere, the whole will of course be filled with air. If in + this condition a seed be placed in the soil, at _a_, you at once + perceive that it is freely supplied with air, _but there is no + moisture_; therefore, when soil is _perfectly dry_, a seed cannot + grow. + + [Illustration: Fig. 2 - A WET SOIL.] + + Fig. 2 - A WET SOIL. + + + "Let us turn our attention now to Fig. 2. Here we perceive that + both the pores and canals are no longer represented white, but + black, this color being used to indicate water; in this instance, + therefore, water has taken the place of air, or, in other words, + the soil is _very wet_. If we observe our seed _a_ now, we find it + abundantly supplied with water, but _no air_. Here again, + therefore, germination cannot take place. It may be well to state + here that this can never occur _exactly_ in nature, because, water + having the power of dissolving air to a certain extent, the seed + _a_ in Fig. 2 is, in fact, supplied with a _certain_ amount of + this necessary substance; and, owing to this, germination does + take place, although by no means under such advantageous + circumstances as it would were the soil in a better condition. + + [Illustration: Fig. 3 - A DRAINED SOIL.] + + Fig. 3 - A DRAINED SOIL. + + + "We pass on now to Fig. 3. Here we find a different state of + matters. The canals are open and freely supplied with air, while + the pores are filled with water; and, consequently, you perceive + that, while the seed _a_ has quite enough of air from the canals, + it can never be without moisture, as every particle of soil which + touches it is well supplied with this necessary ingredient. This, + then, is the proper condition of soil for germination, and in fact + for every period of the plant's development; and this condition + occurs when the soil is _moist_, but not _wet_,--that is to say, + when it has the color and appearance of being well watered, but + when it is still capable of being crumbled to pieces by the hands, + without any of its particles adhering together in the familiar + form of mud." + + +As plants grow under the same conditions, as to soil, that are necessary +for the germination of seeds, the foregoing explanation of the relation of +water to the particles of the soil is perfectly applicable to the whole +period of vegetable growth. The soil, to the entire depth occupied by +roots, which, with most cultivated plants is, in drained land, from two to +four feet, or even more, should be maintained, as nearly as possible, in +the condition represented in Fig. 3,--that is, the particles of soil should +hold water by attraction, (absorption,) and the spaces between the +particles should be filled with air. Soils which require drainage are not +in this condition. When they are not saturated with water, they are +generally dried into lumps and clods, which are almost as impenetrable by +roots as so many stones. The moisture which these clods contain is not +available to plants, and their surfaces are liable to be dried by the too +free circulation of air among the wide fissures between them. It is also +worthy of incidental remark, that the cracking of heavy soils, shrinking +by drought, is attended by the tearing asunder of the smaller roots which +may have penetrated them. + +*The Injurious Effects of Standing Water in the Subsoil* may be best +explained in connection with the description of a soil which needs +under-draining. It would be tedious, and superfluous, to attempt to detail +the various geological formations and conditions which make the soil +unprofitably wet, and render draining necessary. Nor,--as this work is +intended as a hand-book for practical use,--is it deemed advisable to +introduce the geological charts and sections, which are so often employed +to illustrate the various sources of under-ground water; interesting as +they are to students of the theories of agriculture, and important as the +study is, their consideration here would consume space, which it is +desired to devote only to the reasons for, and the practice of, +thorough-draining. + +To one writing in advocacy of improvements, of any kind, there is always a +temptation to throw a tub to the popular whale, and to suggest some +make-shift, by which a certain advantage may be obtained at half-price. It +is proposed in this essay to resist that temptation, and to adhere to the +rule that "whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well," in the belief +that this rule applies in no other department of industry with more force +than in the draining of land, whether for agricultural or for sanitary +improvement. Therefore, it will not be recommended that draining be ever +confined to the wettest lands only; that, in the pursuance of a +penny-wisdom, drains be constructed with stones, or brush, or boards; that +the antiquated horse-shoe tiles be used, because they cost less money; or +that it will, in any case, be economical to make only such drains as are +necessary to remove the water of large springs. The doctrine herein +advanced is, that, so far as draining is applied at all, it should be done +in the most thorough and complete manner, and that it is better that, in +commencing this improvement, a single field be really well drained, than +that the whole farm be half drained. + +Of course, there are some farms which suffer from too much water, which +are not worth draining at present; many more which, at the present price +of frontier lands, are only worth relieving of the water which stands on +the surface; and not a few on which the quantity of stone to be removed +suggests the propriety of making wide ditches, in which to hide them, +(using the ditches, incidentally, as drains). A hand-book of draining is +not needed by the owners of these farms; their operations are simple, and +they require no especial instruction for their performance. This work is +addressed especially to those who occupy lands of sufficient value, from +their proximity to market, to make it cheaper to cultivate well, than to +buy more land for the sake of getting a larger return from poor +cultivation. Wherever Indian corn is worth fifty cents a bushel, on the +farm, it will pay to thoroughly drain every acre of land which needs +draining. If, from want of capital, this cannot be done at once, it is +best to first drain a portion of the farm, doing the work thoroughly well, +and to apply the return from the improvement to its extension over other +portions afterward. + +In pursuance of the foregoing declaration of principles, it is left to the +sagacity of the individual operator, to decide when the full effect +desired can be obtained, on particular lands, without applying the regular +system of depth and distance, which has been found sufficient for the +worst cases. The directions of this book will be confined to the treatment +of land which demands thorough work. + +Such land is that which, at some time during the period of vegetation, +contains stagnant water, at least in its sub-soil, within the reach of the +roots of ordinary crops; in which there is not a free outlet _at the +bottom_ for all the water which it receives from the heavens, from +adjoining land, or from springs; and which is more or less in the +condition of standing in a great, water-tight box, with openings to let +water in, but with no means for its escape, except by evaporation at the +surface; or, having larger inlets than outlets, and being at times +"water-logged," at least in its lower parts. The subsoil, to a great +extent, consists of clay or other compact material, which is not +_impervious_, in the sense in which india-rubber is impervious, (else it +could not have become wet,) but which is sufficiently so to prevent the +free escape of water. The surface soil is of a lighter or more open +character, in consequence of the cultivation which it has received, or of +the decayed vegetable matter and the roots which it contains. + +In such land the subsoil is wet,--almost constantly wet,--and the falling +rain, finding only the surface soil in a condition to receive it, soon +fills this, and often more than fills it, and stands on the surface. After +the rain, come wind and sun, to dry off the standing water,--to dry out the +free water in the surface soil, and to drink up the water of the subsoil, +which is slowly drawn from below. If no spring, or ooze, keep up the +supply, and if no more rain fall, the subsoil may be dried to a +considerable depth, cracking and gaping open, in wide fissures, as the +clay loses its water of absorption, and shrinks. After the surface soil +has become sufficiently dry, the land may be plowed, seeds will germinate, +and plants will grow. If there be not too much rain during the season, nor +too little, the crop may be a fair one,--if the land be rich, a very good +one. It is not impossible, nor even very uncommon, for such soils to +produce largely, but they are always precarious. To the labor and expense +of cultivation, which fairly earn a secure return, there is added the +anxiety of chance; success is greatly dependent on the weather, and the +weather may be bad: Heavy rains, after planting, may cause the seed to rot +in the ground, or to germinate imperfectly; heavy rains during early +growth may give an unnatural development, or a feeble character to the +plants; later in the season, the want of sufficient rain may cause the +crop to be parched by drought, for its roots, disliking the clammy subsoil +below, will have extended within only a few inches of the surface, and are +subject, almost, to the direct action of the sun's heat; in harvest time, +bad weather may delay the gathering until the crop is greatly injured, and +fall and spring work must often be put off because of wet. + +The above is no fancy sketch. Every farmer who cultivates a retentive soil +will confess, that all of these inconveniences conspire, in the same +season, to lessen his returns, with very damaging frequency; and nothing +is more common than for him to qualify his calculations with the proviso, +"if I have a good season." He prepares his ground, plants his seed, +cultivates the crop, "does his best,"--thinks he does his best, that +is,--and trusts to Providence to send him good weather. Such farming is +attended with too much uncertainty,--with too much _luck_,--to be +satisfactory; yet, so long as the soil remains in its undrained condition, +the element of luck will continue to play a very important part in its +cultivation, and bad luck will often play sad havoc with the year's +accounts. + +Land of this character is usually kept in grass, as long as it will bring +paying crops, and is, not unfrequently, only available for pasture; but, +both for hay and for pasture, it is still subject to the drawback of the +uncertainty of the seasons, and in the best seasons it produces far less +than it might if well drained. + +The effect of this condition of the soil on the health of animals living +on it, and on the health of persons living near it, is extremely +unfavorable; the discussion of this branch of the question, however, is +postponed to a later chapter. + +Thus far, there have been considered only the _effects_ of the undue +moisture in the soil. The manner in which these effects are produced will +be examined, in connection with the manner in which draining overcomes +them,--reducing to the lowest possible proportion, that uncertainty which +always attaches to human enterprises, and which is falsely supposed to +belong especially to the cultivation of the soil. + +Why is it that the farmer believes, why should any one believe, in these +modern days, when the advancement of science has so simplified the +industrial processes of the world, and thrown its light into so many +corners, that the word "mystery" is hardly to be applied to any operation +of nature, save to that which depends on the always mysterious Principle +of Life,--when the effect of any combination of physical circumstances may +be foretold, with almost unerring certainty,--why should we believe that +the success of farming must, after all, depend mainly on chance? That an +intelligent man should submit the success of his own patient efforts to +the operation of "luck;" that he should deliberately _bet_ his capital, +his toil, and his experience on having a good season, or a bad one,--this +is not the least of the remaining mysteries. Some chance there must be in +all things,--more in farming than in mechanics, no doubt; but it should be +made to take the smallest possible place in our calculations, by a careful +avoidance of every condition which may place our crops at the mercy of +that most uncertain of all things--the weather; and especially should this +be the case, when the very means for lessening the element of chance in +our calculations are the best means for increasing our crops, even in the +most favorable weather. + + + + + +CHAPTER II. - HOW DRAINS ACT, AND HOW THEY AFFECT THE SOIL + + +For reasons which will appear, in the course of this work, the only sort +of drain to which reference is here made is that which consists of a +conduit of burned clay, (tile,) placed at a considerable depth in the +subsoil, and enclosed in a compacted bed of the stiffest earth which can +conveniently be found. Stone-drains, brush-drains, sod-drains, mole-plow +tracks, and the various other devices for forming a conduit for the +conveying away of the soakage-water of the land, are not without the +support of such arguments as are based on the expediency of make-shifts, +and are, perhaps, in rare cases, advisable to be used; but, for the +purposes of permanent improvement, they are neither so good nor so +economical as tile-drains. The arguments of this book have reference to +the latter, (as the most perfect of all drains thus far invented,) though +they will apply, in a modified degree, to all underground conduits, so +long as they remain free from obstructions. Concerning stone-drains, +attention may properly be called to the fact that, (contrary to the +general opinion of farmers,) they are very much more expensive than +tile-drains. So great is the cost of cutting the ditches to the much +greater size required for stone than for tiles, of handling the stones, of +placing them properly in the ditches, and of covering them, after they are +laid, with a suitable barrier to the rattling down of loose earth among +them, that, as a mere question of first cost, it is far cheaper to buy +tiles than to use stones, although these may lie on the surface of the +field, and only require to be placed in the trenches. In addition to this, +the great liability of stone-drains to become obstructed in a few years, +and the certainty that tile-drains will, practically, last forever, are +conclusive arguments in favor of the use of the latter. If the land is +stony, it must be cleared; this is a proposition by itself, but if the +sole object is to make drains, the best material should be used, and this +material is not stone. + +A well laid tile-drain has the following essential characteristics:--1. It +has a free outlet for the discharge of all water which may run through it. +2. It has openings, at its joints, sufficient for the admission of all the +water which may rise to the level of its floor. 3. Its floor is laid on a +well regulated line of descent, so that its current may maintain a flow of +uniform, or, at least, never decreasing rapidity, throughout its entire +length. + +Land which requires draining, is that which, at some time during the year, +(either from an accumulation of the rains which fall upon it, from the +lateral flow, or soakage, from adjoining land, from springs which open +within it, or from a combination of two or all of these sources,) becomes +filled with water, that does not readily find a natural outlet, but +remains until removed by evaporation. Every considerable addition to its +water wells up, and soaks its very surface; and that which is added after +it is already brim full, must flow off over the surface, or lie in puddles +upon it. Evaporation is a slow process, and it becomes more and more slow +as the level of the water recedes from the surface, and is sheltered, by +the overlying earth, from the action of sun and wind. Therefore, at least +during the periods of spring and fall preparation of the land, during the +early growth of plants, and often even in midsummer, the +_water-table_,--the top of the water of saturation,--is within a few inches +of the surface, preventing the natural descent of roots, and, by reason of +the small space to receive fresh rains, causing an interruption of work +for some days after each storm. + +If such land is properly furnished with tile-drains, (having a clear and +sufficient outfall, offering sufficient means of entrance to the water +which reaches them, and carrying it, by a uniform or increasing descent, +to the outlet,) its water will be removed to nearly, or quite, the level +of the floor of the drains, and its water-table will be at the distance of +some feet from the surface, leaving the spaces between the particles of +all of the soil above it filled with air instead of water. The water below +the drains stands at a level, like any other water that is dammed up. Rain +water falling on the soil will descend by its own weight to this level, +and the water will rise into the drains, as it would flow over a dam, +until the proper level is again attained. Spring water entering from +below, and water oozing from the adjoining land, will be removed in like +manner, and the usual condition of the soil, above the water-table, will +be that represented in Fig. 3, the condition which is best adapted to the +growth of useful plants. + +In the heaviest storms, some water will flow over the surface of even the +dryest beach-sand; but, in a well drained soil the water of ordinary rains +will be at once absorbed, will slowly descend toward the water-table, and +will be removed by the drains, so rapidly, even in heavy clays, as to +leave the ground fit for cultivation, and in a condition for steady +growth, within a short time after the rain ceases. It has been estimated +that a drained soil has room between its particles for about one quarter +of its bulk of water;--that is, four inches of drained soil contains free +space enough to receive a rain-fall one inch in depth, and, by the same +token, four feet of drained soil can receive twelve inches of rain,---more +than is known to have ever fallen in twenty-four hours, since the deluge, +and more than one quarter of the _annual_ rain-fall in the United States. + +As was stated in the previous chapter, the water which reaches the soil +may be considered under two heads: + +1st--That which reaches its surface, whether directly by rain, or by the +surface flow of adjoining land. + +2d--That which reaches it below the surface, by springs and by soakage from +the lower portions of adjoining land. + +The first of these is beneficial, because it contains fresh air, carbonic +acid, ammonia, nitric acid, and heat, obtained from the atmosphere; and +the flowage water contains, in addition, some of the finer or more soluble +parts of the land over which it has passed. The second, is only so much +dead water, which has already given up, to other soil, all that ours could +absorb from it, and its effect is chilling and hurtful. This being the +case, the only interest we can have in it, is to keep it down from the +surface, and remove it as rapidly as possible. + +The water of the first sort, on the other hand, should be arrested by +every device within our reach. If the land is steep, the furrows in +plowing should be run horizontally along the hill, to prevent the escape +of the water over the surface, and to allow it to descend readily into the +ground. Steep grass lands may have frequent, small, horizontal ditches for +the same purpose. If the soil is at all heavy, it should not, when wet, be +trampled by animals, lest it be puddled, and thus made less absorptive. If +in cultivation, the surface should be kept loose and open, ready to +receive all of the rain and irrigation water that reaches it. + +In descending through the soil, this water, in summer, gives up heat which +it received from the air and from the heated surface of the ground, and +thus raises the temperature of the lower soil. The fertilizing matters +which it has obtained from the air,--carbonic acid, ammonia and nitric +acid,--are extracted from it, and held for the use of growing plants. Its +fresh air, and the air which follows the descent of the water-table, +carries oxygen to the organic and mineral parts of the soil, and hastens +the rust and decay by which these are prepared for the uses of vegetation. +The water itself supplies, by means of their power of absorption, the +moisture which is needed by the particles of the soil; and, having +performed its work, it goes down to the level of the water below, and, +swelling the tide above the brink of the dam, sets the drains running, +until it is all removed. In its descent through the ground, this water +clears the passages through which it flows, leaving a better channel for +the water of future rains, so that, in time, the heaviest clays, which +will drain but imperfectly during the first one or two years, will pass +water, to a depth of four or five feet, almost as readily as the lighter +loams. + +Now, imagine the drains to be closed up, leaving no outlet for the water, +save at the surface. This amounts to a raising of the dam to that height, +and additions to the water will bring the water-table even with the top of +the soil. No provision being made for the removal of spring and soakage +water, this causes serious inconvenience, and even the rain-fall, finding +no room in the soil for its reception, can only lie upon, or flow over, +the surface,--not yielding to the soil the fertilizing matters which it +contains, but, on the contrary, washing away some of its finer and looser +parts. The particles of the soil, instead of being furnished, by +absorption, with a healthful amount of moisture, are made unduly wet; and +the spaces between them, being filled with water, no air can enter, +whereby the chemical processes by which the inert minerals, and the roots +and manure, in the soil are prepared for the use of vegetation, are +greatly retarded. + +Instead of carrying the heat of the air, and of the surface of the ground, +to the subsoil, the rain only adds so much to the amount of water to be +evaporated, and increases, by so much, the chilling effect of evaporation. + +Instead of opening the spaces of the soil for the more free passage of +water and air, as is done by descending water, that which ascends by +evaporation at the surface brings up soluble matters, which it leaves at +the point where it becomes a vapor, forming a crust that prevents the free +entrance of air at those times when the soil is dry enough to afford it +space for circulation. + +Instead of crumbling to the fine condition of a loam, as it does, when +well drained, by the descent of water through it, heavy clay soil, being +rapidly dried by evaporation, shrinks into hard masses, separated by wide +cracks. + +In short, in wet seasons, on such land, the crops will be greatly +lessened, or entirely destroyed, and in dry seasons, cultivation will +always be much more laborious, more hurried, and less complete, than if it +were well drained. + +The foregoing general statements, concerning the action of water in +drained, and in undrained land, and of the effects of its removal, by +gravitation, and by evaporation, are based on facts which have been +developed by long practice, and on a rational application of well know +principles of science. These facts and principles are worthy of +examination, and they are set forth below, somewhat at length, especially +with reference to _Absorption_ and _Filtration_; _Evaporation_; +_Temperature_; _Drought_; _Porosity_ or _Mellowness;_ and _Chemical +Action_. + +ABSORPTION AND FILTRATION.--The process of under-draining is a process of +absorption and filtration, as distinguished from surface-flow and +evaporation. The completeness with which the latter are prevented, and the +former promoted, is the measure of the completeness of the improvement. If +water lie on the surface of the ground until evaporated, or if it flow off +over the surface, it will do harm; if it soak away through the soil, it +will do good. The rapidity and ease with which it is absorbed, and, +therefore, the extent to which under-draining is successful, depend on the +physical condition of the soil, and on the manner in which its texture is +affected by the drying action of sun and wind, and by the downward passage +of water through it. + +In drying, all soils, except pure sands, shrink, and occupy less space +than when they are saturated with water. They shrink more or less, +according to their composition, as will be seen by the following table of +results obtained in the experiments of Schuebler: + +1,000 Parts of Will Contract 1,000 Parts of Will Contract + Parts. Parts. +Strong Limey 50. Pure Clay 183. +Soil +Heavy Loam 60. Peat 200. +Brick Maker's 85. +Clay + +Professor Johnson estimates that peat and heavy clay shrink one-fifth of +their bulk. + +If soil be dried suddenly, from a condition of extreme wetness, it will be +divided into large masses, or clods, separated by wide cracks. A +subsequent wetting of the clods, which is not sufficient to expand it to +its former condition, will not entirely obliterate the cracks, and the +next drying will be followed by new fissures within the clods themselves; +and a frequent repetition of this process will make the network of +fissures finer and finer, until the whole mass of the soil is divided to a +pulverulent condition. This is the process which follows the complete +draining of such lands as contain large proportions of clay or of peat. It +is retarded, in proportion to the amount of the free water in the soil +which is evaporated from the surface, and in proportion to the trampling +of the ground, when very wet. It is greatly facilitated by frost, and +especially by deep frost. + +The fissures which are formed by this process are, in time, occupied by +the roots of plants, which remain and decay, when the crop has been +removed, and which prevent the soil from ever again closing on itself so +completely as before their penetration; and each season's crop adds new +roots to make the separation more complete and more universal; but it is +only after the water of saturation, which occupies the lower soil for so +large a part of the year, has been removed by draining, that roots can +penetrate to any considerable depth, and, in fact, the cracking of +undrained soils, in drying, never extends beyond the separation into large +masses, because each heavy rain, by saturating the soil and expanding it +to its full capacity, entirely obliterates the cracks and forms a solid +mass, in which the operation has to be commenced anew with the next +drying. + +Mr. Gisborne, in his capital essay on "Agricultural Drainage," which +appeared in the _Quarterly Review_, No. CLXXI, says: "We really thought +that no one was so ignorant as not to be aware that clay lands always +shrink and crack with drought, and the stiffer the clay the greater the +shrinking, as brickmakers well know. In the great drought, 36 years ago, +we saw in a very retentive soil in the Vale of Belvoir, cracks which it +was not very pleasant to ride among. This very summer, on land which, with +reference to this very subject, the owner stated to be impervious, we put +a walking stick three feet into a sun-crack, without finding a bottom, and +the whole surface was what Mr. Parkes, not inappropriately, calls a +network of cracks. When heavy rain comes upon a soil in this state, of +course the cracks fill, the clay imbibes the water, expands, and the +cracks are abolished. But if there are four or five feet parallel drains +in the land, the water passes at once into them and is carried off. In +fact, when heavy rain falls upon clay lands in this cracked state, it +passes off too quickly, without adequate filtration. Into the fissures of +the undrained soil the roots only penetrate to be perished by the cold and +wet of the succeeding winter; but in the drained soil the roots follow the +threads of vegetable mold which have been washed into the cracks, and get +an abiding tenure. Earth worms follow either the roots or the mold. +Permanent schisms are established in the clay, and its whole character is +changed. An old farmer in a midland county began with 20-inch drains +across the hill, and, without ever reading a word, or, we believe, +conversing with any one on the subject, poked his way, step by step, to +four or five feet drains, in the line of steepest descent. Showing us his +drains this spring, he said: 'They do better year by year; the water gets +a habit of coming to them '--a very correct statement of fact, though not a +very philosophical explanation." + +Alderman Mechi, of Tiptree Hall, says: "Filtration may be too sudden, as +is well enough shown by our hot sands and gravels; but I apprehend no one +will ever fear rendering strong clays too porous and manageable. The +object of draining is to impart to such soils the mellowness and dark +color of self drained, rich and friable soil. That perfect drainage and +cultivation will do this, is a well known fact. I know it in the case of +my own garden. How it does so I am not chemist enough to explain in +detail; but it is evident the effect is produced by the fibers of the +growing crop intersecting every particle of the soil, which they never +could do before draining; these, with their excretions, decompose on +removal of the crop, and are acted on by the alternating air and water, +which also decompose and change, in a degree, the inorganic substances of +the soil. Thereby drained land, which was, before, impervious to air and +water, and consequently unavailable to air and roots, to worms, or to +vegetable or animal life, becomes, by drainage, populated by both, and is +a great chemical laboratory, as our own atmosphere is subject to all the +changes produced by animated nature." + +Experience proves that the descent of water through the soil renders it +more porous, so that it is easier for the water falling afterward to pass +down to the drains, but no very satisfactory reason for this has been +presented, beyond that which is connected with the cracking of the soil. +The fact is well stated in the following extract from a letter to the +_Country Gentleman_: + +"A simple experiment will convince any farmer that the best means of +permanently deepening and mellowing the soil is by thorough drainage, to +afford a ready exit for all surplus moisture. Let him take in spring, +while wet, a quantity of his hardest soil,--such as it is almost impossible +to plow in summer,--such as presents a baked and brick-like character under +the influence of drought,--and place it in a box or barrel, open at the +bottom, and frequently during the season let him saturate it with water. +He will find it gradually becoming more and more porous and +friable,--holding water less and less perfectly as the experiment proceeds, +and in the end it will attain a state best suited to the growth of plants +from its deep and mellow character." + +It is equally a fact that the ascent of water in the soil, together with +its evaporation at the surface, has the effect of making the soil +impervious to rains, and of covering the land with a crust of hard, dry +earth, which forms a barrier to the free entrance of air. So far as the +formation of crust is concerned, it is doubtless due to the fact that the +water in the soil holds in solution certain mineral matters, which it +deposits at the point of evaporation, the collection of these finely +divided matters serving to completely fill the spaces between the +particles of soil at the surface,--pasting them together, as it were. How +far below the surface this direct action extends, cannot be definitely +determined; but the process being carried on for successive years, +accumulating a quantity of these fine particles, each season, they are, by +cultivation, and by the action of heavy showers falling at a time when the +soil is more or less dry, distributed through a certain depth, and +ordinarily, in all probability, are most largely deposited at the top of +the subsoil. It is found in practice that the first foot in depth of +retentive soils is more retentive than that which lies below. If this +opinion as to the cause of this greater imperviousness is correct, it will +be readily seen how water, descending to the drains, by carrying these +soluble and finer parts downward and distributing them more equally +through the whole, should render the soil more porous. + +Another cause of the retention of water by the surface soil, often a very +serious one, is the puddling which clayey lands undergo by working them, +or feeding cattle upon them, when they are wet. This is always injurious. +By draining, land is made fit for working much earlier in the spring, and +is sooner ready for pasturing after a rain, but, no matter how thoroughly +the draining has been done, if there is much clay in the soil, the effect +of the improvement will be destroyed by plowing or trampling, while very +wet; this impervious condition will be removed in time, of course, but +while it lasts, it places us as completely at the mercy of the weather as +we were before a ditch was dug. + +In connection with the use of the word _impervious_, it should be +understood that it is not used in its strict sense, for no substance which +can be wetted by water is really impervious and the most retentive soil +will become wet. Gisborne states the case clearly when he says: "Is your +subsoil moister after the rains of mid-winter, than it is after the +drought of mid-summer? If it is, it will drain." + +The proportion of the rain-fall which will filtrate through the soil to +the level of the drains, varies with the composition of the soil, and with +the effect that the draining has had upon them. + +In a very loose, gravelly, or sandy soil, which has a perfect outlet for +water below, all but the heaviest falls of rain will sink at once, while +on a heavy clay, no matter how well it is drained, the process of +filtration will be much more slow, and if the land be steeply inclined, +some of the water of ordinarily heavy rains must flow off over the +surface, unless, by horizontal plowing, or catch drains on the surface, +its flow be retarded until it has time to enter the soil. + +The power of drained soils to hold water, by absorption, is very great. A +cubic foot of very dry soil, of favorable character, has been estimated to +absorb within its particles,--holding no free water, or water of +drainage,--about one-half its bulk of water; if this is true, the amount +required to _moisten_ a dry soil, four feet deep, giving no excess to be +drained away, would amount to a rain fall of from 20 to 30 inches in +depth. If we consider, in addition to this, the amount of water drained +away, we shall see that the soil has sufficient capacity for the reception +of all the rain water that falls upon it. + +In connection with the question of absorption and filtration, it is +interesting to investigate the movements of water in the ground. The +natural tendency of water, in the soil as well as out of it, is to descend +perpendicularly toward the center of the earth. If it meet a flat layer of +gravel lying upon clay, and having a free outlet, it will follow the +course of the gravel,--laterally,--and find the outlet; if it meet water +which is dammed up in the soil, and which has an outlet at a certain +elevation, as at the floor of a drain, it will raise the general level of +the water, and force it out through the drain; if it meet water which has +no outlet, it will raise its level until the soil is filled, or until it +accumulates sufficient pressure, (head,) to force its way through the +adjoining lands, or until it finds an outlet at the surface. + +The first two cases named represent the condition which it is desirable to +obtain, by either natural or artificial drainage; the third case is the +only one which makes drainage necessary. It is a fixed rule that water, +descending in the soil, will find the _lowest_ outlet to which there +exists a channel through which it can flow, and that if, after heavy +rains, it rise too near the surface of the ground, the proper remedy is to +tap it at a lower level, and thus remove the water table to the proper +distance from the surface. This subject will be more fully treated in a +future chapter, in considering the question of the depth, and the +intervals, at which drains should be placed. + +*Evaporation.*--By evaporation is meant the process by which a liquid +assumes the form of a gas or vapor, or "dries up." Water, exposed to the +air, is constantly undergoing this change. It is changed from the liquid +form, and becomes a vapor in the air. Water in the form of vapor occupies +nearly 2000 times the space that it filled as a liquid. As the vapor at +the time of its formation is of the same temperature with the water, and, +from its highly expanded condition, requires a great _amount_ of heat to +maintain it as vapor, it follows that a given quantity of water contains, +in the vapory form, many times as much heat as in the liquid form. This +heat is taken from surrounding substances,--from the ground and from the +air,--which are thereby made much cooler. For instance, if a shower moisten +the ground, on a hot summer day, the drying up of the water will cool both +the ground and the air. If we place a wet cloth on the head, and hasten +the evaporation of the water by fanning, we cool the head; if we wrap a +wet napkin around a pitcher of water, and place it in a current of air, +the water in the pitcher is made cooler, by giving up its heat to the +evaporating water of the napkin; when we sprinkle water on the floor of a +room, its evaporation cools the air of the room. + +So great is the effect of evaporation, on the temperature of the soil, +that Dr. Madden found that the soil of a drained field, in which most of +the water was removed from below, was 6-1/2 deg. Far. warmer than a similar +soil undrained, from which the water had to be removed by evaporation. +This difference of 6-1/2 deg. is equal to a difference of elevation of 1,950 +feet. + +It has been found, by experiments made in England, that the average +evaporation of water from wet soils is equal to a depth of _two inches per +month_, from May to August, inclusive; in America it must be very much +greater than this in the summer months, but this is surely enough for the +purposes of illustration, as two inches of water, over an acre of land, +would weigh about _two hundred tons_. The amount of heat required to +evaporate this is immense, and a very large part of it is taken from the +soil, which, thereby, becomes cooler, and less favorable for a rapid +growth. It is usual to speak of heavy, wet lands as being "cold," and it +is now seen why they are so. + +If none of the water which falls on a field is removed by drainage, +(natural or artificial,) and if none runs off from the surface, the whole +rain-fall of a year must be removed by evaporation, and the cooling of the +soil will be proportionately great. The more completely we withdraw this +water from the surface, and carry it off in underground drains, the more +do we reduce the amount to be removed by evaporation. In land which is +well drained, the amount evaporated, even in summer, will not be +sufficient to so lower the temperature of the soil as to retard the growth +of plants; the small amount dried out of the particles of the soil, (water +of absorption,) will only keep it from being raised to too great a heat by +the mid-summer sun. + +An idea of the amount of heat lost to the soil, in the evaporation of +water, may be formed from the fact that to evaporate, by artificial heat, +the amount of water contained in a rain-fall of two inches on an acre, +(200 tons,) would require over 20 tons of coal. Of course a +considerable--probably by far the larger,--part of the heat taken up in the +process of evaporation is furnished by the air; but the amount abstracted +from the soil is great, and is in direct proportion to the amount of water +removed by this process; hence, the more we remove by draining, the more +heat we retain in the ground. + +The season of growth is lengthened by draining, because, by avoiding the +cooling effects of evaporation, germination is more rapid, and the young +plant grows steadily from the start, instead of struggling against the +retarding influence of a cold soil. + +*Temperature.*--The temperature of the soil has great effect on the +germination of seeds, the growth of plants, and the ripening of the crops. + +Gisborne says: "The evaporation of 1 lb. of water lowers the temperature +of 100 lbs. of soil 10 deg.,--that is to say, that, if to 100 lbs. of soil, +holding all the water it can by attraction, but containing no water of +drainage, is added 1 lb. of water which it has no means of discharging, +except by evaporation, it will, by the time that it has so discharged it, +be 60 deg. colder than it would have been, if it had the power of discharging +this 1 lb. by filtration; or, more practically, that, if rain, entering in +the proportion of 1 lb. to 100 lbs. into a retentive soil, which is +saturated with water of attraction, is discharged by evaporation, it +lowers the temperature of that soil 10 deg.. If the soil has the means of +discharging that 1 lb. of water by filtration, no effect is produced +beyond what is due to the relative temperatures of the rain and of the +soil." + +It has been established by experiment that four times as much heat is +required to evaporate a certain quantity of water, as to raise the same +quantity from the freezing to the boiling point. + +It is, probably, in consequence of this cooling effect of evaporation, +that wet lands are warmest when shaded, because, under this condition, +evaporation is less active. Such lands, in cloudy weather, form an +unnatural growth, such as results in the "lodging" of grain crops, from +the deficient strength of the straw which this growth produces. + +In hot weather, the temperature of the lower soil is, of course, much +lower than that of the air, and lower than that of the water of warm +rains. If the soil is saturated with water, the water will, of course, be +of an even temperature with the soil in which it lies, but if this be +drained off, warm air will enter from above, and give its heat to the +soil, while each rain, as it falls, will also carry its heat with it. +Furthermore, the surface of the ground is sometimes excessively heated by +the summer sun, and the heat thus contained is carried down to the lower +soil by the descending water of rains, which thus cool the surface and +warm the subsoil, both beneficial. + +Mr. Josiah Parkes, one of the leading draining engineers of England, has +made some experiments to test the extent to which draining affects the +temperature of the soil. The results of his observations are thus stated +by Gisborne: "Mr. Parkes gives the temperature on a Lancashire flat moss, +but they only commence 7 inches below the surface, and do not extend to +mid-summer. At that period of the year the temperature, at 7 inches, never +exceeded 66 deg., and was generally from 10 deg. to 15 deg. below the temperature of +the air in the shade, at 4 feet above the earth. Mr. Parkes' experiments +were made simultaneously, on a drained, and on an undrained portion of the +moss; and the result was, that, on a mean of 35 observations, the drained +soil at 7 inches in depth was 10 deg. warmer than the undrained, at the same +depth. The undrained soil never exceeded 47 deg., whereas, after a thunder +storm, the drained reached 66 deg. at 7 inches, and 48 deg. at 31 inches. Such +were the effects, at an early period of the year, on a black bog. They +suggest some idea of what they were, when, in July or August, thunder rain +at 60 deg. or 70 deg. falls on a surface heated to 130 deg., and carries down with it, +into the greedy fissures of the earth, its augmented temperature. These +advantages, porous soils possess by nature, and retentive ones only +acquire them by drainage." + +Drained land, being more open to atmospheric circulation, and having lost +the water which prevented the temperature of its lower portions from being +so readily affected by the temperature of the air as it is when dry, will +freeze to a greater depth in winter and thaw out earlier in the spring. +The deep freezing has the effect to greatly pulverize the lower soil, thus +better fitting it for the support of vegetation; and the earlier thawing +makes it earlier ready for spring work. + +*Drought.*--At first thought, it is not unnatural to suppose that draining +will increase the ill effect of too dry seasons, by removing water which +might keep the soil moist. Experience has proven, however, that the result +is exactly the opposite of this. Lands which suffer most from drought are +most benefited by draining,--more in their greater ability to withstand +drought than in any other particular. + +The reasons for this action of draining become obvious, when its effects +on the character of the soil are examined. There is always the same amount +of water in, and about, the surface of the earth. In winter there is more +in the soil than in summer, while in summer, that which has been dried out +of the soil exists in the atmosphere in the form of a _vapor_. It is held +in the vapory form by _heat_, which may be regarded as _braces_ to keep it +distended. When vapor comes in contact with substances sufficiently colder +than itself, it gives up its heat,--thus losing its braces,--contracts, +becomes liquid water, and is deposited as dew. + +Many instances of this operation are familiar to all. + +For instance, a cold pitcher in the summer robs the vapor in the air of +its heat, and causes it to be deposited on its own surface,--of course the +water comes from the atmosphere, not through the wall of the pitcher; if +we breathe on a knife blade, it condenses, in the same manner, the +moisture of the breath, and becomes covered with a film of-water; +stone-houses are damp in summer, because the inner surface of their walls, +being cooler than the atmosphere, causes its moisture to be deposited in +the manner described;(2) nearly every night, in summer, the cold earth +receives moisture from the atmosphere in the form of dew; a single large +head of cabbage, which at night is very cold, often condenses water to the +amount of a gill or more. + +The same operation takes place in the soil. When the air is allowed to +circulate among its lower and cooler, (because more shaded,) particles, +they receive moisture by the same process of condensation. Therefore, +when, by the aid of under-drains, the lower soil becomes sufficiently +loose and open, to allow a circulation of air, the deposit of atmospheric +moisture will keep it supplied with water, at a point easily accessible to +the roots of plants. + +If we wish to satisfy ourselves that this is practically correct, we have +only to prepare two boxes of finely pulverized soil,--one three or four +inches deep,--and the other fifteen or twenty inches deep, and place them +in the sun, at midday, in summer. The thinner soil will soon be completely +dried, while the deeper one, though it may have been previously dried in +an oven, will soon accumulate a large amount of water on those particles +which, being lower and better sheltered from the sun's heat than the +particles of the thin soil, are made cooler. + +We have seen that even the most retentive soil,--the stiffest clay,--is made +porous by the repeated passage of water from the surface to the level of +the drains, and that the ability to admit air, which plowing gives it, is +maintained for a much longer time than if it were usually saturated with +water which has no other means of escape than by evaporation at the +surface. The power of dry soils to absorb moisture from the air may be +seen by an examination of the following table of results obtained by +Schuebler, who exposed 1,000 grains of dried soil of the various kinds +named to the action of the air: + +Kind of Soil. Amount of Water Absorbed + in 24 Hours. +Common Soil 22 grains. +Loamy Clay 26 grains. +Garden Soil 45 grains. +Brickmakers' Clay 30 grains. + +The effect of draining in overcoming drought, by admitting atmospheric +vapor will, of course, be very much increased if the land be thoroughly +loosened by cultivation, and especially if the surface be kept in an open +and mellow condition. + +In addition to the moisture received from the air, as above described, +water is, in a porous soil, drawn up from the wetter subsoil below, by the +same attractive force which acts to wet the whole of a sponge of which +only the lower part touches the water;--as a hard, dry, compact sponge will +absorb water much less readily than one which is loose and open, so the +hard clods, into which undrained clay is dried, drink up water much less +freely than they will do after draining shall have made them more friable. + +The source of this underground moisture is the "water table,"--the level of +the soil below the influence of the drains,--and this should be so placed +that, while its water will easily rise to a point occupied by the feeding +roots of the crop, it should yield as little as possible for evaporation +at the surface. + +Another source of moisture, in summer, is the deposit of dew on the +surface of the ground. The amount of this is very difficult to determine, +and accurate American experiments on the subject are wanting. Of course +the amount of dew is greater here than in England, where Dr. Dalton, a +skillful examiner of atmospheric phenomena, estimates the annual deposit +of dew to equal a depth of five inches, or about one-fifth of the +rain-fall. Water thus deposited on the soil is absorbed more or less +completely, in proportion to the porosity of the ground. + +The extent to which plants will be affected by drought depends, other +things being equal, on the depth to which they send their roots. If these +lie near the surface, they will be parched by the heat of the sun. If they +strike deeply into the damper subsoil, the sun will have less effect on +the source from which they obtain their moisture. Nothing tends so much to +deep rooting, as the thorough draining of the soil. If the _free_ water be +withdrawn to a considerable distance from the surface, plants,--even +without the valuable aid of deep and subsoil plowing,--will send their +roots to great depths. Writers on this subject cite many instances in +which the roots of ordinary crops "not mere hairs, but strong fibres, as +large as pack-thread," sink to the depth of 4, 6, and in some instances 12 +or 14 feet. Certain it is that, in a healthy, well aerated soil, any of +the plants ordinarily cultivated in the garden or field will send their +roots far below the parched surface soil; but if the subsoil is wet, cold, +and soggy, at the time when the young crop is laying out its plan of +future action, it will perforce accommodate its roots to the limited space +which the comparatively dry surface soil affords. + +It is well known among those who attend the meetings of the Farmers' Club +of the American Institute, in New York, that the farm of Professor Mapes, +near Newark, N.J., which maintains its wonderful fertility, year after +year, without reference to wet or dry weather, has been rendered almost +absolutely indifferent to the severest drought, by a course of cultivation +which has been rendered possible only by under-draining. The lawns of the +Central Park, which are a marvel of freshness, when the lands about the +Park are burned brown, owe their vigor mainly to the complete drainage of +the soil. What is true of these thoroughly cultivated lands, it is +practicable to attain on all soils, which, from their compact condition, +are now almost denuded of vegetation in dry seasons. + +*Porosity or Mellowness.*--An open and mellow condition of the soil is +always favorable for the growth of plants. They require heat, fresh air +and moisture, to enable them to take up the materials on which they live, +and by which they grow. We have seen that the heat of retentive soils is +almost directly proportionate to the completeness with which their free +water is removed by underground draining, and that, by reason of the +increased facility with which air and water circulate within them, their +heat is more evenly distributed among all those parts of the soil which +are occupied by roots. The word _moisture_, in this connection, is used in +contradistinction to _wetness_, and implies a condition of freshness and +dampness,--not at all of saturation. In a saturated, a soaking-wet soil, +every space between the particles is filled with water to the entire +exclusion of the atmosphere, and in such a soil only aquatic plants will +grow. In a _dry_ soil, on the other hand, when the earth is contracted +into clods and baked, almost as in an oven,--one of the most important +conditions for growth being wanting,--nothing can thrive, save those plants +which ask of the earth only an anchoring place, and seek their nourishment +from the air. Both air plants and water plants have their wisely assigned +places in the economy of nature, and nature provides them with ample space +for growth. Agriculture, however, is directed to the production of a class +of plants very different from either of these,--to those which can only +grow to their greatest perfection in a soil combining, not one or two +only, but all three of the conditions named above. While they require +heat, they cannot dispense with the moisture which too great heat removes; +while they require moisture, they cannot abide the entire exclusion of +air, nor the dissipation of heat which too much water causes. The interior +part of the pellets of a well pulverized soil should contain all the water +that they can hold by their own absorptive power, just as the finer walls +of a damp sponge hold it; while the spaces between these pellets, like the +pores of the sponge, should be filled with air. + +In such a soil, roots can extend in any direction, and to considerable +depth, without being parched with thirst, or drowned in stagnant water, +and, other things being equal, plants will grow to their greatest possible +size, and all their tissues will be of the best possible texture. On rich +land, which is maintained in this condition of porosity and mellowness, +agriculture will produce its best results, and will encounter the fewest +possible chances of failure. Of course, there are not many such soils to +be found, and such absolute balance between warmth and moisture in the +soil cannot be maintained at all times, and under all circumstances, but +the more nearly it is maintained, the more nearly perfect will be the +results of cultivation. + +*Chemical Action in the Soil.*--Plants receive certain of their +constituents from the soil, through their roots. The raw materials from +which these constituents are obtained are the minerals of the soil, the +manures which are artificially applied, water, and certain substances +which are taken from the air by the absorptive action of the soil, or are +brought to it by rains, or by water flowing over the surface from other +land. + +The mineral matters, which constitute the ashes of plants, when burned, +are not mere accidental impurities which happen to be carried into their +roots in solution in the water which supplies the sap, although they vary +in character and proportion with each change in the mineral composition of +the soil. It is proven by chemical analysis, that the composition of the +ashes, not only of different species of plants, but of different parts of +the same plant, have distinctive characters,--some being rich in +phosphates, and others in silex; some in potash, and others in lime,--and +that these characters are in a measure the same, in the same plants or +parts of plants, without especial reference to the soil on which they +grow. The minerals which form the ashes of plants, constitute but a very +small part of the soil, and they are very sparsely distributed throughout +the mass; existing in the interior of its particles, as well as upon their +surfaces. As roots cannot penetrate to the interior of pebbles and compact +particles of earth, in search of the food which they require, but can only +take that which is exposed on their surfaces, and, as the oxydizing effect +of atmospheric air is useful in preparing the crude minerals for +assimilation, as well as in decomposing the particles in which they are +bound up,--a process which is allied to the _rusting_ of metals,--the more +freely atmospheric air is allowed, or induced, to circulate among the +inner portions of the soil, the more readily are its fertilizing parts +made available for the use of roots. By no other process, is air made to +enter so deeply, nor to circulate so readily in the soil, as by +under-draining, and the deep cultivation which under-draining facilitates. + +Of the manures which are applied to the land, those of a mineral character +are affected by draining, in the same manner as the minerals which are +native to the soil; while organic, or animal and vegetable, manures, +(especially when applied, as is usual, in an incompletely fermented +condition,) absolutely require fresh supplies of atmospheric air, to +continue the decomposition which alone can prepare them for their proper +effect on vegetation. + +If kept saturated with water, so that the air is excluded, animal manures +lie nearly inert, and vegetable matters decompose but +incompletely,--yielding acids which are injurious to vegetation, and which +would not be formed in the presence of a sufficient supply of air. An +instance is cited by H. Wauer where sheep dung was preserved, for five +years, by excessive moisture, which kept it from the air. If the soil be +saturated with water in the spring, and, in summer, (by the compacting of +its surface, which is caused by evaporation,) be closed against the +entrance of air, manures will be but slowly decomposed, and will act but +imperfectly on the crop,--if, on the other hand, a complete system of +drainage be adopted, manures, (and the roots which have been left in the +ground by the previous crop,) will be readily decomposed, and will +exercise their full influence on the soil, and on the plants growing in +it. + +Again, manures are more or less effective, in proportion as they are more +or less thoroughly mixed with the soil. In an undrained, retentive soil, +it is not often possible to attain that perfect _tilth_, which is best +suited for a proper admixture, and which is easily given after thorough +draining. + +The soil must be regarded as the laboratory in which nature, during the +season of growth, is carrying on those hidden, but indispensable chemical +separations, combinations, and re-combinations, by which the earth is made +to bear its fruits, and to sustain its myriad life. The chief demand of +this laboratory is for free ventilation. The raw material for the work is +at hand,--as well in the wet soil as in the dry; but the door is sealed, +the damper is closed, and only a stray whiff of air can, now and then, +gain entrance,--only enough to commence an analysis, or a combination, +which is choked off when half complete, leaving food for sorrel, but +making none for grass. We must throw open door and window, draw away the +water in which all is immersed, let in the air, with its all destroying, +and, therefore, all re-creating oxygen, and leave the forces of nature's +beneficent chemistry free play, deep down in the ground. Then may we hope +for the full benefit of the fertilizing matters which our good soil +contains, and for the full effect of the manures which we add. + +With our land thoroughly improved, as has been described, we may carry on +the operations of farming with as much certainty of success, and with as +great immunity from the ill effects of unfavorable weather, as can be +expected in any business, whose results depend on such a variety of +circumstances. We shall have substituted certainty for chance, as far as +it is in our power to do so, and shall have made farming an art, rather +than a venture. + + + + + +CHAPTER III. - HOW TO GO TO WORK TO LAY OUT A SYSTEM OF DRAINS. + + +How to lay out the drains; where to place the outlet; where to locate the +main collecting lines; how to arrange the laterals which are to take the +water from the soil and deliver it at the mains; how deep to go; at what +intervals; what fall to give; and what sizes of tile to use,--these are all +questions of great importance to one who is about to drain land. + +On the proper adjustment of these points, depend the _economy_ and +_effectiveness_ of the work. Time and attention given to them, before +commencing actual operations, will prevent waste and avoid failure. Any +person of ordinary intelligence may qualify himself to lay out +under-drains and to superintend their construction,--but the knowledge +which is required does not come by nature. Those who have not the time for +the necessary study and practice to make a plan for draining their land, +will find it economical to employ an engineer for the purpose. In this era +of railroad building, there is hardly a county in America which has not a +practical surveyor, who may easily qualify himself, by a study of the +principles and directions herein set forth, to lay out an economical plan +for draining any ordinary agricultural land, to stake the lines, and to +determine the grade of the drains, and the sizes of tile with which they +should be furnished. + +On this subject Mr. Gisborne says: "If we should give a stimulus to +amateur draining, we shall do a great deal of harm. We wish we could +publish a list of the moneys which have been squandered in the last 40 +years in amateur draining, either ineffectually or with very imperfect +efficiency. Our own name would be inscribed in the list for a very +respectable sum. Every thoughtless squire supposes that, with the aid of +his ignorant bailiff, he can effect a perfect drainage of his estate; but +there is a worse man behind the squire and the bailiff,--the draining +conjuror. * * * * * * These fellows never go direct about their work. If +they attack a spring, they try to circumvent it by some circuitous route. +They never can learn that nature shows you the weakest point, and that you +should assist her,--that _hit him straight in the eye_ is as good a maxim +in draining as in pugilism. * * * * * * If you wish to drain, we recommend +you to take advice. We have disposed of the quack, but there is a faculty, +not numerous but extending, and whose extension appears to us to be +indispensable to the satisfactory progress of improvements by draining,--a +faculty of draining engineers. If we wanted a profession for a lad who +showed any congenial talent, we would bring him up to be a draining +engineer." He then proceeds to speak of his own experience in the matter, +and shows that, after more than thirty years of intelligent practice, he +employed Mr. Josiah Parkes to lay out and superintend his work, and thus +effected a saving, (after paying all professional charges,) of fully +twelve per cent. on the cost of the draining, which was, at the same time, +better executed than any that he had previously done. + +It is probable that, in nearly all amateur draining, the unnecessary +frequency of the lateral drains; the extravagant size of the pipes used; +and the number of useless angles which result from an unskillful +arrangement, would amount to an expense equal to ten times the cost of the +proper superintendence, to say nothing of the imperfect manner in which +the work is executed. A common impression seems to prevail, that if a +2-inch pipe is good, a 3-inch pipe must be better, and that, generally, if +draining is worth doing at all, it is worth overdoing; while the great +importance of having perfectly fitting connections is not readily +perceived. The general result is, that most of the tile-draining in this +country has been too expensive for economy, and too careless for lasting +efficiency. + +It is proposed to give, in this chapter, as complete a description of the +preliminary engineering of draining as can be concentrated within a few +pages, and a hope is entertained, that it will, at least, convey an idea +of the importance of giving a full measure of thought and ingenuity to the +maturing of the _plan_, before the execution of the work is commenced. +"Farming upon paper" has never been held in high repute, but draining upon +paper is less a subject for objection. With a good map of the farm, +showing the comparative levels of outlet, hill, dale, and plain, and the +sizes and boundaries of the different in closures, a profitable winter may +be passed,--with pencil and rubber,--in deciding on a plan which will do the +required work with the least possible length of drain, and which will +require the least possible extra deep cutting; and in so arranging the +main drains as to require the smallest possible amount of the larger and +more costly pipes; or, if only a part of the farm is to be drained during +the coming season, in so arranging the work that it will dovetail nicely +with future operations. A mistake in actual work is costly, and, (being +buried under the ground,) is not easily detected, while errors in drawing +upon paper are always obvious, and are remedied without cost. + +For the purpose of illustrating the various processes connected with the +laying out of a system of drainage, the mode of operating on a field of +ten acres will be detailed, in connection with a series of diagrams +showing the progress of the work. + +*A Map of the Land* is first made, from a careful survey. This should be +plotted to a scale of 50 or 100 feet to the inch,(3) and should exhibit +the location of obstacles which may interfere with the regularity of the +drains,--such as large trees, rocks, etc., and the existing swamps, water +courses, springs, and open drains. (Fig. 4.) + +The next step is to locate the contour lines of the land, or the lines of +equal elevation,--also called the _horizontal lines_,--which serve to show +the shape of the surface. To do this, stake off the field into squares of +50 feet, by first running a base line through the center of the greatest +length of the field, marking it with stakes at intervals of 50 feet, then +stake other lines, also at intervals of 50 feet, perpendicular to the base +line, and then note the position of the stakes on the maps; next, by the +aid of an engineer's level and staff, ascertain the height, (above an +imaginary plain below the lowest part of the field,) of the surface of the +ground at each stake, and note this elevation at its proper point on the +map. This gives a plot like Fig. 5. The best instrument with which to take +these levels, is the ordinary telescope-level used by railroad engineers, +shown in Fig. 6, which has a telescope with cross hairs intersecting each +other in the center of the line of sight, and a "bubble" placed exactly +parallel to this line. The instrument, fixed on a tripod, and so adjusted +that it will turn to any point of the compass without disturbing the +position of the bubble, will, (as will its "line of sight,") revolve in a +perfectly horizontal plane. It is so placed as to command a view of a +considerable stretch of the field, and its height above the imaginary +plane is measured, an attendant places next to one of the stakes a +levelling rod, (Fig. 7,) which is divided into feet and fractions of a +foot, and is furnished with a movable target, so painted that its center +point may be plainly seen. The attendant raises and lowers the target, +until it comes exactly in the line of sight; its height on the rod denotes +the height of the instrument above the level of the ground at that stake, +and, as the height of the instrument above the imaginary plane has been +reached, by subtracting one elevation from the other, the operator +determines the height of the ground at that stake above the imaginary +plane,--which is called the "_datum line_." + + [Illustration: Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS, SPRINGS AND + TREES. INTENDED TO REPRESENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING.] + + Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS, SPRINGS AND TREES. INTENDED TO + REPRESENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING. + + + [Illustration: Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES.] + + Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES. + + + [Illustration: Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES.] + + Fig. 6 - LEVELLING INSTRUMENT.(4) + + + [Illustration: Fig. 7 - LEVELLING ROD.] + + Fig. 7 - LEVELLING ROD. + + +The next operation is to trace, on the plan, lines following the same +level, wherever the land is of the proper height for its surface to meet +them. For the purpose of illustrating this operation, lines at intervals +of elevation of one foot are traced on the plan in Fig. 8. And these lines +show, with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, the elevation and +rate of inclination of all parts of the field,--where it is level or nearly +so, where its rise is rapid, and where slight. As the land rises one foot +from the position of one line to the position of the line next above it, +where the distance from one line to the next is great, the land is more +nearly level, and when it is short the inclination is steeper. For +instance, in the southwest corner of the plan, the land is nearly level to +the 2-foot line; it rises slowly to the center of the field, and to the +eastern side about one-fourth of the distance from the southern boundary, +while an elevation coming down between these two valleys, and others +skirting the west side of the former one and the southern side of the +latter, are indicated by the greater nearness of the lines. The points at +which the contour lines cross the section lines are found in the following +manner: On the second line from the west side of the field we find the +elevations of the 4th, 5th and 6th stakes from the southern boundary to be +1.9, 3.3, and 5.1. The contour lines, representing points of elevation of +2, 3, 4, and 5 feet above the _datum line_, will cross the 50-foot lines +at their intersections, only where these intersections are marked in even +feet. When they are marked with fractions of a foot, the lines must be +made to cross at points between two intersections,--nearer to one or the +other, according to their elevations,--thus between 1.9 and 3.3, the 2-foot +and 3-foot contour lines must cross. The total difference of elevation, +between the two points is 3.3--1.9=1.4; 10/14 of the space must be given to +the even foot between the lines, and the 2-foot line should be 1/14 of the +space above the point 1.9;--the 3-foot line will then come 3/14 below the +point 3.3. In the same manner, the line from 3.3 to 5.1 is divided into 18 +parts, of which 10 go to the space between the 4. and 5. lines, 7 are +between 3.3 and the 4-foot line, and 1 between the 5-foot line and 5.1. + + [Illustration: Fig. 8 - MAP WITH CONTOUR LINES.] + + Fig. 8 - MAP WITH CONTOUR LINES. + + +With these maps, made from observations taken in the field, we are +prepared to lay down, on paper, our system of drainage, and to mature a +plan which shall do the necessary work with the least expenditure of labor +and material. The more thoroughly this plan is considered, the more +economical and effective will be the work. Having already obtained the +needed information, and having it all before us, we can determine exactly +the location and size of each drain, and arrange, before hand, for a rapid +and satisfactory execution of the work. The only thing that may interfere +with the perfect application of the plan, is the presence of masses of +underground rock, within the depth to which the drains are to be laid.(5) +Where these are supposed to exist, soundings should be made, by driving a +3/4-inch pointed iron rod to the rock, or to a depth of _five_ feet where +the rock falls away. By this means, measuring the distance from the +soundings to the ranges of the stakes, we can denote on the map the shape +and depth of sunken rocks. The shaded spot on the east side of the map, +(Fig. 8,) indicates a rock three feet from the surface, which will be +assumed to have been explored by sounding. + +In most cases, it will be sufficient to have contour lines taken only at +intervals of two feet, and, owing to the smallness of the scale on which +these maps are engraved, and to avoid complication in the finished plan, +where so much else must be shown, each alternate line is omitted. Of +course, where drains are at once staked out on the land, by a practiced +engineer, no contour lines are taken, as by the aid of the level and rod +for the flatter portions, and by the eye alone for the steeper slopes, he +will be able at once to strike the proper locations and directions; but +for one of less experience, who desires to thoroughly mature his plan +before commencing, they are indispensable; and their introduction here +will enable the novice to understand, more clearly than would otherwise be +possible, the principles on which the plan should be made. + + [Illustration: Fig. 9 - WELL'S CLINOMETER.] + + Fig. 9 - WELL'S CLINOMETER. + + +For preliminary examinations, and for all purposes in which great accuracy +is not required, the little instrument shown in Fig. 9,--"Wells' +Clinometer,"--is exceedingly simple and convenient. Its essential parts are +a flat side, or base, on which it stands, and a hollow disk just half +filled with some heavy liquid. The glass face of the disk is surrounded by +a graduated scale that marks the angle at which the surface of the liquid +stands, with reference to the flat base. The line 0.----0. being parallel to +the base, when the liquid stands on that line, the flat side is +horizontal; the line 90.----90. being perpendicular to the base, when the +liquid stands on that line, the flat side is perpendicular or _plumb_. In +like manner, the intervening angles are marked, and, by the aid of the +following tables, the instrument indicates the rate of fall per hundred +feet of horizontal measurement, and per hundred feet measured upon the +sloping line.(6) + +Table No. 1 shows the rise of the slope for 100 feet of the horizontal +measurement. Example: If the horizontal distance is 100 feet, and the +slope is at an angle of 15 deg., the rise will be 17-633/1000 feet. + +Table No. 2 shows the rise of the slope for 100 feet of its own length. If +the sloping line, (at an angle of 15 deg.,) is 100 feet long, it rises 25.882 +feet. + + TABLE No. 1. +DEG. FEET. +5 8.749 +10 17.663 +15 26.795 +20 36.397 +25 46.631 +30 57.735 +35 70.021 +40 83.910 +45 100.-- +50 119.175 +55 142.815 +60 173.205 +65 214.451 +70 274.748 +75 373.205 +80 567.128 +85 1143.01 + + TABLE No. 2 +DEG. FEET. +5 8.716 +10 17.365 +15 25.882 +20 34.202 +25 42.262 +30 50.-- +35 57.358 +40 64.279 +45 70.711 +50 76.604 +55 81.915 +60 86.602 +65 90.631 +70 93.969 +75 96.593 +80 98.481 +85 99.619 + +With the maps before him, showing the surface features of the field, and +the position of the under-ground rock, the drainer will have to consider +the following points: + +1. Where, and at what depth, shall the outlet be placed? + +2. What shall be the location, the length and the depth of the main drain? + +3. What subsidiary mains,--or collecting drains,--shall connect the minor +valleys with the main? + +4. What may best be done to collect the water of large springs and carry +it away? + +5. What provision is necessary to collect the water that flows over the +surface of out-cropping rock, or along springy lines on side hills or +under banks? + +6. What should be the depth, the distance apart, the direction, and the +rate of _fall_, of the lateral drains? + +7. What kind and sizes of tile should be used to form the conduits? + +8. What provision should be made to prevent the obstruction of the drains, +by an accumulation of silt or sand, which may enter the tiles immediately +after they are laid, and before the earth becomes compacted about them; +and from the entrance of vermin? + +1. The outlet should be at the lowest point of the boundary, unless, (for +some especial reason which does not exist in the case under consideration, +nor in any usual case,) it is necessary to seek some other than the +natural outfall; and it should be deep enough to take the water of the +main drain, and laid on a sufficient inclination for a free flow of the +water. It should, where sufficient fall can be obtained without too great +cost, deliver this water over a step of at least a few inches in height, +so that the action of the drain may be seen, and so that it may not be +liable to be clogged by the accumulation of silt, (or mud,) in the open +ditch into which it flows. + +2. The main drain should, usually, be run as nearly in the lowest part of +the principal valley as is consistent with tolerable straightness. It is +better to cut across the point of a hill, to the extent of increasing the +depth for a few rods, than to go a long distance out of the direct course +to keep in the valley, both because of the cost of the large tile used in +the main, and of the loss of fall occasioned by the lengthening of the +line. The main should be continued from the outlet to the point at which +it is most convenient to collect the more remote sub-mains, which bring +together the water of several sets of laterals. As is the case in the +tract under consideration, the depth of the main is often restricted, in +nearly level land, toward the upper end of the flat which lies next to the +outlet, by the necessity for a fall and the difficulty which often exists +in securing a sufficiently low outlet. In such case, the only rule is to +make it as deep as possible. When the fall is sufficient, it should be +placed at such depth as will allow the laterals and sub-mains which +discharge into it to enter at its top, and discharge above the level of +the water which flows through it. + + [Illustration: Fig. 10 - STONE PIT TO CONNECT SPRING WITH DRAIN.] + + Fig. 10 - STONE PIT TO CONNECT SPRING WITH DRAIN. + + +3. Subsidiary mains, or _sub-mains_, connecting with the main drains, +should be run up the minor valleys of the land, skirting the bases of the +hills. Where the valley is a flat one, with rising ground at each side, +there should be a sub-main, to receive the laterals from _each_ hill side. +As a general rule, it may be stated, that the collecting drain at the foot +of a slope should be placed on the line which is first reached by the +water flowing directly down over its surface, before it commences its +lateral movement down the valley; and it should, if possible, be so +arranged that it shall have a uniform descent for its whole distance. The +proper arrangement of these collecting drains requires more skill and +experience than any other branch of the work, for on their disposition +depends, in a great measure, the economy and success of the undertaking. + +4. Where springs exist, there should be some provision made for collecting +their water in pits filled with loose stone, gravel, brush or other +rubbish, or furnished with several lengths of tile set on end, one above +the other, or with a barrel or other vessel; and a line of tile of proper +size should be run directly to a main, or sub-main drain. The manner of +doing this by means of a pit filled with stone is shown in Fig. 10. The +collection of spring water in a vertical tile basin is shown in Fig. 11. + + [Illustration: Fig. 11 - STONE AND TILE BASIN FOR SPRING WITH DRAIN.] + + Fig. 11 - STONE AND TILE BASIN FOR SPRING WITH DRAIN. + + +5. Where a ledge of shelving rock, of considerable size, occurs on land to +be drained, it is best to make some provision for collecting, at its base, +the water flowing over its surface, and taking it at once into the drains, +so that it may not make the land near it unduly wet. To effect this, a +ditch should be dug along the base of the rock, and _quite down to it_, +considerably deeper than the level of the proposed drainage; and this +should be filled with small stones to that level, with a line of tile laid +on top of the stones, a uniform bottom for the tile to rest upon being +formed of cheap strips of board. The tile and stone should then be covered +with inverted sods, with wood shavings, or with other suitable material, +which will prevent the entrance of earth, (from the covering of the +drain,) to choke them. The water, following down the surface of the rock, +will rise through the stone work and, entering the tile, will flow off. +This method may be used for springy hill sides. + +6. The points previously considered relate only to the collection of +unusual quantities of water, (from springs and from rock surfaces,) and to +the removal from the land of what is thus collected, and of that which +flows from the minor or lateral drains. + +The _lateral drains_ themselves constitute the real drainage of the field, +for, although main lines take water from the land on each side, their +action in this regard is not usually considered, in determining either +their depth or their location, and they play an exceedingly small part in +the more simple form of drainage,--that in which a large tract of land, of +perfectly uniform slope, is drained by parallel lines of equal length, all +discharging into a single main, running across the foot of the field. The +land would be equally well drained, if the parallel lines were continued +to an open ditch beyond its boundary,--the main tile drain is only adopted +for greater convenience and security. It will simplify the question if, in +treating the _theory_ of lateral drains, it be assumed that our field is +of this uniform inclination, and admits of the use of long lines of +parallel drains. In fact, it is best in practice to approximate as nearly +as possible to this arrangement, because deviations from it, though always +necessary in broken land, are always more expensive, and present more +complicated engineering problems. If all the land to be drained had a +uniform fall, in a single direction, there would be but little need of +engineering skill, beyond that which is required to establish the depth, +fall, and distance apart, at which the drains should be laid. It is +chiefly when the land pitches in different directions, and with varying +inclination, that only a person skilled in the arrangement of drains, or +one who will give much consideration to the subject, can effect the +greatest economy by avoiding unnecessary complication, and secure the +greatest efficiency by adjusting the drains to the requirements of the +land. + +Assuming the land to have an unbroken inclination, so as to require only +parallel drains, it becomes important to know how these parallel drains, +(corresponding to the _lateral drains_ of an irregular system,) should be +made. + +The history of land draining is a history of the gradual progress of an +improvement, from the accomplishment of a single purpose, to the +accomplishment of several purposes, and most of the instruction which +modern agricultural writers have given concerning it, has shown too great +dependence upon the teachings of their predecessors, who considered well +the single object which they sought to attain, but who had no conception +that draining was to be so generally valuable as it has become. The +effort, (probably an unconscious one,) to make the theories of modern +thorough-draining conform to those advanced by the early practitioners, +seems to have diverted attention from some more recently developed +principles, which are of much importance. For example, about a hundred +years ago, Joseph Elkington, of Warwickshire, discovered that, where land +is made too wet by under-ground springs, a skillful tapping of +these,--drawing off their water through suitable conduits,--would greatly +relieve the land, and for many years the Elkington System of drainage, +being a great improvement on every thing theretofore practiced, naturally +occupied the attention of the agricultural world, and the Board of +Agriculture appointed a Mr. Johnstone to study the process, and write a +treatise on the subject. + +Catch-water drains, made so as to intercept a flow of surface water, have +been in use from immemorial time, and are described by the earliest +writers. Before the advent of the Draining Tile, covered drains were +furnished with stones, boards, brush, weeds, and various other rubbish, +and their good effect, very properly, claimed the attention of all +improvers of wet land. When the tile first made its appearance in general +practice, it was of what is called the "horse-shoe" form, and,--imperfect +though it was,--it was better than anything that had preceded it, and was +received with high approval, wherever it became known. The general use of +all these materials for making drains was confined to a system of +_partial_ drainage, until the publication of a pamphlet, in 1833, by Mr. +Smith, of Deanston, who advocated the drainage of the whole field, without +reference to springs. From this plan, but with important modifications in +matters of detail, the modern system of tile draining has grown. Many able +men have aided its progress, and have helped to disseminate a knowledge of +its processes and its effects, yet there are few books on draining, even +the most modern ones, which do not devote much attention to Elkington's +discovery; to the various sorts of stone and brush drains; and to the +manufacture and use of horse-shoe tile;--not treating them as matters of +antiquarian interest, but repeating the instructions for their +application, and allowing the reasoning on which their early use was +based, to influence, often to a damaging extent, their general +consideration of the modern practice of tile draining. + +These processes are all of occasional use, even at this day, but they are +based on no fixed rules, and are so much a matter of traditional +knowledge, with all farmers, that instruction concerning them is not +needed. The kind of draining which is now under consideration, has for its +object the complete removal of all of the surplus water that reaches the +soil, from whatever source, and the assimilation of all wet soils to a +somewhat uniform condition, as to the ease with which water passes through +them. + +There are instances, as has been shown, where a large spring, overflowing +a considerable area, or supplying the water of an annoying brook, ought to +be directly connected with the under-ground drainage, and its flow neatly +carried away; and, in other cases, the surface flow over large masses of +rock should be given easy entrance into the tile; but, in all ordinary +lands, whether swamps, springy hill sides, heavy clays, or light soils +lying on retentive subsoil, all ground, in fact, which needs +under-draining at all, should be laid dry above the level to which it is +deemed best to place the drains;--not only secured against the wetting of +springs and soakage water, but rapidly relieved of the water of heavy +rains. The water table, in short, should be lowered to the proper depth, +and, by permanent outlets at that depth, be prevented from ever rising, +for any considerable time, to a higher level. This being accomplished, it +is of no consequence to know whence the water comes, and Elkington's +system need have no place in our calculations. As round pipes, with +collars, are far superior to the "horse-shoe" tiles, and are equally easy +to obtain, it is not necessary to consider the manner in which these +latter should be used,--only to say that they ought not to be used at all. + +The water which falls upon the surface is at once absorbed, settles +through the ground, until it reaches a point where the soil is completely +saturated, and raises the general water level. When this level reaches the +floor of the drains, the water enters at the joints and is carried off. +That which passes down through the land lying between the drains, bears +down upon that which has already accumulated in the soil, and forces it to +seek an outlet by rising into the drains.(7) For example, if a barrel, +standing on end, be filled with earth which is saturated with water, and +its bung be removed, the water of saturation, (that is, all which is not +held by attraction _in_ the particles of earth,) will be removed from so +much of the mass as lies above the bottom of the bung-hole. If a bucket of +water be now poured upon the top, it will not all run diagonally toward +the opening; it will trickle down to the level of the water remaining in +the barrel, and this level will rise and water will run off at the bottom +of the orifice. In this manner, the water, even below the drainage level, +is changed with each addition at the surface. In a barrel filled with +coarse pebbles, the water of saturation would maintain a nearly level +surface; if the material were more compact and retentive, a true level +would be attained only after a considerable time. Toward the end of the +flow, the water would stand highest at the points furthest distant from +the outlet. So, in the land, after a drenching rain, the water is first +removed to the full depth, near the line of the drain, and that midway +between two drains settles much more slowly, meeting more resistance from +below, and, for a long time, will remain some inches higher than the floor +of the drain. The usual condition of the soil, (except in very dry +weather,) would be somewhat as represented in the accompanying cut, (Fig. +12.) + + [Illustration: Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS.] + + Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS. + + _YY are the draings. The curved line b is the line of saturation, which + has descended from a, and is approaching c._ + + +To provide for this deviation of the line of saturation, in practice, +drains are placed deeper than would be necessary if the water sunk at once +to the level of the drain floor, the depth of the drains being increased +with the increasing distance between them. + +Theoretically, every drop of water which falls on a field should sink +straight down to the level of the drains, and force a drop of water below +that level to rise into the drain and flow off. How exactly this is true +in nature cannot be known, and is not material. Drains made in pursuance +of this theory will be effective for any actual condition. + +The _depth_ to which the water table should be withdrawn depends, not at +all on the character of the soil, but on the requirements of the crops +which are to be grown upon it, and these requirements are the same in all +soils,--consequently the depth should be the same in all. + +What, then, shall that depth be? The usual practice of the most +experienced drainers seems to have fixed four feet as about the proper +depth, and the arguments against anything less than this, as well as some +reasons for supposing that to be sufficient, are so clearly stated by Mr. +Gisborne that it has been deemed best to quote his own words on the +subject: + +"Take a flower-pot a foot deep, filled with dry soil. Place it in a saucer +containing three inches of water. The first effect will be, that the water +will rise through the hole in the bottom of the pot till the water which +fills the interstices between the soil is on a level with the water in the +saucer. This effect is by gravity. The upper surface of this water is our +water-table. From it water will ascend by attraction through the whole +body of soil till moisture is apparent at the surface. Put in your soil at +60 deg., a reasonable summer heat for nine inches in depth, your water at 47 deg., +the seven inches' temperature of Mr. Parke's undrained bog; the attracted +water will ascend at 47 deg., and will diligently occupy itself in attempting +to reduce the 60 deg. soil to its own temperature. Moreover, no sooner will +the soil hold water of attraction, than evaporation will begin to carry it +off, and will produce the cold consequent thereon. This evaporated water +will be replaced by water of attraction at 47 deg., and this double cooling +process will go on till all the water in the water-table is exhausted. +Supply water to the saucer as fast as it disappears, and then the process +will be perpetual. The system of saucer-watering is reprobated by every +intelligent gardener; it is found by experience to chill vegetation; +besides which, scarcely any cultivated plant can dip its roots into +stagnant water with impunity. Exactly the process which we have described +in the flower-pot is constantly in operation on an undrained retentive +soil; the water-table may not be within nine inches of the surface, but in +very many instances it is within a foot or eighteen inches, at which level +the cold surplus oozes into some ditch or other superficial outlet. At +eighteen inches, attraction will, on the average of soils, act with +considerable power. Here, then, you have two obnoxious principles at work, +both producing cold, and the one administering to the other. The obvious +remedy is, to destroy their _united_ action; to break through their line +of communication. Remove your water of attraction to such a depth that +evaporation cannot act upon it, or but feebly. What is that depth? In +ascertaining this point we are not altogether without data. No doubt depth +diminishes the power of evaporation rapidly. Still, as water taken from a +30-inch drain is almost invariably two or three degrees colder than water +taken from four feet, and as this latter is generally one or two degrees +colder than water from a contiguous well several feet below, we can hardly +avoid drawing the conclusion that the cold of evaporation has considerable +influence at 30 inches, a much-diminished influence at four feet, and +little or none below that depth. If the water-table is removed to the +depth of four feet, when we have allowed 18 inches of attraction, we shall +still have 30 inches of defence against evaporation; and we are inclined +to believe that any prejudicial combined action of attraction and +evaporation is thereby well guarded against. The facts stated seem to +prove that less will not suffice. + +"So much on the score of temperature; but this is not all. Do the roots of +esculents wish to penetrate into the earth--at least, to the depth of some +feet? We believe that they do. We are sure of the brassica tribe, of +grass, and clover. All our experience and observation deny the doctrine +that roots only ramble when they are stinted of food; that six inches well +manured is quite enough, better than more. Ask the Jerseyman; he will show +you a parsnip as thick as your thigh, and as long as your leg, and will +tell you of the advantages of 14 feet of dry soil. You will hear of +parsnips whose roots descend to unsearchable depths. We will not appeal to +the Kentucky carrot, which was drawn out by its roots at the antipodes; +but Mr. Mechi's, if we remember right, was a dozen feet or more. Three +years ago, in a midland county, a field of good land, in good cultivation, +and richly manured, produced a heavy crop of cabbages. In November of that +year we saw that field broken into in several places, and at the depth of +four feet the soil (a tenacious marl, fully stiff enough for brick-earth) +was occupied by the roots of cabbage, not sparingly--not mere capillae--but +fibres of the size of small pack-thread. A farmer manures a field of four +or five inches of free soil reposing on a retentive clay, and sows it with +wheat. It comes up, and between the kernel and the manure, it looks well +for a time, but anon it sickens. An Irish child looks well for five or six +years, but after that time potato-feeding, and filth, and hardship, begin +to tell. You ask what is amiss with the wheat, and you are told that when +its roots reach the clay, they are poisoned. This field is then +thorough-drained, deep, at least four feet. It receives again from the +cultivator the previous treatment; the wheat comes up well, maintains +throughout a healthy aspect, and gives a good return. What has become of +the poison? We have been told that the rain water filtered through the +soil has taken it into solution or suspension, and has carried it off +through the drains; and men who assume to be of authority put forward this +as one of the advantages of draining. If we believed it, we could not +advocate draining. We really should not have the face to tell our readers +that water, passing through soils containing elements prejudicial to +vegetation, would carry them off, but would leave those which are +beneficial behind. We cannot make our water so discriminating; the general +merit of water of deep drainage is, that it contains very little. Its +perfection would be that it should contain nothing. We understand that +experiments are in progress which have ascertained that water, charged +with matters which are known to stimulate vegetation, when filtered +through four feet of retentive soil, comes out pure. But to return to our +wheat. In the first case, it shrinks before the cold of evaporation and +the cold of water of attraction, and it sickens because its feet are never +dry; it suffers the usual maladies of cold and wet. In the second case, +the excess of cold by evaporation is withdrawn; the cold water of +attraction is removed out of its way; the warm air from the surface, +rushing in to supply the place of the water which the drains remove, and +the warm summer rains, bearing down with them the temperature which they +have acquired from the upper soil, carry a genial heat to its lowest +roots. Health, vigorous growth, and early maturity are the natural +consequences. * * * * * * * * * + +"The practice so derided and maligned referring to deep draining has +advanced with wonderful strides. We remember the days of 15 inches; then a +step to 20; a stride to 30; and the last (and probably final) jump to 50, +a few inches under or over. We have dabbled in them all, generally +belonging to the deep section of the day. We have used the words 'probably +final,' because the first advances were experimental, and, though they +were justified by the results obtained, no one attempted to explain the +principle on which benefit was derived from them. The principles on which +the now prevailing depth is founded, and which we believe to be true, go +far to show that we have attained all the advantages which can be derived +from the removal of water in ordinary agriculture. We do not mean that, +even in the most retentive soil, water would not get into drains which +were laid somewhat deeper; but to this there must be a not very distant +limit, because pure clay, lying below the depth at which wet and drought +applied at surface would expand and contract it, would certainly part with +its water very slowly. We find that, in coal mines and in deep quarries, a +stratum of clay of only a few inches thick interposed between two strata +of pervious stone will form an effectual bar to the passage of water; +whereas, if it lay within a few feet of the surface, it would, in a season +of heat and drought become as pervious as a cullender. But when we have +got rid of the cold arising from the evaporation of free water, have given +a range of several feet to the roots of grass and cereals, and have +enabled retentive land to filter through itself all the rain which falls +upon its surface, we are not, in our present state of knowledge, aware of +any advantage which would arise from further lowering the surface of water +in agricultural land. Smith, of Deanston, first called prominent attention +to the fertilizing effects of rain filtered through land, and to evils +produced by allowing it to flow off the surface. Any one will see how much +more effectually this benefit will be attained, and this evil avoided, by +a 4-foot than a 2-foot drainage. The latter can only prepare two feet of +soil for the reception and retention of rain, which two feet, being +saturated, will reject more, and the surplus must run off the surface, +carrying whatever it can find with it. A 4-foot drainage will be +constantly tending to have four feet of soil ready for the reception of +rain, and it will take much more rain to saturate four feet than two. +Moreover, as a gimlet-hole bored four feet from the surface of a barrel +filled with water will discharge much more in a given time than a similar +hole bored at the depth of two feet, so will a 4-foot drain discharge in a +given time much more water than a drain of two feet. One is acted on by a +4-foot, and the other by a 2-foot pressure." + +If any single fact connected with tile-drainage is established, beyond all +possible doubt, it is that in the stiffest clay soils ever cultivated, +drains four feet deep will act effectually; the water will find its way to +them, more and more freely and completely, as the drying of successive +years, and the penetration and decay of the roots of successive crops, +modify the character of the land, and they will eventually be practically +so porous that,--so far as the ease of drainage is concerned,--no +distinction need, in practice, be made between them and the less retentive +loams. For a few years, the line of saturation between the drains, as +shown in Fig. 11, may stand at all seasons considerably above the level of +the bottom of the tile, but it will recede year by year, until it will be +practically level, except immediately after rains. + +Mr. Josiah Parkes recommends drains to be laid + + + "_At a minimum depth of four feet_, designed with the two-fold + object of not only freeing the active soil from stagnant and + injurious water, but of converting the water falling on the + surface into an agent for fertilizing; no drainage being deemed + efficient that did not both remove the water falling on the + surface, and 'keep down the subterranean water at a depth + exceeding the power of capillary attraction to elevate it near the + surface.'" + + +Alderman Mechi says: + + + "Ask nineteen farmers out of twenty, who hold strong clay land, + and they will tell you it is of no use placing deep four-foot + drains in such soils--the water cannot get in; a horse's foot-hole + (without an opening under it) will hold water like a basin; and so + on. Well, five minutes after, you tell the same farmers you + propose digging a cellar, well bricked, six or eight feet deep; + what is their remark? 'Oh! it's of no use your making an + underground cellar in our soil, you _can't keep the water_ OUT!' + Was there ever such an illustration of prejudice as this? What is + a drain pipe but a small cellar full of air? Then, again, common + sense tells us, you can't keep a light fluid under a heavy one. + You might as well try to keep a cork under water, as to try and + keep air under water. 'Oh! but then our soil isn't porous.' If + not, how can it hold water so readily? I am led to these + observations by the strong controversy I am having with some Essex + folks, who protest that I am mad, or foolish, for placing 1-inch + pipes, at four-foot depth, in strong clays. It is in vain I refer + to the numerous proofs of my soundness, brought forward by Mr. + Parkes, engineer to the Royal Agricultural Society, and confirmed + by Mr. Pusey. They still dispute it. It is in vain I tell them _I + cannot keep the rainwater out of_ socketed pipes, twelve feet + deep, that convey a spring to my farm yard. Let us try and + convince this large class of doubters; for it is of _national_ + importance. Four feet of good porous clay would afford a far + better meal to some strong bean, or other tap roots, than the + usual six inches; and a saving of $4 to $5 per acre, in drainage, + is no trifle. + + "The shallow, or non-drainers, assume that tenacious subsoils are + impervious or non-absorbent. This is entirely an erroneous + assumption. If soils were impervious, how could they get wet? + + "I assert, and pledge my agricultural reputation for the fact, + that there are no earths or clays in this kingdom, be they ever so + tenacious, that will not readily receive, filter, and transmit + rain water to drains placed five or more feet deep. + + "A neighbor of mine drained twenty inches deep in strong clay; the + ground cracked widely; the contraction destroyed the tiles, and + the rains washed the surface soils into the cracks and choked the + drains. He has since abandoned shallow draining. + + "When I first began draining, I allowed myself to be overruled by + my obstinate man, Pearson, who insisted that, for top water, two + feet was a sufficient depth in a veiny soil. I allowed him to try + the experiment on two small fields; the result was, that nothing + prospered; and I am redraining those fields at _one-half_ the + cost, five and six feet deep, at intervals of 70 and 80 feet. + + "I found iron-sand rocks, strong clay, silt, iron, etc., and an + enormous quantity of water, all _below_ the 2-foot drains. This + accounted at once for the sudden check the crops always met with + in May, when they wanted to send their roots down, but could not, + without going into stagnant water." + + "There can be no doubt that it is the _depth_ of the drain which + regulates the escape of the surface water in a given time; regard + being had, as respects extreme distances, to the nature of the + soil, and a due capacity of the pipe. _The deeper the drain, even + in the strongest soils, the quicker the water escapes._ This is an + astounding but certain fact. + + "That deep and distant drains, where a sufficient fall can be + obtained, are by far the most profitable, by affording to the + roots of the plants a greater range for food." + + +Of course, where the soil is underlaid by rock, less than four feet from +the surface; and where an outlet at that depth cannot be obtained, we +must, per force, drain less deeply, but where there exists no such +obstacle, drains should be laid at a _general_ depth of +four-feet,--general, not uniform, because the drain should have a uniform +inclination, which the surface of the land rarely has. + +*The Distance between the Drains.*--Concerning this, there is less +unanimity of opinion among engineers, than prevails with regard to the +question of depth. + +In tolerably porous soils, it is generally conceded that 40 or even 50 +feet is sufficiently near for 4-foot drains, but, for the more retentive +clays, all distances from 18 feet to 50 feet are recommended, though those +who belong to the more narrow school are, as a rule, extending the limit, +as they see, in practice, the complete manner in which drains at wider +intervals perform their work. A careful consideration of the experience of +the past twenty years, and of the arguments of writers on drainage, leads +to the belief that there are few soils, which need draining at all, on +which it will be safe to place 4-foot drains at much wider intervals than +40 feet. In the lighter loams there are many instances of the successful +application of Professor Mapes' rule, that "3-foot drains should be placed +20 feet apart, and for each additional foot in depth the distance may be +doubled; for instance, 4-foot drains should be 40 feet apart, and 5-foot +drains 80 feet apart." But, with reference to the greater distance, (80 +feet,) it is not to be recommended in stiff clays, for any depth of drain. +Where it is necessary, by reason of insufficient fall, or of underground +rock, to go only three feet deep, the drains should be as near together as +20 feet. + +At first thought, it may seem akin to quackery to recommend a uniform +depth and distance, without reference to the character of the land to be +drained; and it is unquestionably true that an exact adaptation of the +work to the varying requirements of different soils would be beneficial, +though no system can be adopted which will make clay drain as freely as +sand. The fact is, that the adjustment of the distances between drains is +very far from partaking of the nature of an exact science, and there is +really very little known, by any one, of the principles on which it should +be based, or of the manner in which the bearing of those principles, in +any particular case, is affected by several circumstances which vary with +each change of soil, inclination and exposure. + +In the essays on drainage which have been thus far published, there is a +vagueness in the arguments on this branch of the subject, which betrays a +want of definite conviction in the minds of the writers; and which tends +quite as much to muddle as to enlighten the ideas of the reader. In so far +as the directions are given, whether fortified by argument or not, they +are clearly empirical, and are usually very much qualified by +considerations which weigh with unequal force in different cases. + +In laying out work, any skillful drainer will be guided, in deciding the +distance between the lines, by a judgment which has grown out of his +former experience; and which will enable him to adapt the work, +measurably, to the requirements of the particular soil under +consideration; but he would probably find it impossible to so state the +reasons for his decision, that they would be of any general value to +others. + +Probably it will be a long time before rules on this subject, based on +well sustained _theory_, can be laid down with distinctness, and, in the +mean time, we must be guided by the results of practice, and must confine +ourselves to a distance which repeated trial, in various soils, has proven +to be safe for all agricultural land. In the drainage of the Central Park, +after a mature consideration of all that had been published on the +subject, and of a considerable previous observation and experience, it was +decided to adopt a general depth of four feet, and to adhere as closely as +possible to a uniform distance of forty feet. No instance was known of a +failure to produce good results by draining at that distance, and several +cases were recalled where drains at fifty and sixty feet had proved so +inefficient that intermediate lines became necessary. After from seven to +ten years' trial, the Central Park drainage, by its results, has shown +that,--although some of the land is of a very retentive character,--this +distance is not too great; and it is adopted here for recommendation to +all who have no especial reason for supposing that greater distances will +be fully effective in their more porous soils. + +As has been before stated, drains at that distance, (or at any distance,) +will not remove all of the water of saturation from heavy clays so rapidly +as from more porous soil; but, although, in some cases, the drainage may +be insufficient during the first year, and not absolutely perfect during +the second and third years, the increased porosity which drainage causes, +(as the summer droughts make fissures in the earth, as decayed roots and +other organic deposits make these fissures permanent, and as chemical +action in the aerated soil changes its character,) will finally bring clay +soils to as perfect a condition as they are capable of attaining, and will +invariably render them excellent for cultivation. + +*The Direction of the Laterals* should be _right up and down the slope of +the land_, in the line of steepest descent. For a long time after the +general adoption of thorough-draining, there was much discussion of this +subject, and much variation in practice. The influence of the old rules +for making surface or "catch-water" drains lasted for a long time, and +there was a general tendency to make tile drains follow the same +directions. An important requirement of these was that they should not +take so steep an inclination as to have their bottoms cut out and their +banks undermined by the rapid flow of water, and that they should arrest +and carry away the water flowing down over the surface of hill sides. The +arguments for the line of steepest descent were, however, so clear, and +drains laid on that line were so universally successful in practice, that +it was long ago adopted by all,--save those novices who preferred to gain +their education in draining in the expensive school of their own +experience. + +The more important reasons why this direction is the best are the +following: First, it is the quickest way to get the water off. Its natural +tendency is to run straight down the hill, and nothing is gained by +diverting it from this course. Second, if the drain runs obliquely down +the hill, the water will be likely to run out at the joints of the tile +and wet the ground below it; even if it do not, mainly, run past the drain +from above into the land below, instead of being forced into the tile. +Third, a drain lying obliquely across a hillside will not be able to draw +the water from below up the hill toward it, and the water of nearly the +whole interval will have to seek its outlet through the drain below it. +Fourth, drains running directly down the hill will tap any porous water +bearing strata, which may crop out, at regular intervals, and will thus +prevent the spewing out of the water at the surface, as it might do if +only oblique drains ran for a long distance just above or just below them. +Very steep, and very springy hill sides, sometimes require very frequent +drains to catch the water which has a tendency to flow to the surface; +this, however, rarely occurs. + +In laying out a plan for draining land of a broken surface, which inclines +in different directions, it is impossible to make the drains follow the +line of steepest descent, and at the same time to have them all parallel, +and at uniform distances. In all such cases a compromise must be made +between the two requirements. The more nearly the parallel arrangement can +be preserved, the less costly will the work be, while the more nearly we +follow the steepest slope of the ground, the more efficient will each +drain be. No rule for this adjustment can be given, but a careful study of +the plan of the ground, and of its contour lines, will aid in its +determination. On all irregular ground it requires great skill to secure +the greatest efficiency consistent with economy. + +The _fall_ required in well made tile drains is very much less than would +be supposed, by an inexperienced person, to be necessary. Wherever +practicable, without too great cost, it is desirable to have a fall of one +foot in one hundred feet, but more than this in ordinary work is not +especially to be sought, although there is, of course, no objection to +very much greater inclination. + +One half of that amount of fall, or six inches in one hundred feet, is +quite sufficient, if the execution of the work is carefully attended to. + +The least rate of fall which it is prudent to give to a drain, in using +ordinary tiles, is 2.5 in 1,000, or three inches in one hundred feet, and +even this requires very careful work.(8) A fall of six inches in one +hundred feet is recommended whenever it can be easily obtained--not as +being more effective, but as requiring less precision, and consequently +less expense. + +*Kinds and Sizes of Tiles.*--Agricultural drain-tiles are made of clay +similar to that which is used for brick. When burned, they are from twelve +inches to fourteen inches long, with an interior diameter of from one to +eight inches, and with a thickness of wall, (depending on the strength of +the clay, and the size of the bore,) of from one-quarter of an inch to +more than an inch. They are porous, to the extent of absorbing a certain +amount of water, but their porosity has nothing to do with their use for +drainage,--for this purpose they might as well be of glass. The water +enters them, not through their walls, but at their joints, which cannot be +made so tight that they will not admit the very small amount of water that +will need to enter at each space. Gisborne says: + +"If an acre of land be intersected with parallel drains twelve yards +apart, and if on that acre should fall the very unusual quantity of one +inch of rain in twelve hours, in order that every drop of this rain may be +discharged by the drains in forty-eight hours from the commencement of the +rain--(and in a less period that quantity neither will, not is it desirable +that it should, filter through an agricultural soil)--the interval between +two pipes will be called upon to pass two-thirds of a tablespoonful of +water per minute, and no more. Inch pipes, lying at a small inclination, +and running only half-full, will discharge more than double this quantity +of water in forty-eight hours." + +Tiles may be made of any desired form of section,--the usual forms are the +"horse-shoe," the "sole," the "double-sole," and the "round." The latter +may be used with collars, and they constitute the "pipes and collars," +frequently referred to in English books on drainage. + + [Illustration: Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE.] + + Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE. + + +_Horse-shoe tiles_, Fig. 13, are condemned by all modern engineers. Mr. +Gisborne disposes of them by an argument of some length, the quotation of +which in these pages is probably advisable, because they form so much +better conduits than stones, and to that extent have been so successfully +employed, that they are still largely used in this country by "amateurs." + + + "We shall shock some and surprise many of our readers, when we + state confidently that, in average soils, and, still more, in + those which are inclined to be tender, horse shoe tiles form the + weakest and most failing conduit which has ever been used for a + deep drain. It is so, however; and a little thought, even if we + had no experience, will tell us that it must be so. A doggrel + song, quite destitute of humor, informs us that tiles of this sort + were used in 1760 at Grandesburg Hall, in Suffolk, by Mr. Charles + Lawrence, the owner of the estate. The earliest of which we had + experience were of large area and of weak form. Constant failures + resulted from their use, and the cause was investigated; many of + the tiles were found to be choked up with clay, and many to be + broken longitudinally through the crown. For the first evil, two + remedies were adopted; a sole of slate, of wood, or of its own + material, was sometimes placed under the tile, but the more usual + practice was to form them with club-feet. To meet the case of + longitudinal fracture, the tiles were reduced in size, and very + much thickened in proportion to their area. The first of these + remedies was founded on an entirely mistaken, and the second on no + conception at all of the cause of the evil to which they were + respectively applied. The idea was, that this tile, standing on + narrow feet, and pressed by the weight of the refilled soil, sank + into the floor of the drain; whereas, in fact, the floor of the + drain rose into the tile. Any one at all conversant with + collieries is aware that when a _strait_ work (which is a small + subterranean tunnel six feet high and four feet wide or + thereabouts) is driven in coal, the rising of the floor is a more + usual and far more inconvenient occurrence than the falling of the + roof: the weight of the two sides squeezes up the floor. We have + seen it formed into a very decided arch without fracture. Exactly + a similar operation takes place in the drain. No one had till + recently dreamed of forming a tile drain, the bottom of which a + man was not to approach personally within twenty inches or two + feet. To no one had it then occurred that width at the bottom of + the drain was a great evil. For the convenience of the operator + the drain was formed with nearly perpendicular sides, of a width + in which he could stand and work conveniently, shovel the bottom + level with his ordinary spade, and lay the tiles by his hand; the + result was a drain with nearly perpendicular sides, and a wide + bottom. No sort of clay, particularly when softened by water + standing on it or running over it, could fail to rise under such + circumstances; and the deeper the drain the greater the pressure + and the more certain the rising. A horse-shoe tile, which may be a + tolerable secure conduit in a drain of two feet, in one of four + feet becomes an almost certain failure. As to the longitudinal + fracture--not only is the tile subject to be broken by one of those + slips which are so troublesome in deep draining, and to which the + lightly-filled material, even when the drain is completed, offers + an imperfect resistance, but the constant pressure together of the + sides, even when it does not produce a fracture of the soil, + catches hold of the feet of the tile, and breaks it through the + crown. Consider the case of a drain formed in clay when dry, the + conduit a horse-shoe tile. When the clay expands with moisture, it + necessarily presses on the tile and breaks it through the crown, + its weakest part.(9) When the Regent's Park was first drained, + large conduits were in fashion, and they were made circular by + placing one horse-shoe tile upon another. It would be difficult to + invent a weaker conduit. On re-drainage, innumerable instances + were found in which the upper tile was broken through the crown, + and had dropped into the lower. Next came the D form, tile and + sole in one, and much reduced in size--a great advance; and when + some skillful operator had laid this tile bottom upwards we were + evidently on the eve of pipes. For the D tile a round pipe moulded + with a flat-bottomed solid sole is now generally substituted, and + is an improvement; but is not equal to pipes and collars, nor + generally cheaper than they are." + + + [Illustration: Fig. 14 - SOLE TILE.] + + Fig. 14 - SOLE TILE. + + +One chief objection to the _Sole-tiles_ is, that, in the drying which they +undergo, preparatory to the burning, the upper side is contracted, by the +more rapid drying, and they often require to be trimmed off with a hatchet +before they will form even tolerable joints; another is, that they cannot +be laid with collars, which form a joint so perfect and so secure, that +their use, in the smaller drains, should be considered indispensable. + + [Illustration: Fig. 15 - DOUBLE-SOLE TILE.] + + Fig. 15 - DOUBLE-SOLE TILE. + + +The _double-sole tiles_, which can be laid either side up give a much +better joint, but they are so heavy as to make the cost of transporation +considerably greater. They are also open to the grave objection that they +cannot be fitted with collars. + +Experience, in both public and private works in this country, and the +cumulative testimony of English and French engineers, have demonstrated +that the only tile which it is economical to use, is the _best_ that can +be found, and that the best,--much the best--thus far invented, is the +"pipe, or round tile, and collar,"--and these are unhesitatingly +recommended for use in all cases. Round tiles of small sizes should not be +laid without collars, as the ability to use these constitutes their chief +advantage; holding them perfectly in place, preventing the rattling in of +loose dirt in laying, and giving twice the space for the entrance of water +at the joints. A chief advantage of the larger sizes is, that they may be +laid on any side and thus made to fit closely. The usual sizes of these +tiles are 1-1/4 inches, 2-1/4 inches, and 3-1/2 inches in interior +diameter. Sections of the 2-1/4 inch make collars for the 1-1/4 inch, and +sections of the 3-1/2 inch make collars for the 2-1/4 inch. The 3-1/2 inch +size does not need collars, as it is easily secured in place, and is only +used where the flow of water would be sufficient to wash out the slight +quantity of foreign matters that might enter at the joints. + + [Illustration: Fig. 16 - ROUND TILE AND COLLAR, AND THE SAME AS LAID.] + + Fig. 16 - ROUND TILE AND COLLAR, AND THE SAME AS LAID. + + +*The size of tile* to be used is a question of consequence. In England, +1-inch pipes are frequently used, but 1-1/4 inch(10) are recommended for +the smallest drains. Beyond this limit, the proper size to select is, _the +smallest that can convey the water which will ordinarily reach it after a +heavy rain_. The smaller the pipe, the more concentrated the flow, and, +consequently, the more thoroughly obstructions will be removed, and the +occasional flushing of the pipe, when it is taxed, for a few hours, to its +utmost capacity, will insure a thorough cleansing. No inconvenience can +result from the fact that, on rare occasions, the drain is unable, for a +short time, to discharge all the water that reaches it, and if collars are +used, or if the clay be well packed about the pipes, there need be no fear +of the tile being displaced by the pressure. An idea of the drying +capacity of a 1-1/4-inch tile may be gained from observing its _wetting_ +capacity, by connecting a pipe of this size with a sufficient body of +water, at its surface, and discharging, over a level dry field, all the +water which it will carry. A 1-1/4-inch pipe will remove all the water +which would fall on an acre of land in a very heavy rain, in 24 +hours,--much less time than the water would occupy in getting to the tile, +in any soil which required draining; and tiles of this size are ample for +the draining of two acres. In like manner, 2-1/2-inch tile will suffice +for eight, and 3-1/2-inch tile for twenty acres. The foregoing estimates +are, of course, made on the supposition that only the water which falls on +the land, (storm water,) is to be removed. For main drains, when greater +capacity is required, two tiles may be laid, (side by side,) or in such +cases the larger sizes of sole tiles may be used, being somewhat cheaper. +Where the drains are laid 40 feet apart, about 1,000 tiles per acre will +be required, and, in estimating the quantity of tiles of the different +sizes to be purchased, reference should be had to the following figures; +the first 2,000 feet of drains require a collecting drain of 2-1/4-inch +tile, which will take the water from 7,000 feet; and for the outlet of +from 7,000 to 20,000 feet 3-1/2-inch tile may be used. Collars, being more +subject to breakage, should be ordered in somewhat larger quantities. + +Of course, such guessing at what is required, which is especially +uncertain if the surface of the ground is so irregular as to require much +deviation from regular parallel lines, is obviated by the careful +preparation of a plan of the work, which enables us to measure, +beforehand, the length of drain requiring the different sizes of conduit, +and, as tiles are usually made one or two inches more than a foot long, a +thousand of them will lay a thousand feet,--leaving a sufficient allowance +for breakage, and for such slight deviations of the lines as may be +necessary to pass around those stones which are too large to remove. In +very stony ground, the length of lines is often materially increased, but +in such ground, there is usually rock enough or such accumulations of +boulders in some parts, to reduce the length of drain which it is possible +to lay, at least as much as the deviations will increase it. + +It is always best to make a contract for tile considerably in advance. The +prices which are given in the advertisements of the makers, are those at +which a single thousand,--or even a few hundred,--can be purchased, and very +considerable reductions of price may be secured on large orders. +Especially is this the case if the land is so situated that the tile may +be purchased at either one of two tile works,--for the prices of all are +extravagantly high, and manufacturers will submit to large discounts +rather than lose an important order. + +It is especially recommended, in making the contract, to stipulate that +every tile shall be hard-burned, and that those which will not give a +_clear ring_ when struck with a metallic instrument, shall be rejected, +and the cost of their transportation borne by the maker. The tiles used in +the Central Park drainage were all tested with the aid of a bit of steel +which had, at one end, a cutting edge. With this instrument each tile was +"sounded," and its hardness was tested by scraping the square edge of the +bore. If it did not "ring" when struck, or if the edge was easily cut, it +was rejected. From the first cargo there were many thrown out, but as soon +as the maker saw that they were really inspected, he sent tile of good +quality only. Care should also be taken that no _over-burned_ tile,--such +as have been melted and warped, or very much contracted in size by too +great heat,--be smuggled into the count. + +A little practice will enable an ordinary workman to throw out those which +are imperfect, and, as a single tile which is so underdone that it will +not last, or which, from over-burning, has too small an orifice, may +destroy a long drain, or a whole system of drains, the inspection should +be thorough. + +The collars should be examined with equal care. Concerning the use of +these, Gisborne says: + +"To one advantage which is derived from the use of collars we have not yet +adverted--the increased facility with which free water existing in the soil +can find entrance into the conduit. The collar for a 1-1/2-inch pipe has a +circumference of three inches. The whole space between the collar and the +pipe on each side of the collar is open, and affords no resistance to the +entrance of water; while at the same time the superincumbent arch of the +collar protects the junction of two pipes from the intrusion of particles +of soil. We confess to some original misgivings that a pipe resting only +on an inch at each end, and lying hollow, might prove weak and liable to +fracture by weight pressing on it from above; but the fear was illusory. +Small particles of soil trickle down the sides of every drain, and the +first flow of water will deposit them in the vacant space between the two +collars. The bottom, if at all soft, will also swell up into any vacancy. +Practically, if you reopen a drain well laid with pipes and collars, you +will find them reposing in a beautiful nidus, which, when they are +carefully removed, looks exactly as if it had been moulded for them." + +The cost of collars should not be considered an objection to their use; +because, without collars it would not be safe, (as it is difficult to make +the orifices of two pieces come exactly opposite to each other,) to use +less than 2-inch tiles, while, with collars, 1-1/4-inch are sufficient for +the same use, and, including the cost of collars, are hardly more +expensive. + +It is usual, in all works on agricultural drainage, to insert tables and +formulae for the guidance of those who are to determine the size of tile +required to discharge the water of a certain area. The practice is not +adopted here, for the reason that all such tables are without practical +value. The smoothness and uniformity of the bore; the rate of fall; the +depth of the drain, and consequent "head," or pressure, of the water; the +different effects of different soils in retarding the flow of the water to +the drain; the different degrees to which angles in the line of tile +affect the flow; the degree of acceleration of the flow which is caused by +greater or less additions to the stream at the junction of branch drains; +and other considerations, arising at every step of the calculation, render +it impossible to apply delicate mathematical rules to work which is, at +best, rude and unmathematical in the extreme. In sewerage, and the water +supply of towns, such tables are useful,--though, even in the most perfect +of these operations, engineers always make large allowances for +circumstances whose influence cannot be exactly measured,--but in land +drainage, the ordinary rules of hydraulics have to be considered in so +many different bearings, that the computations of the books are not at all +reliable. For instance, Messrs. Shedd & Edson, of Boston, have prepared a +series of tables, based on Smeaton's experiments, for the different sizes +of tile, laid at different inclinations, in which they state that +1-1/2-inch tile, laid with a fall of one foot in a length of one hundred +feet, will discharge 12,054.81 gallons of water in 24 hours. This is equal +to a rain-fall of over 350 inches per year on an acre of land. As the +average annual rain-fall in the United States is about 40 inches, at least +one-half of which is removed by evaporation, it would follow, from this +table, that a 1-1/2-inch pipe, with the above named fall, would serve for +the drainage of about 17 acres. But the calculation is again disturbed by +the fact that the rain-fall is not evenly distributed over all the days of +the year,--as much as six inches having been known to fall in a single 24 +hours, (amounting to about 150,000 gallons per acre,) and the removal of +this water in a single day would require a tile nearly five inches in +diameter, laid at the given fall, or a 3-inch tile laid at a fall of more +than 7-1/2 feet in 100 feet. But, again, so much water could not reach a +drain four feet from the surface, in so short a time, and the time +required would depend very much on the character of the soil. Obviously, +then, these tables are worthless for our purpose. Experience has fully +shown that the sizes which are recommended below are ample for practical +purposes, and probably the areas to be drained by the given sizes might be +greatly increased, especially with reference to such soils as do not allow +water to percolate very freely through them. + +In connection with this subject, attention is called to the following +extract from the Author's Report on the Drainage, which accompanies the +"Third Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Central Park:" + +"In order to test the efficiency of the system of drainage employed on the +Park, I have caused daily observations to be taken of the amount of water +discharged from the principal drain of 'the Green,' and have compared it +with the amount of rain-fall. A portion of the record of those +observations is herewith presented. + +"In the column headed 'Rain-Fall,' the amount of water falling on one acre +during the entire storm, is given in gallons. This is computed from the +record of a rain-gauge kept on the Park. + +"Under the head of 'Discharge,' the number of gallons of water drained +from one acre during 24 hours is given. This is computed from observations +taken, once a day or oftener, and supposes the discharge during the entire +day to be the same as at the time of taking the observations. It is, +consequently, but approximately correct: + +Date. Hour. Rain-fall. Discharge. Remarks. +July 13. 10 a.m. 49,916 184 galls. Ground dry. + galls. No rain + since 3d + inst.; 2 + inches rain + fell between + 5.15 and + 5.45 p.m. + and 1-5th of + an inch + between 5.45 + and 7.15. +July 14. 6-1/2 " 4,968 " +July 15. 6-1/2 " 1,325 " +July 16. 8 " 1,104 " +July 16. 6 p.m. 33,398 " 7,764 " Ground + saturated at + a depth of 2 + feet when + this rain + commenced. +July 17. 4,319 " +July 18. 9 a.m. 2,208 " +July 19. 7 " 1,325 " +July 20. 6-1/2 " 993 " +July 21. 11 " 662 " +July 22. 6-1/2 " 560 " +July 23. 10 " 1,698 " 515 " This slight + rain only + affected the + ratio of + decrease. +July 24. 7 " 442 " + Nothing + worthy of + note until + Aug. 3. +Aug. 3. 6-1/2 " 8,490 " 191 " Rain from 3 + p.m. to 3.30 + p.m. +Aug. 4. 6-1/2 " 13,018 " 184 " " 4.45 + p.m. to 12 + m.n. +Aug. 5. 6-1/2 " 45,288 " 368 " " 12 m. + to 6 p.m. +Aug. 5. 6 p.m. 8,280 " +Aug. 6. 9 a.m. 3,954 " +Aug. 7. 9 " 2,208 " +Aug. 8. 6-1/2 " 828 " +Aug. 9. 6-1/2 " 662 " +Aug. 12. 6-1/2 " 368 " Rain 12 m. + Aug. 12 to 7 + a.m. Aug. + 13. +Aug. 13. 7 " 19,244 " 1,104 " +Aug. 14. 9 " 736 " +Aug. 24. 9 " 1,132 " 191 " " 3 a.m. + to 4.15 a.m. +Aug. 25. 9 " 5,547 " 9,936 " " 3.30 + p.m. 24th, + to 7 a.m. + 25th. +Aug. 25. 7 p.m. 566 " 7,740 " " 7 a.m. + to 12 m. +Aug. 26. 6-1/2 a.m. 3,974 " +Aug. 26. 6 p.m. 2,208 " +Aug. 27. 6-1/2 a.m. 566 " 1,529 " " 4 p.m. + to 6 p.m. +Aug. 28. 7 " 993 " +Sep. 11. 7 " 566 " 165 " " 12 m.n. + (10th) to 7 + a.m. (11th.) +Sep. 12. 9 " 5,094 " 147 " " 12 m. + (11th) to 7 + a.m. (12th.) +Sep. 13. 9 " 566 " 132 " " 4 p.m. + to 6 p.m. +Sep. 16. 9 " 15,848 " 110 " " 12 m. to + 12 m.n. +Sep. 17. 7 " 27,552 " 1,104 " Rain + continued + until 12 m. +Sep. 17. 5 p.m. 6,624 " +Sep. 18. 8 a.m. 566 " 4,968 " +Sep. 19. 6-1/2 " 2,208 " +Sep. 19. 4 p.m. 1,805 " +Sep. 20. 9 a.m. 566 " 1,324 " Rain f'm 12 + m. (19th) to + 7 a.m. + (20th.) +Sep. 21. 9 " 5,094 " 945 " " 3.20 + p.m. (20th) + to 6 a.m. + (21st.) +Sep. 22. 9 " 10,185 " 1,656 " " 12 m. + (21st) to 7 + a.m. (22d.) +Sep. 23. 9 " 40,756 " 7,948 " Rain + continued + until 7 a.m. + (23d.) +Sep. 24. 9 " 4,968 " +Sep. 25. 9 " 566 " 2,984 " +Sep. 26. 9 " 2,484 " +Oct. 1. 9 " 828 " There was + not enough + rain during + this period + to + materially + affect the + flow of + water. +Nov. 18. 9 " 83 " +Nov. 19. 9 " 1,132 " 184 " Rain 4.50 + p.m. (18th) + to 8 a.m. + (19th.) +Nov. 20. 9 " 119 " +Nov. 22. 9 " 29,336 " 6,624 " Rain all of + the previous + night. +Nov. 22. 2 p.m. 6,624 " +Nov. 23. 9 a.m. 4,968 " +Nov. 24. 9 " 1,711 " +Nov. 24. 2 p.m. 1,417 " +Dec. 17. 9 a.m. 552 " +Dec. 18. 9 " 4,968 " Rain during + the previous + night. +Dec. 30. 10 " 581 " + +"The tract drained by this system, though very swampy, before being +drained, is now dry enough to walk upon, almost immediately after a storm, +except when underlaid by a stratum of frozen ground." + +The area drained by the main at which these gaugings were made, is about +ten acres, and, in deference to the prevailing mania for large conduits, +it had been laid with 6-inch sole-tile. The greatest recorded discharge in +24 hours was (August 25th,) less than 100,000 gallons from the ten +acres,--an amount of water which did not half fill the tile, but which, +according to the tables referred to, would have entirely filled it. + +In view of all the information that can be gathered on the subject, the +following directions are given as perfectly reliable for drains four feet +or more in depth, laid on a well regulated fall of even three inches in a +hundred feet: + +For 2 acres 1-1/4 inch pipes (with collars.) + +For 8 acres 2-1/4 inch pipes (with collars.) + +For 20 acres 3-1/2 inch pipes + +For 40 acres 2 3-1/2 inch pipes or one 5-inch sole-tile. + +For 50 acres 6 inch pipes sole-tile. + +For 100 acres 8 inch pipes or two 6-inch sole-tiles. + +It is not pretended that these drains will immediately remove all the +water of the heaviest storms, but they will always remove it fast enough +for all practical purposes, and, if the pipes are securely laid, the +drains will only be benefited by the occasional cleansing they will +receive when running "more than full." In illustration of this statement, +the following is quoted from a paper communicated by Mr. Parkes to the +Royal Agricultural Society of England in 1843: + +"Mr. Thomas Hammond, of Penshurst, (Kent,) now uses no other size for the +parallel drains than the inch tile in the table, (No. 5,) having commenced +with No. 4,(11) and it may be here stated, that the opinion of all the +farmers who have used them in the Weald, is that a bore of an inch area is +abundantly large. A piece of 9 acres, now sown with wheat, was observed by +the writer, 36 hours after the termination of a rain which fell heavily +and incessantly during 12 hours on the 7th of November. This field was +drained in March, 1842, to the depth of 30 to 36 inches, at a distance of +24 feet asunder, the length of each drain being 235 yards. + +"Each, drain emptied itself through a fence bank into a running stream in +a road below it; the discharge therefore was distinctly observable. Two or +three of the pipes had now ceased running; and, with the exception of one +which tapped a small spring and gave a stream about the size of a tobacco +pipe, the run from the others did not exceed the size of a wheat straw. +The greatest flow had been observed by Mr. Hammond at no time to exceed +half the bore of the pipes. The fall in this field is very great, and the +drains are laid in the direction of the fall, which has always been the +practice in this district. The issuing water was transparently clear; and +Mr. Hammond states that he has never observed cloudiness, except for a +short time after very heavy flushes of rain, when the drains are quickly +cleared of all sediment, in consequence of the velocity and force of the +water passing through so small a channel. Infiltration through the soil +and into the pipes, must, in this case, be considered to have been +perfect; and their observed action is the more determinate and valuable as +regards time and effect, as the land was saturated with moisture previous +to this particular fall of rain, and the pipes had ceased to run when it +commenced. This piece had, previous to its drainage, necessarily been +cultivated in narrow stretches, with an open water furrow between them; +but it was now laid quite plain, by which one-eighth of the continuation +of acreage has been saved. Not, however, being confident as to the soil +having already become so porous as to dispense entirely with surface +drains, Mr. Hammond had drawn two long water furrows diagonally across the +field. On examining these, it appeared that very little water had flowed +along any part of them during these 12 hours of rain,--no water had escaped +at their outfall; the entire body of rain had permeated the mass of the +bed, and passed off through the inch pipes; no water perceptible on the +surface, which used to carry it throughout. The subsoil is a brick clay, +but it appears to crack very rapidly by shrinkage consequent to drainage." + +*Obstructions.*--The danger that drains will become obstructed, if not +properly laid out and properly made, is very great, and the cost of +removing the obstructions, (often requiring whole lines to be taken up, +washed, and relaid with the extra care that is required in working in old +and soft lines,) is often greater than the original cost of the +improvement. Consequently, the possibility of tile drains becoming stopped +up should be fully considered at the outset, and every precaution should +be taken to prevent so disastrous a result. + +The principal causes of obstruction are _silt, vermin_, and _roots_. + +_Silt_ is earth which is washed into the tile with the water of the soil, +and which, though it may be carried along in suspension in the water, when +the fall is good, will be deposited in the eddies and slack-water, which +occur whenever there is a break in the fall, or a defect in the laying of +the tile. + +_Whenever it is possible to avoid it, no drain should have a decreasing +rate of fall as it approaches its outlet._ + +If the first hundred feet from the upper end of the drain has a fall of +three inches, the next hundred feet should not have less than three +inches, lest the diminished velocity cause silt, which required the speed +which that fall gives for its removal, to be deposited and to choke the +tile. This defect of grade is shown in Fig. 17. If the second hundred feet +has an inclination of _more_ than three inches, (Fig. 18,) the removal of +silt will be even better secured than if the fall continued at the +original rate. Some silt will enter newly made drains, in spite of our +utmost care, but the amount should be very slight, and if it is evenly +deposited throughout the whole length of the drain, (as it sometimes is +when the rate of fall is very low,) it will do no especial harm; but it +becomes dangerous when it is accumulated within a short distance, by a +decreasing fall, or by a single badly laid tile, or imperfect joint, +which, by arresting the flow, may cause as much mischief as a defective +grade. + +Owing to the general conformation of the ground, it is sometimes +absolutely necessary to adopt such a grade as is shown in Fig. 19,--even to +the extent of bringing the drain down a rapid slope, and continuing it +with the least possible fall through level ground. When such changes must +be made, they should be effected by angles, and not by curves. In +_increasing_ the fall, curves in the grade are always advisable, in +_decreasing_ it they are always objectionable, except when the decreased +fall is still considerable,--say, at least 2 feet in 100 feet. The reason +for making an absolute angle at the point of depression is, that it +enables us to catch the silt at that point in a silt basin, from which it +may be removed as occasion requires. + + [Illustration: Fig. 19 - THREE PROFILES OF DRAINS, WITH DIFFERENT + INCLINATIONS.] + + Fig. 19 - THREE PROFILES OF DRAINS, WITH DIFFERENT INCLINATIONS. + + +_A Silt Basin_ is a chamber, below the grade of the drain, into which the +water flows, becomes comparatively quiet, and deposits its silt, instead +of carrying it into the tile beyond. It may be large or small, in +proportion to the amount of drain above, which it has to accommodate. For +a few hundred feet of the smallest tile, it may be only a 6-inch tile +placed on end and sunk so as to receive and discharge the water at its +top. For a large main, it may be a brick reservoir with a capacity of 2 or +3 cubic feet. The position of a silt basin is shown in Fig. 19. + +The quantity of silt which enters the drain depends very much on the soil. +Compact clays yield very little, and wet, running sands, (quicksands,) a +great deal. In a soil of the latter sort, or one having a layer of running +sand at the level of the drain, the ditch should be excavated a little +below the grade of the drain, and then filled to that level with a +retentive clay, and rammed hard. In all cases when the tile is well laid, +(especially if collars are used,) and a stiff earth is well packed around +the tile, silt will not enter the drain to an injurious extent, after a +few months' operation shall have removed the loose particles about the +joints, and especially after a few very heavy rains, which, if the tiles +are small, will sometimes wash them perfectly clean, although they may +have been half filled with dirt. + +_Vermin_,--field mice, moles, etc.,--sometimes make their nests in the tile +and thus choke them, or, dying in them, stop them up with their carcases. +Their entrance should be prevented by placing a coarse wire cloth or +grating in front of the outlets, which afford the only openings for their +entrance. + +_Roots._--The roots of many water-loving trees,--especially willows,--will +often force their entrance into the joints of the tile and fill the whole +bore with masses of fibre which entirely prevent the flow of water. +Collars make it more difficult for them to enter, but even these are not a +sure preventive. Gisborne says: + +"My own experience as to roots, in connection with deep pipe draining, is +as follows: I have never known roots to obstruct a pipe through which +there was not a perennial stream. The flow of water in summer and early +autumn appears to furnish the attraction. I have never discovered that the +roots of any esculent vegetable have obstructed a pipe. The trees which, +by my own personal observation, I have found to be most dangerous, have +been red willow, black Italian poplar, alder, ash, and broad-leaved elm. I +have many alders in close contiguity with important drains, and, though I +have never convicted one, I cannot doubt that they are dangerous. Oak, and +black and white thorns, I have not detected, nor do I suspect them. The +guilty trees have in every instance been young and free growing; I have +never convicted an adult. These remarks apply solely to my own +observation, and may of course be much extended by that of other +agriculturists. I know an instance in which a perennial spring of very +pure and (I believe) soft water is conveyed in socket pipes to a paper +mill. Every junction of two pipes is carefully fortified with cement. The +only object of cover being protection from superficial injury and from +frost, the pipes are laid not far below the sod. Year by year these pipes +are stopped by roots. Trees are very capricious in this matter. I was told +by the late Sir R. Peel that he sacrificed two young elm trees in the park +at Drayton Manor to a drain which had been repeatedly stopped by roots. +The stoppage was nevertheless repeated, and was then traced to an elm tree +far more distant than those which had been sacrificed. Early in the autumn +of 1850 I completed the drainage of the upper part of a boggy valley, +lying, with ramifications, at the foot of marly banks. The main drains +converge to a common outlet, to which are brought one 3-inch pipe and +three of 4 inches each. They lie side by side, and water flows perennially +through each of them. Near to this outlet did grow a red willow. In +February, 1852, I found the water breaking out to the surface of the +ground about 10 yards above the outlet, and was at no loss for the cause, +as the roots of the red willow showed themselves at the orifice of the +3-inch and of two of the 4-inch pipes. On examination I found that a root +had entered a joint between two 3-inch pipes, and had traveled 5 yards to +the mouth of the drain, and 9 yards up the stream, forming a continuous +length of 14 yards. The root which first entered had attained about the +size of a lady's little finger; and its ramifications consisted of very +fine and almost silky fibres, and would have cut up into half a dozen +comfortable boas. The drain was completely stopped. The pipes were not in +any degree displaced. Roots from the same willow had passed over the +3-inch pipes, and had entered and entirely stopped the first 4-inch drain, +and had partially stopped the second. At a distance of about 50 yards a +black Italian poplar, which stood on a bank over a 4-inch drain, had +completely stopped it with a bunch of roots. The whole of this had been +the work of less than 18 months, including the depth of two winters. A +3-inch branch of the same system runs through a little group of black +poplars. This drain conveys a full stream in plashes of wet, and some +water generally through the winter months, but has not a perennial flow. I +have perceived no indication that roots have interfered with this drain. I +draw no general conclusions from these few facts, but they may assist +those who have more extensive experience in drawing some, which may be of +use to drainers." + +Having considered some of the principles on which our work should be +based, let us now return to the map of the field, and apply those +principles in planning the work to be done to make it dry. + +*The Outlet* should evidently be placed at the present point of exit of +the brook which runs from the springs, collects the water of the open +ditches, and spreads over the flat in the southwest corner of the tract, +converting it into a swamp. Suppose that, by going some distance into the +next field, we can secure an outlet of 3 feet and 9 inches (3.75) below +the level of the swamp, and that we decide to allow 3 inches drop between +the bottom of the tile at that point, and the reduced level of the brook +to secure the drain against the accumulation of sand, which might result +from back water in time of heavy rain. This fixes the depth of drain at +the outlet at 3-1/2 (3.50) feet. + +At that side of the swamp which lies nearest to the main depression of the +up-land, (See Fig. 21,) is the proper place at which to collect the water +from so much of the field as is now drained by the main brook, and at that +point it will be well to place a _silt basin_ or well, built up to the +surface, which may, at any time, be uncovered for an observation of the +working of the drains. The land between this point and the outlet is +absolutely level, requiring the necessary fall in the drain which connects +the two, to be gained by raising the upper end of it. As the distance is +nearly 200 feet, and as it is advisable to give a fall at least +five-tenths of a foot per hundred feet to so important an outlet as this, +the drain at the silt basin may be fixed at only 2-1/2 feet. The basin +being at the foot of a considerable rise in the ground, it will be easy, +within a short distance above, to carry the drains which come to it to a +depth of 4 feet,--were this not the case, the fall between the basin and +the outlet would have to be very much reduced. + +*Main Drains.*--The valley through which the brook now runs is about 80 +feet wide, with a decided rise in the land at each side. If one main drain +were laid in the center of it, all of the laterals coming to the main +would first run down a steep hillside, and then across a stretch of more +level land, requiring the grade of each lateral to be broken at the foot +of the hill, and provided with a silt basin to collect matters which might +be deposited when the fall becomes less rapid. Consequently, it is best to +provide two mains, or collecting drains, (_A_ and _C_,) one lying at the +foot of each hill, when they will receive the laterals at their greatest +fall; but, as these are too far apart to completely drain the valley +between them, and are located on land higher than the center of the +valley, a drain, (_B_,) should be run up, midway between them. + +The collecting drain, _A_, will receive the laterals from the hill to the +west of it, as far up as the 10-foot contour line, and, above that +point,--running up a branch of the valley,--it will receive laterals from +both sides. The drain, _B_, may be continued above the dividing point of +the valley, and will act as one of the series of laterals. The drain, _C_, +will receive the laterals and sub-mains from the rising ground to the east +of it, and from both sides of the minor valley which extends in that +direction. + +Most of the valley which runs up from the easterly side of the swamp must +be drained independently by the drain _E_, which might be carried to the +silt basin, did not its continuation directly to the outlet offer a +shorter course for the removal of its water. This drain will receive +laterals from the hill bordering the southeasterly side of the swamp, and, +higher up, from both sides of the valley in which it runs. + +In laying out these main drains, more attention should be given to placing +them where they will best receive the water of the laterals, and on lines +which offer a good and tolerably uniform descent, than to their use for +the immediate drainage of the land through which they pass. Afterward, in +laying out the laterals, the use of these lines as local drains should, of +course, be duly considered. + +*The Lateral Drains* should next receive attention, and in their location +and arrangement the following rules should be observed: + +1st. They should run down the steepest descent of the land. + +2d. They should be placed at intervals proportionate to their depth;--if 4 +feet deep, at 40 feet intervals; if 3 feet deep, at 20 feet intervals. + + [Illustration: Fig. 20 - MAP WITH DRAINS AND CONTOUR LINES.] + + Fig. 20 - MAP WITH DRAINS AND CONTOUR LINES. + + +3d. They should, as nearly as possible, run parallel to each other. + +On land of perfectly uniform character, (all sloping in the same +direction,) all of these requirements may be complied with, but on +irregular land it becomes constantly necessary to make a compromise +between them. Drains running down the line of steepest descent cannot be +parallel,--and, consequently, the intervals between them cannot be always +the same; those which are farther apart at one end than at the other +cannot be always of a depth exactly proportionate to their intervals. + +In the adjustment of the lines, so as to conform as nearly to these +requirements as the shape of the ground will allow, there is room for the +exercise of much skill, and on such adjustment depend, in a great degree, +the success and economy of the work. Remembering that on the map, the line +of steepest descent is exactly perpendicular to the contour lines of the +land, it will be profitable to study carefully the system of drains first +laid out, erasing and making alterations wherever it is found possible to +simplify the arrangement. + +Strictly speaking, all _angles_ are, to a certain extent, wasteful, +because, if two parallel drains will suffice to drain the land between +them, no better drainage will be effected by a third drain running across +that land. Furthermore, the angles are practically supplied with drains at +less intervals than are required,--for instance, at _C 7 a_ on the map the +triangles included within the dotted line _x_, _y_, will be doubly +drained. So, also, if any point of a 4-foot drain will drain the land +within 20 feet of it, the land included within the dotted line forming a +semi-circle about the point _C 14_, might drain into the end of the +lateral, and it no more needs the action of the main drain than does that +which lies between the laterals. Of course, angles and connecting lines +are indispensable, except where the laterals can run independently across +the entire field, and discharge beyond it. The longer the laterals can be +made, and the more angles can be avoided, the more economical will the +arrangement be; and, until the arrangement of the lines has been made as +nearly perfect as possible, the time of the drainer can be in no way so +profitably spent as in amending his plan. + +The series of laterals which discharge through the mains _A_, _C_, _D_ and +_E_, on the accompanying map, have been very carefully considered, and are +submitted to the consideration of the reader, in illustration of what has +been said above. + +At one point, just above the middle of the east side of the field, the +laterals are placed at a general distance of 20 feet, because, as will be +seen by reference to Fig. 4, a ledge of rock, underground, will prevent +their being made more than 3 feet deep. + +The line from _H_ to _I_, (Fig. 20,) at the north side of the field, +connecting the heads of the laterals, is to be a stone and tile drain, +such as is described on page 60, intended to collect the water which +follows the surface of the rock. (See Fig. 4.) + +The swamp is to be drained by itself, by means of two series of laterals +discharging into the main lines _F_ and _G_, which discharge at the +outlet, by the side of the main drain from the silt-basin. By this +arrangement, these laterals, especially at the north side of the swamp, +being accurately laid, with very slight inclinations, can be placed more +deeply than if they ran in an east and west direction, and discharged into +the main, which has a greater inclination, and is only two and a half feet +deep at the basin. Being 3-1/2 (3.50) feet deep at the outlet, they may be +made fully 3 feet deep at their upper ends, and, being only 20 feet apart, +they will drain the land as well as is possible. The drains being now laid +out, over the whole field, the next thing to be attended to is + +*The Ordering of the Tile.*--The main line from the outlet up to the +silt-basin, should be of 3-1/2-inch tiles, of which about 190 feet will be +required. The main drain _A_ should be laid with 2-1/4-inch tiles to the +point marked _m_, near its upper end, as the lateral entering there +carries the water of a spring, which is supposed to fill a 1-1/4-inch +tile. The length of this drain, from the silt-basin to that point is 575 +feet. The main drain _C_ will require 2-1/4 inch tiles from the silt-basin +to the junction with the lateral, which is marked _C_ 10, above which +point there is about 1,700 feet of drain discharging into it, a portion of +which, being a stone-and-tile drain at the foot of a rock, may be supposed +to receive more water than that which lies under the rest of the +land;--distance 450 feet. The main drain _E_ requires 2-1/4-inch tiles from +the outlet to the point marked _o_, a distance of 380 feet. This tile +will, in addition to its other work, carry as much water from the spring, +on the line of its fourth lateral, as would fill a 1-1/4-inch pipe.(12) + +The length of the main drains above the points indicated, and of all the +laterals, amounts to about 12,250 feet. These all require 1-1/4-inch +tiles. + +Allowing about five per cent. for breakage, the order in round numbers, +will be as follows:(13) + +3-1/2-inch round tiles 200 feet. + +2-1/4-inch round tiles 1,500 feet. + +1-1/4-inch round tiles 13,000 feet. + +3-1/2-inch round tiles 1,600 + +2-1/4-inch round tiles 13,250 + +Order, also, 25 6-inch sole-tiles, to be used in making small silt-basins. + +It should be arranged to have the tiles all on the ground before the work +of ditching commences, so that there may be no delay and consequent danger +to the stability of the banks of the ditches, while waiting for them to +arrive. As has been before stated, it should be especially agreed with the +tile-maker, at the time of making the contract, that every tile should be +perfect;--of uniform shape, and neither too much nor too little burned. + +*Staking Out.*--Due consideration having been given to such preliminaries +as are connected with the mapping of the ground, and the arrangement, on +paper, of the drains to be made, the drainer may now return to his field, +and, while awaiting the arrival of his tiles, make the necessary +preparation for the work to be done. The first step is to fix certain +prominent points, which will serve to connect the map with the field, by +actual measurements, and this will very easily be done by the aid of the +stakes which are still standing at the intersections of the 50-foot lines, +which were used in the preliminary levelling. + +Commencing at the southwest corner of the field, and measuring toward the +east a distance of 34 feet, set a pole to indicate the position of the +outlet. Next, mark the center of the silt-basin at the proper point, which +will be found by measuring 184 feet up the western boundary, and thence +toward the east 96 feet, on a line parallel with the nearest row of +50-foot stakes. Then, in like manner, fix the points _C1_, _C6_, _C9_, +_C10_, and _C17_, and the angles of the other main lines, marking the +stakes, when placed, to correspond with the same points on the map. Then +stake the angles and the upper ends of the laterals, and mark these stakes +to correspond with the map. + +It will greatly facilitate this operation, if the plan of the drains which +is used in the field, from which the horizontal lines should be omitted, +have the intersecting 50-foot lines drawn upon it, so that the +measurements may be made from the nearest points of intersection.(14) + +Having staked these guiding points of the drains, it is advisable to +remove all of the 50-foot stakes, as these are of no further use, and +would only cause confusion. It will now be easy to set the remaining +stakes,--placing one at every 50 feet of the laterals, and at the +intersections of all the lines. + +A system for marking the stakes is indicated on the map, (in the _C_ +series of drains,) which, to avoid the confusion which would result from +too much detail on such a small scale, has been carried only to the extent +necessary for illustration. The stakes of the line _C_ are marked _C1_, +_C2_, _C3_, etc. The stakes of the sub-main _C7_, are marked _C7a_, _C7b_, +_C7c_, etc. The stakes of the lateral which enters this drain at _C7a_, +are marked _C7a/1_, _C7a/2_, _C7a/3,_ etc. etc. This system, which +connects the lettering of each lateral with its own sub-main and main, is +perfectly simple, and avoids the possibility of confusion. The position of +the stakes should all be lettered on the map, at the original drawing, and +the same designating marks put on the stakes in the field, as soon as set. + +_Grade Stakes_, (pegs about 8 or 10 inches long,) should be placed close +at the sides of the marked stakes, and driven nearly their full length +into the ground. The tops of these stakes furnish fixed points of +elevation from which to take the measurements, and to make the +computations necessary to fix the depth of the drain at each stake. If the +measurements were taken from the surface of the ground, a slight change of +position in placing the instrument, would often make a difference of some +inches in the depth of the drain. + +*Taking the Levels.*--For accurate work, it is necessary to ascertain the +comparative levels of the tops of all of the grade stakes; or the distance +of each one of them below an imaginary horizontal plane. This plane, (in +which we use only such lines as are directly above the drains,) may be +called the "Datum Line." Its elevation should be such that it will be +above the highest part of the land, and, for convenience, it is fixed at +the elevation of the levelling instrument when it is so placed as to look +over the highest part of the field. + +_Levelling Instruments_ are of various kinds. The best for the work in +hand, is the common railroad level, which is shown in Fig. 6. This is +supported on three legs, which bring it to about the level of the eye. Its +essential parts are a telescope, which has two cross-hairs intersecting +each other in the line of sight, and which may be turned on its pivot +toward any point of the horizon; a bubble glass placed exactly parallel to +the line of sight, and firmly secured in its position so as to turn with +the telescope; and an apparatus for raising or depressing any side of the +instrument by means of set-screws. The instrument is firmly screwed to the +tripod, and placed at a point convenient for looking over a considerable +part of the highest land. By the use of the set-screws, the plane in which +the instrument revolves is brought to a level, so that in whatever +direction the instrument is pointed, the bubble will be in the center of +the glass. The line of sight, whichever way it is turned, is now in our +imaginary plane. A convenient position for the instrument in the field +under consideration, would be at the point, east of the center, marked +_K_, which is about 3 feet below the level of the highest part of the +ground. The telescope should stand about 5 feet above the surface of the +ground directly under it. + +_The Levelling-Rod_, (See Fig. 7,) is usually 12 feet long, is divided +into feet and hundredths of a foot, and has a movable target which may be +placed at any part of its entire length. This is carried by an attendant, +who holds it perpendicularly on the top of the grade-stake, while the +operator, looking through the telescope, directs him to move the target up +and down until its center is exactly in the line of sight. The attendant +then reads the elevation, and the operator records it as the distance +below the _datum-line_ of the top of the grade-stake. For convenience, the +letterings of the stakes should be systematically entered in a small field +book, before the work commences, and this should be accompanied by such a +sketch of the plan as will serve as a guide to the location of the lines +on the ground. + +The following is the form of the field book for the main drain _C_, with +the levels recorded: + +LETTERING OF THE STAKE. DEPTH FROM DATUM LINE. +Silt Basin 18.20 +C 1 15.44 +C 2 14.36 +C 3 12.85 +C 4 12.18 +C 5 11.79 +C 6 11.69 +C 7 11.55 +C 8 11.37 +C 9 11.06 +C 10 8.94 +C 11 8.52 +C 12 7.86 +C 13 7.70 +C 14 7.39 +C 15 7.06 +C 16 6.73 + +The levelling should be continued in this manner, until the grades of all +the points are recorded in the field book. + + [Illustration: Fig. 21 - PROFILE OF DRAIN C.] + + Fig. 21 - PROFILE OF DRAIN C. + + Horizontal Scale, 66 ft. to the inch. + Vertical Scale, 15 ft. to the inch. + + 1 to 17. Numbers of Stakes. + (82) etc. Distances between Stakes. + 18.20 etc. Depths from _datum-line_ to surface. + 2.50 etc. Depths of ditch. + 20.70 etc. Depths from _datum-line_ to drain. + + +If, from too great depression of the lower parts of the field, or too +great distances for observation, it becomes necessary to take up a new +position with the instrument, the new level should be connected, by +measurement, with the old one, and the new observations should be computed +to the original plane. + +It is not necessary that these levels should be noted on the map,--they are +needed only for computing the depth of cutting, and if entered on the map, +might be mistaken for the figures indicating the depth, which it is more +important to have recorded in their proper positions, for convenience of +reference during the work. + +*The Depth and Grade of the Drains.*--Having now staked out the lines upon +the land, and ascertained and recorded the elevations at the different +stakes, it becomes necessary to determine at what depth the tile shall be +placed at each point, so as to give the proper fall to each line, and to +bring all of the lines of the system into accord. As the simplest means of +illustrating the principle on which this work should be done, it will be +convenient to go through with the process with reference to the main drain +_C_, of the plan under consideration. A profile of this line is shown in +Fig. 21, where the line is broken at stake No. 7, and continued in the +lower section of the diagram. The topmost line, from "Silt Basin" to "17," +is the horizontal datum-line. The numbers above the vertical lines +indicate the stakes; the figures in brackets between these, the number of +feet between the stakes; and the heavy figures at the left of the vertical +lines, the recorded measurements of depth from the datum-line to the +surface of the ground, which is indicated by the irregular line next below +the datum-line. The vertical measurements are, of course, very much +exaggerated, to make the profile more marked, but they are in the proper +relation to each other. + +The depth at the silt-basin is fixed at 2-1/2 feet (2.50.) The rise is +rapid to stake 3, very slight from there to stake 7, very rapid from there +to stake 10, a little less rapid from there to stake 11, and still less +rapid from there to stake 17. + +To establish the grade by the profile alone, the proper course would be to +fix the depth at the stakes at which the inclination is to be changed, to +draw straight lines between the points thus found, and then to measure the +vertical distance from these lines to the line indicating the surface of +the ground at the different stakes; thus, fixing the depth at stake 3, at +4 feet and 13 hundredths,(15) the line drawn from that point to the depth +of 2.50, at the silt-basin, will be 3 feet and 62 hundredths (3.62) below +stake 1, and 3 feet and 92 hundredths (3.92) below stake 2. At stake 7 it +is necessary to go sufficiently deep to pass from 7 to 10, without coming +too near the surface at 9, which is at the foot of a steep ascent. A line +drawn straight from 4.59 feet below stake 10 to 4.17 feet at stake 17, +would be unnecessarily deep at 11, 12, 13, and 14; and, consequently it is +better to rise to 4.19 feet at 11. So far as this part of the drain is +concerned, it would be well to continue the same rise to 12, but, in doing +so, we would come too near the surface at 13, 14, and 15; or must +considerably depress the line at 16, which would either make a bad break +in the fall at that point, or carry the drain too deep at 17. + +By the arrangement adopted, the grade is broken at 3, 7, 10, and 11. +Between these points, it is a straight line, with the rate of fall +indicated in the following table, which commences at the upper end of the +drain and proceeds toward its outlet: + +FROM STAKE, TO STAKE, DISTANCE. TOTAL FALL. RATE OF +DEPTH. DEPTH. FALL. PER + 100 FT. +No. No. 246 ft. 2.46 ft. 1.09 ft. +17...4.17 11...4.19 +ft. ft. +No. No. 41 ft. 82 ft. 2.00 ft. +11...4.19 10...4.59 +ft. ft. +No. No. 91 ft. 2.49 ft. 2.83 ft. +10...4.59 7...4.47 +ft. ft. +No. No. 173 ft. 96 ft. 56 ft. +7...4.47 3...4.13 +ft. ft. +No. S. Basin 186 ft. 3.47 ft. 1.87 ft. +3...4.13 2.25 ft. +ft. + +It will be seen that the fall becomes more rapid as we ascend from stake +7, but below this point it is very much reduced, so much as to make it +very likely that silt will be deposited, (see page 91), and the drain, +thereby, obstructed. To provide against this, a silt-basin must be placed +at this point which will collect the silt and prevent its entrance into +the more nearly level tile below. The construction of this silt-basin is +more particularly described in the next chapter. From stake 7 to the main +silt-basin the fall is such that the drain will clear itself. + +The drawing of regular profiles, for the more important drains, will be +useful for the purpose of making the beginner familiar with the method of +grading, and with the principles on which the grade and depth are +computed; and sometimes, in passing over very irregular surfaces, this +method will enable even a skilled drainer to hit upon the best adjustment +in less time than by computation. Ordinarily, however, the form of +computation given in the following table, which refers to the same drain, +(_C_,) will be more expeditious, and its results are mathematically more +correct.(16) + + Fall. Depth + Feet and from + Decimals. Datum + Line. +No. of Distance Per 100 Between To To Depth of Remarks. +Stake. Between Feet. Stakes. Drain. Surface. Drain. + Stakes. +Silt 20.70 18.20 2.50 ft +Basin. ft. ft. +C. 1. 82 ft. 2 ft. 1.64 ft. 19.06 " 15.44 " 3.48 ft +C. 2. 39 ft. do. .78 ft. 18.28 " 14.36 " 3.83 ft +C. 3. 65 ft. do. 1.30 16.98 " 12.85 " 4.13 ft + ft. +C. 4. 51 ft. .56 .28 ft. 16.70 " 12.18 " 4.52 ft +C. 5. 43 ft. do. .24 ft. 16.46 " 11.79 " 4.67 ft +C. 6. 47 ft. do. .26 ft. 16.20 " 11.69 " 4.51 ft +C. 7. 32 ft. do. .18 ft. 16.02 " 11.55 " 4.47 ft Silt-Basin + here. + Made + deep at + Nos. 7 + and 10 + to pass + a + depression + of the + surface + at No. + 9. +C. 8. 41 ft. 2.83 1.16 14.86 " 11.37 " 3.49 ft + ft. +C. 9. 12 ft. do. .34 ft. 14.52 " 11.06 " 3.46 ft +C.10. 38 ft. do. .99 ft. 13.53 " 8.94 " 4.59 ft +C.11. 41 ft. 2.00 .82 ft. 12.61 " 8.52 " 4.19 ft +C.12. 41 ft. 1.09 .44 ft. 12.27 " 7.86 " 4.41 ft +C.13. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 11.83 " 7.70 " 4.13 ft +C.14. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 11.39 " 7.39 " 4.00 ft +C.15. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 10.95 " 7.06 " 3.89 ft +C.16. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 10.51 " 6.73 " 3.88 ft +C.17. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 10.07 " 5.90 " 4.17 ft + +NOTE.--The method of making the foregoing computation is this: + + + 1st. Enter the lettering of the stakes in the first column, + commencing at the lower end of the drain. + + 2d. Enter the distances between each two stakes in the second + column, placing the measurement on the line with the number of the + _upper_ stake of the two. + + 3d. In the next to the last column enter, on the line with each + stake, its depth below the datum-line, as recorded in the field + book of levels, (See page 105.) + + 4th. On the first line of the last column, place the depth of the + lower end of the drain, (this is established by the grade of the + main or other outlet at which it discharges.) + + 5th. Add this depth to the first number of the line next preceding + it, and enter the sum obtained on the first line of the fifth + column, as the depth of the _drain_ below the datum-line. + + 6th. Having reference to the grade of the surface, (as shown by + the figures in the sixth column,) as well as to any necessity for + placing the drain at certain depths at certain places, enter the + desired depth, _in pencil,_ in the last column, opposite the + stakes marking those places. Then add together this depth and the + corresponding surface measurement in the column next preceding, + and enter the sum, _in pencil_, in the fifth column, as the depth + from the datum-line to the desired position of the drain. (In the + example in hand, these points are at Nos. 3, 7, 10, 11, and 17.) + + 7th. Subtract the second amount in the fifth column from the first + amount for the total fall between the two points--in the example, + "3" from "Silt-Basin." Divide this total fall, (in feet and + hundredths,) by one hundredth of the total number of feet between + them. The result will be the rate of fall per 100 feet, and this + should be entered, in the third column, opposite each of the + intermediate distances between the points. + + Example: + + Depth of the Drain at 20.45 feet. + the Silt-Basin + Depth of the Drain at 16.98 feet. + the Stake No. 3 + ---- + Difference 3.47 feet. + Distance between the 186.-- feet. + two + + 1.86)3.47(1.865 or 1.87 + + 1 86 + ---- + 1 610 + 1 488 + ---- + 1 220 + 1 116 + ---- + 1 040 + 930 + ---- + 110 + + 8th. Multiply the numbers of the second column by those of the + third and divide the product by 100. The result will be the amount + of fall between the stakes, (fourth column.)--Example: + 1.87x82=153/100=1.53. + + 9th. Subtract the first number of the fourth column from the first + number of the fifth column, (on the line above it,) and place the + remainder on the next line of the fifth column.--Example: + 20.70-1.64= 19.06. + + Then, from this new amount, subtract the second number of the + fourth column, for the next number of the fifth, and so on, until, + in place of the entry in pencil, (Stake 3,) we place the exact + result of the computation. + + Proceed in like manner with the next interval,--3 to 7. + + 10th. Subtract the numbers in the sixth column from those in the + fifth, and the remainders will be the depths to be entered in the + last. + + Under the head of "Remarks," note any peculiarity of the drain + which may require attention in the field. + + +The main lines _A_, _D_, and _E_, and the drain _B_, should next be graded +on the plan set forth for _C_, and their laterals, all of which have +considerable fall, and being all so steep as not to require silt-basins at +any point,--can, by a very simple application of the foregoing principles, +be adjusted at the proper depths. In grading the stone and tile drain, +(_H, I_,) it is only necessary to adopt the depth of the last stakes of +the laterals, with which it is connected, as it is immaterial in which +direction the water flows. The ends of this drain,--from H to the head of +the drain _C10_, and from _I_ to the head of _C17_,--should, of course, +have a decided fall toward the drains. + +The laterals which are placed at intervals of 20 feet, over the +underground rock on the east side of the field, should be continued at a +depth of about 3 feet for nearly their whole length, dropping in a +distance of 8 or 10 feet at their lower ends to the top of the tile of the +main. The intervals between the lower ends of _C7c_, _C7d_, and _C7e_, +being considerably more than 20 feet, the drains may be gradually +deepened, throughout their whole length from 3 feet at the upper ends to +the depth of the top of the main at the lower ends. + +The main drains _F_ and _G_, being laid in flat land, their outlets being +fixed at a depth of 3.50, (the floor of the main outlet,) and it being +necessary to have them as deep as possible throughout their entire length, +should be graded with great care on the least admissible fall. This, in +ordinary agricultural drainage, may be fixed at .25, or 3 inches, per 100 +feet. Their laterals should commence with the top of their 1/4 tile even +with the top of the 2-1/2 collar of the main,--or .15 higher than the grade +of the main,--and rise, at a uniform inclination of .25, to the upper end. + +Having now computed the depth at which the tile is to lie, at each stake, +and entered it on the map, we are ready to mark these depths on their +respective stakes in the field, when the preliminary engineering of the +work will be completed. + +It has been deemed advisable in this chapter to consider the smallest +details of the work of the draining engineer. Those who intend to drain in +the best manner will find such details important. Those who propose to do +their work less thoroughly, may still be guided by the principles on which +they are based. Any person who will take the pains to mature the plans of +his work as closely as has been here recommended, will as a consequence +commence his operations in the field much more understandingly. The +advantage of having everything decided beforehand,--so that the workmen +need not be delayed for want of sufficient directions, and of making, on +the map, such alterations as would have appeared necessary in the field, +thus saving the cost of cutting ditches in the wrong places, will well +repay the work of the evenings of a whole winter. + + + + + +CHAPTER IV. - HOW TO MAKE THE DRAINS. + + +Knowing, now, precisely what is to be done; having the lines all staked +out, and the stakes so marked as to be clearly designated; knowing the +precise depth at which the drain is to be laid, at every point; having the +requisite tiles on the ground, and thoroughly inspected, the operator is +prepared to commence actual work. + +He should determine how many men he will employ, and what tools they will +require to work to advantage. It may be best that the work be done by two +or three men, or it may be advisable to employ as many as can work without +interfering with each other. In most cases,--especially where there is much +water to contend with,--the latter course will be the most economical, as +the ditches will not be so liable to be injured by the softening of their +bottoms, and the caving in of their sides. + +*The Tools Required* are a subsoil plow, two garden lines, spades, +shovels, and picks; narrow finishing spades, a finishing scoop, a tile +pick, a scraper for filling the ditches, a heavy wooden maul for +compacting the bottom filling, half a dozen boning-rods, a measuring rod, +and a plumb rod. These should all be on hand at the outset, so that no +delay in the work may result from the want of them. + + [Illustration: Fig. 22 - SET OF TOOLS.] + + Fig. 22 - SET OF TOOLS. + + Flat Spades of various lengths and widths, Bill-necked Scoop (_A_); + Tile-layer (_B_); Pick-axe (_C_); and Scoop Spades, and Shovel. + + +Writers on drainage, almost without exception, recommend the use of +elaborate sets of tools which are intended for cutting very narrow +ditches,--only wide enough at the bottom to admit the tile, and not +allowing the workmen to stand in the bottom of the ditch. A set of these +tools is shown in Fig. 22. + +Possibly there may be soils in which these implements, in the hands of men +skilled in their use, could be employed with economy, but they are very +rare, and it is not believed to be possible, under any circumstances, to +regulate the bottom of the ditch so accurately as is advisable, unless the +workman can stand directly upon it, cutting it more smoothly than he could +if the point of his tool were a foot or more below the level on which he +stands. + +On this subject, Mr. J. Bailey Denton, one of the first draining engineers +of Great Britain, in a letter to Judge French, says: + +"As to tools, it is the same with them as it is with the art of draining +itself,--too much rule and too much drawing upon paper; all very right to +begin with, but very prejudicial to progress. I employ, as engineer to the +General Land Drainage Company, and on my private account, during the +drainage season, as many as 2,000 men, and it is an actual fact, that not +one of them uses the set of tools figured in print. I have frequently +purchased a number of sets of the Birmingham tools, and sent them down on +extensive works. The laborers would purchase a few of the smaller tools, +such as Nos. 290, 291, and 301, figured in Morton's excellent Cyclopaedia +of Agriculture, and would try them, and then order others of the country +blacksmith, differing in several respects; less weighty and much less +costly, and moreover, much better as working tools. All I require of the +cutters, is, that the bottom of the drain should be evenly cut, to fit the +size of the pipe. The rest of the work takes care of itself; for a good +workman will economize his labor for his own sake, by moving as little +earth as practicable; thus, for instance, a first-class cutter, in clays, +will get down 4 feet with a 12-inch opening, _ordinarily_; if he wishes to +_show off_, he will sacrifice his own comfort to appearance, and will do +it with a 10-inch opening." + +In the Central Park work, sets of these tools were procured, at +considerable expense, and every effort was made to compel the men to use +them, but it was soon found that, even in the easiest digging, there was a +real economy in using, for the first 3 feet of the ditch, the common +spade, pick, and shovel,--finishing the bottoms with the narrow spade and +scoop hereafter described, and it is probable that the experience of that +work will be sustained by that of the country at large. + +*Marking the Lines.*--To lay a drain directly under the position of its +stakes, would require that enough earth be left at each point to hold the +stake, and that the ditch be tunneled under it. This is expensive and +unnecessary. It is better to dig the ditches at one side of the lines of +stakes, far enough away for the earth to hold them firmly in their places, +but near enough to allow measurements to be taken from the grade pegs. If +the ditch be placed always to the right, or always to the left, of the +line, and at a uniform distance, the general plan will remain the same, +and the lines will be near enough to those marked on the map to be easily +found at any future time. In fact, if it be known that the line of tiles +is two feet to the right of the position indicated, it will only be +necessary, at any time, should it be desired to open an old drain, to +measure two feet to the right of the surveyed position to strike the line +at once. + +In soils of ordinary tenacity, ditches 4 feet deep need not be more than +twenty (20) inches wide at the surface, and four (4) inches wide at the +bottom. This will allow, in each side, a slope of eight (8) inches, which +is sufficient except in very loose soils, and even these may be braced up, +if inclined to cave in. There are cases where the soil contains so much +running sand, and is so saturated with water, that no precautions will +avail to keep up the banks. Ditches in such ground will sometimes fall in, +until the excavation reaches a width of 8 or 10 feet. Such instances, +however, are very rare, and must be treated as the occasion suggests. + +One of the garden lines should be set at a distance of about 6 inches from +the row of stakes, and the other at a further distance of 20 inches. If +the land is in grass, the position of these lines may be marked with a +spade, and they may be removed at once; but, if it is arable land, it will +be best to leave the lines in position until the ditch is excavated to a +sufficient depth to mark it clearly. Indeed, it will be well to at once +remove all of the sod and surface soil, say to a depth of 6 inches, +(throwing this on the same side with the stakes, and back of them.) The +whole force can be profitably employed in this work, until all of the +ditches to be dug are scored to this depth over the entire tract to be +drained, except in swamps which are still too wet for this work. + +*Water Courses.*--The brooks which carry the water from the springs should +be "jumped" in marking out the lines, as it is desirable that their water +be kept in separate channels, so far as possible, until the tiles are +ready to receive it, as, if allowed to run in the open ditches, it would +undermine the banks and keep the bottom too soft for sound work. + +With this object, commence at the southern boundary of our example tract, +10 or 15 feet east of the point of outlet, and drive a straight, +temporary, shallow ditch to a point a little west of the intersection of +the main line _D_ with its first lateral; then carry it in a northwesterly +direction, crossing _C_ midway between the silt-basin and stake _C 1_, and +thence into the present line of the brook, turning all of the water into +the ditch. A branch of this ditch may be run up between the lines _F_ and +_G_ to receive the water from the spring which lies in that direction. +This arrangement will keep the water out of the way until the drains are +ready to take it. + +*The Outlet.*--The water being all discharged through the new temporary +ditch, the old brook, beyond the boundary, should be cleared out to the +final level (3.75,) and an excavation made, just within the boundary, +sufficient to receive the masonry which is to protect the outlet. A good +form of outlet is shown in Fig. 23. It may be cheaply made by any farmer, +especially if he have good stone at hand;--if not, brick may be used, laid +on a solid foundation of stout planks, which, (being protected from the +air and always saturated with water,) will last a very long time. + + [Illustration: Fig. 23 - OUTLET, SECURED WITH MASONRY AND GRATING.] + + Fig. 23 - OUTLET, SECURED WITH MASONRY AND GRATING. + + +If made of stone, a solid floor, at least 2 feet square, should be placed +at, or below, the level of the brook. If this consist of a single stone, +it will be better than if of several smaller pieces. On this, place +another layer extending the whole width of the first, but reaching only +from its inner edge to its center line, so as to leave a foot in width of +the bottom stone to receive the fall of the water. This second layer +should reach exactly the grade of the outlet (3.50) or a height of 3 +inches from the brook level. On the floor thus made, there should be laid +the tiles which are to constitute the outlets of the several drains; +_i.e._, one 3-1/2-inch tile for the line from the silt-basin, two +1-1/4-inch for the lines _F_ and _G_, and one 2-1/4-inch for the main line +_E_. These tiles should lie close to each other and be firmly cemented +together, so that no water can pass outside of them, and a rubble-work of +stone may with advantage be carried up a foot above them. Stone work, +which may be rough and uncemented, but should always be solid, may then be +built up at the sides, and covered with a secure coping of stone. A floor +and sloping sides of stone work, jointed with the previously described +work, and well cemented, or laid in strong clay or mortar, may, with +benefit, be carried a few feet beyond the outlet. This will effectually +prevent the undermining of the structure. After the entire drainage of the +field is finished, the earth above these sloping sides, and that back of +the coping, should be neatly sloped, and protected by sods. An iron +grating, fine enough to prevent the entrance of vermin, placed in front of +the tile, at a little distance from them,--and secured by a flat stone set +on edge and hollowed out, so as merely to allow the water to flow freely +from the drains,--the stone being cemented in its place so as to allow no +water to pass under it,--will give a substantial and permanent finish to +the structure. + +An outlet finished in this way, at an extra cost of a few dollars, will be +most satisfactory, as a lasting means of securing the weakest and most +important part of the system of drains. When no precaution of this sort is +taken, the water frequently forces a passage under the tile for some +distance up the drains, undermining and displacing them, and so softening +the bottom that it will be difficult, in making repairs, to secure a solid +foundation for the work. Usually, repairs of this sort, aside from the +annoyance attending them, will cost more than the amount required to make +the permanent outlet described above. As well constructed outlets are +necessarily rather expensive, as much of the land as possible should be +drained to each one that it is necessary to make, by laying main lines +which will collect all of the water which can be brought to it. + +*The Main Silt-Basin.*--The silt-basin, at which the drains are collected, +may best be built before any drains are brought to it, and the work may +proceed simultaneously with that at the outlet. It should be so placed +that its center will lie exactly under the stake which marks its position, +because it will constitute one of the leading landmarks for the survey of +the drains.(17) + +Before removing the stake and grade stake, mark their position by four +stakes, set at a distance from it of 4 or 5 feet, in such positions that +two lines, drawn from those which are opposite to each other, will +intersect at the point indicated; and place near one of them a grade +stake, driven to the exact level of the one to be removed. This being +done, dig a well, 4 feet in diameter, to a depth of 2-1/2 feet below the +grade of the outlet drain, (in the example under consideration this would +be 5 feet below the grade stake.) If much water collects in the hole, +widen it, in the direction of the outlet drain, sufficiently to give room +for baling out the water. Now build, in this well, a structure 2 feet in +interior diameter, such as is shown in Fig. 24, having its bottom 2 feet, +in the clear, below the grade of the outlet, and carry its wall a little +higher than the general surface of the ground. At the proper height +insert, in the brick work, the necessary for tiles all incoming and +outgoing drains; in this case, a 3-1/2-inch tile for the outlet, +2-1/4-inch for the mains _A_ and _C_, and 1-1/4-inch for _B_ and _D_. + + [Illustration: Fig. 24 - SILT-BASIN, BUILT TO THE SURFACE.] + + Fig. 24 - SILT-BASIN, BUILT TO THE SURFACE. + + +This basin being finished and covered with a flat stone or other suitable +material, connect it with the outlet by an open ditch, unless the bottom +of the ditch, when laid open to the proper depth, be found to be of muck +or quicksand. In such case, it will be best to lay the tile at once, and +cover it in for the whole distance, as, on a soft bottom, it would be +difficult to lay it well when the full drainage of the field is flowing +through the ditch. The tiles should be laid with all care, on a perfectly +regulated fall,--using strips of board under them if the bottom is shaky or +soft,--as on this line depends the success of all the drains above it, +which might be rendered useless by a single badly laid tile at this point, +or by any other cause of obstruction to the flow. + +While the work is progressing in the field above, there will be a great +deal of muddy water and some sticks, grass, and other rubbish, running +from the ditches above the basin, and care must be taken to prevent this +drain from becoming choked. A piece of wire cloth, or basket work, placed +over the outlet in the basin, will keep out the coarser matters, and the +mud which would accumulate in the tile may be removed by occasional +flushing. This is done by crowding a tuft of grass,--or a bit of sod,--into +the lower end of the tile (at the outlet,) securing it there until the +water rises in the basin, and then removing it. The rush of water will be +sufficient to wash the tile clean. + +This plan is not without objections, and, as a rule, it is never well to +lay any tiles at the lower end of a drain until all above it is finished; +but when a considerable outlet must be secured through soft land, which is +inclined to cave in, and to get soft at the bottom, it will save labor to +secure the tile in place before much water reaches it, even though it +require a daily flushing to keep it clean. + +*Opening the Ditches.*--Thus far it has been sought to secure a permanent +outlet, and to connect it by a secure channel, with the silt-basin, which +is to collect the water of the different series of drains. The next step +is to lay open the ditches for these. It will be best to commence with the +main line _A_ and its laterals, as they will take most of the water which +now flows through the open brook, and prevent its interference with the +rest of the work. + +The first work is the opening of the ditches to a depth of about 3 feet, +which may be best done with the common spade, pick, and shovel, except +that in ground which is tolerably free from stones, a subsoil plow will +often take the place of the pick, with much saving of labor. It _may_ be +drawn by oxen working in a long yoke, which will allow them to walk one on +each side of the ditch, but this is dangerous, as they are liable to +disturb the stakes, (especially the grade stakes,) and to break down the +edges of the ditches. The best plan is to use a small subsoil plow, drawn +by a single horse, or strong mule, trained to walk in the ditch. The beast +will soon learn to accommodate himself to his narrow quarters, and will +work easily in a ditch 2-1/2 feet deep, having a width of less than afoot +at the bottom; of course there must be a way provided for him to come out +at each end. Deeper than this there is no economy in using horse power, +and even for this depth it will be necessary to use a plow having only one +stilt. + + [Illustration: Fig. 25 - FINISHING SPADE.] + + Fig. 25 - FINISHING SPADE. + + +Before the main line is cut into the open brook, this should be furnished +with a wooden trough, which will carry the water across it, so that the +ditch shall receive only the filtration from the ground. Those laterals +west of the main line, which are crossed by the brook, had better not be +opened at present,--not until the water of the spring is admitted to and +removed by the drain. + + [Illustration: Fig. 26 - FINISHING SCOOP.] + + Fig. 26 - FINISHING SCOOP. + + +The other laterals and the whole of the main line, having been cut to a +depth of 3 feet, take a finishing spade, (Fig. 25,) which is only 4 inches +wide at its point, and dig to within 2 or 3 inches of the depth marked on +the stakes, making the bottom tolerably smooth, with the aid of the +finishing scoop, (Fig. 26,) and giving it as regular an inclination as can +be obtained by the eye alone. + + [Illustration: Fig. 27 - BRACING THE SIDES IN SOFT LAND.] + + Fig. 27 - BRACING THE SIDES IN SOFT LAND. + + +If the ground is "rotten," and the banks of the ditches incline to cave +in, as is often the case in passing wet places, the earth which is thrown +out in digging must be thrown back sufficiently far from the edge to +prevent its weight from increasing the tendency; and the sides of the +ditch may be supported by bits of board braced apart as is shown in Fig. +27. + + [Illustration: Fig. 28 - MEASURING STAFF.] + + Fig. 28 - MEASURING STAFF. + + +The manner of opening the ditches, which is described above, for the main +_A_ and its laterals, will apply to the drains of the whole field and to +all similar work. + +*Grading the Bottoms.*--The next step in the work is to grade the bottoms +of the ditches, so as to afford a bed for the tiles on the exact lines +which are indicated by the figures marked on the different stakes. + +The manner in which this is to be done may be illustrated by describing +the work required for the line from *C10* to *C17*, (Fig. 20,) after it +has been opened, as described above, to within 2 or 3 inches of the final +depth. + +A measuring rod, or square, such as is shown in Fig. 28,(18) is set at +*C10*, so that the lower side of its arm is at the mark 4.59 on the staff, +(or at a little less than 4.6 if it is divided only into feet and tenths,) +and is held upright in the ditch, with its arm directly over the grade +stake. The earth below it is removed, little by little, until it will +touch the top of the stake and the bottom of the ditch at the same time. +If the ground is soft, it should be cut out until a flat stone, a block of +wood, or a piece of tile, or of brick, sunk in the bottom, will have its +surface at the exact point of measurement. This point is the bottom of the +ditch on which the collar of the tile is to lie at that stake. In the same +manner the depth is fixed at _C11_ (4.19,) and _C12_ (4.41,) as the rate +of fall changes at each of these points, and at _C15_ (3.89,) and _C17_ +(4.17,) because (although the fall is uniform from _C12_ to _C17_,) the +distance is too great for accurate sighting. + + [Illustration: Fig. 29 - BONING ROD.] + + Fig. 29 - BONING ROD. + + +Having provided _boning-rods_, which are strips of board 7 feet long, +having horizontal cross pieces at their upper ends, (see Fig. 29,) set +these perpendicularly on the spots which have been found by measurement to +be at the correct depth opposite stakes 10, 11, 12, 15, and 17, and fasten +each in its place by wedging it between two strips of board laid across +the ditch, so as to clasp it, securing these in their places by laying +stones or earth upon their ends. + +As these boning-rods are all exactly 7 feet long, of course, a line +sighted across their tops will be exactly 7 feet higher, at all points, +than the required grade of the ditch directly beneath it, and if a plumb +rod, (similar to the boning-rod, but provided with a line and plummet,) be +set perpendicularly on any point of the bottom of the drain, the relation +of its cross piece to the line of sight across the tops of the boning-rods +will show whether the bottom of the ditch at that point is too high, or +too low, or just right. The manner of sighting over two boning-rods and an +intermediate plumb-rod, is shown in Fig. 31. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30 - POSITION OF WORKMAN AND USE OF FINISHING SCOOP.] + + Fig. 30 - POSITION OF WORKMAN AND USE OF FINISHING SCOOP. + + +Three persons are required to finish the bottom of the ditch; one to sight +across the tops of the boning-rods, one to hold the plumb-rod at different +points as the finishing progresses, and one in the ditch, (see Fig. 30,) +provided with the finishing spade and scoop,--and, in hard ground, with a +pick,--to cut down or fill up as the first man calls "too high," or, "too +low." An inch or two of filling maybe beaten sufficiently hard with the +back of the scoop, but if several inches should be required, it should be +well rammed with the top of a pick, or other suitable instrument, as any +subsequent settling would disarrange the fall. + + [Illustration: Fig. 31 - SIGHTING BY THE BONING-RODS.] + + Fig. 31 - SIGHTING BY THE BONING-RODS. + + +As the lateral drains are to be laid first, they should be the first +graded, and as they are arranged to discharge into the tops of the mains, +their water will still flow off, although the main ditches are not yet +reduced to their final depth. After the laterals are laid and filled in, +the main should be graded, commencing at the upper end; the tiles being +laid and covered as fast as the bottom is made ready, so that it may not +be disturbed by the water of which the main carries so much more than the +laterals. + +*Tile-Laying.*--Gisborne says: "It would be scarcely more absurd to set a +common blacksmith to eye needles than to employ a common laborer to lay +pipes and collars." The work comes under the head of _skilled labor,_ and, +while no very great exercise of judgment is required in its performance, +the little that is required is imperatively necessary, and the details of +the work should be deftly done. The whole previous outlay,--the survey and +staking of the field, the purchase of the tiles, the digging and grading +of the ditches--has been undertaken that we may make the conduit of +earthenware pipes which is now to be laid, and the whole may be rendered +useless by a want of care and completeness in the performance of this +chief operation. This subject, (in connection with that of finishing the +bottoms of the ditches,) is very clearly treated in Mr. Hoskyns' charming +essay,(19) as follows: + +"It was urged by Mr. Brunel, as a justification for more attention and +expense in the laying of the rails of the Great Western, than had been +ever thought of upon previously constructed lines, that all the +embankments and cuttings, and earthworks and stations, and law and +parliamentary expenses--in fact, the whole of the outlay encountered in the +formation of a railway, had for its main and ultimate object _a perfectly +smooth and level line of rail_; that to turn stingy at this point, just +when you had arrived at the great ultimatum of the whole proceedings, viz: +the iron wheel-track, was a sort of saving which evinced a want of true +preception of the great object of all the labor that had preceded it. It +may seem curious to our experiences, in these days, that such a doctrine +could ever have needed to be enforced by argument; yet no one will deem it +wonderful who has personally witnessed the unaccountable and ever new +difficulty of getting proper attention paid to the leveling of the bottom +of a drain, and the laying of the tiles in that continuous line, where one +single depression or irregularity, by collecting the water at that spot, +year after year, tends toward the eventual stoppage of the whole drain, +through two distinct causes, the softening of the foundation underneath +the sole, or tile flange, and the deposit of soil inside the tile from the +water collected at the spot, and standing there after the rest had run +off. Every depression, however slight, is constantly doing this mischief +in every drain where the fall is but trifling; and if to the two +consequences above mentioned, we may add the decomposition of the tile +itself by the action of water long stagnant within it, we may deduce that +every tile-drain laid with these imperfections in the finishing of the +bottom, has a tendency toward obliteration, out of all reasonable +proportion with that of a well-burnt tile laid on a perfectly even +inclination, which, humanly speaking, may be called a permanent thing. An +open ditch cut by the most skillful workman, in the summer, affords the +best illustration of this underground mischief. Nothing can look smoother +and more even than the bottom, until that uncompromising test of accurate +levels, the water, makes its appearance: all on a sudden the whole scene +is changed, the eye-accredited level vanishes as if some earthquake had +taken place: here, there is a gravelly _scour_, along which the stream +rushes in a thousand little angry-looking ripples; there, it hangs and +looks as dull and heavy as if it had given up running at all, as a useless +waste of energy; in another place, a few dead leaves or sticks, or a +morsel of soil broken from the side, dams back the water for a +considerable distance, occasioning a deposit of soil along the whole +reach, greater in proportion to the quantity and the muddiness of the +water detained. All this shows the paramount importance of perfect +evenness in the bed on which the tiles are laid. _The worst laid tile is +the measure of the goodness and permanence of the whole drain_, just as +the weakest link of a chain is the measure of its strength." + +The simple laying of the smaller sizes of pipes and collars in the lateral +drains, is an easy matter. It requires care and precision in placing the +collar equally under the end of each pipe, (having the joint at the middle +of the collar,) in having the ends of the pipes actually touch each other +within the collars, and in brushing away any loose dirt which may have +fallen on the spot on which the collar is to rest. The connection of the +laterals with the mains, the laying of the larger sizes of tiles so as to +form a close joint, the wedging of these larger tiles firmly into their +places, and the trimming which is necessary in going around sharp curves, +and in putting in the shorter pieces which are needed to fill out the +exact length of the drain, demand more skill and judgment than are often +found in the common ditcher. Still, any clever workman, who has a careful +habit, may easily be taught all that is necessary; and until he is +thoroughly taught,--and not only knows how to do the work well, but, also, +understands the importance of doing it well,--the proprietor should +carefully watch the laying of every piece. + +_Never have tiles laid by the rod, but always by the day._ "The more +haste, the less speed," is a maxim which applies especially to +tile-laying. + +If the proprietor or the engineer does not overlook the laying of each +tile as it is done, and probably he will not, he should carefully inspect +every piece before it is covered. It is well to walk along the ditches and +touch each tile with the end of a light rod, in such a way as to see +whether it is firm enough in its position not to be displaced by the earth +which will fall upon it in filling the ditches. + +Preparatory to laying, the tiles should be placed along one side of the +ditch, near enough to be easily reached by a man standing in it. When +collars are to be used, one of these should be slipped over one end of +each tile. The workman stands in the ditch, with his face toward its upper +end. The first tile is laid with a collar on its lower end, and the collar +is drawn one-half of its length forward, so as to receive the end of the +next tile. The upper end of the first tile is closed with a stone, or a +bit of broken tile placed firmly against it. The next tile has its nose +placed into the projecting half of the collar of the first one, and its +own collar is drawn forward to receive the end of the third, and thus to +the end of the drain, the workman walking backward as the work progresses. +By and by, when he comes to connect the lateral with the main, he may find +that a short piece of tile is needed to complete the length; this should +not be placed next to the tile of the main, where it is raised above the +bottom of the ditch, but two or three lengths back, leaving the connection +with the main to be made with a tile of full length. If the piece to be +inserted is only two or three inches long, it may be omitted, and the +space covered by using a whole 21/2-inch tile in place of the collar. In +turning corners or sharp curves, the end of the tile may be chipped off, +so as to be a little thinner on one side, which will allow it to be turned +at a greater angle in the collar. + +If the drain turns a right angle, it will be better to dig out the bottom +of the ditch to a depth of about eight inches, and to set a 6-inch tile on +end in the hole, perforating its sides, so as to admit the ends of the +pipes at the proper level. This 6-inch tile, (which acts as a small +silt-basin,) should stand on a board or on a flat stone, and its top +should be covered with a stone or with a couple of bricks. Wood will last +almost forever below the level of the drain, where it will always be +saturated with water, but in the drier earth above the tile, it is much +more liable to decay. + + [Illustration: Fig. 32 - PICK FOR DRESSING AND PREFORATING TILE.] + + Fig. 32 - PICK FOR DRESSING AND PREFORATING TILE. + + +The trimming and perforating of the tile is done with a "tile-pick," (Fig. +32,) the hatchet end, tolerably sharp, being used for the trimming, and +the point, for making the holes. This is done by striking lightly around +the circumference of the hole until the center piece falls in, or can be +easily knocked in. If the hole is irregular, and does not fit the tile +nicely, the open space should be covered with bits of broken tile, to keep +the earth out. + +As fast as the laterals are laid and inspected, they should be filled in +to the depth of at least a foot, to protect the tiles from being broken by +the falling of stones or lumps of earth from the top, and from being +displaced by water flowing in the ditch. Two or three feet of the lower +end may be left uncovered until the connection with the main is finished. + +In the main drains, when the tiles are of the size with which collars are +used, the laying is done in the same manner. If it is necessary to use +3-1/2-inch tiles, or any larger size, much more care must be given to the +closing of the joints. All tiles, in manufacture, dry more rapidly at the +top, which is more exposed to the air, than at the bottom, and they are, +therefore, contracted and made shorter at the top. This difference is most +apparent in the larger sizes. The large _round_ tiles, which can be laid +on any side, can easily be made to form a close joint, and they should be +secured in their proper position by stones or lumps of earth, wedged in +between them and the sides of the ditch. The sole tiles must lie with the +shortest sides up, and, usually, the space between two tiles, at the top, +will be from one-quarter to one-half of an inch. To remedy this defect, +and form a joint which may he protected against the entrance of earth, the +bottom should he trimmed off, so as to allow the tops to come closer +together. Any opening, of less than a quarter of an inch, can he +satisfactorily covered,--more than that should not be allowed. In turning +corners, or in passing around curves, with large tiles, their ends must he +beveled off with the pick, so as to fit nicely in this position. + +The best covering for the joints of tiles which are laid without collars, +is a scrap of tin, bent so as to fit their shape,--scraps of leather, or +bits of strong wood shavings, answer a very good purpose, though both of +these latter require to be held in place by putting a little earth over +their ends as soon as laid on the tile. _Very small_ grass ropes drawn +over the joints, (the ends being held down with stones or earth,) form a +satisfactory covering, but care should be taken that they be not too +thick. A small handful of wood shavings, thrown over the joints, also +answers a good purpose. Care, however, should always be taken, in using +any material which will decay readily, to have no more than is necessary +to keep the earth out, lest, in its decay, it furnish material to be +carried into the tile and obstruct the flow. This precaution becomes less +necessary in the case of drains which always carry considerable streams of +water, but if they are at times sluggish in their flow, too much care +cannot be given to keep them free of all possible causes of obstruction. +As nothing is gained by increasing the quantity of loose covering beyond +what is needed to close the joints, and as such covering is only procured +with some trouble, there is no reason for its extravagant use. + +There seems to remain in the minds of many writers on drainage a +glimmering of the old fallacy that underdrains, like open drains, receive +their water from above, and it is too commonly recommended that porous +substances be placed above the tile. If, as is universally conceded, the +water rises into the tile from below, this is unnecessary. The practice of +covering the joints, and even covering the whole tile, (often to the depth +of a foot,) with tan-bark, turf, coarse gravel, etc., is in no wise to be +commended; and, while the objections to it are not necessarily very grave +in all cases, it always introduces an element of insecurity, and it is a +waste of money, if nothing worse. + +The tile layer need not concern himself with the question, of affording +entrance room for the water. Let him, so far as the rude materials at hand +will allow, make the joints perfectly tight, and when the water comes, it +will find ample flaws in his work, and he will have been a good workman if +it do not find room to flow in a current, carrying particles of dirt with +it. + +In ditches in which water is running at the time of laying the tiles, the +process should follow closely after the grading, and the stream may even +be dammed back, section after section, (a plugged tile being placed under +the dam, to be afterwards replaced by a free one,) and graded, laid and +covered before the water breaks in. There is one satisfaction in this kind +of work,--that, while it is difficult to lay the drain so thoroughly well +as in a dry ditch, the amount of water is sufficient to overcome any +slight tendency to obstruction. + +*Connections.*--As has been before stated, lateral drains should always +enter at the top of the main. Even in the most shallow work, the slightly +decreased depth of the lateral, which this arrangement requires, is well +compensated for by the free outlet which it secures. + +After the tile of the main, which is to receive a side drain, has been +fitted to its place, and the point of junction marked, it should be taken +up and perforated; then the end of the tile of the lateral should be so +trimmed as to fit the hole as accurately as may be, the large tile +replaced in its position, and the small one laid on it,--reaching over to +the floor of the lateral ditch. Then connect it with the lateral as +previously laid, fill up solidly the space under the tile which reaches +over to the top of the main, (so that it cannot become disturbed in +filling,) and lay bits of tile, or other suitable covering, around the +connecting joint.(20) + + [Illustration: Fig. 33 - LATERAL DRAIN ENTERING AT TOP.] + + Fig. 33 - LATERAL DRAIN ENTERING AT TOP. + + +When the main drain is laid with collars, it should be so arranged that, +by substituting a full tile in the place of the collar,--leaving, within +it, a space between the smaller pipes,--a connection can be made with this +larger tile, as is represented in Figures 33 and 34. + + [Illustration: Fig. 34 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF JOINT.] + + Fig. 34 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF JOINT. + + +*Silt-Basins* should be used at all points where a drain, after running +for any considerable distance at a certain rate of fall, changes to a less +rapid fall,--unless, indeed, the diminished fall be still sufficiently +great for the removal of silty matters, (say two feet or more in a +hundred). They may be made in any manner which will secure a stoppage of +the direct current, and afford room below the floor of the tile for the +deposit of the silt which the water has carried in suspension; and they +may be of any suitable material;--even a sound flour barrel will serve a +pretty good purpose for many years. The most complete form of basin is +that represented in Figure 24. + + [Illustration: Fig. 35 - SQUARE BRICK SILT-BASIN.] + + Fig. 35 - SQUARE BRICK SILT-BASIN. + + +When the object is only to afford room for the collection of the silt of a +considerable length of drain, and it is not thought worth while to keep +open a communication with the surface, for purposes of inspection, a +square box of brick work, (Fig. 35,) having a depth of one and a half or +two feet below the floor of the drain,--tiles for the drains being built in +the walls, and the top covered with a broad stone,--will answer very well. + + [Illustration: Fig. 36 - SILT-BASIN OF VITRIFIED PIPE.] + + Fig. 36 - SILT-BASIN OF VITRIFIED PIPE. + + +A good sort of basin, to reach to the surface of the ground, may be made +of large, vitrified drain pipes,--such as are used for town +sewerage,--having a diameter of from six to twelve inches, according to the +requirements of the work. This basin is shown in Figure 36. + +Figure 37 represents a basin made of a 6-inch tile,--similar to that +described on page 130, for turning a short corner. A larger basin of the +same size, cheaper than if built of brick, may be made by using a large +vitrified drain pipe in the place of the one shown in the cut. These +vitrified pipes may be perforated in the manner described for the common +tile. + + [Illustration: Fig. 37 - TILE SILT-BASIN.] + + Fig. 37 - TILE SILT-BASIN. + + +In laying the main line _C_, (Fig. 21,) an underground basin of brick +work, (Fig. 35,) or its equivalent, should be placed at stake 7, because +at that point the water, which has been flowing on an inclination of 1.09, +2.00 and 2.83 per 100, continues its course over the much less fall of +only 0.56 per 100. + +If, among the tiles which have passed the inspection, there are some +which, from over burning, are smaller than the average, they should be +laid at the upper ends of the laterals. The cardinal rule of the tile +layer should be _never to have a single tile in the finished drain of +smaller size, of more irregular shape, or less perfectly laid, than any +tile above it_. If there is to be any difference in the quality of the +drain, at different points, let it grow better as it approaches the outlet +and has a greater length above depending upon its action. + +*Covering the Tiles, and Filling-in the Ditches.*--The best material for +covering the tiles is that which will the most completely surround them, +so as to hold them in their places; will be the least likely to have +passages for the flow of _streams_ of water into the joints, and will +afford the least silt to obstruct the drain. Clay is the best of all +available materials, because it is of the most uniform character +throughout its mass, and may be most perfectly compacted around the tiles. +As has been before stated, all matters which are subject to decay are +objectionable, because they will furnish fine matters to enter the joints, +and by their decrease of bulk, may leave openings in the earth through +which streams of muddy water may find their way into the tiles. Gravel is +bad, and will remain bad until its spaces are filled with fine dirt +deposited by water, which, leaving only a part of its impurities here, +carries the rest into the drain. A gravelly loam, free from roots or other +organic matter, if it is strong enough to be worked into a ball when wet, +will answer a very good purpose. + +Ordinarily, the earth which was thrown out from the bottom of the ditch, +and which now lies at the top of the dirt heap, is the best to be returned +about the tiles, being first freed from any stones it may contain which +are large enough to break or disturb the tiles in falling on to them. + +If the bottom of the ditch consists of quicksand or other silty matters, +clay or some other suitable earth should be sought in that which was +excavated from a less depth, or should be brought from another place. A +thin layer of this having been placed in the bottom of the ditch when +grading, a slight covering of the same about the tiles will so encase them +as to prevent the entrance of the more "slippy" soil. + +The first covering of fine earth, free from stones and clods, should be +sprinkled gently over the tiles, no full shovelfuls being thrown on to +them until they are covered at least six inches deep. When the filling has +reached a height of from fifteen to twenty inches, the men may jump into +the ditch and tramp it down evenly and regularly, not treading too hard in +any one place at first. When thus lightly compacted about the tile, so +that any further pressure cannot displace them, the filling should be +repeatedly rammed, (the more the better,) by two men standing astride the +ditch, facing each other, and working a maul, such as is shown in Figure +38, and which may weigh from 80 to 100 pounds. + + [Illustration: Fig. 38 - MAUL FOR RAMMING.] + + Fig. 38 - MAUL FOR RAMMING. + + +Those to whom this recommendation is new, will, doubtless, think it +unwise. The only reply to their objection must be that others who shared +their opinion, have, by long observation and experience, been convinced of +its correctness. They may practically convince themselves of the value of +this sort of covering by a simple and inexpensive experiment: Take two +large, water-tight hogsheads, bore through the side of each, a few inches +from the bottom, a hole just large enough to admit a 1-1/4-inch tile; +cover the bottom to the hight of the lower edge of the hole with strong, +wet clay, beaten to a hard paste; on this, lay a line of pipes and +collars,--the inner end sealed with putty, and the tile which passes +through the hole so wedged about with putty, that no water could pass out +between it and the outside of the hole. Cover the tile in one hogshead +with loose gravel, and then fill it to the top with loose earth. Cover the +tile in the other, twenty inches deep, with ordinary stiff clay, (not wet +enough to _puddle_, but sufficiently moist to pack well,) and ram it +thoroughly, so as to make sure that the tiles are completely clasped, and +that there is no crack nor crevice through which water can trickle, and +then fill this hogshead to the top with earth, of the same character with +that used in the other case. These hogsheads should stand where the water +of a small roof, (as that of a hog-pen,) may be led into them, by an +arrangement which shall give an equal quantity to each;--this will give +them rather more than the simple rain-fall, but will leave them exposed to +the usual climatic changes of the season. A vessel, of a capacity of a +quart or more, should be connected with each outlet, and covered from the +dust,-- these will act as silt-basins. During the first few storms the +water will flow off much more freely from the first barrel; but, little by +little, the second one, as the water finds its way through the clay, and +as the occasional drying, and repeated filtration make it more porous, +will increase in its flow until it will, by the end of the season, or, at +latest, by the end of the second season, drain as well as the first, if, +indeed, that be not by this time somewhat obstructed with silt. The amount +of accumulation in the vessels at the outlet will show which process has +best kept back the silt, and the character of the deposit will show which +would most probably be carried off by the gentle flow of water in a nearly +level drain. + +It is no argument against this experiment that its results cannot be +determined even in a year, for it is not pretended that drains laid in +compact clay will dry land so completely during the first month as those +which give more free access to the water; only that they will do so in a +comparatively short time; and that, as drainage is a work for all time, +(practically as lasting as the farm itself,) the importance of permanence +and good working for long years to come, is out of all proportion to that +of the temporary good results of one or two seasons, accompanied with +doubtful durability. + +It has been argued that _surface water_ will be more readily removed by +drains having porous filling. Even if this were true to any important +degree,--which it is not,--it would be an argument against the plan, for the +remedy would be worse than the disease. If the water flow from the surface +down into the drain, it will not fail to carry dirt with it, and instead +of the clear water, which alone should rise into the tiles from below, we +should have a trickling flow from above, muddy with wasted manure and +silty earth. + +_The remaining filling of the ditch_ is a matter of simple labor, and may +be done in whatever way may be most economical under the circumstances of +the work. If the amount to be filled is considerable, so that it is +desirable to use horse-power, the best way will be to use a scraper, such +as is represented in Figure 39, which is a strongly ironed plank, 6 feet +long and 18 inches wide, sharp shod at one side, and supplied with handles +at the other. It is propelled by means of the curved rods, which are +attached to its under side by flexible joints. These rods are connected by +a chain which has links large enough to receive the hook of an ox-chain. +This scraper may be used for any straight-forward work by attaching the +power to the middle of the chain. By moving the hook a few links to the +right or left, it will act somewhat after the manner of the mould-board of +a plow, and will, if skillfully handled, shoot the filling rapidly into +the ditch. + + [Illustration: Fig. 39 - BOARD SCRAPER FOR FILLING DITCHES.] + + Fig. 39 - BOARD SCRAPER FOR FILLING DITCHES. + + +If the work is done by hand, mix the surface soil and turf with the +subsoil filling for the whole depth. If with a scraper, put the surface +soil at the bottom of the loose filling, and the subsoil at the top, as +this will be an imitation, for the limited area of the drains, of the +process of "trenching," which is used in garden cultivation. + +When the ditches are filled, they will be higher than the adjoining land, +and it will be well to make them still more so by digging or plowing out a +small trench at each side of the drain, throwing the earth against the +mound, which will prevent surface water, (during heavy rains,) from +running into the loose filling before it is sufficiently settled. A cross +section of a filled drain provided with these ditches is shown in Figure +40. + + [Illustration: Fig. 40 - CROSS-SECTION OF DITCH (FILLED), WITH FURROW + AT EACH SIDE.] + + Fig. 40 - CROSS-SECTION OF DITCH (FILLED), WITH FURROW AT EACH SIDE. + + +In order that the silt-basins may be examined, and their accumulations of +earth removed, during the early action of the drains, those parts of the +ditches which are above them may be left open, care being taken, by +cutting surface ditches around them, to prevent the entrance of water from +above. During this time the covers of the basins should be kept on, and +should be covered with inverted sods to keep loose dirt from getting into +them. + +*Collecting the Water (C)f Springs.*--The lateral which connects with the +main drain, _A_, (Fig. 21,) at the point _m_, and which is to take the +water of the spring at the head of the brook, should not be opened until +the main has been completed and filled into the silt-basin,--the brook +having, meantime, been carried over the other ditches in wooden troughs. +This lateral may now be made in the following way: Dig down to the tile of +the main, and carry the lateral ditch back, a distance of ten feet. In the +bottom of this, place a wooden trough, at least six feet long, laid at +such depth that its channel shall be on the exact grade required for +laying the tiles, and lay long straw, (held down by weights,) lengthwise +within it. Make an opening in the tile of the main and connect the trough +with it. The straw will prevent any coarse particles of earth from being +carried into the tile, and the flow of the water will be sufficient to +carry on to the silt-basin any finer matters. Now open the ditch to and +beyond the spring, digging at least a foot below the grade in its +immediate vicinity, and filling to the exact grade with small stones, +broken bricks, or other suitable material. Lay the tiles from the upper +end of the ditch across the stone work, and down to the wooden trough. Now +spread a sufficient layer of wood shavings over the stone work to keep the +earth from entering it, cover the tiles and fill in the ditch, as before +directed, and then remove the straw from the wooden trough and lay tiles +in its place. In this way, the water of even a strong spring may be +carried into a finished drain without danger. In laying the tile which +crosses the stone work, it is well to use full 2-1/2-inch tiles in the +place of collars, leaving the joints of these, and of the 1-1/4-inch +tiles, (which should join near the middle of the collar tile,) about a +quarter of an inch open, to give free entrance to the water. + +The stone and tile drain, _H, I_, is simply dug out to the surface of the +rock, if this is not more than two feet below the grade of the upper ends +of the laterals with which it connects, and then filled up with loose +stones to the line of grade. If the stones are small, so as to form a good +bottom for the tiles, they may be laid directly upon it; if not, a bottom +for them may be made of narrow strips of cheap boards. Before filling, the +tiles and stone work should be covered with shavings, and the filling +above these should consist of a strong clay, which will remain in place +after the shavings rot away. + +*Amending the Map.*--When the tiles are laid, and before they are covered, +all deviations of the lines, as in passing around large stones and other +obstructions, which may have prevented the exact execution of the original +plan, and the location and kind of each underground silt-basin should also +be carefully noted, so that they may be transferred to the map, for future +reference, in the event of repairs becoming necessary. In a short time +after the work is finished, the surface of the field will show no trace of +the lines of drain, and it should be possible, in case of need, to find +any point of the drains with precision, so that no labor will be lost in +digging for it. It is much cheaper to measure over the surface than to dig +four feet trenches through the ground. + + + + + +CHAPTER V. - HOW TO TAKE CARE OF DRAINS AND DRAINED LAND. + + +So far as tile drains are concerned, if they are once well laid, and if +the silt-basins have been emptied of silt until the water has ceased to +deposit it, they need no care nor attention, beyond an occasional cleaning +of the outlet brook. Now and then, from the proximity of willows, or +thrifty, young, water-loving trees, a drain will be obstructed by roots; +or, during the first few years after the work is finished, some weak +point,--a badly laid tile, a loosely fitted connection between the lateral +and a main, or an accumulation of silt coming from an undetected and +persistent vein of quicksand,--will be developed, and repairs will have to +be made. Except for the slight danger from roots, which must always be +guarded against to the extent of allowing no young trees of the dangerous +class to grow near a drain through which a _constant_ stream of water +flows, it may be fairly assumed that drains which have been kept in order +for four or five years have passed the danger of interruption from any +cause, and they may be considered entirely safe. + +A drain will often, for some months after it is laid, run muddy water +after rains. Sometimes the early deposit of silt will nearly fill the +tile, and it will take the water of several storms to wash it out. If the +tiles have been laid in packed clay, they cannot long receive silt from +without, and that which makes the flow turbid, may be assumed to come from +the original deposit in the conduit. Examinations of newly laid drains +have developed many instances where tiles were at first half filled with +silt, and three months later were entirely clean. The muddiness of the +flow indicates what the doctors call "an effort of nature to relieve +herself," and nature may be trusted to succeed, at least, until she +abandons the effort. If we are sure that a drain has been well laid, we +need feel no anxiety because it fails to take the water from the ground so +completely as it should do, until it settles into a flow of clear water +after the heaviest storms. + +In the case of art actual stoppage, which will generally be indicated by +the "bursting out" of the drain, i.e., the wetting of the land as though +there were a spring under it, or as though its water had no underground +outlet, (which is the fact,) it will be necessary to lay open the drain +until the obstruction is found. + +In this work, the real value of the map will be shown, by the facility +which it offers for finding any point of any line of drains, and the exact +locality of the junctions with the mains, and of the silt-basins. In +laying out the plan on the ground, and in making his map, the surveyor +will have had recourse to two or more fixed points; one of them, in our +example, (fig. 21,) would probably be the center of the main silt-basin, +and one, a drilled hole or other mark on the rock at the north side of the +field. By staking out on the ground the straight line connecting these two +points, and drawing a corresponding line on the map; we shall have a +_base-line_, from which it will be easy, by perpendicular offsets, to +determine on the ground any point upon the map. By laying a small square +on the map, with one of its edges coinciding with the base-line, and +moving it on this line until the other edge meets the desired point, we +fix, at the angle of the square, the point on the base-line from which we +are to measure the length of the offset. The next step is to find, (by the +scale,) the distance of this point from the nearest end of the base-line, +and from the point sought. Then measure off, in the field, the +corresponding distance on the base-line, and, from the point thus found, +measure on a line perpendicular to the base line, the length of the +offset; the point thus indicated will be the locality sought. In the same +manner, find another point on the same drain, to give the range on which +to stake it out. From this line, the drains which run parallel to it, can +easily be found, or it may be used as a base-line, from which to find, by +measuring offsets, other points near it. + +The object of this staking is, to find, in an inexpensive and easy way, +the precise position of the drains, for which it would be otherwise +necessary to grope in the dark, verifying our guesses by digging four-foot +trenches, at random. + +If there is a silt-basin, or a junction a short distance below the point +where the water shows itself, this will be the best place to dig. If it is +a silt-basin, we shall probably find that this has filled up with dirt, +and has stopped the flow. In this case it should be cleaned out, and a +point of the drain ten feet below it examined. If this is found to be +clear, a long slender stick may be pushed up as far as the basin and +worked back and forth until the passage is cleared. Then replace the tile +below, and try with the stick to clean the tiles above the basin, so as to +tap the water above the obstruction. If this cannot be done, or if the +drain ten feet below is clogged, it will be necessary to uncover the tiles +in both directions until an opening is found, and to take up and relay the +whole. If the wetting of the ground is sufficient to indicate that there +is much water in the drain, only five or six tiles should be taken up at a +time, cleaned and relaid,--commencing at the lower end,--in order that, when +the water commences to flow, it may not disturb the bottom of the ditch +for the whole distance. + +If the point opened is at a junction with the main, examine both the main +and the lateral, to see which is stopped, and proceed with one or the +other, as directed above. In doing this work, care should be taken to send +as little muddy water as possible into the drain below, and to allow the +least possible disturbance of the bottom. + +If silt-basins have been placed at those points at which the fall +diminishes, the obstruction will usually be found to occur at the outlets +of these, from a piling up of the silt in front of them, and to extend +only a short distance below and above. It is not necessary to take up the +tiles until they are found to be entirely clean, for, if they are only +one-half or one-third full, they will probably be washed clean by the rush +of water, when that which is accumulated above is tapped. The work should +be done in settled fair weather, and the ditches should remain open until +the effect of the flow has been observed. If the tiles are made thoroughly +clean by the time that the accumulated water has run off, say in 24 hours, +they may be covered up; if not, it may be necessary to remove them again, +and clean them by hand. When the work is undertaken it should be +thoroughly done, so that the expense of a new opening need not be again +incurred. + +It is worse than useless to substitute larger sizes of tiles for those +which are taken up. The obstruction, if by silt, is the result of a too +sluggish flow, and to enlarge the area of the conduit would only increase +the difficulty. If the tiles are too small to carry the full flow which +follows a heavy rain, they will be very unlikely to become choked, for the +water will then have sufficient force to wash them clean, while if they +are much larger than necessary, a deposit of silt to one half of their +height will make a broad, flat bed for the stream, which will run with +much less force, and will be more likely to increase the deposit. + +If the drains are obstructed by the roots of willows, or other trees, the +proprietor must decide whether he will sacrifice the trees or the drains; +both he cannot keep, unless he chooses to go to the expense of laying in +cement all of the drains which carry constant streams, for a distance of +at least 50 feet from the dangerous trees. The trouble from trees is +occasionally very great, but its occurrence is too rare for general +consideration, and must be met in each case with such remedies as +circumstances suggest as the best. + +The gratings over the outlets of silt-basins which open at the surface of +the ground, are sometimes, during the first year of the drainage, +obstructed by a fungoid growth which collects on the cross bars. This +should be occasionally rubbed off. Its character is not very well +understood, and it is rarely observed in old drains. The decomposition of +the grass bands which are used to cover the joints of the larger tiles may +encourage its formation. + +If the surface soil have a good proportion of sand, gravel, or organic +matter, so as to give it the consistency which is known as "loamy," it +will bear any treatment which it may chance to receive in cultivation, or +as pasture land; but if it be a decided clay soil, no amount of draining +will enable us to work it, or to turn cattle upon it when it is wet with +recent rains. It will much sooner become dry, because of the drainage, and +may much sooner be trodden upon without injury; but wet clay cannot be +worked or walked over without being more or less _puddled_, and, thereby, +injured for a long time. + +No matter how thoroughly heavy clay pasture lands may be under-drained, +the cattle should be removed from them when it rains, and kept off until +they are comparatively dry. Neglect of this precaution has probably led to +more disappointment as to the effects of drainage than any other +circumstances connected with it. The injury from this cause does not +extend to a great depth, and in the Northern States it would always be +overcome by the frosts of a single winter; as has been before stated, it +is confined to stiff clay soils, but as these are the soils which most +need draining, the warning given is important. + + + + + +CHAPTER VI. - WHAT DRAINING COSTS. + + +Draining is expensive work. This fact must be accepted as a very stubborn +one, by every man who proposes to undertake the improvement. There is no +royal road to tile-laying, and the beginner should count the cost at the +outset. A good many acres of virgin land at the West might be bought for +what must be paid to get an efficient system of drains laid under a single +acre at home. Any man who stops at this point of the argument will +probably move West,--or do nothing. + +Yet, it is susceptible of demonstration that, even at the West, in those +localities where Indian Corn is worth as much as fifty cents per bushel at +the farm, it will pay to drain, in the best manner, all such land as is +described in the first chapter of this book as in need of draining. +Arguments to prove this need not be based at all on cheapness of the work; +only on its effects and its permanence. + +In fact, so far as draining with tiles is concerned, cheapness is a +delusion and a snare, for the reason that it implies something less than +the best work, a compromise between excellence and inferiority. The moment +that we come down from the best standard, we introduce a new element into +the calculation. The sort of tile draining which it is the purpose of this +work to advocate is a system so complete in every particular, that it may +be considered as an absolutely permanent improvement. During the first +years of the working of the drains, they will require more or less +attention, and some expense for repairs; but, in well constructed work, +these will be very slight, and will soon cease altogether. In proportion +as we resort to cheap devices, which imply a neglect of important parts of +the work, and a want of thoroughness in the whole, the expense for repairs +will increase, and the duration of the usefulness of the drains will +diminish. + +Drains which are permanently well made, and which will, practically, last +for all time, may be regarded as a good investment, the increased crop of +each year, paying a good interest on the money that they cost, and the +money being still represented by the undiminished value of the +improvement. In such a case the draining of the land may be said to cost, +not $50 per acre,--but the interest on $50 each year. The original amount +is well invested, and brings its yearly dividend as surely as though it +were represented by a five-twenty bond. + +With badly constructed drains, on the other hand, the case is quite +different. In buying land which is subject to no loss in quantity or +quality, the farmer considers, not so much the actual cost, as the +relation between the yearly interest on the cost, and the yearly profit on +the crop,--knowing that, a hundred years hence, the land will still be +worth his money. + +But if the land were bounded on one side by a river which yearly +encroached some feet on its bank, leaving the field a little smaller after +each freshet; or if, every spring, some rods square of its surface were +sure to be covered three feet deep with stones and sand, so that the +actual value of the property became every year less, the purchaser would +compare the yearly value of the crops, not only with the interest on the +price, but, in addition to this, with so much of the prime value as yearly +disappears with the destruction of the land. + +It is exactly so with the question of the cost of drainage. If the work is +insecurely done, and is liable, in five years or in fifty, to become +worthless; the increase of the crops resulting from it, must not only +cover the yearly interest on the cost, but the yearly depreciation as +well. Therefore what may seem at the time of doing the work to be +cheapness, is really the greatest extravagance. It is like building a +brick wall with clay for mortar. The bricks and the workmanship cost full +price, and the small saving on the mortar will topple the wall over in a +few years, while, if well cemented, it would have lasted for centuries. +The cutting and filling of the ditches, and the purchase and +transportation of the tiles, will cost the same in every case, and these +constitute the chief cost; if the proper care in grading, tile-laying and +covering, and in making outlets be stingily withheld,--saving, perhaps, +one-tenth of the expense,--what might have been a permanent improvement to +the land, may disappear, and the whole outlay be lost in ten years. A +saving of ten per cent. in the cost will have lost us the other ninety in +a short time. + +But, while cheapness is to be shunned, economy is to be sought in every +item of the work of draining, and should be studied, by proprietor and +engineer, from the first examination of the land, to the throwing of the +last shovelful of earth on to the filling of the ditch. There are few +operations connected with the cultivation of the soil in which so much may +be imperceptibly lost through neglect, and carelessness about little +details, as in tile-draining. In the original levelling of the ground, the +adjustment of the lines, the establishing of the most judicious depth and +inclination at each point of the drains, the disposition of surface +streams during the prosecution of the work, and in the width of the +excavation, the line which divides economy and wastefulness is extremely +narrow and the most constant vigilance, together with the best judgment +and foresight, are needed to avoid unnecessary cost. In the laying and +covering of the tile, on the other hand, it is best to disregard a little +slowness and unnecessary care on the part of the workmen, for the sake of +the most perfect security of the work. + +*Details of Cost.*--The items of the work of drainage may be classified as +follows: + +1. Engineering and Superintendence. + +2. Digging the ditches. + +3. Grading the bottoms. + +4. Tile and tile-laying. + +5. Covering the tile and filling the ditches. + +6. Outlets and silt-basins. + +1. _Engineering and Superintendence._--It is not easy to say what would be +the proper charge for this item of the work. In England, the Commissioners +under the Drainage Acts of Parliament, and the Boards of Public Works, fix +the charge for engineering at $1.25 per acre. That is in a country when +the extent of lands undergoing the process of draining is very great, +enabling one person to superintend large tracts in the same neighborhood +at the same time, and with little or no outlay for travelling expenses. In +this country, where the improvement is, thus far, confined to small areas, +widely separated; and where there are comparatively few engineers who make +a specialty of the work, the charge for services is necessarily much +higher, and the amount expended in travelling much greater. In most cases, +the proprietor of the land must qualify himself to superintend his own +operations, (with the aid of a country surveyor, or a railroad engineer in +the necessary instrumental work.) As draining becomes more general, the +demand for professional assistance will, without doubt, cause local +engineers to turn their attention to the subject, and their services may +be more cheaply obtained. At present, it would probably not be prudent to +estimate the cost of engineering and superintendence, including the time +and skill of the proprietor, at less than $5 per acre, even where from 20 +to 50 acres are to be drained at once. + +2. _Digging the Ditches._--The labor required for the various operations +constitutes the principal item of cost in draining, and the price of labor +is now so different in different localities, and so unsettled in all, that +it is difficult to determine a rate which would be generally fair. It will +be assumed that the average wages of day laborers of the class employed in +digging ditches, is $1.50 per day, and the calculation will have to be +changed for different districts, in proportion to the deviation of the +actual rate of wages from this amount. There is a considerable advantage +in having the work done at some season, (as after the summer harvest, or +late in the fall,) when wages are comparatively low. + +The cutting of the ditches should always be let by the rod. When working +at day's work, the men will invariably open them wider than is necessary, +for the sake of the greater convenience of working, and the extra width +causes a corresponding waste of labor. + +A 4-foot ditch, in most soils, need be only 20 inches wide at the surface, +and 4 inches at the bottom. This gives a mean width of 12 inches, and +requires the removal of nearly 2-1/2 cubic yards of earth for each rod of +ditch; but an increase to a mean width of 16 inches, (which day workmen +will usually reach, while piece workmen almost never will,) requires the +removal of 3-1/4 cubic yards to the rod. As the increased width is usually +below the middle of the drain, the extra earth will all have to be raised +from 2 to 4 feet, and the extra 3/4 yards will cost as much as a full yard +taken evenly from the whole side, from top to bottom. + +In clay soils, free from stones or "hard pan," but so stiff as to require +considerable picking, ordinary workmen, after a little practice, will be +able to dig 3-1/2 rods of ditch per day, to an average depth of +3.80,--leaving from 2 to 3 inches of the bottom of 4-foot ditches to be +finished by the graders. This makes the cost of digging about 43 cents per +rod. In loamy soil the cost will be a little less than this, and in very +hard ground, a little more. In sandy and peaty soils, the cost will not be +more than 30 cents. Probably 43 cents would be a fair average for soils +requiring drainage, throughout the country. + +This is about 17 cents for each yard of earth removed. + +In soft ground, the caving in of the banks will require a much greater +mean width than 12 inches to be thrown out, and, if the accident could not +have been prevented by ordinary care on the part of the workman, (using +the bracing boards shown in Fig. 28,) he should receive extra pay for the +extra work. In passing around large stones it may also be necessary to +increase the width. + +The following table will facilitate the calculations for such extra work: + + CUBIC YARDS OF EXCAVATION IN DITCHES OF VARIOUS WIDTH. +_Length of 12 _Inches 18 _Inches 24 _Inches 30 _Inches 36 _Inches +Ditch._ Wide._ Wide._ Wide._ Wide._ Wide._ + Yds. Feet. Yds. Feet. Yds. Feet. Yds. Feet. Yds. Feet. +1 Yard. 0 12 0 18 0 24 1 3 1 9 +1 Rod. 2 12 3 18 4 24 6 3 7 9 + +Men will, in most soils, work best in couples,--one shovelling out the +earth, and working forward, and the other, (moving backward,) loosening +the earth with a spade or foot-pick, (Fig. 41.) In stony land, the men +should be required to keep their work well closed up,--excavating to the +full depth as they go. Then, if they strike a stone too large to be taken +out within the terms of their contract, they can skip a sufficient +distance to pass it, and the digging of the omitted part may be done by a +faithful day workman. This will usually be cheaper and more satisfactory +than to pay the contractors for extra work. + + [Illustration: Fig. 41 - FOOT PICK.] + + Fig. 41 - FOOT PICK. + + +Concerning the amount of work that one man can do in a day, in different +soils, digging ditches 4 feet deep, French says: "In the writer's own +field, where the pick was used to loosen the lower two feet of earth, the +labor of opening and _filling_ drains 4 feet deep, and of the mean width +of 14 inches, all by hand labor, has been, in a mile of drains, being our +first experiments, about one day's labor to 3 rods in length. The +excavated earth of such a drain measures not quite 3 cubic yards, +(exactly, 2.85.)" In a subsequent work, in a sandy soil, two men opened, +_laid_, and _refilled_ 14 rods in one day;--the mean width being 12 +inches.(21) + +"In the same season, the same men opened, _laid_, and _filled_ 70 rods of +4-foot drain of the same mean width of 12 inches, in the worst kind of +clay soil, where the pick was constantly used. It cost 35 days' labor to +complete the job, being 50 cents _per_ rod for the labor alone." Or, under +the foregoing calculation of $1.50 per day, 75 cents per rod. These +estimates, in common with nearly all that are published, are for the +entire work of digging, grading, tile-laying, and refilling. Deducting the +time required for the other work, the result will be about as above +estimated; for the rough excavation, 3 1/2-rods to the day's work, +costing, at $1.50 per day, 43 cents to the rod. + +_Grading_ is the removal of 2 or 3 inches in depth, and about 4 inches in +width, of the soil at the bottom of the ditch. It is chiefly done with the +finishing scoop, which, (being made of two thin plates, one of iron and +one of steel, welded together, the iron wearing away and leaving the sharp +steel edge always prominent,) will work in a very hard clay without the +aid of the pick. Three men,--the one in the ditch being a skillful workman, +and the others helping him when not sighting the rods,--will grade about +100 rods per day, making the cost about 6 cents per rod. Until they +acquire the skill to work thus rapidly, they should not be urged beyond +what they can readily do in the best manner, as this operation, (which is +the preparing of the foundation for the tiles,) is probably the most +important of the whole work of draining. + +_Tiles and Tile-Laying._--After allowing for breakage, it will take about +16 tiles and 16 collars to lay a rod in length of drain. The cost of these +will, of course, be very much affected by the considerations of the +nearness of the tile-kiln and the cost of transportation. They should, in +no ordinary case, cost, delivered on the ground, more than $8 per thousand +for 1-1/4-inch tiles, and $4 per thousand for the collars, making a total +of $12 for both, equal to about 19 cents per rod. The laying of the tiles, +may be set down at 2 cents per rod,--based on a skilled man laying 100 rods +daily, and receiving $2 per day. + +_Covering and filling_ will probably cost 10 cents per rod, (if the +scraper, Fig. 39, can be successfully used for the rough filling, the cost +will be reduced considerably below this.) + +The four items of the cost of making one rod of lateral drain are as +follows: + +Digging the ditches - - - .43 +Grading - - - .06 +Tiles and laying - - - .21 +Covering and filling - - - .10 +- - -.80 cts. + +If the drains are placed at intervals of 40 feet, there are required 64 +rods to the acre,--this at 80 cents per rod will make the cost per +acre,--for the above items,--$51.20. + +How much should be allowed for main drains, outlets, and silt-basins, it +is impossible to say, as, on irregular ground, no two fields will require +the same amount of this sort of work. On very even land, where the whole +surface, for hundreds of acres, slopes gradually in one or two directions, +the outlay for mains need not be more than two per cent. of the cost of +the laterals. This would allow laterals of a uniform length of 800 feet to +discharge into the main line, at intervals of 40 feet, if we do not +consider the trifling extra cost of the larger tiles. On less regular +ground, the cost of mains will often be considerably more than two per +cent. of the cost of the laterals; but in some instances the increase of +main lines will be fully compensated for by the reduction in the length of +the laterals, which, owing to rocks, hills too steep to need drains at +regular intervals, and porous, (gravelly,) streaks in the land, cannot be +profitably made to occupy the whole area so thoroughly.(22) + +Probably 7-1/2 per cent. of the cost of the laterals for mains, outlets, +and silt-basins will be a fair average allowance. + +This will bring the total cost of the work to about $60 per acre, made up +as follows: + +Cost of the finished drains per acre - - - $51.20 + +7-1/2 per cent. added for mains, etc. - - - 3.83 + +Engineering and Superintendence - - - 5.00 + +Of course this is an arbitrary calculation, an estimate without a single +ascertained fact to go upon,--but it is as close as it can be made to what +would probably be the cost of the best work, on average ground, at the +present high prices of labor and material. Five years ago the same work +could have been done for from $40 to $45 per acre, and it will be again +cheaper when wages fall, and when a greater demand for draining tiles +shall have caused more competition in their manufacture. With a large +general demand, such as has existed in England for the last 20 years, they +would now be sold for one-half of their present price here, and the +manufacture would be more profitable. + +There are many light lands on retentive subsoils, which could be drained, +at present prices, for $50 or less per acre, and there are others, which +are very hard to dig, on which thorough-draining could not now be done for +$60. + +The cost and the promise of the operation in each instance, must guide the +land owner in deciding whether or not to undertake the improvement. + +In doubtful cases, there is one compromise which may be safely made,--that +is, to omit each alternate drain, and defer its construction until labor +is cheaper. + +This is doing half the work,--a very different thing from half-doing the +work. In such cases, the lines should be laid out as though they were to +be all done at once, and, finally, when the omitted drains are made, it +should be in pursuance of the original plan. Probably the drains which are +laid will produce more than one-half of the benefit that would result if +they were all laid, but they will rarely be satisfactory, except as a +temporary expedient, and the saving will be less than would at first seem +likely, for when the second drains are laid; the cultivation of the land +must be again interrupted; the draining force must be again brought +together; the levels of the new lines must be taken, and connected with +those of the old ones; and great care must be taken, selecting the dryest +weather for the work,--to admit very little, if any, muddy water into the +old mains. + +This practice of draining by installments is not recommended; it is only +suggested as an allowable expedient, when the cost of the complete work +could not be borne with out inconvenience. + +If any staid and economical farmer is disposed to be alarmed at the cost +of draining, he is respectfully reminded of the miles of expensive stone +walls and other fences, in New England and many other parts of the +country, which often are a real detriment to the farms, occupying, with +their accompanying bramble bushes and head lands, acres of valuable land, +and causing great waste of time in turning at the ends of short furrows in +plowing;--while they produce no benefit at all adequate to their cost and +annoyance. + +It should also be considered that, just as the cost of fences is scarcely +felt by the farmer, being made when his teams and hands could not be +profitably employed in ordinary farming operations, so the cost of +draining will be reduced in proportion to the amount of the work which he +can "do within himself,"--without hiring men expressly for it. The estimate +herein given is based on the supposition that men are hired for the work, +at wages equal to $1.50 per day,--while draining would often furnish a +great advantage to the farmer in giving employment to farm hands who are +paid and subsisted by the year. + + + + + +CHAPTER VII. - "WILL IT PAY?" + + +Starting with the basis of $60, as the cost of draining an acre of +ordinary farm land;--what is the prospect that the work will prove +remunerative? + +In all of the older States, farmers are glad to lend their surplus funds, +on bond and mortgage on their neighbors' farms, with interest at the rate +of 7, and often 6 per cent. + +In view of the fact that a little attention must be given each year to the +outlets, and, to the silt-basins, as well, for the first few years, it +will be just to charge for the use of the capital 8-1/3 per cent. + +This will make a yearly charge on the land, for the benefits resulting +from such a system of draining as has been described, OF FIVE DOLLARS PER +ACRE. + +_Will it Pay?_--Will the benefits accruing, year after year,--in wet seasons +and in dry,--with root crops and with grain,--with hay and with fruit,--in +rotations of crops and in pasture,--be worth $5 an acre? + +On this question depends the value of tile-draining as a _practical_ +improvement, for if there is a self-evident proposition in agriculture, it +is that what is not profitable, one year with another, is _not_ practical. + +To counterbalance the charge of $5, as the yearly cost of the draining, +each acre must produce, in addition to what it would have yielded without +the improvement: + +10 bushels of Corn at .50 per bushel. + +3 bushels of Wheat at $1.66 per bushel. + +5 bushels of Rye at 1.00 per bushel. + +12-1/2 bushels of Oats at .40 per bushel. + +10 bushels of Potatoes at .50 per bushel. + +6-2/3 bushels of Barley at .75 per bushel. + +1,000 pounds of Hay at 10.00 per ton. + +50 pounds of Cotton at .10 per pound. + +20 pounds of Tobacco at .25 per pound. + +Surely this is not a large increase,--not in a single case,--and the prices +are generally less than may be expected for years to come. + +The United States Census Report places the average crop of Indian Corn, in +Indiana and Illinois, at 33 bushels per acre. In New York it was but 27 +bushels, and in Pennsylvania but 20 bushels. It would certainly be +accounted extremely liberal to fix the average yield of such soils as need +draining, at 30 bushels per acre. It is extremely unlikely that they would +yield this, in the average of seasons, with the constantly recurring +injury from backward springs, summer droughts, and early autumn frosts. + +Heavy, retentive soils, which are cold and late in the spring, subject to +hard baking in midsummer, and to become cold and wet in the early fall, +are the very ones which are best suited, when drained, to the growth of +Indian Corn. They are "strong" and fertile,--and should be able to absorb, +and to prepare for the use of plants, the manure which is applied to them, +and the fertilizing matters which are brought to them by each storm;--but +they cannot properly exercise the functions of fertile soils, for the +reason that they are strangled with water, chilled by evaporation, or +baked to almost brick-like hardness, during nearly the whole period of the +growth and ripening of the crop. The manure which has been added to them, +as well as their own chemical constituents, are prevented from undergoing +those changes which are necessary to prepare them for the uses of +vegetation. The water of rains, finding the spaces in the soil already +occupied by the water of previous rains, cannot enter to deposit the gases +which it contains,--or, if the soil has been dried by evaporation under the +influence of sun and wind, the surface is almost hermetically sealed, and +the water is only slowly soaked up, much of it running off over the +surface, or lying to be removed by the slow and chilling process of +evaporation. In wet times and in dry, the air, with its heat, its oxygen, +and its carbonic acid, (its universal solvent,) is forbidden to enter and +do its beneficent work. The benefit resulting from cultivating the surface +of the ground is counteracted by the first unfavorable change of the +weather; a single heavy rain, by saturating the soil, returning it to +nearly its original condition of clammy compactness. In favorable seasons, +these difficulties are lessened, but man has no control over the seasons, +and to-morrow may be as foul as to-day has been fair. A crop of corn on +undrained, retentive ground, is subject to injury from disastrous changes +of the weather, from planting until harvest. Even supposing that, in the +most favorable seasons, it would yield as largely as though the ground +were drained, it would lose enough in unfavorable seasons to reduce the +average more than ten (10) bushels per acre. + +The average crop, on such land, has been assumed to be 30 bushels per +acre; it would be an estimate as moderate as this one is generous, to say +that, with the same cultivation and the same manure, the average crop, +after draining, would be 50 bushels, or an increase equal to twice as much +as is needed to pay the draining charge. If the method of cultivation is +improved, by deep plowing, ample manuring, and thorough working,--all of +which may be more profitably applied to drained than to undrained +land,--the _average_ crop,--of a series of years,--will not be less than 60 +bushels. + +The cost of extra harvesting will be more than repaid by the value of the +extra fodder, and the increased cultivation and manuring are lasting +benefits, which can be charged, only in small part, to the current crop. +Therefore, if it will pay to plow, plant, hoe and harvest for 30 bushels +of corn, it will surely pay much better to double the crop at a yearly +extra cost of $5, and, practically, it amounts to this;--the extra crop is +nearly all clear gain. + +The quantity of Wheat required to repay the annual charge for drainage is +so small, that no argument is needed to show that any process which will +simply prevent "throwing out" in winter, and the failure of the plant in +the wetter parts of the field, will increase the product more than that +amount,--to say nothing of the general importance to this crop of having +the land in the most perfect condition, (in winter as well as in summer.) + +It is stated that, since the general introduction of drainage in England, +(within the past 25 years,) the wheat crop of that country has been more +than doubled. Of course, it does not necessarily follow that the amount +_per acre_ has been doubled, large areas which were originally unfit for +the growth of this crop, having been, by draining, excellently fitted for +its cultivation;--but there can be no doubt that its yield has been greatly +increased on all drained lands, nor that large areas, which, before being +drained, were able to produce fair crops only in the best seasons, are now +made very nearly independent of the weather. + +It is not susceptible of demonstration, but it is undoubtedly true, that +those clay or other heavy soils, which are devoted to the growth of wheat +in this country, would, if they were thoroughly under-drained, produce, on +the average of years, at least double their present crop. + +Mr. John Johnston, a venerable Scotch farmer, who has long been a +successful cultivator in the Wheat region of Western New York,--and who was +almost the pioneer of tile-draining in America,--has laid over 50 miles of +drains within the last 30 years. His practice is described in Klippart's +Land Drainage, from which work we quote the following: + +"Mr. Johnston says he never saw 100 acres in any one farm, but a portion +of it would pay for draining. Mr. Johnston is no rich man who has carried +a favorite hobby without regard to cost or profit. He is a hardworking +Scotch farmer, who commenced a poor man, borrowed money to drain his land, +has gradually extended his operations, and is now reaping the benefits, in +having crops of 40 bushels of wheat to the acre. He is a gray-haired +Nestor, who, after accumulating the experience of a long life, is now, at +68 years of age, written to by strangers in every State of the Union for +information, not only in drainage matters, but all cognate branches of +farming. He sits in his homestead, a veritable Humboldt in his way, +dispensing information cheerfully through our agricultural papers and to +private correspondents, of whom he has recorded 164 who applied to him +last year. His opinions are, therefore, worth more than those of a host of +theoretical men, who write without practice." * * * * * + +"Although his farm is mainly devoted to wheat, yet a considerable area of +meadow and some pasture has been retained. He now owns about 300 acres of +land. The yield of wheat has been 40 bushels this year, and in former +seasons, when his neighbors were reaping 8, 10, or 15 bushels, he has had +30 and 40." * * * * * + +"Mr. Johnston says tile-draining pays for itself in two seasons, sometimes +in one. Thus, in 1847, he bought a piece of 10 acres to get an outlet for +his drains. It was a perfect quagmire, covered with coarse aquatic +grasses, and so unfruitful that it would not give back the seed sown upon +it. In 1848 a crop of corn was taken from it, which was measured and found +to be _eighty bushels_ per acre, and as, because of the Irish famine, corn +was worth $1 per bushel that year, this crop paid not only all the expense +of drainage, but the first cost of the land as well. + +"Another piece of 20 acres, adjoining the farm of the late John Delafield, +was wet, and would never bring more than 10 bushels of corn per acre. This +was drained at a great cost, nearly $30 per acre. The first crop after +this was 83 bushels and some odd pounds per acre. It was weighed and +measured by Mr. Delafield, and the County Society awarded a premium to Mr. +Johnston. Eight acres and some rods of this land, at one side, averaged 94 +bushels, or the trifling increase of 84 bushels per acre over what it +would bear before those insignificant clay tiles were buried in the +ground. But this increase of crop is not the only profit of drainage; for +Mr. Johnston says that, on drained land, one half the usual quantity of +manure suffices to give maximum crops. It is not difficult to find a +reason for this. When the soil is sodden with water, air can not enter to +any extent, and hence oxygen can not eat off the surfaces of +soil-particles and prepare food for plants; thus the plant must in great +measure depend on the manure for sustenance, and, of course, the more this +is the case, the more manure must be applied to get good crops. This is +one reason, but there are others which we might adduce if one good one +were not sufficient. + +"Mr. Johnston says he never made money until he drained, and so convinced +is he of the benefits accruing from the practice, that he would not +hesitate,--as he did not when the result was much more uncertain than at +present,--to borrow money to drain. Drains well laid, endure, but unless a +farmer intends doing the job well, he had best leave it alone and grow +poor, and move out West, and all that sort of thing. Occupiers of +apparently dry land are not safe in concluding that they need not go to +the expense of draining, for if they will but dig a three-foot ditch in +even the driest soil, water will be found in the bottom at the end of +eight hours, and if it does come, then draining will pay for itself +speedily." + +Some years ago, the Rural New Yorker published a letter from one of its +correspondents from which the following is extracted:-- + + + "I recollect calling upon a gentleman in the harvest field, when + something like the following conversation occurred: + + 'Your wheat, sir, looks very fine; how many acres have you in this + field?' + + 'In the neighborhood of eight, I judge.' + + 'Did you sow upon fallow?' + + 'No sir. We turned over green sward--sowed immediately upon the + sod, and dragged it thoroughly--and you see the yield will probably + be 25 bushels to the acre, where it is not too wet.' + + 'Yes sir, it is mostly very fine. I observed a thin strip through + it, but did not notice that it was wet.' + + 'Well, it is not _very_ wet. Sometimes after a rain, the water + runs across it, and in spring and fall it is just wet enough to + heave the wheat and kill it.' + + I inquired whether a couple of good drains across the lot would + not render it dry. + + 'Perhaps so--but there is not over an acre that is killed out.' + + 'Have you made an estimate of the loss you annually sustain from + this wet place?' + + 'No, I had not thought much about it.' + + 'Would $30 be too high?' + + 'O yes, double.' + + 'Well, let's see; it cost you $3 to turn over the sward? Two + bushels of seed, $2; harrowing in, 75 cents; interest, taxes, and + fences, $5.25; 25 bushels of wheat lost, $25.' + + 'Deduct for harvesting----' + + 'No; the straw would pay for that.' + + 'Very well, all footed $36.' + + 'What will the wheat and straw on this acre be worth this year?' + + 'Nothing, as I shall not cut the ground over.' + + 'Then it appears that you have lost, in what you have actually + expended, and the wheat you would have harvested, had the ground + been dry, $36, a pretty large sum for one acre.' + + 'Yes I see,' said the farmer." + + +While Rye may be grown, with tolerable advantage, on lands which are less +perfectly drained than is necessary for Wheat, there can be no doubt that +an increase of more than the six and two-thirds bushels needed to make up +the drainage charge will be the result of the improvement. + +While Oats will thrive in soils which are too wet for many other crops, +the ability to plant early, which is secured by an early removal from the +soil of its surplus water, will ensure, one year with another, more than +twelve and a half bushels of increased product. + +In the case of Potatoes, also, the early planting will be a great +advantage; and, while the cause of the potato-rot is not yet clearly +discovered, it is generally conceded that, even if it does not result +directly from too great wetness of the soil, its development is favored by +this condition, either from a direct action on the tubers, or from the +effect in the air immediately about the plants, of the exhalations of a +humid soil. + +An increase of from five to ten per cent. on a very ordinary crop of +potatoes, will cover the drainage charge, and with facilities for +marketing, the higher price of the earlier yield is of much greater +consequence. + +Barley will not thrive in wet soil, and there is no question that drainage +would give it much more than the increased yield prescribed above. + +As to hay, there are many wet, rich soils which produce very large crops +of grass, and it is possible that drainage might not always cause them to +yield a thousand pounds more of hay to the acre, but the _quality_ of the +hay from the drained soil, would, of itself, more than compensate for the +drainage charge. The great benefit of the improvement, with reference to +this crop, however, lies in the fact that, although wet, grass lands,--and +by "wet" is meant the condition of undrained, retentive clays, and heavy +loams, or other soils requiring drainage,--in a very few years "run out," +or become occupied by semi-aquatic and other objectionable plants, to the +exclusion of the proper grasses; the same lands, thoroughly drained, may +be kept in full yield of the finest hay plants, as long as the ground is +properly managed. It must, of course, be manured, from time to time, and +care should be taken to prevent the puddling of its surface, by men or +animals, while it is too wet from recent rain. With proper attention to +these points, it need not be broken up in a lifetime, and it may be relied +on to produce uniformly good crops, always equal to the best obtained +before drainage. + +So far as Cotton and Tobacco are concerned, there are not many instances +recorded of the systematic drainage of lands appropriated to their +cultivation, but there is every reason to suppose that they will both be +benefitted by any operation which will have the effect of placing the soil +in a better condition for the uses of all cultivated plants. The average +crop of tobacco is about 700 lbs., and that of cotton probably 250 lbs. An +addition of one-fifth to the cotton crop, and of only one thirty-fifth to +the tobacco crop, would make the required increase. + +The failure of the cotton crop, during the past season, (1866,) might have +been entirely prevented, in many districts, by the thorough draining of +the land. + +The advantages claimed for drainage with reference to the above-named +staple crops, will apply with equal, if not greater force, to all garden +and orchard culture. In fact, with the exception of osier willows, and +cranberries, there is scarcely a cultivated plant which will not yield +larger and better crops on drained than on undrained land,--enough better, +and enough larger, to pay much more than the interest on the cost of the +improvement. + +Yet, this advantage of draining, is, by no means, the only one which is +worthy of consideration. Since the object of cultivation is to produce +remunerative crops, of course, the larger and better the crops, the more +completely is the object attained;--and to this extent the greatest benefit +resulting from draining, lies in the increased yield. But there is another +advantage,--a material and moral advantage,--which is equally to be +considered. + +Instances of the profit resulting from under-draining, (coupled, as it +almost always is, with improved cultivation,) are frequently published, +and it would be easy to fortify this chapter with hundreds of well +authenticated cases. It is, however, deemed sufficient to quote the +following, from an old number of one of the New York dailies:-- + + + "Some years ago, the son of an English farmer came to the United + States, and let himself as a farm laborer, in New York State, on + the following conditions: Commencing work at the first of + September, he was to work ten hours a day for three years, and to + receive in payment a deed of a field containing twelve + acres--securing himself by an agreement, by which his employer was + put under bonds of $2,000 to fulfill his part of the contract; + also, during these three years, he was to have the control of the + field; to work it at his own expense, and to give his employer + one-half the proceeds. The field lay under the south side of a + hill, was of dark, heavy clay resting on a bluish-colored, solid + clay subsoil, and for many years previous, had not been known to + yield anything but a yellowish, hard, stunted vegetation. + + "The farmer thought the young man was a simpleton, and that he, + himself, was most wise and fortunate; but the former, nothing + daunted by this opinion, which he was not unconscious that the + latter entertained of him, immediately hired a set of laborers, + and set them to work in the field trenching, as earnestly as it + was well possible for men to labor. In the morning and evening, + before and after having worked his ten hours, as per agreement, he + worked with them, and continued to work in this way until, about + the middle of the following November, he had finished the laying + of nearly 5,000 yards of good tile under-drains. He then had the + field plowed deep and thoroughly, and the earth thrown up as much + as possible into ridges, and thus let it remain during the winter. + Next spring he had the field again plowed as before, then + cross-plowed and thoroughly pulverized with a heavy harrow, then + sowed it with oats and clover. The yield was excellent--nothing to + be compared to it had ever before been seen upon that field. Next + year it gave two crops of clover, of a rich dark green, and + enormously heavy and luxuriant; and the year following, after + being manured at an expense of some $7 an acre, nine acres of the + field yielded 936 bushels of corn, and 25 wagon loads of pumpkins; + while from the remaining three acres were taken 100 bushels of + potatoes--the return of this crop being upwards of $1,200. The time + had now come for the field to fall into the young man's + possession, and the farmer unhesitatingly offered him $1,500 to + relinquish his title to it; and when this was unhesitatingly + refused, he offered $2,000, which was accepted. + + "The young man's account stood thus + + Half proceeds of oats $165 00 + and straw, first year + Half value of sheep 25 00 + pasturage, first year + Half of first crops of 112 50 + clover, first year + Half of second crops of 135 00 + clover, including seed, + second year + Half of sheep 15 00 + pasturage, second year + Half of crops of corn, 690 00 + pumpkins and potatoes, + third year + Received from farmer, 2,000 00 + for relinquishment of + title + ------ + Account Dr. $3,142 50 + To under-draining, $325 00 + labor and tiles + To labor and manure, 475 00 + three seasons + To labor given to 576 00--1,376 00 + farmer, $16 per month, + 36 months + ------ + Balance in his favor $1,766 50 + + +Draining makes the farmer, to a great extent, the master of his vocation. +With a sloppy, drenched, cold, uncongenial soil, which is saturated with +every rain, and takes days, and even weeks, to become sufficiently dry to +work upon, his efforts are constantly baffled by unfavorable weather, at +those times when it is most important that his work proceed without +interruption. Weeks are lost, at a season when they are all too short for +the work to be done. The ground must be hurriedly, and imperfectly +prepared, and the seed is put in too late, often to rot in the over-soaked +soil, requiring the field to be planted again at a time which makes it +extremely doubtful whether the crop will ripen before the frost destroys +it. + +The necessary summer cultivation, between the rows, has to be done as the +weather permits; and much more of it is required because of the baking of +the ground. The whole life of the farmer, in fact, becomes a constant +struggle with nature, and he fights always at a disadvantage. What he does +by the work of days, is mainly undone by a single night's storm. Weeds +grow apace, and the land is too wet to admit of their being exterminated. +By the time that it is dry enough, other pressing work occupies the time; +and if, finally, a day comes when they may be attacked, they offer ten +times the resistance that they would have done a week earlier. The +operations of the farm are carried on more expensively than if the ability +to work constantly allowed a smaller force to be employed. The crops which +give such doubtful promise, require the same cultivation as though they +were certain to be remunerative, and the work can be done only with +increased labor, because of the bad condition of the soil. + +From force of tradition and of habit, the farmer accepts his fate and +plods through his hard life, piously ascribing to the especial +interference of an inscrutable Providence, the trials which come of his +own neglect to use the means of relief which Providence has placed within +his reach. + +Trouble enough he must have, at any rate, but not necessarily all that he +now has. It is not within the scope of the best laid drains to control +storm or sunshine,--but it is within their power to remove the water of the +storm, rapidly and sufficiently, and to allow the heat of the sunshine to +penetrate the soil and do its hidden work. No human improvement can change +any of the so-called "phenomena" of nature, or prevent the action of the +least of her laws; but their effects upon the soil and its crops may be +greatly modified, and that which, under certain circumstances, would have +caused inconvenience or loss, may, by a change of circumstances, be made +positively beneficial. + +In the practice of agriculture, which is pre-eminently an economic art, +draining will be prosecuted because of the pecuniary profit which it +promises, and,--very properly,--it will not be pursued, to any considerable +extent, where the money, which it costs, will not bring money in return. +Yet, in a larger view of the case, its collateral advantages are of even +greater moment than its mere profits. It is the foundation and the +commencement of the most intelligent farming. It opens the way for other +improvements, which, without it, would produce only doubtful or temporary +benefits; and it enables the farmer so to extend and enlarge his +operations, with fair promise of success, as to raise his occupation from +a mere waiting upon the uncertain favors of nature, to an intelligent +handling of her forces, for the attainment of almost certain results. + +The rude work of an unthinking farmer, who scratches the surface soil with +his plow, plants his seed, and trusts to the chances of a greater or less +return, is unmitigated drudgery,--unworthy of an intelligent man; but he +who investigates all of the causes of success and failure in farming, and +adapts every operation to the requirements of the circumstances under +which he works; doing everything in his power that may tend to the +production of the results which he desires, and, so far as possible, +avoiding everything that may interfere with his success,--leaving nothing +to chance that can be secured, and securing all that chance may offer,--is +engaged in the most ennobling, the most intelligent and the most +progressive of all industrial avocations. + +In the cultivation of retentive soils, drainage is the key to all +improvement, and its advantage is to be measured not simply by the effect +which it directly produces in increasing production, but, in still greater +degree, by the extent to which it prepares the way for the successful +application of improved processes, makes the farmer independent of weather +and season, and offers freer scope to intelligence in the direction of his +affairs. + + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. - HOW TO MAKE DRAINING TILES. + + +Draining tiles are made of burnt clay, like bricks and earthen-ware. + +In general terms, the process is as follows:--The clay is mixed with sand, +or other substances which give it the proper consistency, and is so wetted +as to form a plastic mass, to which may be given any desired form, and +which is sufficiently stiff to retain its shape. Properly prepared clay is +forced through the aperture of a die of the shape of the outside of the +tile, while a plug,--held by a support in the rear of the die,--projects +through the aperture, and gives the form to the bore of the tile. The +shape of the material of the tile, as it comes from the die, corresponds +to the open space, between the plug and the edge of the aperture. The clay +is forced out in a continuous pipe, which is cut to the desired length by +a wire, which is so thin as to pass through the mass without altering the +shape of the pipe. The short lengths of pipe are dried in the air as +thoroughly as they can be, and are then burned in a kiln, similar to that +used for pottery. + +*Materials.*--The range of earths which may be used in the manufacture of +tiles is considerable, though clay is the basis of all of them. The best +is, probably, the clay which is almost invariably found at the bottom of +muck beds, as this is finer and more compact than that which is dug from +dry land, and requires but little preparation. There is, also, a peculiar +clay, found in some localities, which is almost like quick-sand in its +nature, and which is excellent for tile-making,--requiring no freezing, or +washing to prepare it for the machine. As a general rule, any clay which +will make _good_ bricks will make tiles. When first taken from the ground, +these clays are not usually adhesive, but become so on being moistened and +kneaded. + +It is especially important that no limestone _pebbles_ be mixed with the +clay, as the burning would change these to quicklime, which, in slaking, +would destroy the tiles. The presence of a limey earth, however, mixed +through the mass, is a positive advantage, as in this intimate admixture, +the lime forms, under the heat of the kiln, a chemical combination with +the other ingredients; and, as it melts more readily than some of them, it +hastens the burning and makes it more complete. What is known as _plastic +clay_, (one of the purest of the native clays,) is too strong for +tile-making, and must be "tempered," by having other substances mixed with +it, to give it a stiffer quality. + +The clay which is best for brick-making, contains Silica, and Alumina in +about the following proportions: + +Silica ... 55 to 75 per cent. + +Alumina ... 35 to 25 per cent. + +Variable quantities of other materials are usually found in connection +with the clay, in its native condition. The most common of these are the +following:-- + +Magnesia 1 to 5 per cent.--sometimes 20 to 30 per cent. + +Lime 0 to 19 per cent. + +Potash 0 to 5 per cent. + +Oxyd of iron 0 to 19 per cent. + +"These necessary elements give fusibility to earthenware, and, therefore, +allow its constituent substances to combine in such a manner as to form a +resisting body; and thus is performed with a temperature lower in +proportion as the necessary elements are more abundant."(23) + +When the earth of the locality where tiles are to be made is not +sufficiently strong for the purpose, and plastic clay can be cheaply +obtained from a distance, a small quantity of this may be used to give +strength and tenacity to the native material. + +The compound must always contain a proper proportion of clay and sand. If +too little _clay_ is used, the mass will not be sufficiently tough to +retain its compactness as it passes through the die of the tile machine; +if too little _sand_, the moulded tiles will not be strong enough to bear +handling, and they will crack and warp in drying and burning. Within the +proper limits, the richer earths may be moulded much thinner, and tiles +made from them may, consequently, be made lighter for transportation, +without being too weak. The best materials for tempering stiff clays are +sand, pounded brick or tile, or _scoria_, from smelting furnaces. + +*Preparation Of Earths.*--The clay from which tiles are to be made, should +be thrown out in the fall, (the upper and lower parts of the beds being +well mixed in the operation,) and made into heaps on the surface, not more +than about 3 feet square and 3 feet high. In this form, it is left exposed +to the freezing and thawing of winter, which will aid very much in +modifying its character,--making it less lumpy and more easily workable. +Any stones which may appear in the digging, should, of course, be removed, +and most earths will be improved by being passed through a pair of heavy +iron rollers, before they are piled up for the winter. The rollers should +be made of cast iron, about 15 inches in diameter, and 30 inches long, and +set as close together as they can be, and still be revolved by the power +of two horses. The grinding, by means of these rollers, may add 50 cents +per thousand to the cost of the tiles, but it will greatly improve their +quality. + +In the spring, the clay should be prepared for tempering, by the removal +of such pebbles as it may still contain. The best way to do this is by +"washing," though, if there be only a few coarse pebbles, they may be +removed by building the clay into a solid cone 2 or 3 feet high, and then +paring it off into thin slices with a long knife having a handle at each +end. This paring will discover any pebbles larger than a pea that may have +remained in the clay. + +_Washing_ is the process of mixing the clay with a considerable quantity +of water, so as to form a thin paste, in which all stones and gravel will +sink to the bottom; the liquid portion is then drawn off into shallow pits +or vats, and allowed to settle, the clear water being finally removed by +pumping or by evaporation, according to the need for haste. For washing +small quantities of clay, a common mortar bed, such as is used by masons, +will answer, if it be supplied with a gate for draining off the muddy +water after the gravel has settled; but, if the work is at all extensive, +a washing mill will be required. It may be made in the form of a circular +trough, with scrapers for mixing the clay and water attached to a circular +horse-sweep. + +"Another convenient mixing machine may be constructed in the following +manner: Take a large hollow log, of suitable length, say five or six feet; +hew out the inequalities with an adz, and close up the ends with pieces of +strong plank, into which bearing have been cut to support a revolving +shaft. This shaft should be sufficiently thick to permit being transfixed +with wooden pins long enough to reach within an inch or two of the sides +of the log or trough, and they should be so beveled as to form in their +aggregate shape an interrupted screw, having a direction toward that end +of the box where the mixed clay is designed to pass out. In order to +effect the mixing more thoroughly, these pins may be placed sufficiently +far apart to permit the interior of the box to be armed with other pins +extending toward the center, between which they can easily move. The whole +is placed either horizontally or vertically, and supplied with clay and +water in proper quantities, while the shaft is made to revolve by means of +a sweep, with horse power, running water or steam, as the case may be. The +clay is put into the end farthest from the outlet, and is carried forward +to it and mixed by the motion, and mutual action and re-action of the pins +in the shaft and in the sides of the box. Iron pins may, of course, be +substituted for the wooden ones, and have the advantage of greater +durability and of greater strength in proportion to their size, and the +number may therefore be greater in a machine of any given length. The +fluid mass of clay and water may be permitted to fall upon a sieve or +riddle, of heavy wire, and afterward be received in a settling vat, of +suitable size and construction, to drain off the water and let the clay +dry out sufficiently by subsequent evaporation. A machine of this +construction may be made of such a size that it may be put in motion by +hand, by means of a crank, and yet be capable of mixing, if properly +supplied, clay enough to mold 800 or 1000 pieces of drain pipe per +day."(24) + +Mr. Parkes, in a report to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in +1843, says: + +"It is requisite that the clay be well washed and sieved before pugging, +for the manufacture of these tiles, or the operation of drawing them would +be greatly impeded, by having to remove stones from the small space +surrounding the die, which determines the thickness of the pipe. But it +results from this necessary washing, that the substance of the pipe is +uniformly and extremely dense, which, consequently, gives it immense +strength, and ensures a durability which cannot belong to a more porous, +though thicker, tile. + +"The clay is brought from the pug-mill so dry that, when squeezed through +the machine, not a drop of water exudes,--moisture is, indeed, scarcely +apparent on the surface of the raw pipe. Hence, the tiles undergo little +or no change of figure while drying, which takes place very rapidly, +because of their firm and slight substance." + + [Illustration: Fig. 42 - PUG-MILL.] + + Fig. 42 - PUG-MILL. + + +_Tempering._--After the fine clay is relieved of the water with which it +was washed, and has become tolerably dry, it should be mixed with the +sand, or other tempering material, and passed through the _Pug-Mill_, +(Fig. 42,) which will thoroughly mix its various ingredients, and work the +whole into a homogeneous mass, ready for the tile machine. The _pug-mill_ +is similar to that used in brick-yards, only, as the clay is worked much +stiffer for tiles than for bricks, iron knives must be substituted for the +wooden pins. These knives are so arranged as to cut the clay in every +part, and, by being set at an angle, they force it downward toward the +outlet gate at the bottom. The clay should be kept at the proper degree of +moisture from the time of tempering, and after passing through the +pug-mill it should be thoroughly beaten to drive out the air, and the +beaten mass should be kept covered with wet cloths to prevent drying. + +*Moulding the Tiles.*--Machines for moulding tiles are of various styles, +with much variation in the details of their construction, but they all act +on the same general principle;--that of forcing the clay through a +ring-shaped aperture in an iron plate, forming a continuous pipe, which is +carried off on an endless apron, or on rollers, and cut by wires into the +desired lengths. The plates with the ring-shaped apertures are called +_dies_; the openings are of any desired form, corresponding to the +external shape of the tiles; and the size and shape of the bore, is +determined by the core or plug, which is held in the centers of the +apertures. The construction of the die plates, and the manner of fastening +the plugs, which determine the bore of the tiles, is shown in Fig. 43. The +view taken is of the inside of the plate. + + [Illustration: Fig. 43 - PLATE OF DIES.] + + Fig. 43 - PLATE OF DIES. + + +The machine consists usually of a strong iron chest, with a hinged cover, +into which the clay is placed, having a piston moving in it, connected by +a rod or bar, having cog-teeth, with a cog-wheel, which is moved by horse +or hand power, and drives the piston forward with steadiness, forcing the +clay through the openings in the die-plate. The clay issues in continuous +lines of pipe. The machines most in use in this country are connected +directly with the pug-mill, and as the clay is pugged, it at once passes +into the box, and is pressed out as tiles. These machines are usually run +by horse-power. + +Mr. Barral, in his voluminous work on drainage,(25) describes, as follows, +a cheap hand machine which can be made by any country wheelwright, and +which has a capacity of 3,000 tiles per day (Fig. 44): + +"Imagine a simple, wooden box, divided into two compartments. In the rear +compartment there stands a vertical post, fastened with two iron bolts, +having heads at one end, and nuts and screws at the other. The box is thus +fixed to its support. We simply place this support on the ground and bind +its upper part with a rope to a tree, a stake, or a post. The front +compartment is the reservoir for the clay, presenting at its front an +orifice, in which we fix the desired die with a simple bolt. A wooden +piston, of which the rod is jointed with a lever, which works in a bolt at +the top of the supporting post, gives the necessary pressure. When the +chest is full of clay, we bear down on the end of the lever, and the +moulded tiles run out on a table supplied with rollers. Raising the +piston, it comes out of the box, which is again packed with clay. The +piston is replaced in the box; pressure is again applied to the lever, and +so on. When the line of tiles reaches the end of the table, we lower a +frame on which brass wires are stretched, and cut it into the usual +lengths." + + [Fig. 44 - CHEAP WOODEN MACHINE.] + + Fig. 44 - CHEAP WOODEN MACHINE. + + +The workmen must attend well to the degree of moisture of the clay which +is put into the machine. It should be dry enough to show no undue moisture +on its surface as it comes out of the die-plate, and sufficiently moist +not to be crumbled in passing the edge of the mould. The clay for small +(thin) tiles must, necessarily, be more moist than that which is to pass +through a wider aperture; and for the latter there may, with advantage, be +more sand in the paste than would be practicable with the former. + +After the tiles are cut into lengths, they are removed by a set of +mandrils, small enough to pass easily into them, such as are shown in Fig. +45, (the number of fingers corresponding with the number of rows of tiles +made by the machine,) and are placed on shelves made of narrow strips sawn +from one-inch boards, laid with spaces between them to allow a free +circulation of air. + + [Fig. 45 - MANDRIL FOR CARRYING TILES FROM MACHINE.] + + Fig. 45 - MANDRIL FOR CARRYING TILES FROM MACHINE. + + +*Drying and Rolling.*--Care must be taken that freshly made tiles be not +dried too rapidly. They should be sheltered from the sun and from strong +winds. Too rapid drying has the effect of warping them out of shape, and, +sometimes, of cracking the clay. To provide against this injury, the +drying is done under sheds or other covering, and the side which is +exposed to the prevailing winds is sometimes boarded up. + +For the first drying, the tiles are placed in single layers on the +shelves. When about half dried,--at which time they are usually warped more +or less from their true shape,--it is well to _roll_ them. This is done by +passing through them a smooth, round stick, (sufficiently smaller than the +bore to enter it easily, and long enough to project five or six inches +beyond each end of the tile,) and,--holding one end of the stick in each +hand,--rolling them carefully on a table. This operation should be +performed when the tiles are still moist enough not to be broken by the +slight bending required to make them straight. After rolling, the tiles +may be piled up in close layers, some four or five feet high, (which will +secure them against further warping,) and left until they are dry enough +for burning,--that is, as dry as they can be made by exposure to the air. + +*Burning.*--Tiles are burned in kilns in which, by the effect of flame +acting directly upon them, they are raised to a heat sufficient to melt +some of their more easily fusible ingredients, and give to them a +stone-like hardness. + +Kilns are of various construction and of various sizes. As this book is +not intended for the instruction of those who are engaged in the general +manufacture of tiles, only for those who may find it necessary to +establish local works, it will be sufficient to describe a temporary +earthen kiln which may be cheaply built, and which will answer an +excellent purpose, where only 100,000 or 200,000 tiles per season will be +required. + +Directions for its construction are set forth in a letter from Mr. T. Law +Hodges, of England, to the late Earl Spencer, published in the Journal of +the Royal Agricultural Society for the year 1843, as follows: + +"The form of the clay-kiln is circular, 11 feet in diameter, and 7 feet +high. It is wholly built of damp, clayey earth, rammed firmly together, +and plastered, inside and out, with loam (clay?). The earth to form the +walls is dug out around the base, leaving a circular trench about four +feet wide and as many deep, into which the fire-holes of the kiln open. If +wood be the fuel used, three fire-holes will be sufficient; if coal, four +will be needed. About 1,200 common brick will be wanted to build these +fire-holes and flues; if coal is used, rather fewer bricks will be wanted, +but, then, some iron bars are necessary,--six bars to each fire-hole. + +"The earthen walls are four feet thick at the floor of the kiln, seven +feet high, and tapering to a thickness of two feet at the top; this will +determine the slope of the exterior face of the kiln. The inside of the +wall is carried up perpendicularly, and the loam plastering inside +becomes, after the first burning, like a brick wall. The kiln may be +safely erected in March, or whenever the danger of injury from frost is +over. After the summer use of it, it must be protected, by faggots or +litter, against the wet and frost of winter. A kiln of these dimensions +will contain 32,500 1-1/4-inch tiles, * * * or 12,000 2-1/4-inch tiles. * +* * + +"In good weather, this kiln can be filled, burnt, and discharged once in +every fortnight, and fifteen kilns may be obtained in a good season, +producing 487,500 1-1/4-inch tiles, and in proportion for the other sizes. + +"It requires 2 tons 5 cwt. of good coals to burn the above kiln, full of +tiles." + + [Fig. 46 - CLAY-KILN.] + + Fig. 46 - CLAY-KILN. + + +A sectional view of this kiln is shown in Fig. 46, in which _C, C_ +represent sections of the outer trench; _A_, one of the three fire-holes; +and _B, B_, sections of a circular passage inside of the wall, connected +with the fire-holes, and serving as a flue for the flames, which, at +suitable intervals, pass through openings into the floor of the kiln. The +whole structure should be covered with a roof of rough boards, placed high +enough to be out of the reach of the fire. A door in the side of the kiln +serves for putting in and removing the tiles, and is built up, +temporarily, with bricks or clay, during the burning. Mr. Hodges estimates +the cost of this kiln, all complete, at less than $25. Concerning its +value, he wrote another letter in 1848, from which the following is +extracted: + +"The experience of four years that have elapsed since my letter to the +late Earl Spencer, published in the 5th volume of the proceedings of the +Royal Agricultural Society, page 57, has thoroughly tested the merits of +the temporary clay-kilns for the burning of draining-pipes described in +that letter. + +"I am well aware that there were persons, even among those who came to see +it, who pronounced at once upon the construction and duration of the kiln +as unworthy of attention. How far their expectations have been realized, +and what value belongs to their judgment, the following short statement +will exhibit: + +"The kiln, in question, was constructed, in 1844, at a cost of L5. + +"It was used four times in that year, burning each time between 18,000 and +19,000 draining pipes, of 1-3/4 inches in diameter. + +"In 1845, it was used nine times, or about once a fortnight, burning each +time the same quantity of nearly 19,000 pipes. + +"In 1846, the same result. + +"In 1847, it has been used twelve times, always burning the same quantity. +In the course of the last year a trifling repair in the bottom of the +kiln, costing rather less than 10 shillings, was necessary, and this is +the only cost for repair since its erection. It is now as good as ever, +and might be worked at least once a fortnight through the ensuing season. + +"The result of this experiment of four years shows not only the practical +value of this cheap kiln, but Mr. Hatcher, who superintends the brick and +tile-yard at Benenden, where this kiln stands, expresses himself strongly +in favor of this kiln, as always producing better and more evenly burned +pipes than either of his larger and better built brick-kilns can do." + +The floor of the kiln is first covered with bricks, placed on end, at a +little distance from each other, so as to allow the fire to pass between +them, and the tiles are placed _on end_ on these. This position will +afford the best draft for the flames. After the kiln is packed full, the +door-way is built up, and a slow fire is started,--only enough at first to +complete the drying of the tiles, and to do this so slowly as not to warp +them out of shape. They will be thoroughly dry when the smoke from the top +of the kiln loses its dark color and becomes transparent. When the fires +are well started, the mouths of the fire-holes may be built up so as to +leave only sufficient room to put in fresh fuel, and if the wind is high, +the fire-holes, on the side against which it blows, should be sheltered by +some sort of screen which will counteract its influence, and keep up an +even heat on all sides. + +The time required for burning will be from two days and a night to four +days and four nights, according to the dryness of the tiles, the state of +the weather, and the character of the fuel. The fires should be drawn when +the tiles in the hottest part of the kiln are burned to a "ringing" +hardness. By leaving two or three holes in the door-way, which can be +stopped with loose brick, a rod may be run in, from time to time, to take +out specimen tiles from the hottest part of the kiln, which shall have +been so placed as to be easily removed. The best plan, however,--the only +prudent plan, in fact,--will be to employ an intelligent man who is +thoroughly experienced in the burning of brick and pottery, and whose +judgment in the management of the fires, and in the cooling off of the +kiln, will save much of the waste that would result from inexperienced +management. After the burning is completed, from 40 to 60 hours must be +allowed for the cooling of the kiln before it is opened. If the cold air +is admitted while it is still very hot, the unequal contraction of the +material will cause the tiles to crack, and a large portion of them may be +destroyed. + +If any of the tiles are too much burned, they will be melted, and may +stick together, or, at least, have their shape destroyed. Those which are +not sufficiently burned would not withstand the action of the water in the +soil, and should not be used. For the first of these accidents there is no +remedy; for the latter, reburning will be necessary, and under-done tiles +may be left, (or replaced,) in the kiln in the position which they +occupied at the first burning, and the second heat will probably prove +sufficient. There is less danger of unequal burning in circular than in +square kilns. Soft wood is better than hard, as making a better flame. It +should be split fine, and well seasoned. + +*Arrangement of the Tilery.*--Such a tilery as is described above should +have a drying shed from 60 to 80 feet long, and from 12 to 18 feet wide. +This shed may be built in the cheapest and roughest manner, the roof being +covered with felting, thatch, or hemlock boards, as economy may suggest. +It should have a tier of drying shelves, (made of slats rather than of +boards,) running the whole length of each side. A narrow, wooden tram-way, +down the middle, to carry a car, by which the green tiles may be taken +from the machine to the shelves, and the dry ones from the shelves to the +kiln, will greatly lessen the cost of handling. + +The pug-mill and tile-machine, as well as the clay pit and the +washing-mill, should be at one end of the shed, and the kiln at the other, +so that, even in rainy weather, the work may proceed without interruption. +A shed of the size named will be sufficient to dry as many tiles of +assorted sizes as can be burned in the clay-kiln described above. + +*The Cost of Tiles.*--It would be impossible, at any time, to say what +should be the precise cost of tiles in a given locality, without knowing +the prices of labor and fuel; and in the present unsettled condition of +the currency, any estimate would necessarily be of little value. Mr. +Parker's estimated the cost of inch pipes in England at 6_s._, (about +$1.50,) per thousand, when made on the estate where they were to be used, +by a process similar to that described herein. Probably they could at no +time have been made for less than twice that cost in the United +States,--and they would now cost much more; though if the clay is dug out +in the fall, when the regularly employed farm hands are short of work, and +if the same men can cut and haul the wood during the winter, the hands +hired especially for the tile making, during the summer season, (two men +and two or three boys,) cannot, even at present rates of wages, bring the +cost of the tiles to nearly the market prices. If there be only temporary +use for the machinery, it may be sold, when no longer needed, for a good +percentage of its original cost, as, from the slow movement to which it is +subjected, it is not much worn by its work. + +There is no reason why tiles should cost more to make than bricks. A +common brick contains clay enough to make four or five 1-1/4-inch tiles, +and it will require about the same amount of fuel to burn this clay in one +form as in the other. This advantage in favor of tiles is in a measure +offset by the greater cost of handling them, and the greater liability to +breakage. + +The foregoing description of the different processes of the manufacture of +draining tiles has been given, in order that those who find it necessary, +or desirable, to establish works to supply the needs of their immediate +localities may commence their operations understandingly, and form an +approximate opinion of the promise of success in the undertaking. + +Probably the most positive effect of the foregoing description, on the +mind of any man who contemplates establishing a tilery, will be to cause +him to visit some successful manufactory, during the busy season, and +examine for himself the mode of operation. Certainly it would be unwise, +when such a personal examination of the process is practicable, to rely +entirely upon the aid of written descriptions; for, in any work like +tile-making, where the selection, combination and preparation of the +materials, the means of drying, and the economy and success of the burning +must depend on a variety of conditions and circumstances, which change +with every change of locality, it is impossible that written directions, +however minute, should be a sufficient guide. Still, in the light of such +directions, one can form a much better idea of the bearing of the +different operations which he may witness, than he could possibly do if +the whole process were new to him. + +If a personal examination of a successful tilery is impracticable, it will +be necessary to employ a practical brick-maker, or potter, to direct the +construction and operation of the works, and in any case, this course is +advisable. + +In any neighborhood where two or three hundred acres of land are to be +drained, if suitable earths can be readily obtained, it will be cheaper to +establish a tile-yard, than to haul the necessary tiles, in wagons, a +distance of ten or twenty miles. Then again, the prices demanded by the +few manufacturers, who now have almost a monopoly of the business, are +exorbitantly high,--at least twice what it will cost to make the tiles at +home, with the cheap works described above, so that if the cost of +transportation on the quantity desired would be equal to the cost of +establishing the works, there will be a decided profit in the home +manufacture. Probably, also, a tile-yard, in a neighborhood where the +general character of the soil is such as to require drainage, will be of +value after the object for which it was made has been accomplished. + +While setting forth the advantage to the farmer of everything which may +protect him against monopolies, whether in the matter of draining-tile, or +of any other needful accessory of his business, or which will enable him +to procure supplies without a ruinous outlay for transportation, it is by +no means intended that every man shall become his own tile-maker. + +In this branch of manufacture, as in every other, organized industry will +accomplish results to which individual labor can never attain. A hundred +years ago, when our mill-made cloths came from England, and cost more than +farmers could afford to pay, they wore home-spun, which was neither so +handsome nor so good as the imported article; but, since that time, the +growing population and the greater demand have caused cloth mills to be +built here, greater commercial facilities have placed foreign goods within +easy reach, and the house loom has fallen into general disuse. + +At present, the manufacture of draining tiles is confined to a few, widely +separated localities, and each manufacturer has, thus far, been able to +fix his own scale of charges. These, and the cost of transportation to +distant points, make it difficult, if not impossible, for many farmers to +procure tiles at a cost low enough to justify their use. In such cases, +small works, to supply local demand, may enable many persons to drain with +tiles, who, otherwise, would find it impossible to procure them cheaply +enough for economical use; and the extension of under-draining, causing a +more general acquaintance with its advantages, would create a sufficient +demand to induce an increase of the manufacture of tiles, and a consequent +reduction of price. + + + + + +CHAPTER IX. - THE RECLAIMING OF SALT MARSHES. + + + "Adjoining to it is Middle Moor, containing about 2,500 acres, + spoken of by Arthur Young as 'a watery desert,' growing sedge and + rushes, and inhabited by frogs and bitterns;--it is now fertile, + well cultivated, and profitable land." + + +The foregoing extract, from an account of the Drainage of the Fens on the +eastern coast of England, is a text from which might be preached a sermon +worthy of the attention of all who are interested in the vast areas of +salt marsh which form so large a part of our Atlantic coast, from Maine to +Florida. + +Hundreds of thousands of acres that might be cheaply reclaimed, and made +our most valuable and most salubrious lands, are abandoned to the inroads +of the sea;--fruitful only in malaria and musquitoes,--always a dreary +waste, and often a grave annoyance. + +A single tract, over 20,000 acres in extent, the center of which is not +seven miles from the heart of New York City, skirts the Hackensack River, +in New Jersey, serving as a barrier to intercourse between the town and +the country which lies beyond it, adding miles to the daily travel of the +thousands whose business and pleasure require them to cross it, and +constituting a nuisance and an eyesore to all who see it, or come near it. +How long it will continue in this condition it is impossible to say, but +the experience of other countries has proved that, for an expense of not +more than fifty dollars per acre, this tract might be made better, for all +purposes of cultivation, than the lands adjoining it, (many of which are +worth, for market gardening, over one thousand dollars per acre,) and that +it might afford profitable employment, and give homes, to all of the +industrious poor of the city. The work of reclaiming it would be child's +play, compared with the draining of the Harlaem Lake in Holland, where +over 40,000 acres, submerged to an average depth of thirteen feet, have +been pumped dry, and made to do their part toward the support of a dense +population. + +The Hackensack meadows are only a conspicuous example of what exists over +a great extent of our whole seaboard;--virgin lands, replete with every +element of fertility, capable of producing enough food for the support of +millions of human beings, better located, for residence and for +convenience to markets, than the prairies of the Western States,--all +allowed to remain worse than useless; while the poorer uplands near them +are, in many places, teeming with a population whose lives are endangered, +and whose comfort is sadly interfered with by the insects and the miasma +which the marsh produces. + +The inherent wealth of the land is locked up, and all of its bad effects +are produced, by the water with which it is constantly soaked or +overflowed. Let the waters of the sea be excluded, and a proper outlet for +the rain-fall and the upland wash be provided,--both of which objects may, +in a great majority of cases, be economically accomplished,--and this land +may become the garden of the continent. Its fertility will attract a +population, (especially in the vicinity of large towns,) which could no +where else live so well nor so easily. + +The manner in which these salt marshes were formed may be understood from +the following account of the "Great Level of the Fens" of the eastern +coast of England, which is copied, (as is the paragraph at the head of +this chapter,) from the Prize Essay of Mr. John Algernon Clarke, written +for the Royal Agricultural Society in 1846. + +The process is not, of course, always the same, nor are the exact +influences, which made the English Fens, generally, operating in precisely +the same manner here, but the main principle is the same, and the lesson +taught by the improvement of the Fens is perfectly applicable in our case. + +"This great level extends itself into the six counties of Cambridge, +Lincoln, Huntington, Northampton, Suffolk and Norfolk, being bounded by +the highlands of each. It is about seventy miles in length, and varies +from twenty to forty miles in breadth, having an area of more than 680,000 +acres. Through this vast extent of flat country, there flow six large +rivers, with their tributary streams; namely, the Ouse, the Cam, the Nene, +the Welland, the Glen, and the Witham. + +"These were, originally, natural channels for conveying the upland waters +to the sea, and whenever a heavier downfall of rain than usual occurred, +and the swollen springs and rivulets caused the rivers to overflow, they +must necessarily have overflowed the land to a great extent. + +"This, however, was not the principal cause of the inundation of the Fens: +these rivers were not allowed a free passage to the ocean, being thus made +incapable of carrying off even the ordinary amount of upland water which, +consequently, flowed over the land. The obstruction was two-fold; first, +the outfalls became blocked up by the deposits of silt from the sea +waters, which accumulated to an amazing thickness. The well known +instances of boats found in 1635 eight feet below the Wisbeck River, and +the smith's forge and tools found at Skirbeck Shoals, near Boston, buried +with silt sixteen feet deep, show what an astonishing quantity of sediment +formerly choked up the mouths of these great rivers. But the chief +hindrance caused by the ocean, arose from the tide rushing twice every day +for a very great distance up these channels, driving back the fresh +waters, and overflowing with them, so that the whole level became deluged +with deep water, and was, in fact, one great bay. + +"In considering the state of this region as it first attracted the +enterprise of man to its improvement, we are to conceive a vast, wild +morass, with only small, detached portions of cultivated soil, or islands, +raised above the general inundation; a most desolate picture when +contrasted with its present state of matchless fertility." + +Salt marshes are formed of the silty deposits of rivers and of the sea. +The former bring down vegetable mould and fine earth from the uplands, and +the latter contribute sea weeds and grasses, sand and shells, and millions +of animalculae which, born for life in salt water only, die, and are +deposited with the other matters, at those points where, from admixture +with the fresh flow of the rivers, the water ceases to be suitable for +their support. It is estimated that these animalculae alone are the chief +cause of the obstructions at the mouths of the rivers of Holland, which +retard their flow, and cause them to spread over the flat country +adjoining their banks. It is less important, however, for the purposes of +this chapter, to consider the manner in which salt marshes are formed, +than to discuss the means by which they may be reclaimed and made +available for the uses of agriculture. The improvement may be conveniently +considered under three heads:-- + +First--The exclusion of the sea water. + +Second--The removal of the causes of inundation from the upland. + +Third--The removal of the rain-fall and water of filtration. + +*The Exclusion of the Sea* is of the first importance, because not only +does it saturate the land with water,--but this water, being salt, renders +it unfertile for the plants of ordinary cultivation, and causes it to +produce others which are of little, or no value. + +The only means by which the sea may be kept out is, by building such dykes +or embankments as shut out the highest tides, and, on shores which are +exposed to the action of the waves, will resist their force. Ordinarily, +the best, because the cheapest, material of which these embankments can be +made, is the soil of the marsh itself. This is rarely,--almost never,--a +pure peat, such as is found in upland swamps; it contains a large +proportion of sand, blue clay, muscle mud, or other earthy deposits, which +give it great weight and tenacity, and render it excellent for forming the +body of the dyke. On lands which are overflowed to a considerable extent +at each high tide, (twice a day,) it will be necessary to adopt more +expensive, and more effective measures, but on ordinary salt meadows, +which are deeply covered only at the spring tides, (occurring every +month,) the following plan will be found practical and economical. + +_Locating the line of the embankment_ far enough back from the edge of the +meadow to leave an ample flat outside of it to break the force of the +waves, if on the open coast, or to resist the inroads of the current if on +the bank of an estuary or a river,--say from ten to one hundred yards, +according to the danger of encroachment,--set a row of stakes parallel to +the general direction of the shore, to mark the outside line of the base +of the dyke. Stake out the inside line at such distance as will give a +pitch or inclination to the slopes of one and a half to one on the +outside, and of one to one on the inside, and will allow the necessary +width at the top, which should be at least two feet higher than the level +of the highest tide that is known ever to have occurred at that place. The +width of the top should never be less than four feet, and in exposed +localities it should be more. If a road will be needed around the land, it +is best, if a heavy dyke is required, to make it wide enough to answer +this purpose, with still wider places, at intervals, to allow vehicles to +turn or to pass each other. Ordinarily, however, especially if there be a +good stretch of flat meadow in front, the top of the dyke need not be more +than four feet wide. Supposing such a dyke to be contemplated where the +water has been known to rise two feet above the level of the meadows, +requiring an embankment four feet high, it will be necessary to allow for +the base a width of fourteen feet;--four feet for the width of the top, six +feet for the reach of the front slope, (1-1/2 to 1,) and four feet for the +reach of the back slope, (1 to 1.) + +Having staked out two parallel lines, fourteen feet apart, and erected, at +intervals of twenty or thirty feet, frames made of rough strips of board +of the exact shape of the section of the proposed embankment, the workmen +may remove the sod to a depth of six inches, laying it all on the outside +of the position of the proposed embankment. The sod from the line of the +ditch, from which the earth for the embankment is to be taken, should also +be removed and placed with the other. This ditch should be always _inside_ +of the dyke, where it will never be exposed to the action of the sea. It +should be, at the surface, broader than the base of the dyke, and five +feet deep in the center, but its sides may slope from the surface of the +ground directly to the center line of the bottom. This is the best form to +give it, because, while it should be five feet deep, for future uses as a +drain, its bottom need have no width. The great width at the surface will +give such a pitch to the banks as to ensure their stability, and will +yield a large amount of sod for the facing of the dyke. The edge of this +ditch should be some feet away from the inner line of the embankment, +leaving it a firm support or shoulder at the original level of the ground, +the sod not being removed from the interval. The next step in the work +should be to throw, or wheel, the material from the ditch on to the place +which has been stripped for the dyke, building it up so as to conform +exactly to the profile frames, these remaining in their places, to +indicate the filling necessary to make up for the settling of the +material, as the water drains out of it. + + [Fig. 47 - DYKE AND DITCH.] + + Fig. 47 - DYKE AND DITCH. + + +As fast as a permanent shape can be given to the outer face of the dyke, +it should be finished by having the sod placed against it, being laid +flatwise, one on top of another, (like stone work,) in the most solid +manner possible. This should be continued to the top of the slope, and the +flat top of the dyke should also be sodded,--the sods on the top, and on +the slope, being firmly beaten to their places with the back of the spade +or other suitable implement. This will sufficiently protect the exposed +parts of the work against the action of any waves that may be formed on +the flat between the dyke and the deep water, while the inner slope and +the banks of the ditch, not being exposed to masses of moving water, will +retain their shape and will soon be covered with a new growth.(26) A +sectional view of the above described dyke and ditch is shown in the +accompanying diagram, (Fig. 47.) + +In all work of this character, it is important to regulate the amount of +work laid out to be done between the spring tides, to the laboring force +employed, so that no unfinished work will remain to be submerged and +injured. When the flood comes, it should find everything finished up and +protected against its ravages, so that no part of it need be done over +again. + +If the land is crossed by creeks, the dyke should be finished off and +sodded, a little back from each bank, and when the time comes for closing +the channel, sufficient force should be employed to complete the dam at a +single tide, so that the returning flow shall not enter to wash away the +material which has been thrown in. + +If, as is often the case, these creeks are not merely tidal estuaries, but +receive brooks or rivers from the upland, provision must be made, as will +be hereafter directed, for either diverting the upland flow, or for +allowing it to pass out at low water, through valve gates or sluices. When +the dam has been made, the water behind it should never be allowed to rise +to nearly the level of the full tide, and, as soon as possible, grass and +willows should be grown on the bank, to add to its strength by the binding +effect of their roots. + +When the dyke is completed across the front of the whole flat,--from the +high land on one side to the high land on the other, the creeks should be +closed, one after the other, commencing with the smallest, so that the +experience gained in their treatment may enable the force to work more +advantageously on those which carry more water. + +If the flow of water in the creek is considerable, a row of strong stakes, +or piles, should be firmly driven into the bottom mud, across the whole +width of the channel, at intervals of not more than one or two feet, and +_fascines_,--bundles of brush bound together,--should be made ready on the +banks, in sufficient quantity to close the spaces between the piles. These +will serve to prevent the washing away of the filling during construction. +The pile driving, and the preparation of the fascines may be done before +the closing of the channel with earth is commenced, and if upland clay or +gravel, to be mixed with the local material, can be economically brought +to the place by boats or wagons, it will be an advantage. Everything being +in readiness, a sufficient force of laborers to finish the dam in six +hours should commence the work a little before dead low-water, and, (with +the aid of wheelbarrows, if necessary,) throw the earth in rapidly +_behind_ the row of stakes and fascines, giving the dam sufficient width +to resist the pressure of the water from without, and keeping the work +always in advance of the rising of the tide, so that, during the whole +operation, none of the filling shall be washed away by water flowing over +its top. + +If the creek has a sloping bottom, the work may be commenced earlier,--as +soon as the tide commences to recede,--and pushed out to the center of the +channel by the time the tide is out. When the dam is built, it will be +best to heavily sod, or otherwise protect its surface against the action +of heavy rains, which would tend to wash it away and weaken it; and the +bed of the creek should be filled in back of the dam for a distance of at +least fifty yards, to a height greater than that at which water will stand +in the interior drains,--say to within three feet of the surface,--so that +there shall never be a body of water standing within that distance of the +dam. + +This is a necessary precaution against the attacks of muskrats, which are +the principal cause of the insecurity of all salt marsh embankments. It +should be a cardinal rule with all who are engaged in the construction of +such works, never to allow two bodies of water, one on each side of the +bank to be nearer than twenty-five yards of each other, and fifty yards +would be better. Muskrats do not bore through a bank, as is often +supposed, to make a passage from one body of water to another, (they would +find an easier road over the top); but they delight in any elevated mound +in which they can make their homes above the water level and have its +entrance beneath the surface, so that their land enemies cannot invade +them. When they enter for this purpose, only from one side of the dyke, +they will do no harm, but if another colony is, at the same time, boring +in from the other side, there is great danger that their burrows will +connect, and thus form a channel for the admission of water, and destroy +the work. A disregard of this requirement has caused thousands of acres of +salt marsh that had been enclosed by dykes having a ditch on each side, +(much the cheapest way to make them,) to be abandoned, and it has induced +the invention of various costly devices for the protection of embankments +against these attacks.(27) + +When the creek or estuary to be cut off is very wide, the embankment may +be carried out, at leisure, from each side, until the channel is only wide +enough to allow the passage of the tide without too great a rush of water +against the unfinished ends of the work; but, even in these cases, there +will be economy in the use of fascines and piles from the first, or of +stones if these can be readily procured. In wide streams, partial +obstructions of the water course will sometimes induce the deposit of silt +in such quantities as will greatly assist the work. No written description +of a single process will suffice for the direction of those having charge +of this most delicate of all drainage operations. Much must be left to the +ingenuity of the director of the work, who will have to avail himself of +the assistance of such favorable circumstances as may, in the case in +hand, offer themselves. + +If the barrier to be built will require a considerable outlay, it should +be placed in the hands of a competent engineer, and it will generally +demand the full measure of his skill and experience. + +The work cannot be successful, unless the whole line of the water-front is +protected by a continuous bank, sufficiently high and strong in all of its +parts to resist the action of the highest tides and the strongest waves to +which it will be subjected. As it is always open to inspection, at each +ebb tide, and can always be approached for repair, it will be easy to keep +it in good condition; and, if properly attended to, it will become more +solid and effective with age. + +*The removal of the causes of inundation from the upland* is often of +almost equal importance with the shutting out of the sea, since the amount +of water brought down by rivers, brooks, and hill-side wash, is often more +than can be removed by any practicable means, by sluice gates, or pumps. + +It will be quite enough for the capacity of these means of drainage, to +remove the rain-water which falls on the flat land, and that which reaches +it by under-ground springs and by infiltration,--its proper drainage-water +in short,--without adding that which, coming from a higher level, may be +made to flow off by its own fall. + +Catch-water drains, near the foot of the upland, may be so arranged as to +receive the surface water of the hills and carry it off, always on a level +above that of the top of the embankment, and these drains may often be, +with advantage, enlarged to a sufficient capacity to carry the streams as +well. If the marsh is divided by an actual river, it may be best to embank +it in two separate tracts; losing the margins, that have been recommended, +outside of the dykes, and building the necessary additional length of +these, rather than to contend with a large body of water. But, frequently, +a very large marsh is traversed by a tortuous stream which occupies a +large area, and which, although the tidal water which it contains gives it +the appearance of a river, is only the outlet of an insignificant stream, +which might be carried along the edge of the upland in an ordinary +mill-race. In such case it is better to divert the stream and reclaim the +whole area. + +When a stream is enclosed between dykes, its winding course should be made +straight in order that its water may be carried off as rapidly as +possible, and the land which it occupies by its deviations, made available +for cultivation. In the loose, silty soil of a salt marsh, the stream may +be made to do most of the work of making its new bed, by constructing +temporary "jetties," or other obstructions to its accustomed flow, which +shall cause its current to deposit silt in its old channel, and to cut a +new one out of the opposite bank. In some instances it may be well to make +an elevated canal, straight across the tract, by constructing banks high +enough to confine the stream and deliver it over the top of the dyke; in +others it may be more expedient to carry the stream over, or through, the +hill which bounds the marsh, and cause it to discharge through an +adjoining valley. Improvements of this magnitude, which often affect the +interest of many owners, or of persons interested in the navigation of the +old channel, or in mill privileges below the point at which the water +course is to be diverted, will generally require legislative interference. +But they not seldom promise immense advantages for a comparatively small +outlay. + +The instance cited of the Hackensack Meadows, in New Jersey, is a case in +point. Its area is divided among many owners, and, while ninety-nine acres +in every hundred are given up to muskrats, mosquitoes, coarse rushes and +malaria, the other one acre may belong to the owner of an adjacent farm +who values the salt hay which it yields him, and the title to the whole is +vested in many individual proprietors, who could never be induced to unite +in an improvement for the common benefit. Then again, thanks to the tide +that sets back in the Hackensack River, it is able to float an occasional +vessel to the unimportant villages at the northern end of the meadows, and +the right of navigation can be interfered with only by governmental +action. If the Hackensack River proper, that part of it which only serves +as an outlet for the drainage of the high land north of the meadows, could +be diverted and carried through the hills to the Passaic; or confined +within straight elevated banks and made to discharge at high water mark at +the line of the Philadelphia Rail-road;--the wash of the highlands, east +and west of the meadows, being also carried off at this level,--the bridge +of the railroad might be replaced by an earth embankment, less than a +quarter of a mile in length, effecting a complete exclusion of the tidal +flow from the whole tract. + +This being done, a steam-pump, far less formidable than many which are in +profitable use in Europe for the same purpose, would empty, and keep +empty, the present bed of the river, which would form a capital outlet for +the drainage of the whole area. Twenty thousand acres, of the most fertile +land, would thus be added to the available area of the State, greatly +increasing its wealth, and inducing the settlement of thousands of +industrious inhabitants. + +As the circumstances under which upland water reaches lands of the class +under consideration vary with every locality, no specific directions for +the treatment of individual cases can be given within the limits of this +chapter; but the problem will rarely be a difficult one. + +*The removal of the rain-fall and water of filtration* is the next point +to be considered. + +So far as the drainage of the land, in detail, is concerned, it is only +necessary to say that it may be accomplished, as in the case of any other +level land which, from the slight fall that can be allowed the drains, +requires close attention and great care in the adjustment of the grades. + +The main difficulty is in providing an outlet for the drains. This can +only be done by artificial means, as the water must be removed from a +level lower than high-water mark,--sometimes lower than low-water. + +If it is only required that the outlet be at a point somewhat above the +level of ordinary low-water, it will be sufficient to provide a sufficient +reservoir, (usually a large open ditch,) to contain the drainage water +that is discharged while the tide stands above the floor of the outlet +sluice-way, and to provide for its outflow while the level of the tide +water is below the point of discharge. This is done by means of sluices +having self-acting valves, (or tide-gates,) opening outward, which will be +closed by the weight of the water when the tide rises against them, being +opened again by the pressure of the water from within, as soon the tide +falls below the level of the water inside of the bank. + +The gates and sluices may be of wood or iron,--square or round. The best +would be galvanized iron pipes and valves; but a square wooden trunk, +closed with a heavy oak gate that fits closely against its outer end, and +moves freely on its hinges, will answer capitally well, if carefully and +strongly made. If the gate is of wood, it will be well to have it lie in a +slightly slanting position, so that its own weight will tend to keep it +closed when the tide first commences to rise above the floor, and might +trickle in, before it had acquired sufficient head to press the gate +against the end of the trunk. + +As this outlet has to remove, in a short time, all of the water that is +delivered by the drains and ditches during several hours, it should, of +course, be considerably larger than would be required for a constantly +flowing drain from the same area; but the immense gates,--large enough for +a canal lock,--which are sometimes used for the drainage of a few acres of +marsh, are absurd. Not only are they useless, they are really +objectionable, inasmuch as the greater extent of their joints increases +the risk of leakage at the time of high water. + +The channel for the outflow of the water may sometimes, with advantage, be +open to the top of the dyke or dam,--a canal instead of a trunk; but this +is rarely the better plan, and is only admissible where the discharge is +into a river or small bay, too small for the formation of high waves, as +these would be best received on the face of a well sodded, sloping bank. + +The height, above absolute low water, at which the outlet should be +placed, will depend on the depth of the outlet of the land drain, and the +depth of storage room required to receive the drainage water during the +higher stages of the tide. Of course, it must not be higher than the floor +of the land drain outlet, and, except for the purpose of affording storage +room, it need not be lower, although all the drainage will discharge, not +only while the tide water is below the bottom of the gate, but as long as +it remains lower than the level of the water inside. It is well to place +the mouth of the trunk nearly as low as ordinary low-water mark. This will +frequently render it necessary to carry a covered drain, of wood or brick, +through the mud, out as far as the tide usually recedes,--connected with +the valve gate at the outlet of the trunk, by a covered box which will +keep rubbish from obstructing it, or interfering with its action. + +_When the outlet of the land-drains is below low-water mark_, it is of +course necessary to pump out the drainage water. This is done by steam or +by wind, the latter being economical only for small tracts which will not +bear the cost of a steam pump. Formerly, this work was done entirely by +windmills, but these afford only an uncertain power, and often cause the +entire loss of crops which are ready for the harvest, by obstinately +refusing to work for days after a heavy rain has deluged the land. In +grass land they are tolerably reliable, and on _small_ tracts in +cultivation, it is easy, by having a good proportion of open ditches, to +afford storage room sufficient for general security; but in the reclaiming +of large areas, (and it is with these that the work is most economical,) +the steam pump may be regarded as indispensable. It is fast superseding +the windmills which, a few years ago, were the sole dependence in Holland +and on the English Fens. The magnitude of the pumping machinery on which +the agriculture of a large part of Holland depends, is astonishing. + +There are such immense areas of salt marsh in the United States which may +be tolerably drained by the use of simple valve gates, discharging above +low-water mark, that it is not very important to consider the question of +pumping, except in cases where owners of small tracts, from which a +sufficient tidal outlet could not be secured, (without the concurrence of +adjoining proprietors who might refuse to unite in making the +improvement,) may find it advisable to erect small pumps for their own +use. In such cases, it would generally be most economical to use +wind-power, especially if an accessory steam pump be provided for +occasional use, in emergency. Certainly, the tidal drainage should first +be resorted to, for when the land has once been brought into cultivation, +the propriety of introducing steam pumps will become more apparent, and +the outlay will be made with more confidence of profitable return, and, in +all cases, the tidal outlet should be depended on for the outflow of all +water above its level. It would be folly to raise water by expensive +means, which can be removed, even periodically, by natural drainage. + +When pumps are used, their discharge pipes should pass through the +embankment, and deliver the water at low-water mark, so that the engine +may have to operate only against the actual height of the tide water. If +it delivered above high-water mark, it would work, even at low tide, +against a constant head, equal to that of the highest tides. + + + + + +CHAPTER X. - MALARIAL DISEASES. + + +So far as remote agricultural districts are concerned, it is not probable +that the mere question of health would induce the undertaking of costly +drainage operations, although this consideration may operate, in +connection with the need for an improved condition of soil, as a strong +argument in its favor. As a rule, "the chills" are accepted by farmers, +especially at the West, as one of the slight inconveniences attending +their residence on rich lands; and it is not proposed, in this work, to +urge the evils of this terrible disease, and of "sun pain," or "day +neuralgia," as a reason for draining the immense prairies over which they +prevail. The diseases exist,--to the incalculable detriment of the +people,--and thorough draining would remove them, and would doubtless bring +a large average return on the investment;--but the question is, after all, +one of capital; and the cost of such draining as would remove +fever-and-ague from the bottom lands and prairies of the West, and from +the infected agricultural districts at the East, would be more than the +agricultural capital of those districts could spare for the purpose. + +In the vicinity of cities and towns, however, where more wealth has +accumulated, and where the number of persons subjected to the malarial +influence is greater, there can be no question as to the propriety of +draining, even if nothing but improved health be the object. + +Then again, there are immense tracts near the large cities of this country +which would be most desirable for residence, were it not that their +occupancy, except with certain constant precautions, implies almost +inevitable suffering from fever-and-ague, or neuralgia. + +Very few neighborhoods within thirty miles of the city of New York are +entirely free from these scourges, whose influence has greatly retarded +their occupation by those who are seeking country homes; while many, who +have braved the dangers of disease in these localities, have had sad cause +to regret their temerity. + +Probably the most striking instance of the effect of malaria on the growth +and settlement of suburban districts, is to be found on Staten Island. +Within five miles of the Battery; accessible by the most agreeable and +best managed ferry from the city; practically, nearer to Wall street than +Murray Hill is; with most charming views of land and water; with a +beautifully diversified surface, and an excellent soil; and affording +capital opportunities for sea bathing, it should be, (were it not for its +sanitary reputation, it inevitably would be,) one vast residence-park. +Except on its extreme northern end, and along its higher ridges, it +has,--and, unfortunately, it deserves,--a most unenviable reputation for +insalubrity. Here and there, on the southern slope also, there are favored +places which are unaccountably free from the pest, but, as a rule, it is, +during the summer and autumn, unsafe to live there without having constant +recourse to preventive medication, or exercising unusual and inconvenient +precautions with regard to exposure to mid-day sun and evening dew. There +are always to be found attractive residences, which are deserted by their +owners, and are offered for sale at absurdly low prices. There are +isolated instances of very thorough and very costly draining, which has +failed of effect, because so extensive a malarial region cannot be +reclaimed by anything short of a systematic improvement of the whole. + +It has been estimated that the thorough drainage of the low lands, valleys +and ponds of the eastern end of the island, including two miles of the +south shore, would at once add $5,000,000 to the market value of the real +estate of that section. There can be no question that any radical +improvement in this respect would remove the only obstacle to the rapid +settlement of the island by those who wish to live in the country, yet +need to be near to the business portion of the city. The hope of such +improvement being made, however, seems as remote as ever,--although any one +at all acquainted with the sources of miasm, in country neighborhoods, can +readily see the cause of the difficulty, and the means for its removal are +as plainly suggested. + +Staten Island is, by no means, alone in this respect. All who know the +history of the settlement of the other suburbs of New York are very well +aware that those places which are free from fever-and-ague and malarial +neuralgia, are extremely rare. + +The exact cause of fever-and-ague and other malarial diseases is unknown, +but it is demonstrated that, whatever the cause is, it is originated under +a combination of circumstances, one of which is undue moisture in the +soil. It is not necessary that land should be absolutely marshy to produce +the miasm, for this often arises on cold, springy uplands which are quite +free from deposits of muck. Thus far, the attention of scientific +investigators, given to the consideration of the origin of malarial +diseases, has failed to discover any well established facts concerning it; +but there have been developed certain theories, which seem to be sustained +by such knowledge as exists on the subject. + +Dr. Bartlett, in his work on the Fevers of the United States, says:--"The +essential, efficient, producing cause of periodical fever,--the poison +whose action on the system gives rise to the disease,--is a substance or +agent which has received the names of _malaria_, or _marsh miasm_. The +nature and composition of this poison are wholly unknown to us. Like most +other analogous agents, like the contagious principle of small-pox and of +typhus, and like the epidemic poison of scarletina and cholera, they are +too subtle to be recognized by any of our senses, they are too fugitive to +be caught by any of our contrivances. + +"As always happens in such cases and under similar circumstances, in the +absence of positive knowledge, we have been abundantly supplied with +conjecture and speculation; what observation has failed to discover, +hypothesis has endeavored and professed to supply. It is quite unnecessary +even to enumerate the different substances to which malaria has been +referred. Amongst them are all of the chemical products and compounds +possible in wet and marshy localities; moisture alone; the products of +animal and vegetable decomposition; and invisible living organisms. * * * +* Inscrutable, however, as the intimate nature of the substances or agents +may be, there are some few of its laws and relations which are very well +ascertained. One of these consists in its connection with low, or wet, or +marshy localities. This connection is not invariable and exclusive, that +is, there are marshy localities which are not malarious, and there are +malarious localities which are not marshy; but there is no doubt whatever +that it generally exists." + +In a report to the United States Sanitary Commission, Dr. Metcalfe states, +that all hypotheses, even the most plausible, are entirely unsupported by +positive knowledge, and he says:-- + +"This confession of ignorance still leaves us in possession of certain +knowledge concerning malaria, from which much practical good may be +derived. + +"1st. It affects, by preference, low and moist localities. + +"2d. It is almost never developed at a lower temperature than 60 deg. +Fahrenheit. + +"3d. Its evolution or active agency is checked by a temperature of 32 deg.. + +"4th. It is most abundant and most virulent as we approach the equator and +the sea-coast. + +"5th. It has an affinity for dense foliage, which has the power of +accumulating it, when lying in the course of winds blowing from malarious +localities. + +"6th. Forests, or even woods, have the power of obstructing and preventing +its transmission, under these circumstances. + +"7th. By atmospheric currents it is capable of being transported to +considerable distances--probably as far as five miles. + +"8th. It may be developed, in previously healthy places, by turning up the +soil; as in making excavations for foundations of houses, tracks for +railroads, and beds for canals. + +"9th. In certain cases it seems to be attracted and absorbed by bodies of +water lying in the course of such winds as waft it from the miasmatic +source. + +"10th. Experience alone can enable us to decide as to the presence or +absence of malaria, in any given locality. + +"11th. In proportion as countries, previously malarious, are cleared up +and thickly settled, periodical fevers disappear--in many instances to be +replaced by the typhoid or typhus." + +La Roche, in a carefully prepared treatise on "Pneumonia; its Supposed +Connection with Autumnal Fevers," recites various theories concerning the +mode of action of marsh miasm, and finds them insufficient to account for +the phenomena which they produce. He continues as follows:-- + +"All the above hypotheses failing to account for the effects in question, +we are naturally led to the admission that they are produced by the +morbific influence of some special agent; and when we take into +consideration all the circumstances attending the appearance of febrile +diseases, the circumscribed sphere of their prevalence, the suddenness of +their attack, the character of their phenomena, etc., we may safely say +that there is nothing left but to attribute them to the action of some +poison dissolved or suspended in the air of the infected locality; which +poison, while doubtless requiring for its development and dissemination a +certain degree of heat, and terrestrial and atmospheric moisture, a +certain amount of nightly condensation after evaporation, and the presence +of fermenting or decomposing materials, cannot be produced by either of +these agencies alone, and though indicated by the chemist, betrays its +presence by producing on those exposed to its influence the peculiar +morbid changes characterizing fever." + +He quotes the following from the Researches of Dr. Chadwick:-- + +"In considering the circumstances external to the residence, which affect +the sanitary condition of the population, the importance of a general +land-drainage is developed by the inquiries as to the cause of the +prevalent diseases, to be of a magnitude of which no conception had been +formed at the commencement of the investigation. Its importance is +manifested by the severe consequences of its neglect in every part of the +country, as well as by its advantages in the increasing salubrity and +productiveness wherever the drainage has been skillful and effectual." + +La Roche calls attention to these facts:--That the acclimated residents of +a malarious locality, while they are less subject than strangers to active +fever, show, in their physical and even in their mental organization, +evident indications of the ill effects of living in a poisonous +atmosphere,--an evil which increases with successive generations, often +resulting in a positive deterioration of the race; that the lower animals +are affected, though in a less degree than man; that deposits of organic +matter which are entirely covered with water, (as at the bottom of a +pond,) are not productive of malaria; that this condition of saturation is +infinitely preferable to imperfect drainage; that swamps which are shaded +from the sun's heat by trees, are not supposed to produce disease; and +that marshes which are exposed to constant winds are not especially +deleterious to persons living in their immediate vicinity,--while winds +frequently carry the emanations of miasmatic districts to points some +miles distant, where they produce their worst effects. This latter +statement is substantiated by the fact that houses situated some miles to +the leeward of low, wet lands, have been especially insalubrious until the +windows and doors on the side toward the source of the miasm were closed +up, and openings made on the other side,--and thenceforth remained free +from the disease, although other houses with openings on the exposed sides +continued unhealthy. + +The literature relating to periodical fevers contains nothing else so +interesting as the very ingenious article of Dr. J. H. Salisbury, on the +"Cause of Malarious Fevers," contributed to the "American Journal of +Medical Science," for January, 1866. Unfortunately, while there is no +evidence to controvert the statements of this article, they do not seem to +be honored with the confidence of the profession,--not being regarded as +sufficiently authenticated to form a basis for scientific deductions. Dr. +Salisbury claims to have discovered the cause of malarial fever in the +spores of a very low order of plant, which spores he claims to have +invariably detected in the saliva, and in the urine, of fever patients, +and in those of no other persons, and which he collected on plates of +glass suspended over all marshes and other lands of a malarious character, +which he examined, and which he was never able to obtain from lands which +were not malarious. Starting from this point, he proceeds, (with +circumstantial statements that seem to the unprofessional mind to be +sufficient,) to show that the plant producing these spores is always +found, in the form of a whitish, green, or brick-colored incrustation, on +the surface of fever producing lands; that the spores, when detached from +the parent plant, are carried in suspension _only in the moist exhalations +of wet lands_, never rising higher, (usually from 35 to 60 feet,) nor +being carried farther, than the humid air itself; that they most +accumulate in the upper strata of the fogs, producing more disease on +lands slightly elevated above the level of the marsh than at its very +edge; that fever-and-ague are never to be found where this plant does not +grow; that it may be at once introduced into the healthiest locality by +transporting moist earth on which the incrustation is forming; that the +plant, being introduced into the human system through the lungs, continues +to grow there and causes disease; and that _quinia_ arrests its growth, +(as it checks the multiplication of yeast plants in fermentation,) and +thus suspends the action of the disease. + +Probably it would be impossible to prove that the foregoing theory is +correct, though it is not improbable that it contains the germ from which +a fuller knowledge of the disease and its causes will be obtained. It is +sufficient for the purposes of this work to say that, so far as Dr. +Salisbury's opinion is valuable, it is,--like the opinion of all other +writers on the subject,--fully in favor of perfect drainage as the one +great preventive of all malarial diseases. + +_The evidence of the effect of drainage_ in removing the cause of malarial +diseases is complete and conclusive. Instances of such improvement in this +country are not rare, but they are much less numerous and less conspicuous +here than in England, where draining has been much more extensively +carried out, and where greater pains have been taken to collect testimony +as to its effects. + +If there is any fact well established by satisfactory experience, it is +that thorough and judicious draining will entirely remove the local source +of the miasm which produces these diseases. + +The voluminous reports of various Committees of the English Parliament, +appointed to investigate sanitary questions, are replete with information +concerning experience throughout the whole country, bearing directly on +this question. + +Dr. Whitley, in his report to the Board of Health, (in 1864,) of an +extended tour of observation, says of one town that he examined:-- + +"Mr. Nicholls, who has been forty years in practice here, and whom I was +unable to see at the time of my visit, writes: Intermittent and remittent +are greatly on the decline since the improved state of drainage of the +town and surrounding district, and more particularly marked is this +alteration, since the introduction of the water-works in the place. +Although we have occasional outbreaks of intermittent and remittent, with +neuralgic attacks, they yield more speedily to remedies, and are not +attended by so much enlargement of the liver or spleen as formerly, and +dysentery is of rare occurrence." + +Dr. Whitley sums up his case as follows:-- + +"It would appear from the foregoing inquiry, that intermittent and +remittent fevers, and their consequences, can no longer be regarded as +seriously affecting the health of the population, in many of the +districts, in which those diseases were formerly of a formidable +character. Thus, in Norfolk, Lincolnshire, and Cambridgeshire, counties in +which these diseases were both frequent and severe, all the evidence, +except that furnished by the Peterborough Infirmary, and, in a somewhat +less degree, in Spaulding, tends to show that they are at the present +time, comparatively rare and mild in form." + + + +He mentions similar results from his investigations in other parts of the +kingdom, and says:-- + +"It may, therefore, be safely asserted as regards England generally, +that:-- + +"The diseases which have been made the subject of the present inquiry, +have been steadily decreasing, both in frequency and severity, for several +years, _and this decrease is attributed, in nearly every case, mainly to +one cause,--improved land drainage;_" again: + +"The change of local circumstances, unanimously declared to be the most +immediate in influencing the prevalence of malarious diseases, is land +drainage;" and again: + +"Except in a few cases in which medical men believed that these affections +began to decline previously to the improved drainage of the places +mentioned, the decrease in all of the districts where extensive drainage +has been carried out, was stated to have commenced about the same time, +and was unhesitatingly attributed to that cause." + +A select Committee of the House of Commons, appointed to investigate the +condition and sanitary influence of the Thames marshes, reported their +minutes of evidence, and their deductions therefrom, in 1854, The +following is extracted from their report: + +"It appears from the evidence of highly intelligent and eminent gentlemen +of the medical profession, residing in the neighborhood of the marshes on +both sides of the Thames below London Bridge, that the diseases prevalent +in these districts are highly indicative of malarious influences, +fever-and-ague being very prevalent; and that the sickness and mortality +are greatest in those localities which adjoin imperfectly drained lands, +and far exceed the usual average; and that ague and allied disorders +frequently extend to the high grounds in the vicinity. In those districts +where a partial drainage has been effected, a corresponding improvement in +the health of the inhabitants is perceptible." + +In the evidence given before the committee, Dr. P. Bossey testified that +the malaria from salt marshes varied in intensity, being most active in +the morning and in the Summer season. The marshes are sometimes covered by +a little fog, usually not more than three feet thick, which is of a very +offensive odor, and detrimental to health. Away from the marshes, there is +a greater tendency to disease on the side toward which the prevailing +winds blow. + +Dr. James Stewart testified that the effect of malaria was greatest when +very hot weather succeeds heavy rain or floods. He thought that malaria +could be carried _up_ a slope, but has never been known to descend, and +that, consequently, an intervening hill affords sufficient protection +against marsh malaria. He had known cases where the edges of a river were +healthy and the uplands malarious. + +In Santa Maura and Zante, where he had been stationed with the army, he +had observed that the edge of a marsh would be comparatively healthy, +while the higher places in the vicinity were exceedingly unhealthy. He +thought that there were a great many mixed diseases which began like ague +and terminated very differently; those diseases would, no doubt, assume a +very different form if they were not produced by the marsh air; many +diseases are very difficult to treat, from being of a mixed character +beginning like marsh fevers and terminating like inflammatory fevers, or +diseases of the chest. + +Dr. George Farr testified that rheumatism and tic-doloreux were very +common among the ladies who live at the Woolwich Arsenal, near the Thames +marshes. Some of these cases were quite incurable, until the patients +removed to a purer atmosphere. + +W. H. Gall, M. D., thought that the extent to which malaria affected the +health of London, must of course be very much a theoretical question; "but +it is very remarkable that diseases which are not distinctly miasmatic, do +become much more severe in a miasmatic district. Influenzas, which +prevailed in England in 1847, were very much more fatal in London and the +surrounding parts than they were in the country generally, and influenza +and ague poisons are very nearly allied in their effects. Marsh miasms are +conveyed, no doubt, a considerable distance. Sufficiently authentic cases +are recorded to show that the influence of marsh miasm extends several +miles." Other physicians testify to the fact, that near the Thames +marshes, the prevalent diseases are all of them of an aguish type, +intermittent and remittent, and that they are accompanied with much +dysentery. Dr. John Manly said that, when he first went to Barking, he +found a great deal of ague, but since the draining, in a population of ten +thousand, there are not half-a-dozen cases annually and but very little +remittent. + +The following Extract is taken from the testimony of Sir Culling Eardly, +Bart.: + +"Chairman:--I believe you reside at Belvidere, in the parish of +Erith?--Yes.--Ch.: Close to these marshes?--Yes.--Ch.: Can you speak from your +own knowledge, of the state of these marshes, with regard to public +health?--Sir C.: I can speak of some of the results which have been +produced in the neighborhood, from the condition of the marshes; the +neighborhood is in one continual state of ague. My own house is protected, +from the height of its position, and a gentleman's house is less liable to +the influence of malaria than the houses of the lower classes. But even in +my house we are liable to ague; and to show the extraordinary manner in +which the ague operates, in the basement story of this house where my +men-servants sleep, we have more than once had bad ague. In the attics of +my house, where my maid-servants sleep, we have never had it. Persons are +deterred from settling in the neighborhood by the aguish character of the +country. Many persons, attracted by the beauty of the locality, wish to +come down and settle; but when they find the liability to ague, they are +compelled to give up their intention. I may mention that the village of +Erith itself, bears marks of the influence of malaria. It is more like one +of the desolate towns of Italy, Ferrara, for instance, than a healthy, +happy, English village. I do not know whether it is known to the +committee, that Erith is the village described in Dickens' _Household +Words_, as Dumble-down-deary, and that it is a most graphic and correct +description of the state of the place, attributable to the unhealthy +character of the locality." + +He also stated that the ague is not confined to the marshes, but extends +to the high lands near them. + +The General Board of Health, of England, at the close of a voluminous +report, publish the following "Conclusions as to the Drainage of Suburban +Lands:-- + +"1. Excess of moisture, even on lands not evidently wet, is a cause of +fogs and damps. + +"2. Dampness serves as a medium for the conveyance of any decomposing +matter that may be evolved, and adds to the injurious effects of such +matters in the air:--in other words the excess of moisture may be said to +increase or aggravate atmospheric impurities. + +"3. The evaporation of the surplus moisture lowers the temperature, +produces chills, and creates or aggravates the sudden and injurious +changes or fluctuations by which health is injured." + +In view of the foregoing opinions as to the cause of malaria, and of the +evidence as to the effect of draining in removing the unhealthy condition +in which those causes originate, it is not too much to say that,--in +addition to the capital effect of draining on the productive capacity of +the land,--the most beneficial sanitary results may be confidently expected +from the extension of the practice, especially in such localities as are +now unsafe, or at least undesirable for residence. + +In proportion to the completeness and efficiency of the means for the +removal of surplus water from the soil:--in proportion, that is, to the +degree in which the improved tile drainage described in these pages is +adopted,--will be the completeness of the removal of the causes of disease. +So far as the drying of malarious lands is concerned, it is only necessary +to construct drains in precisely the same manner as for agricultural +improvement. + +The removal of the waste of houses, and of other filth, will be considered +in the next chapter. + + + + + +CHAPTER XI. - HOUSE DRAINAGE AND TOWN SEWERAGE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO THE +PUBLIC HEALTH. + + +The following is extracted from a report made by the General Board of +Health to the British Parliament, concerning the administration of the +Public Health Act and the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Acts +from 1848 to 1854. + +"Where instances have been favorable for definite observation, as in broad +blocks of buildings, the effects of sanitary improvement have been already +manifested to an extent greater than could have been anticipated, and than +can be readily credited by those who have not paid attention to the +subject. + +"In one favorable instance, that of between 600 and 700 persons of the +working class in the metropolis, during a period of three years, the +average rate of mortality has been reduced to between 13 and 14 in 1000. +In another instance, for a shorter period, among 500 persons, the +mortality has been reduced as low as even 7 in 1000. The average rate of +mortality for the whole metropolis being 23 in 1000. + +"In another instance, the abolishing of cess-pools and their replacement +by water-closets, together with the abolishing of brick drains and their +replacement by impermeable and self-cleansing stone-ware pipes, has been +attended with an immediate and extraordinary reduction of mortality. Thus, +in Lambeth Square, occupied by a superior class of operatives, in the +receipt of high wages, the deaths, which in ordinary times were above the +general average, or more than 30 in 1000, had risen to a rate of 55 in +1000. By the abolishing of cess-pools, which were within the houses, and +the substitution of water-closets, and with the introduction of tubular, +self-cleansing house-drains, the mortality has been reduced to 13 in 1000. + +"The reduction of the mortality was effected precisely among the same +occupants, without any change in their habits whatever." + +"Sewers are less important than the House-Drains and Water-Closets, and if +not carrying much water, may become cess-pools. In the case of the Square +just referred to, when cess-pools and drains of deposit were removed +without any alteration whatever in the adjacent sewers, fevers disappeared +from house to house, as these receptacles were filled up, and the +water-closet apparatus substituted, merely in consequence of the removal +of the decomposing matter from beneath the houses to a distant sewer of +deposit or open water course. + +"If the mortality were at the same rate as in the model dwellings, or in +the improved dwellings in Lambeth Square, the annual deaths for the whole +of the metropolis would be 25,000 less, and for the whole of England and +Wales 170,000 less than the actual deaths. + +"If the reduced rate of mortality in these dwellings should continue, and +there appears to be no reason to suppose that it will not, the extension +to all towns which have been affected, of the improvements which have been +applied in these buildings, would raise the average age at death to about +forty-eight instead of twenty-nine, the present average age at death of +the inhabitants of towns in all England and Wales." + +The branch of the Art of Drainage which relates to the removal of the +fecal and other refuse wastes of the population of towns, is quite +different from that which has been described in the preceding pages, as +applicable to the agricultural and sanitary improvement of lands under +cultivation, and of suburban districts. Still, the fact that town and +house drainage affords a means for the preservation of valuable manures, +justifies its discussion in an agricultural work, and "draining for +health" would stop far short of completeness were no attention paid to the +removal of the cause of diseases, which are far more fatal than those that +originate in an undrained condition of the soil. + +The extent to which these diseases, (of which typhoid fever is a type,) +are prevented by sanitary drainage, is strikingly shown in the extract +which commences this chapter. Since the experience to which this report +refers, it has been found that the most fatal epidemics of the lower +portions of London originated in the choked condition of the street +sewers, whose general character, as well as the plan of improvement +adopted are described in the following "Extracts from the Report of the +Metropolitan Board of Works," made in 1866. + +"The main sewers discharged their whole contents direct into the Thames, +the majority of them capable of being emptied only at the time of low +water; consequently, as the tide rose, the outlets of the sewers were +closed, and the sewage was dammed back, and became stagnant; the sewage +and impure waters were also constantly flowing from the higher grounds, in +some instances during 18 out of the 24 hours, and thus the thick and heavy +substances were deposited, which had to be afterwards removed by the +costly process of hand labor. During long continued or copious falls of +rain, more particularly when these occurred at the time of high water in +the river, the closed outlets not having sufficient storage capacity to +receive the increased volume of sewage, the houses and premises in the low +lying districts, especially on the south side of the river, became flooded +by the sewage rising through the house drains, and so continued until the +tide had receded sufficiently to afford a vent for the pent-up waters, +when the sewage flowed and deposited itself along the banks of the river, +evolving gases of a foul and offensive character. + +"This state of things had a most injurious effect upon the condition of +the Thames; for not only was the sewage carried up the river by the rising +tide, at a time when the volume of pure water was at its minimum, and +quite insufficient to dilute and disinfect it, but it was brought back +again into the heart of the metropolis, there to mix with each day's fresh +supply, until the gradual progress towards the sea of many day's +accumulation could be plainly discerned; the result being that the portion +of the river within the metropolitan district became scarcely less impure +and offensive than the foulest of the sewers themselves. * * * * * * + +"The Board, by the system they have adopted, have sought to abolish the +evils which hitherto existed, by constructing new lines of sewers, laid in +a direction at right angles to that of the existing sewers, and a little +below their levels, so as to intercept their contents and convey them to +an outfall, on the north side of the Thames about 11-1/4 miles, and on the +south side about 14 miles, below London Bridge. By this arrangement as +large a proportion of the sewage as practicable is carried away by +gravitation, and a constant discharge for the remainder is provided by +means of pumping. At the outlets, the sewage is delivered into reservoirs +situate on the banks of the Thames, and placed at such levels as enable +them to discharge into the river at or about the time of high water. The +sewage thus becomes not only at once diluted by the large volume of water +in the river at the time of high water, but is also carried by the ebb 26 +miles below London Bridge, and its return by the following flood-tide +within the metropolitan area, is effectually prevented." + +The details of this stupendous enterprise are of sufficient interest to +justify the introduction here of the "General Statistics of the Works" as +reported by the Board. + +"A few statistics relative to the works may not prove uninteresting. The +first portion of the works was commenced in January 1859, being about five +months after the passing of the Act authorising their execution. There are +82 miles of main intercepting sewers in London. In the construction of the +works 318,000,000 of bricks, and 880,000 cubic yards of concrete have been +used, and 3,500,000 cubic yards of earth excavated. The cost, when +completed, will have been about L4,200,000. The total pumping power +employed is 2,300 nominal horse power: and if the engines were at full +work, night and day, 44,000 tons of coals per annum would be used; but the +average consumption is estimated at 20,000 tons. The sewage to be +intercepted by the works on the north side of the river, at present +amounts to 10,000,000 cubic feet, and on the south side 4,000,000 cubic +feet per day; but provision is made for an anticipated increase in these +quantities, in addition to the rainfall, amounting to a total of +63,000,000 cubic feet per day, which is equal to a lake of 482 acres, +three feet deep, or 15 times as large as the Serpentine in Hyde Park." + +A very large portion of the sewage has to be lifted thirty-six feet to the +outfall sewer. The works on the north side of the Thames were formally +opened, by the Prince of Wales, in April 1865. + +In the hope that the immense amount of sewage, for which an escape has +been thus provided, might be profitably employed in agriculture, +advertisements were inserted in the public journals asking for proposals +for carrying out such a scheme; and arrangements were subsequently made +for an extension of the works, by private enterprise, by the construction +of a culvert nine and a half feet in diameter, and forty miles in length, +capable of carrying 12,000,000 cubic feet of sewage per day to the barren +sands on the coast of Essex; the intention being to dispose of the liquid +to farmers along the line, and to use the surplus for the fertilization of +7000 acres, (to be subsequently increased,) which are to be reclaimed from +the sea by embankments and valve sluice-gates. + +The estimated cost of this enterprise is about $10,000,000. + +The work which has been done, and which is now in contemplation, in +England, is suggestive of what might, with advantage, be adopted in the +larger cities in America. Especially in New York an improved means of +outlet is desirable, and it is doubtful whether the high rate of mortality +of that city will be materially reduced before effective measures are +devised for removing the vast accumulations of filth, which ebb and flow +in many of the larger sewers, with each change of the tide; and which are +deposited between the piers along the river-sides. + +It would be practicable to construct a main receiving sewer under the +river streets, skirting the city, from the vicinity of Bellevue Hospital +on the east side, passing near the outer edge of the Battery, and +continuing to the high land near 60th street on the west side; having its +water level at least twenty feet below the level of the street, and +receiving all of the sewage which now flows into the river. At the +Battery, this receiving sewer might be connected, by a tunnel, with the +Brooklyn shore, its contents being carried to a convenient point south of +Fort Hamilton,--where their discharge, (by lifting steam pumps), into the +waters of the Lower Bay, would be attended with no inconvenience. The +improvement being carried out to this point, it would probably not be long +before the advantages to result from the application of the sewage to the +sandy soil on the south side of Long Island would be manifest. + +The effect of such an improvement on the health of the city,--which is now +in constant danger from the putrefying filth of the sewers, (these being +little better than covered cess-pools under the streets,)--would, no doubt, +equal the improvement that has resulted from similar work in London. + +The foregoing relates only to the main outlets for town sewage. The +arterial drainage, (the lateral drains of the system,) which receives the +waste of the houses and the wash of the streets, is entirely dependent on +the outlet sewers, and can be effective only when these are so constructed +as to afford a free outfall for the matters that it delivers to them. In +many towns, owing to high situation, or to a rapid inclination of surface, +the outfall is naturally so good as to require but little attention. In +all cases, the manner of constructing the collecting drains is a matter of +great importance, and in this work a radical change has been introduced +within a few years past. + +Formerly, immense conduits of porous brick work, in all cases large enough +to be entered to be cleansed, by hand labor, of their accumulated +deposits, were considered necessary for the accommodation of the smallest +discharge. The consequence of this was, that, especially in sewers +carrying but little water, the solid matters contained in the sewage were +deposited by the sluggish flow, frequently causing the entire obstruction +of the passages. Such drains always required frequent and expensive +cleansing by hand, and the decomposition of the filth which they contained +produced a most injurious effect on the health of persons living near +their connections with the street. The foul liquids with which they were +filled, passing through their porous walls, impregnated the earth near +them, and sometimes reached to the cellars of adjacent houses, which were +in consequence rendered extremely unhealthy. Many such sewers are now in +existence, and some such are still being constructed. Not only are they +unsatisfactory, they are much more expensive in construction, and require +much attention and labor for repairs, and cleansing, than do the +stone-ware pipe sewers which are now universally adopted wherever measures +are taken to investigate their comparative merits. An example of the +difference between the old and modern styles of sewers is found in the +drainage of the Westminster School buildings, etc., in London. + +The new drainage conveys the house and surface drainage of about two acres +on which are fifteen large houses. The whole length of the drain is about +three thousand feet, and the entire outlet is through two nine inch pipes. +The drainage is perfectly removed, and the pipes are always clean, no foul +matters being deposited at any point. This drainage has been adopted as a +substitute for an old system of sewerage of which the main was from 4 feet +high, by 3 feet 6 inches wide, to 17 feet high and 6 or 7 feet wide. The +houses had cess-pools beneath them, which were filled with the +accumulations of many years, while the sewers themselves were scarcely +less offensive. This condition resulted in a severe epidemic fever of a +very fatal character. + +An examination instituted to discover the cause of the epidemic resulted +in the discovery of the facts set forth above, and there were removed from +the drains and cess-pools more than 550 loads of ordure. The evaporating +surface of this filth was more than 2000 square yards. + +Since the new drainage, not only has there been no recurrence of epidemic +fever, but "a greater improvement in the general health of the population +has succeeded than might be reasonably expected in a small block of +houses, amidst an ill-conditioned district, from which it cannot be +completely isolated." + +The principle which justifies the use of pipe sewers is precisely that +which has been described in recommending small tiles for agricultural +drainage,--_to wit_: that the rapidity of a flow of water, and its power to +remove obstacles, is in proportion to its depth as compared with its +width. It has been found in practice, that a stream which wends its +sluggish way along the bottom of a large brick culvert, when concentrated +within the area of a small pipe of regular form, flows much more rapidly, +and will carry away even whole bricks, and other substances which were an +obstacle to its flow in the larger channel. As an experiment as to the +efficacy of small pipes Mr. Hale, the surveyor, who was directed by the +General Board of Health of London to make the trial, laid a 12-inch pipe +in the bottom of a sewer 5 feet and 6 inches high, and 3 feet and 6 inches +wide. The area drained was about 44 acres. He found the velocity of the +stream in the pipe to be four and a half times greater than that of the +same amount of water in the sewer. The pipe at no time accumulated silt, +and the force of the water issuing from the end of the pipe kept the +bottom of the sewer perfectly clear for the distance of 12 feet, beyond +which point some bricks and stones were deposited, their quantity +increasing with the distance from the pipe. He caused sand, pieces of +bricks, stones, mud, etc., to be put into the head of the pipe. These were +all carried clear through the pipe, but were deposited in the sewer below +it. + +It has been found by experiment that in a flat bottomed sewer, four feet +wide, having a fall of eight inches in one hundred feet, a stream of water +one inch depth, runs very sluggishly, while the same water running through +a 12-inch pipe, laid on the same inclination, forms a rapid stream, +carrying away the heavy silt which was deposited in the broad sewer. As a +consequence of this, it has been found, where pipe sewers are used, even +on almost imperceptible inclinations, that silt is very rarely deposited, +and the waste matters of house and street drainage are carried immediately +to the outlet, instead of remaining to ferment and poison the atmosphere +of the streets through which they pass. In the rare cases of obstruction +which occur, the pipes are very readily cleansed by flushing, at a tithe +of the cost of the constant hand-work required in brick sewers. + +For the first six or seven hundred feet at the head of a sewer, a six inch +pipe will remove all of the house and street drainage, even during a heavy +rain fall; and if the inclination is rapid, (say 6 inches to 100 feet,) +the acceleration of the flow, caused partly by the constant additions to +the water, pipes of this size may be used for considerably greater +distances. It has been found by actual trial that it is not necessary to +increase the size of the pipe sewer in exact proportion to the amount of +drainage that it has to convey, as each addition to the flow, where +drainage is admitted from street openings or from houses, accelerates the +velocity of the current, pipes discharging even eight times as much when +received at intervals along the line as they would take from a full head +at the upper end of the sewer. + +For a district inhabited by 10,000 persons, a 12-inch pipe would afford a +sufficient outlet, unless the amount of road drainage were unusually +large, and for the largest sewers, pipes of more than 18 inches diameter +are rarely used, these doing the work which, under the old system, was +alloted to a sewer 6 feet high and 3 feet broad. + +Of course, the connections by which the drainage of roads is admitted to +these sewers, must be provided with ample silt-basins, which require +frequent cleaning out. In the construction of the sewers, man-holes, built +to the surface, are placed at sufficient intervals, and at all points +where the course of the sewer changes, so that a light placed at one of +these may be seen from the next one;--the contractor being required to lay +the sewer so that the light may be thus seen, a straight line both of +inclination and direction is secured. + +The rules which regulate the laying of land-drains apply with equal force +in the making of sewers, that is no part of the pipe should be less +perfect, either in material or construction, than that which lies above +it; and where the inclination becomes less, in approaching the outlet, +silt-basins should be employed, unless the decreased fall is still rapid. +The essential point of difference is, that while land drains may be of +porous material, and should have open joints for the admission of water, +sewer pipes should be of impervious glazed earthen-ware, and their joints +should be securely cemented, to prevent the escape of the sewage, which it +is their province to remove, not to distribute. Drains from houses, which +need not be more than 3 or 4 inches in diameter, should be of the same +material, and should discharge with considerable inclination into the +pipes, being connected with a curving branch, directing the fluid towards +the outlet. + +In laying a sewer, it is customary to insert a pipe with a branch opposite +each house, or probable site of a house. + +It is important that, in towns not supplied with waterworks, measures be +taken to prevent the admission of too much solid matter in the drainage of +houses. Water being the motive power for the removal of the solid parts of +the sewage, unless there be a public supply which can be turned on at +pleasure, no house should deliver more solid matter than can be carried +away by its refuse waters. + +The drainage of houses is one of the chief objects of sewerage. + +In addition to the cases cited above of the model lodging houses in +Lambeth Square, and of the buildings at Westminster, it may be well to +refer to a remarkable epidemic which broke out in the Maplewood Young +Ladies' Institute in Pittsfield, Mass., in 1864, which was of so violent +and fatal a character as to elicit a special examination by a committee of +physicians. The family consisted, (pupils, servants, and all,) of one +hundred and twelve persons. Of these, fifty-one were attacked with +well-defined typhoid fever during a period of less than three weeks. Of +this number thirteen died. The following is extracted from the report of +the committee: + +"Of the 74 resident pupils heard from, 66 are reported as having had +illness of some kind at the close of the school or soon after. This is a +proportion of 33/37 or nearly 90 per cent. Of the same 74, fifty-one had +typhoid fever, or a proportion of nearly 69 per cent. If all the people in +the town, say 8000, had been affected in an equal proportion, more than +7000 would have been ill during these few weeks, and about 5500 of them +would have had typhoid fever, and of these over 1375 would have died. If +it would be a more just comparison to take the whole family at Maplewood +into the account, estimating the number at 112, fifty-six had typhoid +fever, or 50 per cent., and of these fifty-six, sixteen died, or over 28.5 +per cent. These proportions applied to the whole population of 8000, would +give 4000 of typhoid fever in the same time; and of these 1140 would have +died. According to the testimony of the practising physicians of +Pittsfield, the number of cases of typhoid fever, during this period, +aside from those affected by the influences at Maplewood, was small, some +physicians not having had any, others had two or three." These cases +amounted to but eight, none of which terminated fatally. + +The whole secret of this case was proven to have been the retention of the +ordure and waste matter from the kitchens and dormitories in privies and +vaults, underneath or immediately adjoining the buildings, the odor from +these having been offensively perceptible, and under certain atmospheric +conditions, having pervaded the whole house. + +The committee say "it would be impossible to bring this report within +reasonable limits, were we to discuss the various questions connected with +the origin and propagation of typhoid fever, although various theoretical +views are held as to whether the poison producing the disease is generated +in the bodies of the sick, and communicated from them to the well, or +whether it is generated in sources exterior to the bodies of fever +patients, yet all authorities maintain that a peculiar poison is concerned +in its production. + +"Those who hold to the doctrine of contagion admit that, to give such +contagion efficacy in the production of wide spread results, filth or +decaying organic matter is essential; while those who sustain the theory +of non-contagion--the production of the poison from sources without the +bodies of the sick--contend that it has its entire origin in such filth--in +decomposing matter, especially in fermenting sewage, and decaying human +excreta. + +"The injurious influence of decomposing azotised matter, in either +predisposing to or exciting severe disease, and particularly typhoid +fever, is universally admitted among high medical authorities." + +The committee were of the opinion "that the disease at Maplewood +essentially originated in the state of the privies and drainage of the +place; the high temperature, and other peculiar atmospheric conditions +developing, in the organic material thus exposed, a peculiar poison, which +accumulated in sufficient quantity to pervade the whole premises, and +operated a sufficient length of time to produce disease in young and +susceptible persons. * * * * * * To prevent the poison of typhoid fever +when taken into the system, from producing its legitimate effects, except +by natural agencies, would require as positive a miracle as to restore a +severed head, or arrest the course of the heavenly bodies in their +spheres. * * * The lesson for all, for the future, is too obvious to need +further pointing out; and the committee cannot doubt that they would +hazard little in predicting that the wisdom obtained by this sad +experience, will be of value in the future management of this institution, +and secure precautions which will forever prevent the recurrence of such a +calamity." + +The results of all sanitary investigation indicate clearly the vital +necessity for the complete and speedy removal from human habitations of +all matters which, by their decomposition, may tend to the production of +disease, and early measures should be taken by the authorities of all +towns, especially those which are at all compactly built, to secure this +removal. The means by which this is to be effected are to be found in such +a combination of water-supply and sewerage, as will furnish a constant and +copious supply of water to dissolve or hold in suspension the whole of the +waste matters, and will provide a channel through which they may be +carried away from the vicinity of residences. If means for the application +of the sewage water to agricultural lands can be provided, a part if not +the whole of the cost of the works will be thus returned. + +Concerning the details of house drainage, it would be impossible to say +much within the limits of this book. The construction of water-closets, +soil-pipes, sinks, etc., are too will be understood to need a special +description here. + +The principal point, (aside from the use of pipes instead of brick-sewers +and brick house-drains,) is what is called in London the system of Back +Drainage, where only principal main lines of sewers are laid under the +streets, all collecting sewers passing through the centres of the blocks +in the rear of the houses. Pipes for water supply are disposed in the same +manner, as it is chiefly at the rears of houses that water is required, +and that drainage is most necessary; and this adjustment saves the cost, +the annoyance and the loss of fall, which accompany the use of pipes +running under the entire length of each house. Much tearing up of +pavements, expensive ditching in hard road-ways, and interference with +traffic is avoided, while very much less ditching and piping is necessary, +and repairs are made with very little annoyance to the occupants of +houses. The accompanying diagrams, (Figs. 48-49,) illustrate the +difference between the old system of drainage with brick sewers under the +streets, and brick drains under the houses, and pipe sewers under main +streets and through the back yards of premises. A measurement of these two +methods will show that the lengths of the drains in the new system, are to +those of the old, as 1 to 2-1/4;--the fall of the house drains, (these +having much less length,) would be 10 times more in the one case than in +the other;--the main sewers would have twice the fall, their area would be +only 1/30], and their cubic contents only 1/73. + + [Fig. 48 - OLD STYLE HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE.] + + Fig. 48 - OLD STYLE HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE. + + +Experience in England has shown that if the whole cost of water supply and +pipe sewers is, with its interest, divided over a period of thirty +years,--so that at the end of that time it should all be repaid,--the annual +charge would not be greater than the cost of keeping house-drains and +cess-pools pools clean. The General Board of Health state that "the +expense of cleansing the brick house-drains and cess-pools for four or +five years, would pay the expense of properly constructed water-closets +and pipe-drains, for the greater number of old premises." + + [Fig. 49 - MODERN HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE.] + + Fig. 49 - MODERN HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE. + + +One of the reports of this body, which has added more than any other +organization to the world's knowledge on these subjects, closes with the +following: + +"Conclusions obtained as to house drainage, and the sewerage and cleansing +of the sites of towns." + +"That no population living amidst impurities, arising from the putrid +emanations from cess-pools, drains and sewers of deposit, can be healthy +or free from the attacks of devastating epidemics. + +"That as a primary condition of salubrity, no ordure and town refuse can +be permitted to remain beneath or near habitations. + +"That by no means can remedial operations be so conveniently, +economically, inoffensively, and quickly effected as by the removal of all +such refuse dissolved or suspended in water. + +"That it has been subsequently proved by the operation of draining houses +with tubular drains, in upwards of 19,000 cases, and by the trial of more +than 200 miles of pipe sewers, that the practice of constructing large +brick or stone sewers for general town drainage, which detain matters +passing into them in suspension in water, which accumulate deposit, and +which are made large enough for men to enter them, and remove the deposit +by hand labor, without reference to the area to be drained, has been in +ignorance, neglect or perversion of the above recited principles. + +"That while sewers so constructed are productive of great injury to the +public health, by the diffusion into houses and streets of the noxious +products of the decomposing matters contained in them, they are wasteful +from the increased expense of their construction and repair, and from the +cost of ineffectual efforts to keep them free from deposit. + +"That the house-drains, made as they have heretofore been, of absorbent +brick or stone, besides detaining substances in suspension, accumulating +foul deposit, and being so permeable as to permit the escape of the liquid +and gaseous matters, are also false in principle and wasteful in the +expense of construction, cleansing and repair. + +"That it results from the experience developed in these inquiries, that +improved tubular house-drains and sewers of the proper sizes, +inclinations, and material, detain and accumulate no deposit, emit no +offensive smells, and require no additional supplies of water to keep them +clear. + +"That the offensive smells proceeding from any works intended for house or +town drainage, indicate the fact of the detention and decomposition of +ordure, and afford decisive evidence of mal-construction or of ignorant or +defective arrangement. + +"That the method of removing refuse in suspension in water by properly +combined works, is much better than that of collecting it in pits or +cess-pools near or underneath houses, emptying it by hand labor, and +removing it by carts. + +"That it is important for the sake of economy, as well as for the health +of the population, that the practice of the removal of refuse in +suspension in water, and by combined works, should be applied to all +houses, especially those occupied by the poorer classes." + +Later investigations of the subject have established two general +conclusions applicable to the subject, namely, that: + +"_In towns all offensive smells from the decomposition of animal and +vegetable matter, indicate the generation and presence of the causes of +insalubrity and of preventable disease, at the same time that they prove +defective local administration;_ and correlatively, that: + +"_In rural districts all continuous offensive smells from animal and +vegetable decomposition, indicate preventable loss of fertilizing matter, +loss of money, and bad husbandry._" + +The principles herein set forth, whether relating to sanitary improvement, +to convenience and decency of living, or to the use of waste matters of +houses in agricultural improvement, are no less applicable in America than +elsewhere; and the more general adoption of improved house drainage and +sewerage, and of the use of sewage matters in agriculture, would add to +the health and prosperity of its people, and would indicate a great +advance in civilization. + + + + + +INDEX + + + Absorption and Filtration, 26-39 + Angles to be, as far as possible, avoided, 99 + + Baking of clay soils by evaporation, 30 + Barley, 168 + Bartlett, Dr., quotation from, 211 + Base-line, 145 + Boning-rods, (with illustrations), 125-126 + + Central Park, 74-86 + Cess-pools, cause of epidemics, 237 + Chadwick, Dr., quotation from, 213 + Clay Soils, 75 + Clay Soils, Baking of by Evaporation, 30 + Clay Soils, Made mellow by draining, 29-30 + Clay Soils, Shrinkage of, 28 + Clinometer, (illustration), 56 + Collars, 84 + Connections, 132 + Connections (illustrations), 134 + Corn, Indian, 162 + Cost of draining, 150-153-158 + Cotton, 169 + Covering and filling, cost of, 157 + Covering for the joints of tiles, 132 + Covering tiles, 136 + + Datum-line, 52-104 + Denton, J. Bailey, quotation from, 115 + Distance between drains, 73 + Diseases, malarial, 208 + Ditches, cost of digging, 154 + Draining, amateur, 47 + Draining, indications of the need of, 9 + Draining, its effect on farming, 171 + Draining, tiles, how made, 174 + Draining, tiles, materials for, 174 + Draining, tools, (illustration), 114 + Draining, what it costs, 150 + Draining, will it pay? 161 + Draining, when necessary, 7 + Drains, Cubic yards of excavation in, 155 + Drains, and drained land, care of, 144 + Drains, lateral, should be parallel, 99 + Drains, how they act, 21 + Drains, obstructed, how cleared, 146 + Drains, old, how formed, 146 + Drains, rate of fall, 90 + Drains, their action in the Central Park, 86 + Drained Soil, capacity for receiving water of rains, 23 + Drainage of dwelling houses, 232 + Drought, 37-40 + + Economy versus cheapness, 152 + Engineering and Superintendence, cost of, 153 + Engineers, draining, 47 + Epidemic at Maplewood Young Ladies' Institute, 232 + Epidemics caused by cess-pools, 237 + Epidemics caused by ordure beneath houses, 238 + Evaporation, 33 + Evaporation, amount of, 34 + Evaporation, effect on temperature, 33-35 + Evaporation, heat lost during, 34 + + Fall, rate of in drains, 77 + Fallacies in draining, 62 + Fen-lands of England, 193 + Fever and Ague, 208 + Fever and Ague, exact cause unknown, 210 + Filtration and absorption, 26-39 + Filling, illustration of--ditch with, furrows, 141 + Filling, maul for ramming, (illustration), 138 + Filling, scraper for, (illustration), 140 + Filling, the ditches, 136 + Finishing tools, (illustration), 123 + Finishing scoop, 123 + Finishing scoop, how used, 126 + Foot-pick, (illustration), 156 + Four-foot drains, 70 + + Germination of seeds, 13 + Gisborne, Thos., quotations from, 28-31-35-47-66-78-84-93-127 + Grading, 124 + Grading, cost of, 156 + Grade stakes, 103 + Grades, computation for, 109 + Grades, how to establish, 107 + Gratings in Silt-basins, 148 + + Hackensack meadows, 203 + Hay, 168 + Heat, amount of lost during evaporation, 34 + House drainage, 220 + House drainage, back drain system, 235 + House drainage bad, indicated by offensive smells, 239 + + Indications of the need of draining, 9 + Injury from standing water in the subsoil, 15 + Impervious soil, 31 + + John Johnson, 164 + + Land requiring draining, 7 + Lateral drains, 61-97 + Lateral drains, direction of, 75 + Lateral drains, shallow, how connected with deep main, 111 + La Roche, quotations from, 213 + Levels, how to take for drains, 104 + Levelling instrument, (illustration), 52 + Levelling rod, (illustration), 53 + Location of main drains, 58 + + Madden, Dr., quotation from, 12 + Main drain, 96 + Main drain, location of, 58 + Malaria 211 + Malaria borne by winds, 212-214-219 + Malaria conclusions of the General Board of Health of England, 220 + Malaria facts concerning, 212 + Malaria spread of, prevented by hills, 218 + Malarial diseases, evidence of the effect of drainage in removing, + 216 + Malarial diseases, reports to the British Parliament concerning, 216 + Malarial diseases, rheumatism and tic-douloureux, 219 + Malarious localities, effects of residence in, 214 + Maps, amending the, 142 + Maps, description of, (illustrations), 49-50-51-54-98 + Maps, importance of, 48 + Marking the lines, 116 + Mechi, Alderman, quotations from, 29-71 + Mellowness or Porosity, 41 + Measuring staff (illustration), 124 + Metcalf, Dr., quotation from, 211 + Movement of water in the ground, 32-64-65 + Mortality, rate of reduced by improved house drainage, 222 + + Neuralgia, 208 + New York, suggestions for sewer outlets, 227 + + Oats, 168 + Obstructions, 90 + Opening ditches, 122 + Outlet, 95 + Outlet, how made (with illustrations), 118 + Outlet, location of, 58 + + Parkes, Josiah, quotations from, 36-71-88-178 + Porosity, 41 + Profile of a drain, (illustration), 106 + Profit, instances of, 167-170 + Production, amount of increase of, necessary to make draining + profitable, 162 + Puddling, 8-31-148 + Pumping, 206 + Pumping, London sewage, 226 + + Rock, sounding for, 55 + Rock, how to collect water from, 60 + Roots, depth to which they reach, 40-67 + Roots, as a cause of obstruction, 93-148 + Rye, 168 + + Salisbury's, Dr., theory concerning malarious fever, 214 + Salt marshes, catch water drains, 201 + Salt marshes, construction of embankment, 196 + Salt marshes, dyke and ditch, (illustration), 197 + Salt marshes, exclusion of the sea, 195 + Salt marshes, how formed, 194 + Salt marshes, inundations from upland , 201 + Salt marshes, location and size of embankment, 195 + Salt marshes, management of creeks, 198-200 + Salt marshes, management of rivers, 201 + Salt marshes, muskrats, 199 + Salt marshes, outlet for under drainage, 204-205 + Salt marshes, pumping, 206 + Salt marshes, rain-fall and filtration, 204 + Salt marshes, valve-gates and sluices, 204 + Scraper for filling ditches, (illustration), 140 + Seeds, germination of, 13 + Sewage, use of in agriculture, 226 + Sewers, defects of large, 228-238 + Sewers, description of the London outfall, 225 + Sewers, efficacy of glazed earthern pipes, 229-230-238 + Sewers, experiments of Hale on pipe sewers, 230 + Sewers, imperfect, 224 + Sewers, of brick, defective, 228-235-238 + Sewerage, conclusions of General Board of Health, 237 + Sewerage, of New York, 227 + Shrinkage of clay soils, 28 + Sides of ditches in soft land, how braced, (illustration), 124 + Silt, 90 + Silt, basins, (illustrations), 121-135-136 + Silt, basins, how made, 120 + Silt, basins, 91-96-134 + Silt, in tiles, 144 + Sources of the water in the soil, 10 + Springs, how to collect the water of, 59-60-141 + Staking out the lines, 102 + Staten Island, 209 + Steam pumps, 206 + Stone and tile drains, 142 + Sub-mains, 59 + + Teams used in opening ditches, 122 + Temperature, 35-66 + Temperature, affected by draining, 36 + Tile laying, 127 + Tile-pick, (illustration), 131 + Tiles, and tile laying, cost of, 157 + Tiles, capacity for discharging water, 84-86 + Tiles, double-style, 80 + Tiles, drain--essential characteristics, 22 + Tiles, how made, 174 + Tiles, horse-shoe, 78 + Tiles, kinds and sizes, 77 + Tiles, ordering, 82-101 + Tiles, objections to large sizes, 147 + Tiles, pipes and collars, 81 + Tiles, rapidity with which they receive water, 78 + Tiles, sizes of, 81 + Tiles, sizes required for different areas, 88 + Tiles, should be well formed, 83 + Tiles, sole, 80 + Tiles, trimming and perforating, 131 + Tile making, material for, 174 + Tile preparation of earths, 176 + Tile rolling and drying, 182 + Tile washing the clay, 177 + Tobacco, 169 + Tools required, 113 + Town drainage, conclusions of General Board of Health, 237 + + Undrained land not reliable for cultivation, 18 + + Vermin as a cause of obstruction, 93 + + Water, depth of, 66-70 + Water, in the sub-soil, injurious effects of, 15 + Water, movement of in the ground, 32-64-65 + Water, objections to excess of, 11 + Water, the best vehicle for removing ordure, 238 + Water, when beneficial and when injurious, 24 + Water-courses and brooks, how treated during draining operations, + 117 + Water-table, 22 + Wind-mills, 206 + Wheat, 164-167 + + + + + +DRAINING ENGINEERING. + + +The undersigned is prepared to assume the personal direction of works of +Agricultural and Town Drainage, and Water Supply, in any part of the +country; or to send advice and information, by letter, for the guidance of +others. + +Persons sending maps of their land, with contour lines, (see Fig. 8, page +54,) accompanied by such information as can be given in writing, will be +furnished with explicit instructions concerning the arrangement and depth +of the drains required; kinds and sizes of tiles to be used; management of +the work, etc., etc. + +The lines of drains will be laid down, on the maps, for the direction of +local engineers,--and, when required, the grades will be calculated and +noted at the positions of the stakes. + +For particulars, address + +GEO. E. WARING, JR., +P. O. Box 290, +NEWPORT, R. I. + + + + + +THE SMALL FRUIT CULTURIST. + + +BY + +ANDREW S. FULLER. + +_Beautifully Illustrated._ + +We have heretofore had no work especially devoted to small fruits, and +certainly no treatises anywhere that give the information contained in +this. It is to the advantage of special works that the author can say all +that he has to say on any subject, and not be restricted as to space, as +he must be in those works that cover the culture of all fruits--great and +small. + +This book covers the whole ground of Propagating Small Fruits, their +Culture, Varieties, Packing for Market, etc. While very full on the other +fruits, the Currants and Raspberries have been more carefully elaborated +than ever before, and in this important part of his book, the author has +had the invaluable counsel of Charles Downing. The chapter on gathering +and packing the fruit is a valuable one, and in it are figured all the +baskets and boxes now in common use. The book is very finely and +thoroughly illustrated, and makes an admirable companion to the Grape +Culturist, by the same author. + +CONTENTS: + +CHAP. I. BARBERRY. +CHAP. II. STRAWBERRY. +CHAP. III. RASPBERRY. +CHAP. IV. BLACKBERRY. +CHAP. V. DWARF CHERRY. +CHAP. VI. CURRANT. +CHAP. VII. GOOSEBERRY. +CHAP. VIII. CORNELIAN CHERRY. +CHAP. IX. CRANBERRY. +CHAP. X. HUCKLEBERRY. +CHAP. XI. SHEPERDIA. +CHAP. XII. PREPARATION FOR GATHERING FRUIT. + +Sent post-paid. Price $1.50. + + + +ORANGE JUDD & CO., 245 Broadway, New-York. + + + + + +THE GRAPE CULTURIST + + +BY + +ANDREW S. FULLER. + +NEW AND ENLARGED EDITION. + +THE STANDARD WORK + +ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE HARDY GRAPE, AS IT NOT ONLY DISCUSSES +PRINCIPLES, BUT + +*ILLUSTRATES PRACTICE*. + +Every thing is made perfectly plain, and its teachings may be followed +upon. + +ONE VINE OR A VINEYARD + +_The following are some of the topics that are treated:_ + +GROWING NEW VARIETIES FROM SEED. +PROPAGATION BY SINGLE BUDS OR EYES. +PROPAGATING HOUSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT FULLY DESCRIBED. +HOW TO GROW. +CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR, AND HOW TO MAKE LAYERS. +GRAFTING THE GRAPE--A SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL METHOD. +HYBRIDIZING AND CROSSING--MODE OF OPERATION. +SOIL AND SITUATION--PLANTING AND CULTIVATION. +PRUNING, TRAINING, AND TRELLISES--ALL THE SYSTEMS EXPLAINED. +GARDEN CULTURE--HOW TO GROW VINES IN A DOOR-YARD. +INSECTS, MILDEW, SUN-SCALD, AND OTHER TROUBLES. +DESCRIPTION OF THE VALUABLE AND THE DISCARDED VARIETIES. + +Sent post-paid. Price $1.50. + + + +Orange Judd & Co., 245 Broadway. + + + + + +AMERICAN POMOLOGY + + +APPLES. + +By Doct. JOHN A. WARDER, + +PRESIDENT OHIO POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY; VICE-PRESIDENT AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL +SOCIETY. + +293 ILLUSTRATIONS. + +This volume has about 750 pages, the first 375 of which are devoted to the +discussion of the general subjects of propagation, nursery culture, +selection and planting, cultivation of orchards, care of fruit, insects, +and the like; the remainder is occupied with descriptions of apples. With +the richness of material at hand, the trouble was to decide what to leave +out. It will be found that while the old and standard varieties are not +neglected, the new and promising sorts, especially those of the South and +West, have prominence. A list of selections for different localities by +eminent orchardists is a valuable portion of the volume, while the +Analytical Index or _Catalogue Raisonne_, as the French would say, is the +most extended American fruit list ever published, and gives evidence of a +fearful amount of labor. + +CONTENTS. + +Chapter I.--INTRODUCTORY. +Chapter II.--HISTORY OF THE APPLE. +Chapter III.--PROPAGATION. - Buds and Cuttings--Grafting--Budding--The +Nursery. +Chapter IV.--DWARFING. +Chapter V.--DISEASES. +Chapter VI.--THE SITE FOR AN ORCHARD. +Chapter VII.--PREPARATION OF SOIL FOR AN ORCHARD. +Chapter VIII.--SELECTION AND PLANTING. +Chapter IX.--CULTURE, Etc. +Chapter X.--PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING. +Chapter XI.--THINNING. +Chapter XII.--RIPENING AND PRESERVING FRUITS. +Chapter XIII and XIV.--INSECTS. +Chapter XV.--CHARACTERS OF FRUITS AND THEIR VALUE--TERMS USED. +Chapter XVI.--CLASSIFICATION. - Necessity for--Basis +of--Characters--Shape--Its Regularity--Flavor--Color--Their several Values, etc. +Description of Apples. +Chapter XVII.--FRUIT LISTS--CATALOGUE AND INDEX OF FRUITS. + +Sent Post-Paid. Price $3.00. + + + +ORANGE JUDD & CO., 245 Broadway, New-York + + + + + +GARDENING FOR PROFIT + + +In the Market and Family Garden. + +BY PETER HENDERSON. + +FINELY ILLUSTRATED. + +This is the first work on Market Gardening ever published in this country. +Its author is well known as a market gardener of eighteen years' +successful experience. In this work he has recorded this experience, and +given, without reservation, the methods necessary to the profitable +culture of the commercial or + +MARKET GARDEN. + +It is a work for which there has long been a demand, and one which will +commend itself, not only to those who grow vegetables for sale, but to the +cultivator of the + +FAMILY GARDEN, + +to whom it presents methods quite different from the old ones generally +practiced. It is an ORIGINAL AND PURELY AMERICAN work, and not made up, as +books on gardening too often are, by quotations from foreign authors. + +Every thing is made perfectly plain, and the subject treated in all its +details, from the selection of the soil to preparing the products for +market. + +CONTENTS. + +Men fitted for the Business of Gardening. +The Amount of Capital Required, and +Working Force per Acre. +Profits of Market Gardening. +Location, Situation, and Laying Out. +Soils, Drainage, and Preparation. +Manures, Implements. +Uses and Management of Cold Frames. +Formation and Management of Hot-beds. +Forcing Pits or Green-houses. +Seeds and Seed Raising. +How, When, and Where to Sow Seeds. +Transplanting, Insects. +Packing of Vegetables for Shipping. +Preservation of Vegetables in Winter. +Vegetables, their Varieties and Cultivation. + +In the last chapter, the most valuable kinds are described, and the +culture proper to each is given in detail. + +Sent post-paid, price $1.50. + +ORANGE JUDD & CO., 245 Broadway, New-York. + + + + + +THE AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL ANNUAL + + +FOR 1870. + +A YEAR BOOK + +WANTED BY EVERY BODY. + +This valuable Year Book has now reached its fourth number. In its general +features it follows the plan of the three numbers that have preceded it, +and, like them, is beautifully illustrated. + +CONTENTS. + +Almanac and Calendar for 1870. Agricultural and Kindred Journals. +Agricultural and Kindred Books. Prospect and Retrospect. Immigration. Home +Markets. Cooeperation among Farmers. Commercial Fertilizers. The Crops and +the Weather. Thorough Drainage. Agricultural Exhibitions. Poultry +Societies and Shows. Importation of Live Stock. Death of Distinguished +Agriculturists. Inventions affecting Agriculture. Novelties in +Agricultural Seeds, etc. Oats. Sanford Corn. Potato Fever. Adobe or +Earth-wall Building--by E. G. Potter. Potatoes Worth Raising--by Dr. F. M. +Hexamer. Yield of Potatoes in 1869. Wheat Hoe. How to Train a Heifer. Care +of Hen and Chickens. Cultivation of Root Crops. Kohl Rabi. Dry Earth--the +Earth-Closet Principle in the Barn. General Agricultural Matters. +Characteristics of Different Breeds of Thoroughbred Stock. +Earth-Closets--Success of the System. Progress in Fish Culture. Cold Spring +Trout Ponds. Bellows Falls Trout Pond. Montdale Ponds. S. H. Ainsworth's +Ponds and Race. Mumford Ponds. Poheganut Trout Ponds. Breeds of Fish. Fish +as Farm Stock--by W. Clift. The Stocking of Ponds and Brooks. English +Agricultural Implements. Inventions affecting Milk, and Cheese-making--by +Gardner B. Weeks. Notes on Veterinary Subjects. Cooeperation in +Swine-breeding. Letter from Dr. Calvin Cutter. Steaming Fodder for Milch +Cows--by S. M. and D. Wells. The Harvester, Reaper, and Mower--by Isaac W. +White. Improvement in Drain Tiles. Farmer's Directory. + +*Sent post-paid. Price, fancy paper covers, 50 cents;* *Cloth, 75 cents.* + +Either of these Annuals for the three preceding years may be had at the +same prices. + +*ORANGE JUDD & CO.,* + +245 Broadway, New-York. + + + + + +THE AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL ANNUAL + + +FOR 1870. + +A YEAR BOOK + +FOR EVERY HOME. + +The fourth number of this beautiful serial is now ready. It contains a +popular record of horticultural progress during the past year, with other +valuable articles, many of which are illustrated with elegant engravings. + +CONTENTS. + +Calendars for each Month in the Year. Astronomical Memoranda. Number of +Trees, Plants, etc., required to Set an Acre. Hardy and Tender Vegetables. +Postage on Horticultural Matter. Tables of Quantities of Seed. The +Retinisporas--By JOSIAH HOOPES. Selecting and Saving Seeds--By WM G. +COMSTOCK. Inarching the Grapevine--By "Al Fresco." Apples in 1869--with +Descriptions of New Varieties--By J. A. WARDER. Pears in 1869--with Notes on +some of the Newer Varieties--By P. BARRY. Quinces in 1869. Plums in 1869. +Peaches in 1869--New Varieties--By F. R. ELLIOTT. Cherries in 1869--with +Notes of New Varieties and Comments on the Nomenclature of Older Sorts. +Native Grapes in 1869. Notes on the Small Fruits in 1869--By A. S. FULLER. +Hardy Trees and Shrubs in 1869. New Roses Tested in 1869--By JOHN SAUL. The +American Pomological Society. New and Interesting Bedding and other Plants +Tested in 1869--By PETER HENDERSON. New or Noteworthy Vegetables in 1869--By +JAS. J. H. GREGORY, and others. Horticultural implements, etc., in 1869. +Horticultural and Kindred Journals. Books upon Horticulture and Allied +Subjects, published in 1869. List of Nurserymen, Seedsmen, etc. + +*Sent post-paid. Price, fancy paper covers, 50 cents;* *Cloth, 75 cents.* + +Either of these Annuals for the three preceding years may be had at the +same prices. + +*ORANGE JUDD & CO.*, + +245 Broadway New-York. + + + + + +[Established in 1842.] + +A Good, Cheap, and very Valuable Paper for Every Man, Woman and Child, + +IN CITY, VILLAGE and COUNTRY, + +THE + +AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST, + +FOR THE + +FARM, GARDEN AND HOUSEHOLD, + +*Including a Special Department of Interesting and Instructive Reading for +CHILDREN and YOUTH*. + +The _Agriculturist_ is a large periodical of _Forty-four pages_, quarto, +not octavo, beautifully printed, and filled with _plain, practical, +reliable, original_ matter, including hundreds of _beautiful_ and +_instructive_ *Engravings* in every annual volume. + +It contains each month a Calendar of Operations to be performed on the +*Farm,* in the *Orchard* and *Garden,* in and around the *Dwelling,* etc. + +The thousands of hints and suggestions given in every volume are prepared +by practical, intelligent *working men,* who know what they talk and write +about. The articles are thoroughly edited, and every way reliable. + +The *Household Department* is valuable to every Housekeeper, affording +very many useful hints and directions calculated to lighten and facilitate +in-door work. + +The *Department for Children and Youth,* is prepared with special care not +only to amuse, but also to inculcate knowledge and sound moral principles. + +*Terms.*--The circulation of the _American Agriculturist_, (*about +150,000*) is so large that it can be furnished at the low price of $1.50 a +year; four copies, one year, for $5; ten copies, one year, for $12; twenty +or more copies, one year, $1 each; single copies, 15 cents each. An extra +copy to the one furnishing a club of ten or twenty. + +TRY IT A YEAR. + +ORANGE JUDD & CO., + +*Publishers & Proprietors,* + +*No. 245 Broadway, New-York City.* + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 --_Puddling_ is the kneading or rubbing of clay with water, a process + by which it becomes almost impervious, retaining this property until + thoroughly dried, when its close union is broken by the shrinking of + its parts. Puddled clay remains impervious as long as it is + saturated with water, and it does not entirely lose this quality + until it has been pulverized in a dry state. + + A small proportion of clay is sufficient to injure the porousness of + the soil by puddling.--A clay subsoil is puddled by being plowed over + when too wet, and the injury is of considerable duration. Rain water + collected in hollows of stiff land, by the simple movement given it + by the wind, so puddles the surface that it holds the water while + the adjacent soil is dry and porous. + + The term _puddling_ will often be used in this work, and the reader + will understand, from this explanation, the meaning with which it is + employed. + + 2 By leaving a space between the wall and the plastering, this + moisture is prevented from being an annoyance, and if the inclosed + space is not open from top to bottom, so as to allow a circulation + of air, but little vapor will come in contact with the wall, and but + an inconsiderable amount will be deposited. + + 3 The maps in this book are, for convenience, drawn to a scale of 160 + feet to the inch. + + 4 The instrument from which this cut was taken, (as also Fig. 7) was + made by Messrs. Blunt & Nichols, Water st., N. Y. + + 5 The slight deviations caused by carrying the drains around large + stones, which are found in cutting the ditches, do not affect the + general arrangement of the lines. + + 6 The low price at which this instrument is sold, $1.50, places it + within the reach of all. + + 7 Except from quite near to the drain, it is not probable that the + water in the soil runs laterally towards it. + + 8 Some of the drains in the Central Park have a fall of only 1 in + 1,000, and they work perfectly; but they are large mains, laid with + an amount of care, and with certain costly precautions, (including + precisely graded wooden floors,) which could hardly be expected in + private work. + + 9 The tile has been said, by great authorities, to be broken by + contraction, under some idea that the clay envelops the tile and + presses it when it contracts. That is nonsense. The contraction + would liberate the tile. Drive a stake into wet clay; and when the + clay is dry, observe whether it clasps the stake tighter or has + released it, and you will no longer have any doubt whether expansion + or contraction breaks the tile. Shrink is a better word than + contract. + + 10 Taking the difference of friction into consideration, 1-1/4 inch + pipes have fully twice the discharging capacity of 1-inch pipes. + + 11 No. 5 was one inch in diameter; No. 4, about 1-1/3 inches. + + 12 If the springs, when running at their greatest volume, be found to + require more than 1-1/4-inch tiles, due allowance must be made for + the increase. + + 13 Owing to the irregularity of the ground, and the necessity for + placing some of the drains at narrower intervals, the total length + of tile exceeds by nearly 50 per cent. what would be required if it + had a uniform slope, and required no collecting drains. It is much + greater than will be required in any ordinary case, as a very + irregular surface has been adopted here for purposes of + illustration. + + 14 The stakes used may be 18 inches long, and driven one-half of their + length into the ground. They should have one side sufficiently + smooth to be distinctly marked with red chalk. + + 15 The depth of 4.13, in Fig. 21, as well as the other depths at the + points at which the grade changes, happen to be those found by the + computation, as hereafter described, and they are used here for + illustration. + + 16 The figures in this table, as well as in the next preceding one, are + adopted for the published profile of drain _C_, Fig. 21, to avoid + confusion. In ordinary cases, the points which are fixed as the + basis of the computation are given in round numbers;--for instance, + the depth at _C3_ would be assumed to be 4.10 or 4.20, instead of + 4.13. The fractions given in the table, and in Fig. 21, arise from + the fact that the decimals are not absolutely correct, being carried + out only for two figures. + + 17 The drains, which are removed a little to one side of the lines of + stakes, may be turned toward the basin from a distance of 3 or 4 + feet. + + 18 The foot of the measuring rod should be shod with iron to prevent + its being worn to less than the proper length. + + 19 "Talpa, or the Chronicles of a Clay Farm." + + 20 When chips of tile, or similar matters, are used to cover openings + in the tile-work, it is well to cover them at once with a mortar + made of wet clay, which will keep them in place until the ditches + are filled. + + 21 Surely such soil ought not to require thorough draining; where men + can go so easily, water ought to find its way alone. + + 22 The land shown in Fig. 21, is especially irregular, and, for the + purpose of illustrating the principles upon which the work should be + done, an effort has been made to make the work as complete as + possible in all particulars. In actual work on a field similar to + that, it would not probably be good economy to make all the drains + laid in the plan, but as deviations from the plan would depend on + conditions which cannot well be shown on such a small scale, they + are disregarded, and the system of drains is made as it would be if + it were all plain sailing. + + 23 Klippart's Land Drainage. + + 24 Klippart's Land Drainage. + + 25 Drainage des Terres Arables, Paris, 1856. + + 26 The ends of the work, while the operations are suspended during + spring tides, will need an extra protection of sods, but that lying + out of reach of the eddies that will be formed by the receding water + will not be materially affected. + + 27 The latest invention of this sort, is that of a series of cast iron + plates, set on edge, riveted together, and driven in to such a depth + as to reach from the top of the dyke to a point below low-water + mark. The best that can be said of this plan is, that its adoption + would do no harm. Unless the plates are driven deeply into the clay + underlying the permeable soil, (and this is sometimes very deep,) + they would not prevent the slight infiltration of water which could + pass under them as well as through any other part of the soil, and + unless the iron were very thick, the corrosive action of salt water + would soon so honeycomb it that the borers would easily penetrate + it; but the great objection to the use of these plates is, that they + would be very costly and ineffectual. A dyke, made as described + above, of the material of the locality, having a ditch only on the + inside, and being well sodded on its outer face, would be far + cheaper and better. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAINING FOR PROFIT, AND DRAINING FOR HEALTH*** + + + +CREDITS + + +October 4, 2006 + + Posted to Project Gutenberg + Steven Giacomelli, + Joshua Hutchinson and + The Online Distributed Proofreading Team + (This file was produced from images produced by Core + Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell + University) + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 19465.txt or 19465.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/6/19465/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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