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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Music Notation and Terminology, by Karl W.
+Gehrkens
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Music Notation and Terminology
+
+
+Author: Karl W. Gehrkens
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2006  [eBook #19499]
+Most recently updated October 31, 2008
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by David Newman, Linda Cantoni, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/). Thanks to
+Alex Guzman for the realization of the figured bass in Figure 67, and to
+Bunji Hisamori and the Classical Midi Connection
+(http://www.classicalmidiconnection.com) for the MIDI sequence of the
+Beethoven Sonata Op. 31, No. 3.
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file
+      which includes the original illustrations and also audio
+      files to which the reader can listen.
+      See 19499-h.htm or 19499-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/9/19499/19499-h/19499-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/9/19499/19499-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      In this e-text, a superscript is indicated by a carat (^)
+      and a subscript by a single underscore (_).
+      Italics are indicated by two underscores, e.g. _larghetto_.
+      The Czech r (with its diacritical) is represented by [vr],
+      e.g. Dvo[vr]ák.]
+
+
+
+
+
+MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY
+
+by
+
+KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M.
+
+Associate Professor of School Music
+Oberlin Conservatory of Music
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: [publisher logo]]
+
+
+
+The A. S. Barnes Company
+New York 1914
+Copyright, 1914, by
+The A. S. Barnes Company
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The study of _music notation and terminology_ by classes in
+conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools
+is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such
+courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which
+might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the
+really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in
+music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the
+present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more
+systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more
+_intelligent_ class of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to
+establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after
+having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a
+concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most
+of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of
+which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps
+knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly
+and economically to others.
+
+To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the
+author has been for several years gathering material from all available
+sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in
+related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only
+some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but
+will also enable him to see more clearly _why_ certain terms have the
+meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the
+derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their
+definition.
+
+The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of
+terms has of course been influenced largely by the author's own
+individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that
+important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For
+this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would
+probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would
+satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms.
+
+In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to
+use such words as _note_, _tone_, et cetera with at least a fair degree
+of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author on this point may be
+criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his
+opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be
+profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been
+inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large
+extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is
+well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of
+edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually
+begin to come, the _need_ of reform must be felt by a fairly large
+number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few
+musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the
+changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful
+thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points
+at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought
+to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and
+that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.
+
+It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the
+teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms
+studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter
+purpose a pronouncing index has been appended.
+
+It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have
+been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear
+and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt
+or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an
+almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove's
+Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the
+arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H.
+Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox,
+Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice,
+Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of
+the Music Teachers' National Association who have offered valuable
+advice along certain specific lines.
+
+K.W.G.
+
+OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC, _June, 1913_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I.--Some Principles of Correct Notation                      1
+   1. Note.
+   2, 3. Rules for turning stems.
+   4. Use of cross-stroke.
+   5. Rest.
+   6. G Clef.
+   7. F Clef and C Clef.
+   8. Sharp and double-sharp.
+   9. Flat, double-flat and natural.
+  10. Tie.
+  11. Dot after a note.
+
+CHAPTER II.--Symbols of Music Defined                                5
+  12. Staff and Great Staff.
+  13. Leger Lines.
+  14. Staff degrees.
+  15. Clef.
+  16. Treble and bass Clefs.
+  17. Movable C Clef.
+  18. Sharp.
+  19. Flat.
+  20. Double-sharp and double-flat.
+
+CHAPTER III.--Symbols of Music Defined (_continued_)                 8
+  21. Natural
+  22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key.
+  24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar.
+  26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees.
+  27. Enharmonic.
+  28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.
+  29. Rests.
+  30. Lists of notes and rests.
+  31. English names for.
+  32. Less common forms.
+  33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.
+  34. Bar.
+  35. Double-bar.
+
+CHAPTER IV.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc.                             13
+  36-40. Signs for repetition.
+  41. Continuation.
+  42. Rest.
+  43. Pause.
+  44. Hold.
+  45-47. Alteration of Pitch.
+  48. Octave names.
+
+CHAPTER V.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (_continued_)                17
+  49-51. Dots after notes.
+  52. Dots over or under notes.
+  53. Dash over note.
+  54. Tie.
+  55. Slur.
+  56. Slur or tie with dots.
+  57. Dash over note.
+  58. Dash and dot over note.
+  59. Accent marks.
+  60. m.d., m.g., etc.
+  61. Arpeggio.
+  62. Messa di voce.
+  63. Violin bow signs.
+
+CHAPTER VI.--Embellishments                                         22
+  64. Definition and kinds.
+  65. Trill.
+  66-68. Mordent.
+  69-72. Turn.
+  73, 74. Appoggiatura.
+  75. Acciaccatura.
+
+CHAPTER VII.--Scales                                                27
+  76. Definition, and old forms.
+  77. Origin.
+  78. Key.
+  79. Three general classes.
+  80. Diatonic, defined.
+  81. Major diatonic.
+  82. Tetrachords.
+  83. The fifteen positions.
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--Scales (_continued_)                                 33
+  84. Minor diatonic.
+  85. Original form.
+  86. Harmonic minor.
+  87. Melodic minor.
+  88. Eleven positions.
+  89. Relative minor.
+  90. Tonic minor.
+  91. Diatonic scale names.
+  92. Syllable-names.
+  93. Chromatic scale.
+  94. Nine positions.
+  95. Whole-step scale.
+
+CHAPTER IX.--Auxiliary Words and Endings                            42
+
+CHAPTER X.--Measure                                                 44
+  97. Definition.--Two essential characteristics.
+   Rhythm vers measure.
+  98. Syncopation.
+  99. Simple and compound measures.
+ 100. Commonest varieties.
+ 101. Other varieties.
+ 102. Rare varieties.
+ 103. The signs, C and [cut-time symbol].
+
+CHAPTER XI.--Tempo                                                  48
+ 104. Misuses of the word "time."
+ 105-107. How to correct these: by substituting "rhythm," "measure,"
+   and "tempo."
+ 108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo.
+ 109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.
+
+CHAPTER XII.--Tempo (_continued_)                                   52
+ 110-119. Tempo-terms.
+
+CHAPTER XIII.--Dynamics                                             56
+ 120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.
+
+CHAPTER XIV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles                    62
+ 132. Definition of form.
+ 133. Basis of form.
+ 134. Difference between form and style.
+ 135. Introductory.
+ 136. Two styles.
+ 137. Monophonic music.
+ 138. Polyphonic music.
+ 139. Counterpoint.
+ 140. Imitation.
+ 141. Canon.
+ 142. School round.
+ 143. Fugue.
+
+CHAPTER XV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (_continued_)       67
+ 144. Phrase-section.
+ 145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.
+ 146. Primary forms.
+ 147. Theme.
+ 148. Thematic development.
+ 149. Rondo.
+ 150. Suite.
+ 151. Dances in suite.
+ 152. Scherzo.
+ 153. Sonata.
+ 154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.
+ 155. Concerto.
+ 156. Symphony.
+ 157. Sonata-form.
+ 158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.
+ 159. Program music.
+ 160. Symphonic or tone poem.
+
+CHAPTER XVI.--Terms Relating to Vocal Music                         76
+ 161. Anthem.
+ 162. A capella.
+ 163. Motet.
+ 164. Choral.
+ 165. Mass.
+ 166. Cantata.
+ 167. Oratorio.
+ 168. Opera.
+ 169. Libretto.
+ 170. Recitative.
+ 171. Aria.
+ 172. Lied.
+ 173. Ballad.
+ 174. Folk-song.
+ 175. Madrigal.
+ 176. Glee.
+ 177. Part-song.
+
+CHAPTER XVII.--Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals                82
+ 178. The four elements of music.
+ 179. Rhythm.
+ 180. Melody.
+ 181. Harmony.
+ 182. Timbre.
+ 183. Interval--harmonic and melodic.
+ 184. Number name and specific name.
+ 185. Prime.
+ 186. Second.
+ 187. Third.
+ 188. Fourth.
+ 189. Fifth.
+ 190. Sixth.
+ 191. Seventh.
+ 192. Octave.
+ 193. Ninth.
+ 194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals.
+ 195. Inverted intervals.
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.--Chords, Cadences, etc.                              87
+ 196. Chord. Triad. Root.
+ 197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads.
+ 198. The Common chords.
+ 199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion.
+ 200. Figured bass.
+ 201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.
+ 202. Cadence.
+ 203. Authentic cadence.
+ 204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic.
+ 205. Plagal cadence.
+ 206. Half-cadence.
+ 207. Deceptive cadence.
+ 208. Sequence.
+ 209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh.
+ 210. Suspension.
+ 211. Retardation.
+ 212. Anticipation.
+ 213. Pedal point.
+ 214. Close and open position.
+ 215. Transposition.
+
+CHAPTER XIX.--Miscellaneous Terms                                   95
+
+CHAPTER XX.--Miscellaneous Terms (_continued_)                      98
+
+APPENDIX A.--The History of Music Notation                         101
+
+APPENDIX B.--Musical Instruments                                   112
+   1. Two classes.
+   2. Piano.
+   3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.
+   5. Instruments used for ensemble playing.
+   6. Band.
+   7. Orchestra.
+   8. The stringed instruments.
+   9. Wood-wind.
+  10. Brass.
+  11. Percussion.
+  12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra.
+  13. Books recommended.
+  14. Violin.
+  15. Viola.
+  16. Violoncello.
+  17. Double-bass.
+  18. Flute.
+  19. Piccolo.
+  20. Oboe family.
+  21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone.
+  22. French horn.
+  23. Trumpet.
+  24. Cornet.
+  25. Trombone.
+  26. Tuba.
+  27. Kettle-drum.
+  28. Harp.
+
+APPENDIX C.--Acoustics                                             131
+   1. Definition.
+   2. Sound, production of.
+   3. Sound, transmission of.
+   4. Rate of travel.
+   5. Intensification of.
+   6. Classification of.
+   7. Tones, properties of.
+   8. Pitch.
+   9. Intensity.
+  10. Quality.
+  11. Overtones.
+  12. Equal temperament.
+  13. Standards of pitch.
+
+APPENDIX D.--Terminology Reform                                    139
+
+APPENDIX E.--Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3           149
+
+PRONOUNCING INDEX                                                  159
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SOME PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT NOTATION
+
+
+1. The _note_ (from _nota_--Latin--a mark or sign) consists of either
+one, two, or three parts, ([Illustration]) these being referred to
+respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called _tail_ or
+cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned
+up, but on the left side when turned down.[1] [Illustration] The hook is
+always on the right side.[2] [Illustration]
+
+[Footnote 1: It should be noted at the outset that this statement
+regarding the down-turned stem on the left side of the note-head, and
+also a number of similar principles here cited, refer more specifically
+to music as it appears on the printed page. In the case of hand-copied
+music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note, thus
+[note symbol]. This is done because of greater facility in writing, and
+for the same reason other slight modifications of the notation here
+recommended may sometimes be encountered. In dealing with children it is
+best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according
+to which _printed_ music is notated, in order to avoid those
+non-satisfying and often embarrassing explanations of differences which
+will otherwise be unavoidable.]
+
+[Footnote 2: An exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of
+unequal value stroked together, when the hook appears on the left side,
+thus [Illustration].]
+
+     In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with
+     a heavy pressure on the pen point, but in writing at the board
+     they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an
+     inch long, turned on its side.
+
+2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following
+_rules for turning stems_ apply: (1) If the note-head is _below_ the
+third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is _above_ the
+third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is _on_ the
+third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the
+symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The
+following examples will illustrate these points.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper
+part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that
+the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano
+and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by _one_
+performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices
+have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in
+common as in Fig. 3.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written
+in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by
+_one cross-stroke_. In such a case all the stems must of course be
+turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of
+the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus _stroked_ may be of
+the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to
+each note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.)
+
+5. _Rests_, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by
+using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. 1.) The
+double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third space
+unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff
+they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may
+be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on
+the spaces. The hook of the eighth rest is usually placed on the
+_third_ space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.
+
+6. The _G clef_ should be begun at the second line rather than below the
+staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it
+most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by
+dividing it into two parts, thus, [Illustration]. The descending stroke
+crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular
+part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces.
+
+7. The _F clef_ is made either thus, [bass clef symbol], or thus, [old
+bass clef symbol], the dots being placed one on either side of the
+fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef
+marks. The C _clef_ has also two forms, [C clef symbol] and [tenor clef
+symbol].
+
+8. The _sharp_ is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy
+slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right,
+[sharp]. The sharp should never be made thus, [Illustration].
+
+The _double sharp_ is made either thus [double-sharp symbol] or [old
+double-sharp symbol], the first form being at present the more common.
+
+9. The _flat_ is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the
+curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The _double flat_
+consists of two flats,[3] [flat][flat]. The _natural_ or _cancel_ is
+made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus [Illustration].
+
+[Footnote 3: It is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat
+suggested by Mattheson (who also suggested the St. Andrew's cross
+([symbol]) for the double-sharp) may some time be readopted. This figure
+was the Greek letter B, made thus, [Greek: b], and its use would make
+our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present.]
+
+10. The _tie_ usually connects the _heads_ of notes, thus [tie symbol].
+
+11. The _dot after a note_ always appears on a space, whether the
+note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot
+after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the space _above_
+that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below
+it if the following note is lower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+     _Note._--Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a
+     theory, and in order to form the habit of writing correctly,
+     _drill_ is necessary. This may perhaps be best secured by
+     asking students to write (at the board or on ruled paper) from
+     verbal dictation, thus: Teacher says,
+
+     "Key of B[flat], three-quarter measure: First measure, DO a
+     quarter note, RE a quarter, and MI a quarter. Second measure,
+     SOL a quarter, LA a quarter, and SOL a quarter. Third measure,
+     LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth measure,
+     high DO a dotted half." Pupils respond by writing the exercise
+     dictated, after which mistakes in the turning of stems, etc.,
+     are corrected. The _pitch names_ may be dictated instead of
+     the syllables if desired, and still further practice may be
+     provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other
+     keys.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED
+
+
+12. A _staff_ is a collection of parallel lines, together with the
+spaces belonging to them. The modern staff has five lines and six
+spaces, these being ordinarily referred to as first line, second line,
+third line, fourth line, and fifth line (beginning with the lowest); and
+space below (_i.e._, space below the first line), first space, second
+space, third space, fourth space, and space above.
+
+The definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of
+the portions of the "great staff," the latter term being often applied
+to the combination of treble and bass staffs (with one leger line
+between) so commonly used in piano music, etc.
+
+13. The _extent of the staff_ may be increased either above or below by
+the addition of short lines called _leger lines_,[4] and notes may be
+written on either these lines or on the spaces above and below them.
+
+[Footnote 4: The word _leger_ is derived from the French word _LÉGER_,
+meaning light, and this use of the word refers to the fact that the
+leger lines, being added by hand, are lighter--_i.e._, less solid in
+color--than the printed lines of the staff itself.]
+
+14. The lines and spaces constituting the staff (including leger lines
+if any) are often referred to as _staff degrees_, _i.e._, each separate
+line and space is considered to be "a degree of the staff." The tones of
+a scale are also sometimes referred to as "degrees of the scale."
+
+15. A _clef_[5] is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches
+are to be represented by its lines and spaces. Thus, _e.g._, the G clef
+shows us not only that the second line of the staff represents G, but
+that the first line represents E, the first space F, etc. The F clef
+similarly shows us that the fifth line of the bass staff represents the
+first A below middle C, the fourth line the first F below middle C, etc.
+
+[Footnote 5: The word _clef_ is derived from _CLAVIS_--a key--the
+reference being to the fact that the clef unlocks or makes clear the
+meaning of the staff, as a key to a puzzle enables us to solve the
+puzzle.]
+
+The student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of
+the letters G and F, which (among others) were used to designate the
+pitches represented by certain lines when staff notation was first
+inaugurated. For a fuller discussion of this matter see Appendix A, p.
+101. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Appendix I" in original.]
+
+16. When the G clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the
+_treble staff_, and when the F clef is used, as the _bass staff_. Such
+expressions as "singing from the treble clef," or "singing in the treble
+clef," and "singing in the bass clef" are still frequently heard, but
+are preferably replaced by "singing from the treble staff," and "singing
+from the bass staff." Fig. 6 shows the permanent names of lines and
+spaces when the G and F clefs are used.[6]
+
+[Footnote 6: The Germans use the same pitch designations as we do with
+two exceptions, viz., our B is called by them H, and our B[flat] is
+called B. The scale of C therefore reads: C, D, E, F, G, A, H, C; the
+scale of F reads F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F. The signatures are in all cases
+written exactly as we write them.
+
+In France and Italy where the "fixed DO" system is in vogue, pitches are
+usually referred to by the syllable names; _e.g._, C is referred to as
+DO (or UT), D as RE, etc.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+17. _The movable C clef_ [C clef symbol] or [tenor clef symbol],
+formerly in very common use, is now utilized for only two purposes,
+viz., (1) in music written for certain orchestral instruments (cello,
+viola, etc.) of extended range, in order to avoid having to use too many
+leger lines; and (2) for indicating the tenor part in vocal music. This
+latter usage seems also to be disappearing however, and the tenor part
+is commonly written on the treble staff, it being understood that the
+tones are to be sung an octave lower than the notes would indicate.
+
+The C clef as used in its various positions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and
+9. It will be noted that in each case the line on which the clef is
+placed represents "middle C."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Soprano clef.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Alto clef.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Tenor clef.]
+
+18. A _sharp_ is a character which causes the degree of the staff with
+which it is associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it
+otherwise would.
+
+     Thus in Fig. 10 (_a_) the fifth line and first space represent
+     the pitch F, but in Fig. 10 (_b_) these same staff degrees
+     represent an entirely different tone--F[sharp]. The student
+     should note that the sharp does not then _raise_ anything; it
+     merely causes a staff degree to represent a higher tone than
+     it otherwise would. There is just as much difference between F
+     and F[sharp] as between B and C, and yet one would never think
+     of referring to C as "B raised"!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+19. A _flat_ is a character that causes the degree of the staff with
+which it is associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it
+otherwise would. (See note under Sec. 18 and apply the same discussion
+here.)
+
+20. A _double-sharp_ causes the staff degree on which it is placed to
+represent a pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp.
+Similarly, a double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed
+to represent a pitch one whole-step lower than it would without any
+flat.
+
+     Double-sharps and double-flats are generally used on staff
+     degrees that have already been sharped or flatted, therefore
+     their practical effect is to cause staff degrees to represent
+     pitches respectively a half-step higher and a half-step lower
+     than would be represented by those same degrees in their
+     diatonic condition. Thus in Fig. 10 (_b_) the first space in
+     its diatonic condition[7] represents F-sharp, and the
+     double-sharp on this degree would cause it to represent a
+     pitch one-half step higher than F-sharp, _i.e._,
+     F-double-sharp.
+
+[Footnote 7: The expression "diatonic condition" as here used refers to
+the staff after the signature has been placed upon it, in other words
+after the staff has been prepared to represent the pitches of the
+diatonic scale.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED (_Continued_)
+
+
+21. The _natural_[8] (sometimes called _cancel_) annuls the effect of
+previous sharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the
+measure in which it occurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the
+combination of a natural with a sharp, or a natural with a flat is often
+found: in this case only one sharp or flat is annulled. (Sometimes also
+the single sharp or flat will be found by itself, cancelling the
+double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used when a
+composition changes key, as in Fig. 11, where a change from E to G is
+shown.
+
+[Footnote 8: It has already been noted (p. 6, Note) that in the German
+scale our b-flat is called b, and our b is called H. From this
+difference in terminology has grown up the custom of using the H (now
+made [natural]) to show that _any_ staff-degree is in _natural_
+condition, _i.e._, not sharped or flatted.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+22. The group of sharps or flats (or absence of them) at the beginning
+of a staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is
+written. They are called collectively the _key-signature_.
+
+23. The same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys, the
+major key, or its relative minor, hence in order to determine in what
+key a melody is one must note whether the tones are grouped about the
+major tonic DO or the minor tonic LA. In a harmonized composition it is
+almost always possible to determine the key by referring to the last
+bass note; if the final chord is clearly the DO chord the composition is
+in the major key, but if this final chord is clearly the LA chord then
+it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the minor key.
+Thus if a final chord appears as that in Fig. 12 the composition is
+clearly in G major, while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is just as
+surely in E minor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps and double-flats, occurring
+in the course of the composition (_i.e._, after the key signature) are
+called _accidentals_, whether they actually cause a staff degree to
+represent a different pitch as in Fig. 14 or simply make clear a
+notation about which there might otherwise be some doubt as in Fig. 15,
+measure two. The effect of such accidentals terminates at the bar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+25. In the case of a _tie across a bar_ an accidental remains in force
+until the combined value of the tied notes expires. In Fig. 16 first
+measure, third beat, an accidental sharp makes the third space represent
+the pitch C sharp. By virtue of the tie across the bar the third space
+continues to represent C sharp thru the first beat of the second
+measure, but for the remainder of the measure the third space will
+represent C unless the sharp is repeated as in Fig. 17.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+26. The following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches
+different from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the
+beginner in the study of music notation. These rules are quoted from
+"The Worcester Musical Manual," by Charles I. Rice.
+
+     1. To sharp a natural degree, use a sharp. Fig. 18.
+     2. To sharp a sharped degree, use a double sharp. Fig. 19.
+     3. To sharp a flatted degree, use a natural. Fig. 20.
+     4. To flat a natural degree, use a flat. Fig. 21.
+     5. To flat a flatted degree, use a double flat. Fig. 22.
+     6. To flat a sharped degree, use a natural. Fig. 23.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+27. When two different notations represent the same pitch, the word
+_enharmonic_ is applied. Thus we may say that F sharp and G flat (on
+keyboard instruments at least) are enharmonically the same.
+
+This word _enharmonic_ is used in such expressions as enharmonic change,
+enharmonic keys, enharmonic interval, enharmonic modulation, enharmonic
+relation, etc., and in all such combinations it has the same meaning,
+viz.--a change in notation but no change in the pitch represented.
+
+28. A _note_ is a character expressing relative duration, which when
+placed on a staff indicates that a certain tone is to be sounded for a
+certain relative length of time. The pitch of the tone to be sounded is
+shown by the position of the note on the staff, while the length of time
+it is to be prolonged is shown by the shape of the note. Thus _e.g._, a
+half-note on the second line of the treble staff indicates that a
+specific pitch (g') is to be played or sung for a period of time twice
+as long as would be indicated by a quarter-note in the same composition.
+
+29. A _rest_ is a character which indicates a rhythmic silence of a
+certain relative length.
+
+30. The _notes and rests in common use_ are as follows:
+
+[symbol] Whole-note. An open note-head without stem.
+[symbol] Half-note. An open note-head with stem.
+[symbol] Quarter-note. A closed note-head with stem.
+[symbol] Eighth-note. A closed note-head with stem and one hook.
+[symbol] Sixteenth-note. A closed note-head with stem and two hooks.
+[symbol] Thirty-second-note. A closed note-head with stem and three hooks.
+[symbol] Whole-rest.
+[symbol] Half-rest.
+[symbol] Quarter-rest.
+[symbol] Eighth-rest.
+[symbol] Sixteenth-rest.
+[symbol] Thirty-second-rest.
+
+31. The _English names_ for these notes are:
+
+Whole-note--semi-breve.
+Half-note--minim.
+Quarter-note--crotchet.
+Eighth-note--quaver.
+Sixteenth-note--semi-quaver.
+Thirty-second-note--demi-semi-quaver.
+
+The corresponding rests are referred to by the same system of
+nomenclature: _e.g._, _semi-breve rest_, etc.
+
+32. _Sixty-fourth_ and _one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes_ are
+occasionally found, but are not in common use. The _double-whole-note_
+(_breve_), made [breve symbol] or [old breve symbol], is still used,
+especially in English music, which frequently employs the half-note as
+the beat-unit. Thus in four-half measure the breve would be necessary to
+indicate a tone having four beats.
+
+33. The _whole-rest_ has a peculiarity of usage not common to any of the
+other duration symbols, viz., that it is often employed as a
+_measure-rest_, filling an entire measure of beats, no matter what the
+measure-signature may be. Thus, not only in four-quarter-measure, but in
+two-quarter, three-quarter, six-eighth, and other varieties, the
+whole-rest fills the entire measure, having a value sometimes greater,
+sometimes less than the corresponding whole-note. Because of this
+peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed _Takt-pausa_
+(measure-rest) by the Germans.
+
+34. A _bar_ is a vertical line across the staff, dividing it into
+measures. The word _bar_ is often used synonymously with _measure_ by
+orchestral conductors and others; thus, "begin at the fourteenth bar
+after J." This use of the word, although popular, is incorrect.
+
+35. A _double-bar_ consists of two vertical lines across the staff, at
+least one of the two being a heavy line. The double bar marks the end of
+a division, movement, or entire composition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, ETC.
+
+
+36. A _double bar_ (or single heavy bar) with either two or four dots
+indicates that a section is to be repeated. If the repeat marks occur at
+only one point the entire preceding part is to be repeated, but if the
+marks occur twice (the first time at the right of the bar but the second
+time at the left), only the section thus enclosed by the marks is to be
+repeated.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+37. Sometimes a different cadence (or ending) is to be used for the
+repetition, and this is indicated as in Fig. 24.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+38. The Italian word _bis_ is occasionally used to indicate that a
+certain passage or section is to be repeated. This use is becoming
+obsolete.
+
+39. The words _da capo_ (_D.C._) mean literally "from the head," _i.e._,
+repeat from the beginning. The words _dal segno_ (_D.S._) indicate a
+repetition from the sign ([segno symbol] or [segno symbol]) instead of
+from the beginning.
+
+In the case of both _D.C._ and _D.S._ the word _fine_ (meaning literally
+_the end_) is ordinarily used to designate the point at which the
+repeated section is to terminate. The fermata ([fermata symbol]) was
+formerly in common use for this same purpose, but is seldom so employed
+at present.
+
+     _D.C._ (_sin_[9]) _al fine_ means--repeat from the beginning
+     to the word "fine."
+
+     [Footnote 9: The word _sin_ is a contraction of the Italian
+     word _sino_, meaning "as far as" or "until"; in the term given
+     above (Sec. 39) it is really superfluous as the word _al_
+     includes in itself both preposition and article, meaning "to
+     the."]
+
+     _D.C. al_ [fermata symbol] means--repeat to the fermata (or
+     hold).
+
+     _D.C. senza repetizione_, or _D.C. ma senza repetizione_,
+     [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "repetitione"] both
+     mean--repeat from the beginning, but without observing other
+     repeat marks during the repetition.
+
+     _D.C. e poi la coda_ means--repeat the first section only to
+     the mark [coda symbol], then skip to the coda. (See p. 74,
+     Sec. 157, for discussion of _coda_).
+
+40. In certain cases where the repetition of characteristic figures can
+be indicated without causing confusion, it is the practice of composers
+(especially in orchestral music) to make use of certain _signs of
+repetition_. Some of the commonest of these abbreviations are shown in
+the following examples.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+In Fig. 28 the repetition of an entire measure is called for.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+41. The word _simile_ [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "similie"]
+(sometimes _segue_) indicates that a certain effect previously begun is
+to be continued, as _e.g._, staccato playing, pedalling, style of bowing
+in violin music, etc. The word _segue_ is also occasionally used to show
+that an accompaniment figure (especially in orchestral music) is to be
+continued.
+
+42. _When some part is to rest for two or more measures_ several methods
+of notation are possible. A rest of two measures is usually indicated
+thus [Illustration]. Three measures thus [Illustration]. Four measures
+thus [Illustration]. Rests of more than four measures are usually
+indicated in one of the following ways: [Illustration]. Sometimes the
+number of measures is written directly on the staff, thus;
+[Illustration].
+
+43. The letters G.P. (general pause, or grosse pause), the words _lunga
+pausa_, or simply the word _lunga_, are sometimes written over a rest to
+show that there is to be a prolonged pause or rest in all parts. Such
+expressions are found only in ensemble music, _i.e._, music in which
+several performers are engaged at the same time.
+
+44. The _fermata_ or _hold_ [fermata symbol] over a note or chord
+indicates that the tone is to be prolonged, the duration of the
+prolongation depending upon the character of the music and the taste of
+the performer or conductor. It has already been noted that the hold over
+a bar was formerly used to designate the end of the composition, as the
+word _fine_ is employed at present, but this usage has practically
+disappeared and the hold over the bar now usually indicates a short rest
+between two sections of a composition.
+
+45. The sign _8va......_ (an abbreviation of _all'ottava_,
+[Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "al ottava" in original.] literally
+at the octave) above the staff, indicates that all tones are to be
+sounded an octave higher than the notes would indicate. When found below
+the staff the same sign serves to indicate that the tones are to be
+sounded an octave lower. The term _8va bassa_ has also this latter
+signification.
+
+46. Sometimes the word _loco_ (in place) is used to show that the part
+is no longer to be sounded an octave higher (or lower), but this is more
+often indicated by the termination of the dotted (or wavy) line.
+
+47. The sign _Col 8_ (_coll'ottava_--with the octave) shows that the
+tones an octave higher or lower are to be sounded _with_ the tones
+indicated by the printed notes. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error
+"col ottava" in original.]
+
+48. For the sake of definiteness in referring to pitches, a particular
+name is applied to each octave, and all pitches in the octave are
+referred to by means of a uniform nomenclature. The following figure
+will make this system clear:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+Thus _e.g._, "great G" (written simply G), is the G represented by the
+first line of the bass staff. Small A (written a), is represented by the
+fifth line of the bass staff. Two-lined G, (written [2-lined g symbol]),
+is represented by the space above the fifth line, treble staff.
+Three-lined C, (written [3-lined c symbol]), is represented by the
+second added line above the treble staff, etc. The _one-lined octave_
+may be described as the octave from _middle C_ to the B represented by
+the third line of the treble staff, and any tone within that octave is
+referred to as "one-lined." Thus--_one-lined_ D, _one-lined_ G, etc.
+
+     In scientific works on acoustics, etc., the pitches in the sub
+     octave (or sub-contra octave as it is often called) are
+     referred to as C_2, D_2, E_2, etc.; those in the contra octave
+     as C_1, D_1, etc.; in the great octave, as c^1, d^1, etc.; in
+     the small octave as c^2, d^2, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, ETC., (_Continued_)
+
+
+49. _A dot after a note_ shows that the value of the note is to be half
+again as great as it would be without the dot, _i.e._, the value is to
+be three-halves that of the original note.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+50. _When two dots follow the note_ the second dot adds half as much as
+the first dot has added, _i.e._, the entire value is seven-fourths that
+of the original note.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+51. _When three dots follow the note_ the third dot adds one-half the
+value added by the second, _i.e._, the entire value of the triple-dotted
+note is fifteen-eighths that of the original note.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+52. _A dot over or under a note_ is called the _staccato mark_ and
+indicates that the tone is to be sounded and then instantly released.
+[Illustration] In music for organ and for some other instruments the
+staccato note is sometimes interpreted differently, this depending on
+the character of the instrument.
+
+     On stringed instruments of the violin family the staccato
+     effect is usually secured by a long, rapid stroke of the bow
+     for each tone; in the case of harp and drum the hand is
+     quickly brought in contact with the vibrating body, thus
+     stopping the tone instantly. On the organ the tone is often
+     prolonged to one-half the value of the printed note before the
+     keys are released.
+
+53. _The wedge-shaped dash over the note_ (staccatissimo) was formerly
+employed to indicate a tone still more detached than that indicated by
+the dot, but this sign is really superfluous, and is seldom used at
+present. [Illustration]
+
+54. _A tie_ is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes that call
+for the same tone. It indicates that they are to be sounded as one tone
+having a duration equal to the combined value of both notes. _E.g._, a
+half-note tied to a quarter-note would indicate a tone equal in
+duration-length to that shown by a dotted half-note; two half-notes tied
+would indicate a tone equal in duration to that shown by a whole-note.
+(See examples under Sections 49, 50, and 51).
+
+Fig. 30 illustrates the more common variety of tie, while Fig. 31 shows
+an example of the _enharmonic[10] tie_.
+
+[Footnote 10: For definition of enharmonic see p. 10, Sec. 27.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+55. The _slur_ is used in so many different ways that it is impossible
+to give a general definition. It consists of a curved line, sometimes
+very short (in which case it looks like the tie), but sometimes very
+long, connecting ten, fifteen, or more notes. Some of the more common
+uses of the slur are:
+
+A. _To indicate legato_ (sustained or connected) _tones_, as contrasted
+with staccato (detached) ones.
+
+     In violin music this implies playing all tones thus slurred in
+     one bow; in music for the voice and for wind instruments it
+     implies singing or playing them in one breath.
+
+B. _As a phrase-mark_, in the interpretation of which the first tone of
+the phrase is often accented slightly, and the last one shortened in
+value.
+
+     This interpretation of the phrase is especially common when
+     the phrase is short (as in the two-note phrase), and when the
+     tones constituting the phrase are of short duration, _e.g._,
+     the phrase given in Fig. 32 would be played approximately as
+     written in Fig. 33.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+     But if the notes are of greater value, especially in slow
+     tempi, the slur merely indicates legato, _i.e._, sustained or
+     connected rendition. Fig. 34 illustrates such a case.
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+     This is a matter of such diverse usage that it is difficult to
+     generalize regarding it. The tendency seems at present to be
+     in the direction of using the slur (_in instrumental music_)
+     as a phrase-mark exclusively, it being understood that unless
+     there is some direction to the contrary, the tones are to be
+     performed in a connected manner.
+
+C. In vocal music, to show that two or more tones are to be sung to one
+syllable of text. See Fig. 35.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. MENDELSSOHN (_S. Paul_) re-mem-bers His
+chil-dren.]
+
+     In notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) this same
+     thing is often indicated by _stroking_ the stems together as
+     in Fig. 36. This can only be done in cases where the natural
+     grouping of notes in the measure will not be destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. ev-er and ev-er, for ev-er and]
+
+D. To mark special note-groups (triplets, etc.), in which case the slur
+is accompanied by a figure indicating the number of notes in the group.
+See Fig. 37 (_a_)
+
+     The most common of these irregular note-groups is the
+     _triplet_, which consists of three notes to be performed in
+     the time ordinarily given to two of the same value. Sometimes
+     the triplet consists of only two notes as in Fig. 37 (_b_). In
+     such a case the first two of the three notes composing the
+     triplet are considered to be tied.
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+     When the triplet form is perfectly obvious, the Fig. 3 (as
+     well as the slur) may be omitted.
+
+     Other examples of irregular note-groups, together with the
+     names commonly applied, follow.
+
+     [Illustration: Doublet. Quintuplet or Quintolet. Sextuplet or
+     Sextolet. Septolet or Septimole.]
+
+56. The _combination of slur or tie and dots_ over the notes indicates
+that the tones are to be somewhat detached, but not sharply so.
+[Illustration]
+
+     This effect is sometimes erroneously termed _portamento_ (lit.
+     _carrying_), but this term is more properly reserved for an
+     entirely different effect, _viz._, when a singer, or player on
+     a stringed instrument, passes from a high tone to a low one
+     (or vice versa) touching lightly on some or all of the
+     diatonic tones between the two melody tones.
+
+57. The horizontal _dash over a note_ [Illustration] indicates that the
+tone is to be slightly accented, and sustained. This mark is also
+sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the tones are no
+longer to be performed in detached fashion, but are to be sustained.
+This latter use is especially common in music for stringed instruments.
+
+58. The combination of _dash and dot over a note_ [Illustration]
+indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented and separated from
+its neighboring tones.
+
+59. _Accent marks_ are made in a variety of fashions. The most common
+forms follow. [horizontal accent symbol] [vertical accent symbol] _sf_
+_fz_. All indicate that a certain tone or chord is to be differentiated
+from its neighboring tones or chords by receiving a certain relative
+amount of stress.
+
+60. In music for keyboard instruments it is sometimes necessary to
+indicate that a certain part is to be played by a certain hand. The
+abbreviations r.h. (right hand), m.d. (mano destra, It.), and m.d. (main
+droite, Fr.), designate that a passage or tone is to be played with the
+right hand, while l.h. (left hand), m.s. (mano sinistra, It.), and m.g.
+(main gauche, Fr.), show that the left hand is to be employed.
+
+61. _The wavy line placed vertically beside a chord_ [Illustration]
+indicates that the tones are to be sounded consecutively instead of
+simultaneously, beginning with the lowest tone, all tones being
+sustained until the duration-value of the chord has expired. This is
+called _arpeggio playing_. When the wavy line extends through the entire
+chord (covering both staffs) as in Fig. 38, all the tones of the chord
+are to be played one after another, beginning with the lowest: but if
+there is a separate wavy line for each staff as at Fig. 39 then the
+lowest tone represented on the upper staff is to be played
+simultaneously with the lowest tone represented on the bass staff.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+     The word arpeggio (plural arpeggi) is a derivation of the
+     Italian word _arpa_ (meaning harp), and from this word _arpa_
+     and its corresponding verb _arpeggiare_ (to play on the harp)
+     are derived also a number of other terms commonly used in
+     instrumental music. Among these are--arpeggiamento,
+     arpeggiando, arpeggiato, etc., all of these terms referring to
+     a _harp style_ of performance, the tones being sounded one
+     after another in rapid succession instead of simultaneously as
+     on the piano.
+
+62. The sign [crescendo-decrescendo symbol] over a note indicates that
+the tone is to be begun softly, gradually increased in power, and as
+gradually decreased again, ending as softly as it began. In vocal music
+this effect is called _messa di voce_.
+
+63. In music for stringed instruments of the violin family, the sign
+[down-bow symbol] indicates down-bow and the sign [up-bow symbol]
+up-bow. In cello music the down-bow sign is sometimes written [cello
+down-bow symbol].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+EMBELLISHMENTS
+
+
+64. _Embellishments (or graces) (Fr. agréments_) are ornamental tones,
+either represented in full in the score or indicated by certain signs.
+The following are the embellishments most commonly found: Trill (or
+shake), mordent, inverted mordent (or prall trill), turn (gruppetto),
+inverted turn, appoggiatura and acciaccatura.
+
+Usage varies greatly in the interpretation of the signs representing
+these embellishments and it is impossible to give examples of all the
+different forms. The following definitions represent therefore only the
+most commonly found examples and the most generally accepted
+interpretations.
+
+65. The _trill (or shake_) consists of the rapid alternation of two
+tones to the full value of the printed note. The lower of these two
+tones is represented by the printed note, while the upper one is the
+next higher tone in the diatonic scale of the key in which the
+composition is written. The interval between the two tones may therefore
+be either a half-step or a whole-step.
+
+     Whether the trill is to begin with the principal tone
+     (represented by the printed note) or with the one above is a
+     matter of some dispute among theorists and performers, but it
+     may safely be said that the majority of modern writers on the
+     subject would have it begin on the principal tone rather than
+     on the tone above. Fig. 40.
+
+     When the principal note is preceded by a small note on the
+     degree above, it is of course understood that the trill begins
+     on the tone above. Fig. 41.
+
+The trill is indicated by the sign [trill symbol].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+The above examples would be termed _perfect trills_ because they close
+with a turn. By inference, an _imperfect trill_ is one closing without a
+turn.
+
+66. The _mordent_ [mordent symbol] consists of three tones; first the
+one represented by the printed note; second the one next below it in the
+diatonic scale; third the one represented by the printed note again.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+67. The _double (or long) mordent_ has five tones (sometimes seven)
+instead of three, the first two of the three tones of the regular
+mordent being repeated once or more. (See Fig. 43.)
+
+In the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as
+quickly as possible, the time taken by the embellishment being
+subtracted from the value of the principal note as printed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+68. The _inverted mordent_ [inverted mordent symbol] (note the absence
+of the vertical line) is like the mordent except that the tone below is
+replaced by the tone above in each case. This ornament is sometimes
+called a "transient shake" because it is really only a part of the more
+elaborate grace called "trill." (See Fig. 44.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+     The confusion at present attending the interpretation of the
+     last two embellishments described, might be largely obviated
+     if the suggestion of a recent writer[11] to call the one the
+     _upward mordent_, and the other the _downward mordent_ were to
+     be universally adopted.
+
+[Footnote 11: Elson--Dictionary of Music, article _mordent_.]
+
+69. The _turn_ consists of four tones; first, the diatonic scale-tone
+above the principal tone; second, the principal tone itself; third, the
+tone below the principal tone; and fourth, the principal tone again.
+
+When the sign ([turn symbol] or [fancy turn symbol]) occurs over a note
+of small value in rapid tempo (Fig. 45) the turn consists of four tones
+of equal value; but if it occurs over a note of greater value, or in a
+slow tempo, the tones are usually played quickly (like the mordent), and
+the fourth tone is then held until the time-value of the note has
+expired. (Fig. 46.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+70. _When the turn-sign is placed a little to the right of the note_ the
+principal tone is sounded first and held to almost its full time-value,
+then the turn is played just before the next tone of the melody. In this
+case the four tones are of equal length as in the first example. (See
+Fig. 47.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+     The student should note the difference between these two
+     effects; in the case of a turn _over_ the note the turn comes
+     at the beginning, but in the case of the sign _after_ the note
+     the turn comes at the very end. But in both cases the time
+     taken by the embellishment is taken from the time-value of
+     the principal note. For further details see Grove's Dictionary
+     of Music and Musicians, Vol. V, p. 184. Also Elson, op. cit.
+     p. 274.
+
+71. Sometimes an accidental occurs with the turn, and in this case when
+written above the sign it refers to the highest tone of the turn, but
+when written below, to the lowest (Fig. 48).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+72. In the _inverted turn_ the order of tones is reversed, the lowest
+one coming first, the principal tone next, the highest tone third, and
+the principal tone again, last.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+73. The _appoggiatura_ (lit. _leaning note_) consists of an ornamental
+tone introduced before a tone of a melody, thus delaying the melody tone
+until the ornamental tone has been heard. The time taken for this
+ornamental tone is taken from that of the melody tone.
+
+     The appoggiatura was formerly classified into _long
+     appoggiatura_ and _short appoggiatura_, but modern writers
+     seem to consider the term "short appoggiatura" to be
+     synonymous with acciaccatura[12], and to avoid confusion the
+     word _acciaccatura_ will be used in this sense, and defined
+     under its own heading.
+
+[Footnote 12: In organ music the acciaccatura is still taken to mean
+that the embellishing tone and the melody tone are to be sounded
+together, the former being then instantly released, while the latter is
+held to its full time-value.]
+
+74. Three rules for the interpretation of the appoggiatura are commonly
+cited, viz.:
+
+     (1) When it is possible to divide the principal tone into
+     halves, then the appoggiatura receives one-half the value of
+     the printed note. (Fig. 50.)
+
+     (2) When the principal note is dotted (division into halves
+     being therefore not possible), the appoggiatura receives
+     two-thirds of the value. (Fig. 51.)
+
+     (3) When the principal note is tied to a note of smaller
+     denomination the appoggiatura receives the value of the first
+     of the two notes. (Fig. 52.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
+
+75. The _acciaccatura_ (or short appoggiatura) is written like the
+appoggiatura except that it has a light stroke across its stem.
+[Illustration] It has no definite duration-value, but is sounded as
+quickly as possible, taking its time from that of the principal tone.
+The appoggiatura is always accented, but the acciaccatura never is, the
+stress always falling on the melody tone. (See Grove, op. cit. Vol. I,
+p. 96.)
+
+     The use of embellishments is on the wane, and the student of
+     to-day needs the above information only to aid him in the
+     interpretation of music written in previous centuries. In the
+     early days of instrumental music it was necessary to introduce
+     graces of all sorts because the instruments in use were not
+     capable of sustaining tone for any length of time; but with
+     the advent of the modern piano with its comparatively great
+     sustaining power, and also with the advent in vocal music of a
+     new style of singing (German Lieder singing as contrasted with
+     Italian coloratura singing), ornamental tones were used less
+     and less, and when found now are usually written out in full
+     in the score instead of being indicated by signs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+SCALES
+
+
+76. A _scale_ (from _scala_, a Latin word meaning _ladder_; Ger.
+_Ton-leiter_) is an ascending or descending series of tones, progressing
+according to some definite system, and all bearing (in the case of
+tonality scales at least) a very intimate relation to the first
+tone--the _key-tone_ or _tonic_. (See p. 28, Sec. 78; also note 1 at
+bottom of p. 38.)
+
+     Many different kinds of scales have existed in various musical
+     eras, the point of resemblance among them all being the fact
+     that they have all more or less recognized the _octave_ as the
+     natural limit of the series. The difference among the various
+     scales has been in the selection of intervals between the
+     scale-tones, and, consequently, in the number of tones within
+     the octave. Thus _e.g._, in our major scale the intervals
+     between the tones are all whole-steps except two (which are
+     half-steps), and the result is a scale of _eight_ tones
+     (including in this number both the key-tone and its octave):
+     but in the so-called _pentatonic_ scale of the Chinese and
+     other older civilizations we find larger intervals (_e.g._,
+     the step-and-a-half), and consequently a smaller number of
+     tones within the octave. Thus in the scale upon which many of
+     the older Scotch folk songs are based the intervals are
+     arranged as follows:
+
+     1  whole  2  whole  3  step-and-  4  whole  5  step-and-  6
+        step      step      a-half        step      a-half
+
+     The result is a scale of six tones, corresponding
+     approximately with C--D--E--G--A--C in our modern system.
+
+     The term _pentatonic_ is thus seen to be a misnomer since the
+     sixth tone is necessary for the completion of the series, just
+     as the eighth tone is essential in our diatonic scales.
+
+     The following Chinese tune (called "Jasmine") is based on the
+     pentatonic scale.
+
+     [Illustration]
+
+77. In studying the theory of the scale the student should bear in mind
+the fact that a scale is not an arbitrary series of tones which some one
+has invented, and which others are required to make use of. It is rather
+the result of accustoming the ear to certain melodic combinations (which
+were originally hit upon by accident), and finally analyzing and
+systematizing these combinations into a certain definite order or
+arrangement. The application of this idea may be verified when it is
+recalled that most primitive peoples have invented melodies of some
+sort, but that only in modern times, and particularly since the
+development of instrumental music, have these melodies been analyzed,
+and the scale upon which they have been based, discovered, the inventors
+of the melodies being themselves wholly ignorant of the existence of
+such scales.
+
+78. A _key_ is a number of tones grouping themselves naturally (both
+melodically and harmonically) about a central tone--the key tone. The
+word _tonality_ is often used synonymously with _key_ in this sense.
+
+     The difference between _key_ and _scale_ is therefore this,
+     that while both _key_ and _scale_ employ the same tone
+     material, by _key_ we mean the material in general, without
+     any particular order or arrangement in mind, while by _scale_
+     we mean the same tones, but now arranged into a regular
+     ascending or descending series. It should be noted in this
+     connection also that not all scales present an equally good
+     opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality
+     or key-feeling: neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale
+     possess the necessary characteristics for being used as
+     tonality scales in the same sense that our major and minor
+     scales are so used.
+
+79. There are _three general classes of scales_ extant at the present
+time, viz.: (1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.[13]
+
+[Footnote 13: If strictly logical terminology is to be insisted upon the
+whole-tone scale should be called the "whole-step" scale.]
+
+80. The word _diatonic_ means "through the tones" (_i.e._, through the
+tones of the key), and is applied to both major and minor scales of our
+modern tonality system. In general a diatonic scale may be defined as
+one which proceeds by half-steps and whole-steps. There is, however, one
+exception to this principle, viz., in the progression six to seven in
+the harmonic minor scale, which is of course a step-and-a-half. (See p.
+33, Sec. 86.)
+
+81. A _major diatonic scale_ is one in which the intervals between the
+tones are arranged as follows:
+
+1  whole  2  whole  3  half  4  whole  5  whole  6  whole  7  half  8
+   step      step      step     step      step      step      step
+
+In other words, a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals
+between three and four, and between seven and eight are half-steps, all
+the others being whole-steps. A composition based on this scale is said
+to be written in the major mode, or in a major key. The major diatonic
+scale may begin on any one of the twelve pitches C, C[sharp] or D[flat],
+D, D[sharp] or E[flat], E, F, F[sharp] or G[flat], G, G[sharp] or
+A[flat], A, A[sharp] or B[flat], B, but in each case it is the same
+scale because the intervals between its tones are the same. We have then
+one major scale only, but this scale may be written in many different
+positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of
+different pitches.
+
+82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two
+identical series of four tones each; _i.e._, the first four tones of the
+scale are separated from one another by exactly the same intervals and
+these intervals appear in exactly the same order as in the case of the
+last four tones of the scale. Fig. 53 will make this clear. The first
+four tones of any diatonic scale (major or minor) are often referred to
+as the _lower tetrachord_[14] and the upper four tones as the _upper
+tetrachord_.
+
+[Footnote 14: The word _tetrachord_ means literally "four strings" and
+refers to the primitive instrument, the four strings of which were so
+tuned that the lowest and the highest tones produced were a perfect
+fourth apart. With the Greeks the tetrachord was the unit of analysis as
+the octave is with us to-day, and all Greek scales are capable of
+division into two tetrachords, the arrangement of the intervals between
+the tones in each tetrachord differentiating one scale from another, but
+the tetrachords themselves always consisting of groups of four tones,
+the highest being a perfect fourth above the lowest.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
+
+It is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of any
+_sharp_ scale is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of
+the next major scale involving sharps, while the lower tetrachord of any
+_flat_ scale is used as the upper tetrachord of the next flat scale. See
+Figs. 54 and 55.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.]
+
+83. From the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written
+in fifteen different positions, as follows:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning
+on F[sharp] and G[flat] call for the same keys on the piano, _i.e._,
+while the notation is different, the actual tones of the scale are the
+same. The scales of C[sharp] and D[flat] likewise employ the same tones.
+When two scales thus employ the same tones but differ in notation they
+are said to be _enharmonic_, (cf. p. 38, Sec. 93.)
+
+     _Note_.--The student is advised to adopt some uniform method
+     of writing scales, preferably the one followed in those given
+     above, the necessary sharps and flats appearing before the
+     notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the end
+     as a signature. He is also advised to repeat these scales and
+     signatures over and over until absolute familiarity is
+     attained. _E.g._, E--F[sharp]--G[sharp]--A--B--C[sharp]--D[sharp]--E;
+     signature, four sharps, F, C, G, and D.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SCALES (_Continued_)
+
+
+84. The _minor diatonic scale_ is used in several slightly different
+forms, but the characteristic interval between the first and third tones
+(which differentiates it from the major scale) remains the same in every
+case. This interval between the first and third tones consists of four
+half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale
+and this difference in size has given rise to the designation _major_
+for the scale having the larger third, and _minor_ for the scale having
+the smaller one.
+
+85. _The original (or primitive) form_ of the minor scale has its tones
+arranged as follows.
+
+1  whole  2  half  3  whole  4  half  5  half  6  whole  7  whole  8
+   step      step     step      step     step     step      step
+
+As its name implies, this is the oldest of the three forms (being
+derived from the old Greek Aeolian scale), but because of the absence of
+a "leading tone" it is suitable for the simplest one-part music only,
+and is therefore little used at present.
+
+86. _The harmonic minor scale_ is like the primitive form except that it
+substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the
+older (_i.e._, the primitive) form. This change was made because the
+development of writing music in several parts (particularly _harmonic_
+part-writing) made necessary a "leading tone," _i.e._, a tone with a
+strong tendency to move on up to the key-tone as a closing point. In
+order to secure a tone with such a strongly upward tendency the
+interval between _seven_ and _eight_ had to be reduced in size to a
+half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of
+the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and
+seventh tones of the scale.
+
+1  whole  2  half  3  whole  4  whole  5  half  6  step and  7  half 8
+   step      step     step      step      step      a half      step
+
+87. _The melodic minor scale_ substitutes a tone one half-step higher
+than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change
+is made in the ascending scale only, the descending scale being like the
+primitive form. The higher sixth (commonly referred to as the "raised
+sixth") was used to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a
+step-and-a-half[15] (augmented second), while the return to the
+primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too
+much like the tonic major scale.
+
+[Footnote 15: The step-and-a-half (augmented second) is "unmelodic"
+because it is the same size as a _minor third_ and the mind finds it
+difficult to take in as a _second_ (notes representing it being on
+adjacent staff-degrees) an interval of the same size as a third.]
+
+1  whole  2  half  3  whole  4  whole  5  whole  6  whole  7  half  8
+   step      step     step      step      step      step      step
+
+          7  whole  6  half  5  whole  4  whole  3  half  2  whole  1
+             step      step     step      step      step     step
+
+This form is used only to a very limited extent, and then principally in
+vocal music, the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of
+the augmented second.
+
+88. The minor scale in its various positions (up to five sharps and five
+flats) and in all three forms follows: a composition based on any one of
+these forms (or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to
+be _in the minor mode_. It will be noted that the first four tones are
+alike in all three forms; _i.e._, the lower tetrachord in the minor
+scale is invariable no matter, what may happen to the upper tetrachord.
+The sign + marks the step-and-a-half.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+     _Note._--The student is advised to recite the _harmonic form_
+     of the minor scale as was suggested in the case of the major
+     scale, noting that the "raised seventh" does not affect the
+     key-signature. _E.g._,--E--F[sharp]--G--A--B--C--D[sharp]--E;
+     signature, one sharp, F.
+
+89. A minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to
+be its _relative minor_. _E.g._,--e is the relative minor of G, c of
+E[flat], d of F, etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor
+key or scale, while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale
+unless accompanied by the word _minor_. Relative keys are therefore
+defined as those having the same signature. G and e are relative keys,
+as are also A and f[sharp], etc.
+
+90. A minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is
+referred to as its _tonic minor_. Thus, _e.g._, c with three flats in
+its signature is the tonic minor of C with all degrees in natural
+condition; e with one sharp is the tonic minor of E with four sharps,
+etc. Tonic keys are therefore those having the same key-tone.
+
+91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major and minor) are
+often referred to by specific names, as follows:
+
+     1. _Tonic_--the tone. (This refers to the fact that the tonic
+     is the principal tone, or generating tone of the key, _i.e._,
+     it is _the_ tone.)
+
+     2. _Super-tonic_--above the tone.
+
+     3. _Mediant_--midway between tonic and dominant.
+
+     4. _Sub-dominant_--the under dominant. (This name does not
+     refer to the position of the tone under the dominant but to
+     the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant
+     tone--the under dominant--just as the fifth above is the upper
+     dominant).
+
+     5. _Dominant_--the governing tone. (From the Latin word
+     _dominus_ meaning _master_.)
+
+     6. _Super-dominant_--above the dominant. Or
+     _Sub-mediant_--midway between tonic and sub-dominant.
+
+     7. _Leading tone_--the tone which demands resolution to the
+     tonic (one-half step above it).
+
+     8. _Octave_--the eighth tone.
+
+92. The syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales
+in teaching sight-singing are as follows:[16]
+
+[Footnote 16: These syllables are said to have been derived originally
+from the initial syllables of the "Hymn to Saint John," the music of
+which was a typical Gregorian chant. The application of these syllables
+to the scale tones will be made clear by reference to this hymn as given
+below. It will be observed that this hymn provided syllables only for
+the six tones of the _hexachord_ then recognized; when the octave scale
+was adopted (early in the sixteenth century) the initial letters of the
+last line (s and i) were combined into a syllable for the seventh tone.
+
+[Illustration: _Ut_ que-ant lax-is _Re_-so-na-re fi-bris _Mi_-ra
+ges-to-rum _Fa_-mu-li tu-o-rum _Sol_-ve pol-lu-ti _La_-bi-i re-a-tum
+Sanc-te Jo-han-nes.]]
+
+Major--DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI, DO.
+
+Minor[17]--original--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA.
+           harmonic--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SI, LA.
+           melodic--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI, SI, LA,
+             SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA.
+
+[Footnote 17: A considerable number of teachers (particularly those who
+did not learn to sing by syllable in childhood) object to calling the
+tonic of the minor scale _la_, insisting that both major and minor tonic
+should be called _do_. According to this plan the syllables used in
+singing the harmonic minor scale would be: DO, RE, ME, FA, SOL, LE, TI,
+DO.
+
+There is no particular basis for this theory, for although all scales
+must of course begin with the key-tone or tonic, this tonic may be
+referred to by any syllable which will serve as a basis for an
+association process enabling one to feel the force of the tone as a
+closing point--a _home tone_. Thus in the Dorian mode the tonic would be
+RE, in the Phrygian, MI, etc.]
+
+     It is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and
+     pronunciation that have occurred (and are still occurring) in
+     these syllables. The first one (ut) was changed to _DO_ as
+     early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of
+     producing a good singing tone on _ut_. For the same reason and
+     also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the
+     same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fa system (invented in
+     England about 1812 and systematized about 1850) changed SI to
+     TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by
+     teachers of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate
+     tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables (DOH, LAH,
+     etc.), has not, however, been favorably received in this
+     country and the tendency seems to be toward still further
+     simplification rather than toward elaboration. It is probable
+     that further changes in both spelling and pronunciation will
+     be made in the near future, one such change that seems
+     especially desirable being some other syllable than RE for the
+     second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable
+     may be reserved for "flat-two," thus providing a uniform
+     vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending
+     chromatic scale, as is already the case in the ascending form.
+
+93. The _chromatic scale_[18] is one which proceeds always by
+half-steps. Its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what
+tone it begins. Since, however, we have (from the standpoint of the
+piano keyboard) five pairs of tones[19] which are enharmonically the
+same, it may readily be seen that the chromatic scale might be notated
+in all sorts of fashions, and this is in fact the real status of the
+matter, there being no one method uniformly agreed upon by composers.
+
+[Footnote 18: The student should differentiate between the so-called
+"tonality" scales like the major and minor, the tones of which are
+actually used as a basis for "key-feeling" with the familiar experience
+of coming home to the tonic after a melodic or harmonic excursion, and
+on the other hand the purely artificial and mechanical construction of
+the chromatic scale.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Many other enharmonic notations are possible, altho the
+"five pairs of tones" above referred to are the most common. Thus
+E[sharp] and F are enharmonically the same, as are also C[flat] and B,
+C[sharp] and B[double-sharp], etc.]
+
+     Parry (Grove's Dictionary, article _chromatic_) recommends
+     writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in
+     chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage
+     occurs. Thus, taking C as a type, "the first accidental will
+     be D[flat], as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic;
+     the next will be E[flat], the minor third of the key; the next
+     F[sharp], the major third of the super-tonic--all of which can
+     occur without causing modulation--and the remaining two will
+     be A[flat] and B[flat], the minor sixth and seventh of the
+     key." According to this plan the chromatic scale beginning
+     with C would be spelled--C, D[flat], D, E[flat], E, F,
+     F[sharp], G, A[flat], A, B[flat], B, C--the form being the
+     same both ascending and descending. This is of course written
+     exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of
+     such a form is its definiteness.
+
+94. For _sight-singing purposes_ the chromatic scale[20] is usually
+written by representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps,
+(in some cases naturals and double-sharps), and the intermediate tones
+in descending by flats (sometimes naturals and double-flats). The
+chromatic scale in nine different positions, written from this
+standpoint, follows, and the syllables most commonly applied in
+sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales the student
+of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common practice of
+modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys, the intermediate tones
+[sharp]4 and [flat]7 are quite universally used in both ascending and
+descending melody passages. In other words the scales that follow would
+more nearly represent actual usage if in each case [sharp]4 (FI) were
+substituted for [flat]5 (SE) in the descending scale; and if [flat]7
+(TE) were substituted for [sharp]6 (LI) in the ascending form.
+
+[Footnote 20: The word _chromatic_ means literally _colored_ and was
+first applied to the intermediate tones because by using them the singer
+could get smoother and more diversely-shaded progressions, _i.e._, could
+get more _color_ than by using only the diatonic tones. Composers were
+not long discovering the peculiar value of these additional tones and
+soon found that these same tones were exceedingly valuable also in
+modulating, hence the two uses of intermediate tones at the present
+time--first, to embellish a melody; second, to modulate to another key.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+     _Note._--In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing
+     standpoint the student is urged to adopt a three-step process;
+     first, writing the major diatonic scale both ascending and
+     descending; second, marking the half-steps; third, inserting
+     accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the
+     above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been
+     represented by black note-heads so as to differentiate them
+     from the notes representing diatonic scale tones.
+
+95. The _whole-step scale_ (the third type mentioned in Sec. 79) is, as
+its name implies, a scale in which the intervals between the tones
+consist in every instance of whole-steps. This reduces the number of
+tones in the scale to seven. Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D, E,
+F[sharp] or G[flat], A[flat], B[flat], C. This scale has been used
+somewhat extensively by the ultramodern French school of composition
+represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any
+progress toward universal adoption. The remarks of a recent English
+writer[21] on this subject may be interesting to the student who is
+puzzled by the apparent present-day tendencies of French music. He says:
+
+     "The student of some interesting modern developments will also
+     speedily discover that the adoption of the so-called
+     whole-tone scale as a basis of music is, except upon a keyed
+     instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament,
+     unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument
+     can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave
+     which is in tune with the starting note, unless he
+     deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters
+     it while playing it. The obvious result of the application of
+     the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would
+     be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the
+     pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of
+     tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the
+     pure scale would be distorted and destroyed, unless string
+     players were to face the practically impossible drudgery of
+     studying both the equal temperament and the pure scale from
+     the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's
+     notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the
+     scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads
+     founded upon ignorance of it. It is a curious commentary upon
+     this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third act of
+     _Tristan_ (bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone
+     scale and drew his pen through it, as was to be expected from
+     a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the
+     pure scale inbred in him."
+
+[Footnote 21: Stanford--Musical Composition (1911) p. 17.]
+
+There may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether
+Mr. Stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the
+difference between "tempered" and "pure" scales,[22] but even so, there
+is a far more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never
+become popular as the major and minor scales now are, viz., the fact
+that it offers no possibility of _inculcating tonality feeling_, which
+has always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music. Tonality
+scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of contraction and
+relaxation--an active tone (or chord) followed by a passive one, but no
+such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it seems suitable
+therefore only for that class of music whose outlines are _purposely
+intended to be_ vague and indefinite--the impressionistic style of music
+writing.
+
+[Footnote 22: Recent tests in Germany seem to prove conclusively that
+the _tempered_ scale is the scale ordinarily employed by both vocalists
+and players on stringed instruments, and that the ideal of and agitation
+for a _pure_ (_i.e._, _untempered_) scale in vocal and in string music
+is somewhat of a myth.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+AUXILIARY WORDS AND ENDINGS
+
+
+96. Being a list of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and
+endings, often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical
+effects.
+
+_A_--preposition--variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards.
+  _A cappella_--in church style.
+  _A capriccio_--at the fancy of the performer.
+  _À deux mains_--for two hands.
+  _A mezza voce_--with half voice.
+
+_À la_, or _alla_--in the manner of. _Alla marcia_--in the style of a
+march.
+
+_Assai_--very, or very much. _Allegro assai_--very fast.
+
+_Ben_--well. _Ben marcato_--well marked.
+
+_Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collo_--with, or with the.
+  _Con amore_--with tenderness.
+  _Colla voce_--with the voice.
+
+_Come_--as, like. _Come primo_--as at first.
+
+_Contra_--against. In compound words means "an octave below."
+
+_Da_--from. _Da Capo_--from the head.
+
+_Di_--by, with, of, for. _Di bravura_--with daring.
+
+_Di molto_--exceedingly--very much. _Allegro di molto_--exceedingly
+rapid.
+
+_Doppio_--double. _Doppio movimento_--double movement.
+
+_E, ed, et_--and. _Cresc. et accel._--louder and faster.
+
+_Ensemble_--together, the opposite of solo.
+
+_Il, La, l', le_--the. _Il basso_--the bass. _L'istesso tempo_--the same
+speed.
+
+_Il più_--the most. _Il più forte possible_--as loudly as possible.
+
+_Issimo_--Italian superlative ending. _Forte_--_fortissimo_.
+
+_Ino, etto_--Italian diminutive endings. _Andante_--_andantino_.
+_Poco_--_pochetto_.
+
+_Meno_--less. _Meno forte_--less loud.
+
+_Mente_--the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb.
+_Largo largamente_.
+
+_Mezzo_ or _mezza_--half, or medium. _Mezzo forte_--medium loud.
+
+_Molto_--much, or very much. _Molto cresc._--very much louder.
+
+_Nel, nella, etc._--in the, or at the. _Nel battere_--at the down beat.
+
+_Non_--not. _Non tanto_--not too much.
+
+_Ossia_--or else. _Ossia più facile_--or else more easily.
+
+_Per_--for. _Per il violino_--for the violin.
+
+_Peu_--little. _Un peu cresc._--a little increase in tone.
+
+_Più_--more. _Più forte_--more loudly.
+
+_Poco_--little. _Poco a poco_--little by little.
+
+_Poi_--then. _E poi la coda_--and then the coda.
+
+_Possibile_--possible. _Forte possibile_--as loudly as possible.
+[Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "possible" for Italian
+"possibile".]
+
+_Quasi_--in the manner of. _Allegro quasi andante_--a fairly rapid
+movement, yet in the style of an andante; almost as slow as an andante.
+
+_Sans_--without. _Sans pedales_--without pedals.
+
+_Sempre_--always, or continually. _Sempre forte_--a long passage to be
+played forte throughout its entirety.
+
+_Senza_--without. _Senza accompagnamento_--without accompaniment.
+
+_Sino, sin_--as far as. See p. 14, note.
+
+_Solo_--alone. Opposite of ensemble.
+
+_Sub_--under or lower. _Sub-dominant_--the under dominant.
+
+_Tanto_--same as _troppo_, q.v.
+
+_Tre_--three. _Tre corde_--three strings.
+
+_Très_--very. _Très vivement_--very lively.
+
+_Troppo_--too much. _Non tanto allegro_, or _non troppo allegro_--not
+too fast.
+
+_Una, un, uno_--one, or a. _Una corda_--one string. _Un peu_--a little.
+
+A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student
+greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping
+to look up each individual one.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MEASURE
+
+
+97. From the standpoint of the eye, a _measure_ is that portion of the
+staff found between two bars, (in certain cases this space may be less
+than a measure, as _e.g._, at the beginning and end of a movement); but
+from the standpoint of the ear a single, isolated measure is not
+possible, and the term must therefore be defined in the plural form.
+
+_Measures_ are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each
+group having at least one accented and one non-accented beat. The
+strongest accent falls normally on the first beat in the measure.
+
+Two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical
+measure:
+
+(1) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always
+actually sounded, one or more of these beats being stronger than the
+rest;
+
+(2) Certain rhythmic figures ([Illustration], etc.) which form the
+actual musical content of these groups.
+
+     The student will note the essential difference between rhythm
+     and measure. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a
+     series of beats (or pulses), while measure is the grouping of
+     these beats according to some specified system. In listening
+     to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel the _rhythm_
+     equally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats
+     into--_one_, two | _one_, two |--etc., while B feels the
+     groups as--_one_, two, _three_, four | _one_, two, _three_,
+     four |--etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing,
+     inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain
+     extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have
+     adopted for practical purposes.
+
+98. In _syncopation_ the normal system of accenting is temporarily
+suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part
+of the measure. Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary
+interruption of a normal series of accents, _i.e._, accenting a beat
+that is usually not accented. Thus _e.g._, in Fig. 56, measure _one_ has
+the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure,
+(strong accent on one, secondary accent on three); but measure _three_
+has only one accent, and it falls on the second beat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
+
+99. Measures are usually classified as _simple_ and _compound_. A
+_simple measure_ is one which has but a single accent, _i.e._, the
+measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups. There are two
+main classes of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat
+measure. A _compound measure_ is (as its name implies) one made up by
+combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single
+measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups. The principal
+compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as
+compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and
+twelve-beat measures are also classified as compound measures.
+
+     An English writer[23] classifies measures as duple, triple, or
+     quadruple, specifying that a simple measure is one in which
+     each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided
+     into halves ([Illustration] etc.) and that a compound measure
+     is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note,
+     whose value can be divided into three parts, ([Illustration]).
+     There is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as
+     to the meaning of the words _simple_ and _compound_ when
+     applied in this connection, the principal question at issue
+     being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety, or
+     whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures,
+     either by placing two of these in a group or by the
+     elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats,
+     as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way
+     out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true--but
+     in different compositions. That is, it is frequently
+     impossible to tell whether a composition that is being
+     listened to is in two-beat, or in four-beat measure; and yet
+     it _is_ sometimes possible so to discriminate. Since, however,
+     one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between
+     two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to
+     leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat
+     measure as a compound variety.
+
+[Footnote 23: Pearse--Rudiments of Musical Knowledge, p. 37.]
+
+100. The _commonest varieties of measure_ are:
+
+     1. _Duple_ (sometimes called even measure, or even time), in
+     which there are two beats, the first one being accented.
+     Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,[24]
+     two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively.
+
+     [Footnote 24: For explanation of terminology, see p. 48, Sec.
+     106.]
+
+     2. _Triple_, (the old perfect measure), in which there are
+     three beats, the first one being accented, the second and
+     third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2, three-eighth,
+     three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively.
+
+     3. _Quadruple_, in which there are four beats, the first and
+     third being accented (primary accent on _one_, secondary
+     accent on _three_), the second and fourth unaccented. (See
+     note above, under Sec. 99.)
+
+     4. _Sextuple_, in which there are six beats, the first and
+     fourth being accented, the others not. In rapid tempi this is
+     always taken as compound duple measure, a dotted quarter note
+     having a beat. It will be noted that the two measures
+     [Illustration] are identical in effect with [Illustration].
+
+101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but
+these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures
+respectively, being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is
+thought of as a triplet. [Illustration] is identical in effect with
+[Illustration].
+
+102. _Quintuple_ (five-beat) and _septuple_ (seven-beat) measures are
+occasionally met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic.
+The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of
+two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition),
+while the seven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three, or
+of three and four.
+
+103. The sign [common-time symbol] is usually understood to mean
+four-quarter measure, and the sign [cut-time symbol], two-half measure,
+but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes used to
+indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the sign
+[cut-time symbol] always indicates that a half-note has a beat. [Double
+cut-time symbol] may occasionally be found indicating four-half measure
+but this is rare.
+
+     The student will note that the sign [common-time symbol] is
+     not a _letter_ C, but an incomplete circle, differentiating
+     two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect)
+     measure. See Appendix A, p. 106. [Transcriber's Note: page
+     number missing in original.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+TEMPO
+
+
+104. The word _time_ in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused,
+having been used to indicate:
+
+     (1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong."
+
+     (2) Variety of measure-signature; as "two-four time."
+
+     (3) Rate of speed; as "the time was too slow."
+
+To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and
+inexact use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certain
+_changes in terminology_ as noted in Sections 105, 106, and 107. Such
+changes may cause some confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if
+our musical terminology is to be at all exact.
+
+105. The _first of the changes_ mentioned in the above paragraph is to
+substitute the word _rhythm_ for the word _time_ when correcting
+mistakes involving misplaced accent, etc. _E.g._, "Your _rhythm_ in the
+third measure of the lower score was wrong," instead of "Your
+_time_--was wrong."
+
+106. The _second change_ mentioned would eliminate such blind and
+misleading expressions as "two-four time," "three-four time," "four-four
+time," "six-eight time," etc., and substitute therefor such
+self-explanatory designations as "two-quarter measure," "three-quarter
+measure," "four-quarter measure," "six-eighth measure," etc. _E.g._,
+"The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is in
+_four-quarter measure_."
+
+107. The _third change_ referred to above would substitute the word
+_tempo_ (plural--_tempi_) for the word _time_ in all allusions to rate
+of speed. _E.g._, "The scherzo was played in very rapid _tempo_."
+
+     The word _tempo_ has been used in this connection so long by
+     professional musicians that there can be no possible objection
+     to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there
+     is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in
+     all countries where modern music (_i.e._, civilized music) is
+     performed, and just here is found the principal reason for the
+     popularity of the Italian language in musical terminology.
+     Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried
+     to break down this popularity by using their own respective
+     vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications, but in
+     spite of these attempts the Italian language is still quite
+     universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so, for if
+     we are to have a _music notation_ that is universal, so that
+     an American is able to play music written by a Frenchman or a
+     German, or a Russian, then we ought also to have a certain
+     number of expressions referring to tempo, etc., which will be
+     understood by all, _i.e._, a music terminology that is
+     universal. The Italian language was the first in the field, is
+     the most universally known in this particular at the present
+     time, and is entirely adequate. It should therefore be
+     retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto.
+
+108. There are several _ways of finding the correct tempo_ of a
+composition:
+
+     1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of
+     many compositions. Thus _e.g._, the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's
+     Metronome 92) means that if the metronome (either Maelzel's or
+     some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at
+     the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they
+     will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at
+     which the beats (or pulses) should follow one another. This is
+     undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in
+     spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes[25] and of the
+     mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving
+     metronomic indications.
+
+     [Footnote 25: To test the accuracy of a metronome, set the
+     weight at 60 and see if it beats seconds. If it gives more
+     than 62 or 63 or less than 57 or 58 clicks per minute it will
+     not be of much service in giving correct tempi and should be
+     taken to a jeweller to be regulated.]
+
+     2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is
+     to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that
+     "feels right" for that particular piece of music. This is
+     perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is
+     open only to the musician of long experience, sure judgment,
+     and sound scholarship.
+
+     3. A third method of finding tempi is through the
+     interpretation of certain words used quite universally by
+     composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the
+     general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method
+     is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same
+     word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of
+     speed can be indicated, and in the last analysis the conductor
+     or performer must fall back on the second method cited
+     above--_i.e._, individual judgment.
+
+109. In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions
+relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful
+in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer's mind as he
+conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of
+the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is
+absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in
+groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:
+
+     1. _Grave_ (lit. weighty, serious), _larghissimo_,
+     _adagissimo_, and _lentissimo_--indicating the very slowest
+     tempo used in rendering music.
+
+     2. _Largo_,[26] _adagio_,[27] and _lento_--indicating quite a
+     slow tempo.
+
+     [Footnote 26: Largo, larghetto, etc., are derivatives of the
+     Latin word _largus_, meaning large, broad.]
+
+     [Footnote 27: Adagio means literally at ease.]
+
+     3. _Larghetto_ (_i.e._, _a little largo_) and _adagietto_ (_a
+     little adagio_)--a slow tempo, but not quite so slow as
+     _largo_, etc.
+
+     4. _Andante_ (going, or walking, as contrasted with running)
+     and _andantino_--indicating a moderately slow tempo.
+
+     _Andantino_ is now quite universally taken slightly faster
+     than _andante_, in spite of the fact that if _andante_ means
+     "going," and if "_ino_" is the diminutive ending, then
+     _andantino_ means "going less," _i.e._, more slowly!
+
+     5. _Moderato_--a moderate tempo.
+
+     6. _Allegro_ and _allegretto_[28]--a moderately quick tempo,
+     _allegretto_ being usually interpreted as meaning a tempo
+     somewhat slower than _allegro_.
+
+     [Footnote 28: There has been some difference of opinion as to
+     which of these two terms indicates the more rapid tempo: an
+     analysis tells us that if _allegro_ means quick, and if _etto_
+     is the diminutive ending, then _allegretto_ means a little
+     quick--_i.e._, slower than _allegro_. These two terms are,
+     however, so closely allied in meaning that a dispute over the
+     matter is a mere waste of breath.]
+
+     The word _allegro_ means literally happy, joyous, and this
+     literal meaning is still _sometimes_ applicable, but in the
+     majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed.
+
+     7. _Vivo_, _vivace_, (lit. lively)--a tempo between _allegro_
+     and _presto_.
+
+     8. _Presto_, _prestissimo_, _vivacissimo_, and _prestissimo
+     possibile_--the most rapid tempo possible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+TEMPO (_Continued_)
+
+
+110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined in Sec. 109 with one
+another and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with
+their approximate meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression
+not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms
+defined in paragraph 109 and recalling the use of certain auxiliary
+terms quoted in Chapter IX.
+
+     _Largo assai_--very slow.
+
+     _Largo di molto_--very slow.
+
+     _Largo ma non troppo_--slow, but not too slow.
+
+     _Largo un poco_--slow, but not so slow as _largo_. (_Cf.
+     larghetto_.)
+
+     _Lentemente_--slowly.
+
+     _Lentando_--with increasing slowness.
+
+     _Très lentement_--very slowly.
+
+     _Lentissamente_--very slowly.
+
+     _Lentissamamente_--very slowly.
+
+     _Lento assai_--very slowly.
+
+     _Lento a capriccio_--slowly but capriciously.
+
+     _Lento di molto_--very slowly.
+
+     _Andante affettuoso_--moderately slow, and with tenderness and
+     pathos. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "affetuoso" in
+     original.]
+
+     _Andante amabile_--moderately slow, and lovingly.
+
+     _Andante cantabile_--moderately slow, and in singing style.
+
+     _Andante grazioso_--moderately slow, and gracefully.
+
+     _Andante maestoso_--moderately slow, and majestically.
+
+     _Andante con moto_--slightly faster than _andante_.
+
+     _Andante (ma) non troppo_--not too slowly.
+
+     _Andante pastorale_--moderately slow, and in simple and
+     unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral).
+
+     _Andante quasi allegro_--almost as rapid in tempo as
+     _allegro_; (lit. an _andante_ in the style of _allegro_).
+
+     _Andante sostenuto_--moderately slow and sustained.
+
+     _Allegrissimo_--much faster than _allegro_. (The superlative
+     degree of _allegro_.)
+
+     _Allegro agitato_--a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated
+     style.
+
+     _Allegro appassionata_--a moderately rapid tempo, and in
+     passionate style.
+
+     _Allegro assai_ (very _allegro_)--faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro commodo_--a conveniently rapid tempo.
+
+     _Allegro con brio_--an _allegro_ played in brilliant style.
+     Faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro con fuoco_--an _allegro_ played with fire, _i.e._,
+     with extreme animation. Faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro con spirito_--an _allegro_ performed with spirit.
+
+     _Allegro con moto_--faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro di bravura_--an _allegro_ performed in brilliant
+     style, _i.e._, demanding great skill in execution.
+
+     _Allegro furioso_ (furiously)--quicker than _allegro_; very
+     brilliant.
+
+     _Allegro giusto_--an _allegro_ movement, but in exact rhythm.
+
+     _Allegro ma grazioso_--an _allegro_ played in graceful style.
+
+     _Allegro (ma) non tanto_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too
+     rapid.
+
+     _Allegro (ma) non troppo_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too
+     rapid.
+
+     _Allegro (ma) non presto_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too
+     rapid.
+
+     _Allegro moderato_--slower than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro vivace_--faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Presto assai_--as rapidly as possible.
+
+     _Presto (ma) non troppo_--a _presto_ movement, but not too
+     rapid.
+
+111. There are certain _terms which indicate a modification of the
+normal tempo_ of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a)
+those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those
+which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions
+of these two classes are shown below.
+
+(_a_) Terms indicating a slower tempo.
+
+     1. Terms indicating a _gradual_ retard.
+
+     _Ritenente_, (_rit._), _ritenuto_ (_rit._), _ritardando_
+     (_rit._), _rallentando_ (_rall._), _slentando_.
+
+     2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely
+     slower _at once_.
+
+     _Più lento_ (lit. more slowly), _meno mosso_ (lit. less
+     movement).
+
+     3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase
+     in power.
+
+     _Largando_, _allargando._ These words are both derived from
+     _largo_, meaning large, broad.
+
+(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see page 59,
+Sec. 127.)
+
+     The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2
+     as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each
+     measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little
+     slower than the preceding one, while such terms as _più lento_
+     and _meno mosso_ indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly
+     slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some
+     composers (_e.g._, Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had
+     this same distinction in mind between _rallentando_ and
+     _ritardando_ on the one hand, and _ritenuto_ and _ritenente_
+     on the other, considering the former (_rall._ and _rit._) to
+     indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter
+     (_ritenuto_ and _ritenente_) to indicate a definitely slower
+     rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate
+     between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be
+     worth while for the student to try to remember the
+     distinction.
+
+(_b_) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.
+
+     1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.
+
+     _Accelerando_, _affrettando_ [Transcriber's Note: Corrected
+     misspelling "affretando" in original] (this term implies some
+     degree of excitement also), _stringendo_, _poco a poco
+     animato_.
+
+     2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely
+     faster at once.
+
+     _Più allegro_, _più tosto_, _più mosso_, _stretto_, _un poco
+     animato_.
+
+112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been
+suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some
+such expression as _a tempo_ (lit. in time), _a tempo primo_ (lit. in
+the first time), _tempo primo_, or _tempo_.
+
+113. _Tempo rubato_ (or _a tempo rubato_) means literally _in robbed
+time_, _i.e._, duration taken from one measure or beat and given to
+another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to
+any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the
+score.
+
+The terms _ad libitum_, (_ad lib._), _a piacere_, and _a capriccio_,
+also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer.
+_Ad libitum_ means at liberty; _a piacere_, at pleasure; and _a
+capriccio_, at the caprice (of the performer).
+
+114. The term _tempo giusto_ is the opposite of _tempo rubato_ (and of
+the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally _in exact
+time_. (_Tempo giusto_ is sometimes translated _quite rapidly_,[29] but
+this is very unusual.)
+
+[Footnote 29: Bussler--Elements of Notation and Harmony, p. 76.]
+
+115. _L'istesso tempo_ means--at the same rate of speed. _E.g._, when a
+measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note
+from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried
+through the entire movement.
+
+116. _Tenuto_ (_ten._) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to
+its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to
+show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used
+merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone--_i.e._, to give it its
+full value.
+
+117. _Veloce_ means--swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages
+(_e.g._, cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without
+much regard for measure rhythm. The words _rapidamente_, _brillante_ and
+_volante_ (flying) have the same meaning as _veloce_.
+
+118. The following _expressions referring to tempo_ are also in common
+use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already
+defined.
+
+     _Con moto_--with motion; _i.e._, not too slow.
+
+     _Pesante_--slowly, heavily.
+
+     _Doppio movimento_--twice as rapid as before.
+
+     _Tempo ordinario_--in ordinary tempo.
+
+     _Tempo commodo_--in convenient tempo.
+
+     _Sempre lento malinconico assai_--always slowly and in a very
+     melancholy style.
+
+     _Animando_, _animato_, _con anima_--with animation.
+
+     _Agitato_--agitated.
+
+119. _Tempo di marcia_ is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783)
+as equivalent to _andante_, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives _tempo di
+menuetto_ as equivalent to _allegretto_, and _tempo di valso_ as
+equivalent to _allegro moderato_ (which he regards as indicating a more
+rapid tempo than _allegretto_).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+DYNAMICS
+
+
+120. The word _dynamics_ (cf. dynamic--the opposite of static) as used
+in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power
+(_i.e._, the comparative loudness and softness) of tones.
+
+As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to
+_dynamics_ are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to
+indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not
+possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be.
+Thus _dynamics_, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on
+the taste of the performer or conductor.
+
+The following _words referring to dynamics_ are in common use:
+
+     _Pianisissimo_ (_ppp_)--as softly as possible. (It will be
+     noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative of _piano_.)
+
+     _Pianissimo_ (_pp_)--very softly. (The superlative of
+     _piano_.)
+
+     _Piano_ (_p_)--softly.
+
+     _Mezzo piano_ (_mp_)--medium softly.
+
+     _Mezzo forte_ (_mf_)--medium loudly.
+
+     _Forte_ (_f_)--loudly (lit. strong).
+
+     _Fortissimo_ (_ff_)--very loudly. (The superlative of
+     _forte_.)
+
+     _Fortisissimo_ (_fff_)--as loudly as possible.
+
+     The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both
+     _piano_ and _forte_ seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative
+     degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even
+     five _p_'s or _f_'s is not desirable.
+
+121. The terms defined in Sec. 120 are often combined with others, as
+_e.g._,
+
+     _Pianissimo possibile_--as softly as possible.
+
+     _Piano assai_--very softly.
+
+     _Fortissimo possibile_--as loudly as possible.
+
+     _Forte piano_ (_fp_)--loud, followed at once by soft.
+
+As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other
+expressions relating to _dynamics_ may easily be arrived at by recalling
+the list of auxiliary terms quoted under Sec. 96.
+
+122. The terms _sforzando_, _forzando_, _sforzato_ and _forzato_ all
+indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are
+abbreviated as follows:--_sf_,_fz_, and _sfz_, the abbreviation being
+placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The
+signs [vertical accent symbol] and [horizontal accent symbol] are also
+commonly used to indicate such an accent.
+
+     In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in
+     mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an
+     absolute meaning: the mark _sf_ occurring in the midst of a
+     _piano_ passage will indicate a much milder form of accent
+     than would the same mark occurring in the midst of a _forte_
+     passage.
+
+123. The words _rinforzando_ and _rinforzato_ (abb.--_rinf._ and _rfz._)
+mean literally _reinforced_, and are used to indicate a sudden increase
+in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of
+applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of _sforzando_,
+etc.
+
+124. _Crescendo_ (abb.--_cresc._ or [crescendo symbol]) means a gradual
+increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not mean _loud_,
+nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some
+auxiliary term such as _subito_, or _molto_.
+
+Broadly speaking there are _two varieties of crescendo_: (1) that in
+which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that
+in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the
+preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving
+forth a tone which can be varied _after it begins_. Thus _e.g._, the
+human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain
+wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and
+gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has
+been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box,
+kettle drum, etc., the power of the tone cannot be varied after the
+tone has once been sounded, and a _crescendo_ effect is therefore
+possible only in a _passage_, in rendering which each succeeding tone is
+struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety
+of _crescendo_ offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed
+most strikingly, as _e.g._, when a long passage begins very softly and
+increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the
+instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an
+effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements
+of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony.
+
+     The difference between _sforzando_, _rinforzando_, and
+     _crescendo_ should now be noted: _sforzando_ indicates that a
+     single tone or chord is to be louder; _rinforzando_, that an
+     entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone;
+     but _crescendo_ indicates that there is to be a gradual
+     increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during
+     the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage.
+
+125. Certain _combinations of the word crescendo_ with other words are
+so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are:
+
+     _Crescendo al fortissimo_--keep on gradually increasing in
+     power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been
+     reached.
+
+     _Crescendo subito_--increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).
+
+     _Crescendo poco a poco_--increase in power very, very
+     gradually.
+
+     _Crescendo poi diminuendo_--first increase, then diminish the
+     tone.
+
+     _Crescendo e diminuendo_--same as _cresc. poi dim._
+
+     _Crescendo molto_--increase in power very greatly.
+
+     _Crescendo ed animando poco a poco_--growing gradually louder
+     in tone and quicker in _tempo_.
+
+     _Crescendo ed affrettando_--gradually louder and faster.
+     [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "affretando" in
+     original.]
+
+     _Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine_--crescendo gradually even
+     up to the very end.
+
+126. _Decrescendo_ (_decresc._ or [decrescendo symbol]) means a gradual
+diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite of _crescendo_. The word
+_diminuendo_ is synonymous with _decrescendo_.
+
+_Decrescendo_ (or _diminuendo_) _al pianissimo_ means--decrease
+gradually in power until the _pianissimo_ (or very soft) point is
+reached.
+
+127. A number of _terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo_
+are in use. The most common of these are:--_mancando_, _moriente_,[30]
+_morendo_, _perdendo_ (from _perdere_--to lose), _perdendosi_,
+_calando_, and _smorzando_.[31] Such expressions are usually
+translated--"gradually dying away."
+
+[Footnote 30: Both _moriente_ and _morendo_ mean literally--_dying_.]
+
+[Footnote 31: From _smorzare_ (It.)--to extinguish.]
+
+128. In piano music the abbreviation _Ped._ indicates that the damper
+pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the sign [damper
+release symbol] shows that it is to be released. In many modern editions
+this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately
+indicated by the sign [damper symbol].
+
+     The term _senza sordini_ is also occasionally found in old
+     editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed,
+     while _con sordini_ shows that it is to be released. These
+     expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed
+     instruments, in which the term _con sordini_ means that the
+     mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be
+     affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both
+     power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does
+     not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed
+     instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes
+     occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even
+     though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier
+     sonatas.
+
+129. The words _una corda_ (lit.--one string) indicate that the "soft
+pedal" (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the words _tre
+corde_ (lit. three strings) or _tutte le corde_ (all the strings) show
+that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the
+fact that on grand pianos the "soft pedal" when depressed moves the
+hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they
+strike only two (in the older pianos only one, hence _una corda_), all
+three strings (_tre corde_) being struck again after the release of the
+pedal.
+
+130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject
+of dynamics are:
+
+     _Con alcuna licenza_--with some degree of license.
+
+     _Con amore_--with tenderness.
+
+     _Con bravura_--with boldness.
+
+     _Con celerita_--with rapidity.
+
+     _Con delicato_--with delicacy.
+
+     _Con energico_--with energy.
+
+     _Con espressione_--with expression.
+
+     _Con forza_--with force.
+
+     _Con fuoco_--with fire and passion.
+
+     _Con grand' espressione_--with great expression.
+
+     _Con grazia_--with grace.
+
+     _Con melinconia_--with melancholy. [Transcriber's Note:
+     archaic form of "malinconia".]
+
+     _Con passione_--with passion.
+
+     _Con spirito_--with spirit.
+
+     _Con tenerezza_--with tenderness.
+
+     _Delicato_--delicately.
+
+     _Dolce_--sweetly, gently.
+
+     _Dolcissimo_--most sweetly.
+
+     _Dolce e cantabile_--gently and with singing tone.
+
+     _Dolente_  }
+     _Doloroso_ } plaintively or sorrowfully.
+
+     _Espressivo_--expressively.
+
+     _Grandioso_--grandly, pompously.
+
+     _Grazioso_--gracefully.
+
+     _Giocoso_--humorously, (cf. jocose).
+
+     _Giojoso_--joyfully, (cf. joyous).
+
+     _Lacrimando_, _lacrimoso_--sorrowfully.
+
+     _Legato_--smoothly.
+
+     _Leggiero_--lightly.
+
+     _Leggierissimo_--most lightly; almost a staccato.
+
+     _Lusingando_--caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly.
+
+     _Maesta_, _maestoso_--majestically.
+
+     _Martellando_, _martellato_--strongly accented,
+     (lit.--hammered).
+
+     _Marziale_--martial--war-like.
+
+     _Mesto_--pensively.
+
+     _Mezzo voce_--with half voice.
+
+     _Misterioso_--mysteriously.
+
+     _Parlando_--well accented or enunciated; applied to melody
+     playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.)
+
+     _Pastorale_--in simple and unaffected style, (lit.--pastoral,
+     rural).
+
+     _Pomposo_--pompously.
+
+     _Precipitoso_--precipitously.
+
+     _Recitativo_--well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in
+     instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the
+     accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, see p.
+     78.)
+
+     _Risoluto_--firmly, resolutely.
+
+     _Scherzando_, _scherzoso_, etc.--jokingly. These terms are
+     derived from the word _scherzo_ meaning _a musical joke_.
+
+     _Semplice_--simply.
+
+     _Sempre marcatissimo_--always well marked, _i.e._, strongly
+     accented.
+
+     _Sentimento_--with sentiment.
+
+     _Solenne_--solemn.
+
+     _Sotto voce_--in subdued voice.
+
+     _Spiritoso_--with spirit.
+
+     _Strepitoso_--precipitously.
+
+     _Tranquillo_--tranquilly.
+
+     _Tristamente_--sadly.
+
+131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem
+to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thus
+_e.g._, _crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando_,
+is seen to mean merely--"increase gradually to _forte_ and accelerate a
+very little bit." A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly
+in the interpretation of such expressions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES
+
+
+132. A _form_ in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of
+a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is
+easily recognized by the ear. Thus _e.g._, although every fugue is
+different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement
+of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the
+_fugue form_ has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is
+hearing whenever a fugue is played. The word _form_ is therefore seen to
+be somewhat synonymous with the word _plan_ as used in architecture; it
+is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the
+canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc.
+
+     Speaking broadly we may say that _form_ in any art consists in
+     the placing together of certain parts in such relations of
+     proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music
+     this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect,
+     as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the
+     work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one
+     whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer.
+
+133. The primal _basis of form_ is the repetition of some characteristic
+effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these
+repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the
+same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is
+accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by
+introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key.
+
+134. The student should note at the outset of this topic the _difference
+in meaning between_ the terms _form_ and _style_: A _form_ is a plan
+for building a certain definite kind of composition, but a _style_ is
+merely a manner of writing. Thus _e.g._, the _fugue_ is a
+_form_--_i.e._, it is a plan, which although capable of variation in
+details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; but
+_counterpoint_ is merely a _style_ or manner of writing (just as Gothic
+architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of
+several _forms_.
+
+135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to
+explain in simple language certain terms relating to _forms_ and
+_styles_ which are in common use; in many cases the definition is too
+meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that
+the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually
+be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The
+article "Form" and the separate articles under each term here defined,
+as found in Grove's Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples
+of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette--"The
+Appreciation of Music," Supplementary Volume.)
+
+136. In a very general way there may be said to be _two styles of
+musical composition_, the monophonic (or homophonic)--the
+one-voiced--and the polyphonic--the many voiced. The polyphonic[32]
+style antedates the monophonic historically.
+
+[Footnote 32: Polyphonic music flourished from 1000 A.D. to about 1750
+A.D., the culmination of the polyphonic period being reached in the
+music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven,
+and the later writers have used the monophonic style more than the
+polyphonic, although a combination of the two is often found, as _e.g._,
+in the later works of Beethoven.]
+
+137. In _monophonic music_ there is one voice which has a pronounced
+melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a
+harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the
+ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three
+other voices forming a "four-part harmony." The sonata, symphony, opera,
+modern piano piece, etc., are also largely _monophonic_, though
+polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found.
+
+138. In _polyphonic music_ each voice is to a certain extent melodically
+interesting, and the "harmony" is the result of combining several
+melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating
+a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint,
+canon, round, fugue, etc., are all _polyphonic_ in style. The word
+_contrapuntal_ is often used synonymously with _polyphonic_.
+
+     (Sections 139 to 143 relate especially to terms describing
+     polyphonic music.)
+
+139. _Counterpoint_ is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies
+to a given melody, the latter being known as the "cantus firmus," or
+subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as "the art of combining
+melodies."
+
+     The word _counterpoint_ comes from the three words "_punctus
+     contra punctum_," meaning "point against point." The word
+     point as here used refers to the _punctus_--one of the neumae
+     of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate
+     predecessors of modern notes.
+
+     Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in
+     contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part
+     "inventions" by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental
+     counterpoint, while such choruses as those in "The Messiah" by
+     Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint.
+
+140. _Imitation_ is the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme
+previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the
+term _strict imitation_ is applied, but if only approximate, then the
+term _free imitation_ is used in referring to it. The repetition need
+not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be _strict_; on
+the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a
+fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in
+which the _third_ part comes in an octave _lower_ than the first part.
+
+141. A _canon_ is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict
+imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another
+part has played or sung. The term "canonic style" is sometimes applied
+to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part
+canon is given in Fig. 57.
+
+[Illustration: CANON IN THREE VOICES, IN THE UNISON AND OCTAVE
+
+Fig. 57. MOZART]
+
+     The word _canon_ means _law_, and was applied to this
+     particular form of composition because the rules relating to
+     its composition were invariable. It is because of this
+     non-flexibility that the _canon_ is so little used as a form
+     at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of
+     writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as
+     to give him room for the exercise of his own particular
+     individuality of conception, and this the _canon_ does not do.
+     For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have
+     successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the
+     present time composers have as it were created their own
+     forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that
+     no one but the composer himself could recognize the form _as_
+     a form because it had not been adopted to a great enough
+     extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal.
+     The result is that in much present-day music it is very
+     difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar
+     design, and the impression made by such music is in
+     consequence much less definite than that made by music of the
+     classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state
+     of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is
+     necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of
+     structure to make the art work capable of standing as a
+     universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression
+     of some particular composer or of some period of composition.
+
+142. The common _school round_ is an example of canon, each voice
+repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice
+is going on with its melody. The _round_ is therefore defined as a
+variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the
+subject.
+
+143. The _fugue_ (Latin, _fuga_ = flight) is a form of contrapuntal
+composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key,
+_i.e._, a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called "the
+answer") may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called
+"the question"), but is usually not so.
+
+     The _fugue_ differs from the canon also in that the subject is
+     given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the
+     canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going
+     on. The _fugue_ is not nearly so strict in form as the canon
+     and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing
+     musical ideas. A canon may be perfect in _form_ and yet be
+     very poor music; this same statement might of course be made
+     about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES (_Continued_)
+
+
+     (Sections 144 to 160 relate particularly to terms used in
+     descriptions of _monophonic_ music[33].)
+
+[Footnote 33: There is a very pronounced disagreement among theorists as
+to what terms are to be used in referring to certain forms and parts of
+forms and it seems impossible to make a compromise that will satisfy
+even a reasonable number. In order to make the material in this chapter
+consistent with itself therefore it has been thought best by the author
+to follow the terminology of some single recognized work on form, and
+the general plan of monophonic form here given is therefore that of the
+volume called _Musical Form_, by Bussler-Cornell.]
+
+144. A _phrase_ is a short musical thought (at least two measures in
+length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The
+typical _phrase_ is four measures long. The two-measure _phrase_ is
+often called _section_. The word _phrase_ as used in music terminology
+corresponds with the same word as used in language study.
+
+145. A _period_ is a little piece of music typically eight measures
+long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined
+divisions of a larger form. The _period_ (when complete in itself) is
+the smallest monophonic form.
+
+The essential characteristic of the _regular period_ is the fact that it
+usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called _antecedent_ and
+_consequent_ or _thesis_ and _antithesis_), the first phrase giving rise
+to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key,
+deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of
+completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.
+
+     The second half of the period is sometimes a literal
+     repetition of the first half, in all respects except the
+     cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one
+     of the elements--rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs.
+     58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost
+     invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes)
+     the more obvious the form of the period, while the more
+     complex the music, the less regular the period.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. MOZART]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. SCHUBERT]
+
+146. The _primary forms_ are built up by combining two or more periods.
+
+The _small two-part primary form_ (often called _song-form_ or
+_Lied-form_) consists of two periods so placed that the second
+constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of
+this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the
+first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity.
+The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven)
+quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are
+"Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes," and "The Last Rose of Summer."
+
+[Illustration: BEETHOVEN]
+
+The _small three-part primary form_ is like the two-part primary form
+except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated
+between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure
+phrase.
+
+The _large two- and three-part primary forms_ usually have
+sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise
+similar in construction.
+
+     These various _primary forms_ are used in constructing many
+     varieties of compositions, among them the _theme and
+     variations_, the _polka_, the _waltz_, the _march_, etc., as
+     well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets,
+     etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be
+     regular here because the form of vocal music is largely
+     dependent upon the structure of the text.
+
+147. A _theme_ is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue,
+as the basis of the development section in "sonata form," etc. Sometimes
+it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are
+made, as _e.g._, in the familiar _theme and variations_.
+
+148. _Thematic development_ consists in taking a short theme (or several
+short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and
+contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality
+changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a
+composition. Fig. 60 _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, and _f_ show how the theme
+given in Fig. 60 (_a_) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are
+hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied
+without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic
+development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, No. 3, as
+analyzed in Appendix E. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Sec. 3" in
+original.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
+
+     For further illustrations of development in the case of this
+     same theme, see--Christiani--The Principles of Expression in
+     Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing
+     themes have been adapted.
+
+149. A _rondo_ is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in
+which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same
+form (_i.e._, not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme
+being separated by contrasting material.
+
+The _rondo_ is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been
+used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic
+construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in
+dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first
+subject again; (6) second subject, in _tonic key_; (7) coda (or ending).
+
+The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and
+contrast (mentioned in Sec. 134) as here worked out, as the rondo was
+the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily
+solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is
+readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of
+all--the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of
+sonatas or sonatinas.
+
+150. A _suite_ is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in
+nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an
+introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to
+secure contrast of movement--a quick dance being usually followed by a
+slower one.
+
+     The suite is interesting to students of the development of
+     music as being the first form _in several movements_ to be
+     generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity
+     from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the
+     eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata,
+     whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.
+
+The _suite_ was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord,
+clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvo[vr]ák, Lachner,
+Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.
+
+151. Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:
+
+     _Allemande_--duple or quadruple measure.
+
+     _Bolero_--triple measure.
+
+     _Bourée_--duple or quadruple measure.
+
+     _Chaconne_--triple measure.
+
+     _Courante_--a very old dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Csardas_--Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.
+
+     _Gavotte_--quadruple measure.
+
+     _Gigue_ (or _jig_)--duple measure.
+
+     _Habanera_--Spanish dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Minuet_--slow dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Mazurka_--Polish dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Polonaise_--Polish dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Rigaudon_--lively dance in duple or triple measure.
+
+     _Sarabande_--triple measure.
+
+     _Tarantella_--swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.
+
+The _allemande_ is especially interesting to students of music form
+because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the
+sonata-allegro (_i.e._, the first movement of the sonata). The
+_sarabande_ and _courante_ are likewise interesting as the prototypes of
+the second movement, and the _bourée_, _minuet_, etc., for their
+connection with the third movement.
+
+152. The _scherzo_ (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental
+composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the
+sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an
+independent piece.
+
+153. A _sonata_ is an instrumental composition of three or more
+movements (usually four), the first and last of which are almost always
+in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity
+of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a
+broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its
+name from the fact that its first movement is cast in _sonata-form_.
+(See Sec. 157 for description of sonata-form.)
+
+When the _sonata_ has four movements, these are usually arranged as
+follows:
+
+     1. A quick movement (_allegro_, _presto_, etc.), often
+     preceded by a slower introduction.
+
+     2. A slow movement (_largo_, _andante_, _adagio_, etc.).
+
+     3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case
+     the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is
+     played.
+
+     4. A quick movement--the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes
+     another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.
+
+These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of
+contrasting rhythms.
+
+154. A _trio_ is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin,
+and cello), while a _quartet_ is a sonata for four instruments, the most
+common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins,
+viola, and violoncello.
+
+The term _chamber music_ is often applied to instrumental music for
+trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are
+suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.
+
+     The words _trio_ and _quartet_ are also applied to vocal works
+     for three and four voices respectively, these having no
+     relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The word
+     _trio_ is also applied to the middle section of minuets,
+     scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage
+     of writing this part for three instruments only.
+
+155. A _concerto_ is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral
+accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt
+it to a composition in which there must necessarily be opportunity for
+a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements
+in the _concerto_.
+
+     The great majority of _concertos_ are for piano and orchestra,
+     but examples of concertos for violin, cello, flute, oboe, and
+     other solo instruments (all with orchestral accompaniment)
+     have also been written. A few modern composers have applied
+     the term _concerto_ to certain large organ works (with no
+     orchestral accompaniment, the composition being written for
+     just the one instrument), but this use of the word is so
+     contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly
+     justifiable.
+
+     When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra),
+     this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that
+     there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should
+     be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been
+     arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ).
+
+156. A _symphony_ is a sonata for full orchestra. In general its
+construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of
+much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal
+and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the
+highest type of instrumental music ever evolved.
+
+     The _symphony_ was accepted as a standard form in the time of
+     Haydn (1732-1809) and was developed enormously by Haydn
+     himself, Mozart (1756-1791), and Beethoven (1770-1827),
+     reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous "Nine
+     Symphonies" of the last-named composer. Later symphony writers
+     whose works are at present being performed include Schumann,
+     Tschaikowsky, and Dvo[vr]ák.
+
+The word _symphony_ was formerly used synonymously with _ritornelle_,
+both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of
+vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared.
+
+157. _Sonata-form_ (sometimes called _sonata-allegro_) is a plan for the
+construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies,
+etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third
+division being a more or less literal repetition of the first.
+
+     These _three parts of sonata-form_ with their usual
+     subdivisions are:
+
+     I. EXPOSITION
+
+        (1) Principal theme (or first subject).
+
+        (2) Link-episode (or modulation group).
+
+        (3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly
+            related key.
+
+        (4) Closing group.
+
+        (5) Coda.
+
+     II. DEVELOPMENT SECTION
+
+     Treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost
+     infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of
+     thematic development. (See Sec. 148).
+
+     III. RECAPITULATION (OR REPRISE)
+
+     Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in the
+     _exposition_, but differing from this first section in one
+     essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary
+     theme in a _related_ key, the entire recapitulation is in the
+     _principal_ key. This third section is always followed by a
+     coda (which may either be very short or quite extended),
+     bringing the whole movement to a more definite close.
+
+     The second part of _sonata-form_ (the development section) is
+     sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three
+     divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an
+     opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and
+     inventive skill. It is principally because of this development
+     section that the sonata is so far superior as a _form_ to its
+     predecessors. For an analyzed example of _sonata-form_, see
+     Appendix E. The student is advised to take other sonatas and
+     go through the first movements with a view to finding at least
+     the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the
+     form will of course be so irregular that all the parts
+     indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of
+     the scheme will always be present.
+
+158. A _sonatina_, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs
+from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development,
+the second section being of slight importance as compared with the
+corresponding section of a sonata.
+
+A _grand sonata_ is like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually
+large dimensions.
+
+159. _Program music_ is instrumental music which is supposed to convey
+to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in
+him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the
+composer's mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general
+idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a
+poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer,
+but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except
+the title of the composition.
+
+     _Program music_ represents a mean between _pure music_ (cf.
+     the piano sonata or the string quartet) on the one hand, and
+     _descriptive music_ (in which actual imitations of bird-calls,
+     whistles, the blowing of the wind, the galloping of horses,
+     the rolling of thunder, etc., occur), on the other. Most
+     program music is written for the orchestra, examples being
+     Liszt's "The Preludes," Strauss' "Till Eulenspiegel," etc.
+
+160. A _symphonic poem_ (or _tone poem_) is an orchestral composition of
+large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying
+the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often
+characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also
+examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the
+entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it
+occurs to the particular moods expressed by the _program_ at those
+points.
+
+     The _symphonic poem_ was invented by Liszt (1811-1886) and has
+     since been used extensively by Strauss, Saint-Saëns and
+     others. It came into existence as a part of the general
+     movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata
+     successively to go out of fashion, viz., the tendency to
+     invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way,
+     but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in
+     his own individual way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+TERMS RELATING TO VOCAL MUSIC
+
+
+161. An _anthem_ is a sacred choral composition, usually based on
+Biblical or liturgical[34] words. It may or may not have an instrumental
+accompaniment, and is usually written in four parts, but may have five,
+six, eight, or more.
+
+[Footnote 34: A _liturgy_ is a prescribed form or method of conducting a
+religious service, and the parts sung in such a service (as _e.g._, the
+holy communion, baptism, etc.), are referred to as the _musical_
+liturgy.]
+
+     The word _anthem_ is derived from _antifona_ (or _antiphona_),
+     meaning a psalm or hymn sung responsively, _i.e._,
+     _antiphonally_, by two choirs, or by choir and congregation.
+
+A _full anthem_ is one containing no solo parts; a _solo anthem_ is one
+in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus, while a _verse
+anthem_ is one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for
+concerted solo voices (_i.e._, trios, quartets, etc.).
+
+162. _A capella_ (sometimes spelled _cappella_) or _alla capella music_
+is part-singing (either sacred or secular) without accompaniment.
+
+     This term means literally "in chapel style," and refers to the
+     fact that in the early days of the church all singing was
+     unaccompanied.
+
+163. _A motet_ is a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style. It
+has no solo parts, thus corresponding to the madrigal (q.v.) in secular
+music. The motet is intended for _a capella_ performance, but is often
+given with organ accompaniment.
+
+164. A _choral_ is a hymn-tune of the German Protestant Church. It is
+usually harmonized in four voices. The _choral_ (sometimes spelled
+_chorale_) is described as having "a plain melody, a strong harmony, and
+a stately rhythm." It differs from the ordinary English and American
+hymn-tune in being usually sung at a much slower tempo, and in having a
+pause at the end of each line of text.
+
+165. The _mass_ is the liturgy for the celebration of the Lord's Supper
+in the service of the Roman Catholic Church. As used in the terminology
+of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when
+a composer writes a musical _mass_, and which form the basis of the
+celebration of the Communion.[35] These six hymns are as follows:
+
+[Footnote 35: It should be understood that this statement refers to the
+service called "the high mass" only, there being no music at all in
+connection with the so-called "low mass."]
+
+     _Kyrie._
+
+     _Gloria_ (including the _Gratias agimus_, _Qui tollis_,
+     _Quoniam_, _Cum Sancto Spirito_).
+
+     _Credo_ (including the _Et Incarnatus_, _Crucifixus_, and _Et
+     Resurrexit_).
+
+     _Sanctus_ (including the _Hosanna_).
+
+     _Benedictus._
+
+     _Agnus Dei_ (including the _Dona nobis_).
+
+     The _requiem mass_ is the "mass for the dead" and differs
+     considerably from the ordinary mass. Both regular and requiem
+     _masses_ have been written by many of the great composers
+     (Bach, Beethoven, Verdi, Gounod), and in many cases these
+     _masses_ are so complex that they are not practicable for the
+     actual service of the Church, and are therefore performed only
+     by large choral societies, as concert works.
+
+166. A _cantata_ is a vocal composition for chorus and soloists, the
+text being either sacred or secular. The accompaniment may be written
+for piano, organ, or orchestra.
+
+     When sacred in character the _cantata_ differs from the
+     oratorio in being shorter and less dramatic, in not usually
+     having definite characters, and in being written for church
+     use, while the oratorio is intended for concert performance.
+
+     When secular in subject the _cantata_ differs from the opera
+     in not usually having definite characters, and in being always
+     rendered without scenery or action.
+
+     Examples of the _sacred cantata_ are: Stainer's "The
+     Crucifixion," Clough-Leighter's "The Righteous Branch," and
+     Gaul's "The Holy City." Examples of the _secular cantata_ are:
+     Bruch's "Armenius," Coleridge-Taylor's "Hiawatha."
+
+167. An _oratorio_ is a composition on a large scale for chorus,
+soloists, and orchestra, the text usually dealing with some religious
+subject. The _oratorio_, as noted above, is not intended for the church
+service, but is written for concert performance.
+
+168. An _opera_ is a composition for vocal soloists, chorus, and
+orchestra, with characters, action, scenery, and dramatic movement. It
+is a drama set to music.
+
+     _Grand opera_ is opera with a serious plot, in which
+     everything is sung, there being no spoken dialog at all.
+
+     _Opera comique_ is a species of opera in which part of the
+     dialog is spoken and part sung. _Opera comique_ is not
+     synonymous with _comic opera_, for the plot of opera comique
+     is as often serious as not. In fact the entire distinction
+     between the terms _grand opera_ and _opera comique_ is being
+     broken down, the latter term referring merely to operas first
+     given at the Opera Comique in Paris, and the former term to
+     those given at the Grand Opera House in the same city.
+
+     A _comic opera_ is a humorous opera, the plot providing many
+     amusing situations and the whole ending happily. It
+     corresponds with the _comedy_ in literature.
+
+     A _light opera_ is one with an exceedingly trivial plot, in
+     which songs, dances, and pretty scenery contribute to the
+     amusement of the audience. The music is lively, but usually as
+     trivial as the plot.
+
+     The term _music drama_ was used by Wagner in referring to his
+     own _operas_, and is also sometimes applied to other modern
+     _operas_ in which the dramatic element is supposed to
+     predominate over the musical.
+
+169. A _libretto_ (lit.--little book) is the word-text of an opera,
+oratorio, cantata, or some other similar work.
+
+170. _Recitative_ is a style of vocal solo common to operas, oratorios,
+and cantatas, especially those written some time ago. Its main
+characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance, both
+rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by
+musical considerations.
+
+     _Recitative_ undoubtedly originated in the intoning of the
+     priest in the ritualistic service of the Church, but when
+     applied to the opera it became an important means of securing
+     dramatic effects, especially in situations in which the action
+     of the play moved along rapidly. _Recitative_ is thus seen to
+     be a species of musical declamation.
+
+     In the early examples of _recitative_ there was scarcely any
+     accompaniment, often only one instrument (like the cello)
+     being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody: when full
+     chords were played they were not written out in the score, but
+     were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain
+     signs and figures. (See "thorough-bass," p. 85, Sec. 200.)
+
+     But about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly
+     different style of _recitative_ was invented, and in this type
+     the orchestra was employed much more freely in the
+     accompaniment, especially in the parts between the phrases of
+     the text, but to some extent also to support the voice while
+     singing. This new style was called _recitativo stromento_
+     (_i.e._, accompanied recitative), while the original type was
+     called _recitativo secco_ (_i.e._, dry recitative).
+
+     During the last century the style of _recitative_ has been
+     still further developed by Gluck and Wagner, both of whom used
+     the orchestra as an independent entity, with interesting
+     melodies, harmonies and rhythms all its own, while the vocal
+     part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment. But even in
+     this latest phase of _recitative_, it is the word-text that
+     decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part.
+     Fig. 61 shows an example of _dry recitative_, taken from "The
+     Messiah."
+
+     [Illustration: ALTO VOICE. Be-hold! a vir-gin shall con-ceive,
+     and bear a son, and shall call his name Em-man-u-el; God with
+     us.]
+
+171. _Aria_ is likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas, etc., but
+its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the
+recitative. In the _aria_ the word-text is usually entirely subordinate
+to the melody, and the latter is often very ornate, containing trills,
+runs, etc.
+
+The rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as
+"coloratura singing," but it should be noted that not all _arias_ are
+coloratura in style.
+
+     The familiar solos from The Messiah--"Rejoice Greatly," and
+     "The trumpet shall sound" are good examples of the aria style.
+
+172. A _lied_ (Ger. = song) is a vocal solo in which the text, the
+melody, and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the
+effect of the whole.
+
+     Strictly speaking the word _lied_ means "a poem to be sung,"
+     and this meaning will explain at once the difference between
+     the _lied_ on the one hand, and the Italian recitative and
+     aria on the other, for in the _lied_ the text is of great
+     importance, but the music is also interesting, while in the
+     recitative the text was important but the music very slight,
+     and in the aria the text was usually inconsequential while the
+     music held the center of interest.
+
+The most pronounced characteristic of the _lied_ is the fact that it
+usually portrays a single mood, sentiment, or picture, thus differing
+from the ballad, which is narrative in style. It will be noted that this
+"single mood, or sentiment, or picture" was originally conceived by the
+poet who wrote the word-text, and that the composer in writing music to
+this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet, and has
+then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more
+vivid that thought. This intensification of the poet's thought comes as
+often through the rhythm, harmony, and dynamics of the accompaniment as
+through the expressiveness of the voice part.
+
+     The style of song-writing in which each verse is sung to the
+     same tune is called the "strophe form," while that in which
+     each verse has a different melody is often referred to as the
+     "continuous" or "through-composed" form (Ger.
+     durch-componiert).
+
+173. A _ballad_ was originally a short, simple song, the words being in
+narrative style, _i.e._, the word-text telling a story. In the earlier
+_ballads_ each verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune
+(strophe form), but in the _art-ballad_ as developed by Loewe and others
+the continuous style of composition is employed, this giving the
+composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the
+events described by the poem. These later _ballads_ are in consequence
+neither "short" nor "simple" but compare in structure with the lied
+itself.
+
+174. A _folk-song_ is a short song sung by and usually originating among
+the common people. Its dominant characteristic is usually _simplicity_,
+this applying to word-text, melody, and accompaniment (if there is one).
+The text of the _folk-song_ is usually based on some event connected
+with ordinary life, but there are also many examples in which historical
+and legendary happenings are dealt with. Auld Lang Syne, and Comin' thru
+the Rye, are examples of _folk-songs_.
+
+     There has been some difference of opinion as to whether a
+     song, the composer of which is known, can ever constitute a
+     real _folk-song_: recent writers seem to be taking the
+     sensible view of the matter, viz.: that if a song has the
+     characteristics of a folk- rather than an art-song, and if it
+     remains popular for some time among the common people, then it
+     is just as much a _folk-song_ whether the composer happens to
+     be known or not.
+
+175. A _madrigal_ is a secular vocal composition having from three to
+eight parts. It is in contrapuntal style, like the motet, and is usually
+sung a capella.
+
+176. A _glee_ is a vocal composition in three or more parts, being
+usually more simple in style than the madrigal, and sometimes having
+more than one movement. The _glee_ may be either gay or sad in mood, and
+seems to be a composition peculiar to the English people.
+
+177. A _part-song_ is a composition for two or more voices, (usually
+four) to be sung a capella. It is written in monophonic rather than in
+polyphonic style, thus differing from the madrigal and glee. Morley's
+"Now is the Month of Maying" is an example of the _part-song_, as is
+also Sullivan's "O Hush Thee, My Baby." The term _part-song_ is often
+loosely applied to glees, madrigals, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+RHYTHM, MELODY, HARMONY AND INTERVALS
+
+
+178. The _four elements_ commonly attributed to music (in the order of
+their development) are: Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, and Timbre (or
+tone-color).
+
+179. _Rhythm_ is the regular recurrence of accent. In music it is more
+specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and
+non-accented beats (or pulses)--according to some specified
+measure-system. Since rhythm implies continuity, there must usually be
+at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm
+possible. (See p. 44, Sec. 97.)
+
+180. A _melody_ is a succession of single tones of various pitches so
+arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified, coherent, and
+pleasing to the ear.
+
+     The soprano part of hymn-tunes and other simple harmonized
+     compositions is often referred to as "the melody."
+
+181. _Harmony_ is the science of chord construction and combination.
+
+     The term _harmony_ refers to tones sounding simultaneously,
+     _i.e._, to _chords_, as differentiated from tones sounding
+     consecutively, as in melody. The word _harmony_ may therefore
+     be applied to any group of tones of different pitches sounded
+     as a chord, although specifically we usually refer to a
+     _succession_ of such chords when we speak of "harmony." It is
+     possible to use the same combination of tones in either melody
+     or harmony; in fact these two elements as applied to modern
+     music have developed together and the style of present-day
+     melody is directly based upon the development that has
+     recently taken place in harmonic construction.
+
+     _Harmony_ (as contrasted with _counterpoint_) first began to
+     be an important factor in music about 1600 A.D., _i.e._, at
+     the time when opera and oratorio came into existence, when
+     form was established, and when our modern major and minor
+     scales were adopted. Before this practically all music was
+     composed on a contrapuntal basis.
+
+182. _Timbre_ is that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to
+distinguish a tone produced by one instrument (or voice) from a tone
+produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument.
+
+     The word _timbre_ is synonymous with the terms _quality of
+     tone_, and _tone quality_ (Ger.--Klang-farbe), the excuse for
+     using it being that it expresses adequately in one word an
+     idea that in our language takes at least two: this excuse
+     would disappear (and incidentally a much-mispronounced word
+     would be eliminated) if the single word _quality_ were to be
+     adopted as the equivalent of _timbre_. Thus, _e.g._, the
+     soprano voice singing c' has a _quality_ different from the
+     contralto voice singing the same tone.
+
+     (The remainder of this chapter and all of Chapter XVIII deal
+     with terms commonly encountered in the study of _harmony_.
+     Courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales,
+     but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively
+     treated, this chapter will omit it, and will begin with the
+     next topic in harmony study, viz.--the interval.)
+
+183. An _interval_ is the relation of two tones with regard to pitch. If
+the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is an _harmonic
+interval_, but if sounded consecutively the result is a _melodic
+interval_. Fig. 62 represents the pitches f' and a' as a harmonic
+interval, while Fig. 63 represents the same pitches arranged as a
+melodic interval.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+184. In classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in
+mind:
+
+     (1) The _number name_ of the interval (third, fifth, sixth,
+     etc.), is derived from the order of letters as found in the
+     diatonic scale. Thus the interval C--E is a _third_ because E
+     is the third tone from C (counting C as one) in the diatonic
+     scale. C--G is a _fifth_ because G is the fifth tone above C
+     in the diatonic scale.
+
+     It should be noted however that the same _number-names_ apply
+     even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified
+     by sharps, flats, etc. Thus _e.g._, C--G[sharp] is still a
+     _fifth_, as are also C[sharp]--G[flat] and C[flat]--G[sharp].
+
+     (2) In determining the _specific_ name of any interval
+     (_perfect_ fifth, _major_ third, etc.), the half-step and
+     whole-step (often referred to respectively as _minor second_,
+     and _major second_) are used as units of measurement.
+
+     The _half-step_ is usually defined as "the smallest usable
+     interval between two tones." Thus, C--C[sharp] is a
+     _half-step_, as are also B--C, F--G[flat], etc.
+
+     A _whole-step_ consists of two half-steps. C--D is a
+     _whole-step_, as are also B[flat]--C, E--F[sharp],
+     F[sharp]--G[sharp], G[flat]--A[flat], etc.
+
+     The expressions _half-step_ and _whole-step_ are much to be
+     preferred to _half-tone_ and _whole-tone_, as being more clear
+     and definite. Thus _e.g._, the sentence "The two tones are a
+     _half-step_ apart" is much better than "The two tones are a
+     _half-tone_ apart."
+
+185. A _prime_ is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
+properly represented by the same degree of the staff.
+
+     A _perfect prime_ is one whose tones have the same pitch.
+     Middle C sounded by piano and violin at the same time would
+     offer an example.
+
+     An _augmented prime_ is one whose second tone is one half-step
+     higher than the first. Ex. C--C[sharp].
+
+186. A _second_ is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
+properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff. (The first line
+and first space are adjacent degrees, as are also the third line and
+fourth space.)
+
+     A _minor second_ is one comprising one half-step. Ex. B--C.
+
+     A _major second_ is one comprising two half-steps. Ex.
+     B--C[sharp].
+
+     An _augmented second_ is one comprising three half-steps. Ex.
+     F--G[sharp].
+
+187. A _third_ is an interval comprising two seconds.
+
+     A _diminished third_ has two minor seconds (_i.e._, two
+     half-steps). C--E[double-flat].
+
+     A _minor third_ has one minor and one major second (_i.e._,
+     three half-steps). C--E[flat].
+
+     A _major third_ has two major seconds (_i.e._, four
+     half-steps). C--E.
+
+188. _A fourth_ is an interval comprising three seconds.
+
+     A _diminished fourth_ has two minor and one major second.
+     C[sharp]--F.
+
+     A _perfect fourth_ has one minor and two major seconds. C--F.
+
+     An _augmented fourth_ (tritone) has three major seconds.
+     C--F[sharp].
+
+189. A _fifth_ is an interval comprising four seconds.
+
+     A _diminished fifth_ has two minor and two major seconds.
+     C--G[flat].
+
+     A _perfect fifth_ has one minor and three major seconds. C--G.
+
+     An _augmented fifth_ has four major seconds. C--G[sharp].
+
+190. A _sixth_ is an interval comprising five seconds.
+
+     A _minor sixth_ has two minor and three major seconds.
+     C--A[flat].
+
+     A _major sixth_ has one minor and four major seconds. C--A.
+
+     An _augmented sixth_ has five major seconds. C--A[sharp].
+
+191. A _seventh_ is an interval comprising six seconds.
+
+     A _diminished seventh_ has three minor and three major
+     seconds. C--B[double-flat].
+
+     A _minor seventh_ has two minor and four major seconds.
+     C--B[flat].
+
+     A _major seventh_ has one minor and five major seconds. C--B.
+
+192. An _octave_ is an interval comprising seven seconds.
+
+     A _diminished octave_ has three minor and four major seconds.
+     C--C[flat].
+
+     _A perfect octave_ has two minor and five major seconds. C--C.
+
+     An _augmented octave_ has one minor and six major seconds.
+     C--C[sharp].
+
+193. A _ninth_ is usually treated as a second, a _tenth_ as a third,
+etc. The interval of two octaves is often referred to as a _fifteenth_.
+
+194. If the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between
+each tone and the key-tone noted, it will be observed that the intervals
+are all either major or perfect. See Fig. 64.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.]
+
+In this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller
+than _major_ is always _minor_, while that next smaller than _perfect_
+or _minor_ is always _diminished_: but that the interval next larger
+than both _major_ and _perfect_ is _augmented_.
+
+195. An interval is said to be _inverted_ when the tone originally the
+upper becomes the lower. Thus C--E, a major third, inverted becomes
+E--C, a minor sixth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+CHORDS, CADENCES, ETC.
+
+
+196. A _chord_ is a combination of several tones sounding together and
+bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is the
+_triad_, which consists of a fundamental tone called the _root_, with
+the third and fifth above it. C--E--G is a triad, as are also D--F--A,
+F--A--C, and G--B--D.
+
+197. Triads are classified as _major_, _minor_, _diminished_, or
+_augmented_.
+
+     A _major triad_ has a major third and a perfect fifth, _i.e._,
+     it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex.
+     C--E--G.
+
+     A _minor triad_ has a minor third and a perfect fifth, _i.e._,
+     it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex.
+     C--E[flat]--G.
+
+     A _diminished triad_ has a minor third and a diminished fifth,
+     _i.e._, it is a minor third with another minor third on top of
+     it. Ex. C--E[flat]--G[flat].
+
+     An _augmented triad_ has a major third and an augmented fifth,
+     _i.e._, it is a major third with another major third on top of
+     it. Ex. C--E--G[sharp].
+
+198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V,
+are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the
+_common chords_. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to
+show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral
+(with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of
+the scale. Thus _e.g._, the large I shows that the triad on the first
+tone (in major) is a _major triad_, the small II shows that the triad
+on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this
+clear.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
+
+The triads in the minor scale are as follows:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+199. A triad is said to be _in fundamental position_ when its root is
+the lowest tone. It is said to be in the _first inversion_ when the
+_third_ is the lowest tone, and in the _second inversion_ when the fifth
+is the lowest tone. Thus _e.g._, in Fig. 66 the same chord (C--E--G) is
+arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position,
+at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
+
+200. When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to
+show what chord is to be played or written. Thus, _e.g._, the figure 6
+over a bass note means that the note given is the _third_ of a chord,
+the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note: _i.e._, the
+chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the
+figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is the _fifth_ of the chord,
+the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the
+note given; _i.e._, the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion.
+
+The use of these and other similar figures and signs is called _figured
+bass_ (or _thorough bass_) _notation_. An example of a _figured bass_ is
+given in Fig. 67.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
+
+     _Thorough bass notation_ was formerly used extensively in
+     writing accompaniments to vocal works, the accompanist having
+     to interpret the notes and signs given, and then to make up an
+     interesting accompaniment as he went along. Much of Handel's
+     music was written in this way, but in modern editions of these
+     works the chords have been printed in full and the signs
+     omitted.
+
+201. A _seventh chord_ consists of a fundamental tone with its third,
+fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. A _ninth chord_
+consists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth.
+
+202. A _cadence_ is the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers
+to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords.
+
+     The word _cadence_ is derived from _cadere_, a Latin word
+     meaning to _fall_, the reference being to the falling of the
+     voice (_i.e._, the dropping to the normal pitch) at the close
+     of a sentence.
+
+203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on
+I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V--I
+is called the _authentic cadence_.
+
+204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is
+that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is the
+_root_ of that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the
+cadence is called _perfect_[36] _authentic_, and when the third or
+fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is called
+_imperfect authentic_. Fig. 68 shows the chord G--B--D cadencing to
+C--E--G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called a _perfect
+authentic cadence_, but the last two (c) and (d) are _imperfect
+authentic_.
+
+[Footnote 36: Many theorists (including Durand in his monumental
+"Treatise on Harmony") consider the V--I cadence to be the only one
+which may legitimately be called _perfect_, but the majority of writers
+seem to take the view that either authentic or plagal cadence may be
+either perfect or imperfect, depending upon the soprano tone, as noted
+above.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
+
+205. A _plagal cadence_ is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by
+the sub-dominant chord (IV--I). The _plagal cadence_ (sometimes called
+the _church cadence_, or _amen cadence_), like the authentic, is
+described as being _perfect_ when the soprano of the tonic chord is the
+root of that chord, and _imperfect_ when the soprano of the final chord
+is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F--A--C
+cadencing to C--E--G in three ways. The first one (a) is called a
+_perfect plagal cadence_, the last two are _imperfect plagal_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
+
+206. A _half-cadence_ occurs when the dominant chord is used as the
+final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord.
+This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is
+not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in
+the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of the _half-cadence_ at the close
+of such a phrase.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. BACH]
+
+207. A _deceptive cadence_ is the progression of the dominant chord to
+some other chord than the tonic, the word _deceptive_ implying that the
+ear expects to hear V resolve to I and is deceived when it does not do
+so. The most common form of _deceptive cadence_ is that in which V (or
+V^7) resolves to VI. It is used to give variety, but as in the case of
+the half-cadence, is not available at the end of a composition. Fig. 71
+gives an example.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. WM. MATHER]
+
+208. A _sequence_ is a succession of similar harmonic progressions,
+these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part.
+See Fig. 72.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
+
+The word _sequence_ is also applied to a succession of similar melodic
+progressions, as in Fig. 73.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
+
+209. _Modulation_ is a change of key without any break in the continuity
+of chords or melody tones. _Harmonic modulations_ are usually effected
+through the medium of a chord, some or all of whose tones are common to
+both keys. Examples of both _harmonic_ and _melodic modulations_ are
+shown in Figs. 74 and 75.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
+
+The chord most frequently used in modulating is the _dominant seventh_,
+_i.e._, a seventh chord (see Sec. 201) on the dominant tone of the key.
+In the key of C this chord is G--B--D--F; in the key of D it is
+A--C[sharp]--E--G; in the key of A[flat] it is E[flat]--G--B[flat]--D[flat],
+etc.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.]
+
+210. A _suspension_ is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
+higher than the regular chord-tone, this temporary tone being later
+replaced by the regular chord-tone. See Fig. 76 (_a_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
+
+211. A _retardation_ is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
+lower than the regular tone, this tone (as in the case of the
+suspension) being later replaced by the regular chord tone. See Fig. 77
+(_a_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
+
+The "regular chord tone" to which both suspension and retardation
+resolve is called the _tone of resolution_.
+
+212. The _anticipation_ is a chord-tone introduced just before the rest
+of the chord to which it belongs is sounded. See Fig. 78 (_a_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.]
+
+213. A _pedal point_ (or _organ point_) is a tone sustained through a
+succession of harmonic progressions, to the chords of some of which it
+usually belongs. The term _pedal point_ originated in organ playing,
+(where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are
+playing a succession of harmonies), but as now used it may be applied to
+any kind of music. The dominant and tonic are the tones most often used
+in this way. See Fig. 79.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. SCHUMANN]
+
+214. When the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written
+close together (the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an
+octave apart), the term _close position_ is applied. But when the upper
+voices are not written close together, the term _open position_ is
+applied.
+
+215. By _transposition_ is meant playing, singing, or writing a piece of
+music in some other key than the original. Thus _e.g._, if a song
+written in the key of G is too high in range for a soloist, the
+accompanist sometimes _transposes_ it to a lower key (as F or E), thus
+causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when
+the same song was played in the original key.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+MISCELLANEOUS TERMS
+
+
+_A battuta_--with the beat; in strict rhythm. [Transcriber's Note:
+Corrected error "battua" in original.]
+
+_À quatre mains_--for four hands.
+
+_Accompagnamento_--the accompaniment.
+
+_All'unisono_--in unison.
+
+_Alla breve_--2/2 measure.
+
+     The term _alla breve_ is also sometimes used as a tempo
+     indication, to show a rate of speed so great that a half-note
+     has a beat, _i.e._, only two beats in a measure--hence twice as
+     fast as before.
+
+_Alla capella_--usually the same as a capella (see p. 76, Sec. 162) but
+sometimes _used_ in the same sense as _alla breve_.
+
+_Alla marcia_--in march style.
+
+_Alla zingara_--in gypsy style.
+
+_Alt_--see _in alt_.
+
+_Alto_--the lowest female voice. Range approximately g-e''.
+
+     The word _alto_ is derived from the Latin word _altus_, meaning
+     _high_, the term being formerly applied to the highest male
+     voice, which originally sang (and still does so in many male
+     choirs) the alto part.
+
+_Animato come sopra_--in animated style as above.
+
+_Antiphony_ (_antiphonal_)--the responsive singing of two choirs,
+usually one at either end of the church, or at either side of the
+chancel.
+
+_Arabesque_--an instrumental composition in light, somewhat fantastic
+style.
+
+     The term _arabesque_ is derived from the word _Arabian_, and
+     was originally applied to a style of decoration.
+
+_Arioso_--in the style of an air or song, _i.e._, a flowing, vocal
+style.
+
+_Attacca_--attack the next division without any pause.
+
+_Attacca subito_--same as _attacca_.
+
+_Attacca subito il seguente_--attack at once that which follows.
+[Transcriber's Note: In last 3 entries, corrected misspelling "attaca"
+in original.]
+
+_Attack_--the promptness or firmness with which a phrase is begun.
+
+_Bagpipe_--A Scotch instrument on which the tone is produced by a
+combination of bellows and reeds. Its characteristic effect is the
+continuous sounding of a low tone (sometimes several tones) while the
+melody is being played on the higher reeds.
+
+_Barcarole_ (or _barcarolle_)--a boat song. Also applied to a vocal or
+instrumental composition in the style of the gondolier's boat song.
+
+_Baritone_ (or _barytone_)--the male voice having a range between that
+of the tenor and that of the bass. Approximate range G-g'.
+
+_Bass_--the lowest male voice. Approximate range E-e'.
+
+_Basso_--same as _bass_.
+
+_Berceuse_--a cradle song.
+
+_Binary form_--a form in two parts.
+
+_Binary measure_--a measure having two beats.
+
+_Bis_--twice. Used to indicate a repetition. (Rare.)
+
+_Brace_--the sign used to join several staffs, showing that all tones
+represented on these staffs are to be performed together. The term is
+often used also in referring to the music written on staffs so joined;
+as--"Begin with the upper _brace_."
+
+_Broken chord_--a chord whose tones are not all sounded simultaneously,
+as _e.g._, in an accompaniment group.
+
+_Broken octave_--an octave whose tones are sounded one at a time instead
+of simultaneously.
+
+_Cacophony_--harsh, discordant, unpleasant, especially _incorrect_
+combinations of tones. The opposite of _euphony_.
+
+_Cadenza_--A brilliant passage, usually in an instrumental composition,
+introduced just before the close of a movement. The _cadenza_ was
+formerly improvised by the performer, (thus giving an opportunity of
+displaying his technical skill), but since Beethoven, composers have
+usually written their own _cadenzas_.
+
+_Cantabile_--in a singing style.
+
+_Cantando_--same as _cantabile_.
+
+_Canto_--the highest voice part; _i.e._, the soprano part.
+
+     Note the derivation of _canto_, _cantabile_, etc., from the
+     Latin word _cantus_, meaning a _song_.
+
+_Carol_--a hymn of joyful praise, usually sung in connection with Easter
+or Christmas festivities. The word _carol_ meant originally _a dance_,
+hence the _happy_ character of songs of this type.
+
+_Catch_--a round set to humorous words.
+
+_Chromatic_ (noun)--a term somewhat loosely applied to any tone not
+belonging to the key as indicated by the signature. Many teachers are
+replacing the word _chromatic_ in this sense with the term _intermediate
+tone_, this term being applicable whether the foreign tone is actually
+used for ornamental purposes as a _chromatic_, or to effect a
+modulation. Thus _e.g._, "F[sharp] is the _intermediate tone_ between F
+and G in the key of C."
+
+_Clavichord_--an instrument with keys, resembling the square piano in
+appearance. The tone was produced by forcing wedge-shaped pieces of
+metal against the strings, thus setting them in vibration. The
+_clavichord_ was one of the immediate predecessors of the piano, much of
+the music written by Bach being composed for it, although this music is
+now played on the modern piano.
+
+_Colla voce_--with the voice: _i.e._, play the accompaniment according
+to the soloist's performance rather than strictly according to the
+rhythm indicated in the score.
+
+_Colla parte_--same as _colla voce_.
+
+_Coloratura_--florid passages in singing. Also applied to the style of
+singing employed in rendering such passages. (See p. 76, Sec. 171.)
+
+_Consonance_--A combination of tones agreeable to the ear and requiring
+no resolution to other tone-combinations in order to give the effect of
+finality. The major triad C--E--G is an example of a consonant chord.
+
+_Contralto_--same as _alto_.
+
+_Con variazioni_--with variations.
+
+_Direct_--a sign ([direct symbol]) placed at the end of the last staff
+on a page, to indicate what the first note on the next page is going to
+be. This sign is now practically obsolete.
+
+_Dirge_--a funeral chant. The dirge is named from the first word of a
+chant used in the "office for the dead," which begins--_Dirige Domine,
+Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam_ (Direct, O Lord, My God, my way
+in Thy sight).
+
+_Discord_--an ugly, unharmonious combination of tones.
+
+_Dissonance_--a harmonic combination of tones giving rise to the feeling
+of incompleteness or unrest, and therefore requiring resolution to some
+other combination which has an agreeable or final feeling. (cf.
+consonance.) The diminished triad C--E[flat]--G[flat] is an example of a
+dissonant chord.
+
+_Divisi_--divided. An indication showing that the first violins, or the
+sopranos, or any other body of performers ordinarily sounding in unison
+are now to divide into two or more parts.
+
+_Duet_--a composition for two performers. (From the It. word
+_due_--two.)
+
+_École_--a school or style of composition or performance.
+
+_Etude_--a study. Also an instrumental composition in the style of a
+study, but intended for artistic performance.
+
+_Euphony_--agreeable tone combinations; the opposite of cacophony. (From
+the Greek word meaning _well-sounding_.)
+
+_Facile_--easy.
+
+_Fanfare_--a trumpet call.
+
+_Fantasia_--An instrumental composition not based on any regular form.
+
+_Fiasco_--a complete failure or breakdown.
+
+     This use of the word _fiasco_ (which means in Italian a flask,
+     or bottle) is said to have reference to the bursting of a
+     bottle, the complete ruin of the bottle being compared with
+     the complete failure of a performance.
+
+_Gamut_--all the tones of a scale.
+
+_Glissando_--playing a scale on the keyboard by drawing the finger along
+over the keys, thus depressing them in very rapid succession. The word
+is derived from the French word _glisser_--to glide.
+
+_Harpsichord_--one of the immediate predecessors of the piano.
+
+_Humoresque_--a capricious, fantastic composition. (Cf. _fantasia_.)
+
+_Idyl_--a short, romantic piece of music in simple and unaffected style.
+
+_In alt_--pitches in the first octave above the treble staff. Thus
+_e.g._, "C in alt" is the C represented by the second added line above
+the treble staff.
+
+_In altissimo_--pitches in the octave above the _alt_ octave.
+
+_Instrumentation_--see _orchestration_.
+
+_Interlude_--a short movement between two larger movements.
+
+_Loco_--place; _i.e._, play as written. (See p. 15, Sec. 46.)
+
+_Lunga trillo_--a long trill.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+MISCELLANEOUS TERMS (_Continued_)
+
+
+_Lyric_--a short, song-like poem of simple character. Also applied to
+instrumental pieces of like character.
+
+_Maggiore_--major.
+
+_Marcato il canto_--the melody well marked; _i.e._, subdue the
+accompaniment so that the melody may stand out strongly.
+
+_Melos_--melody. This word _melos_ is also applied to the peculiar style
+of vocal solo found in Wagner's music dramas. See _recitative_ (p. 75,
+Sec. 170).
+
+_Mellifluous_--pleasing; pleasant sounding.
+
+_Menuetto, menuet_--same as _minuet_. (See p. 68, Sec. 151.)
+
+_Mezzo soprano_--a woman's voice of soprano quality, but of somewhat
+lower compass than the soprano voice. Range approximately b to g''.
+
+_Minore_--minor.
+
+_Nocturne_ (sometimes spelled _nocturn_, _notturna_, _nokturne_,
+etc.)--a night piece; a quiet, melodious, somewhat sentimental
+composition, usually for piano solo.
+
+_Nuance_--delicate shading; subtle variations in tempo and dynamics
+which make the rendition of music more expressive.
+
+_Obbligato_ (sometimes incorrectly spelled _obligato_)--an accessory
+melody accompanying harmonized music, (usually vocal music).
+
+     The word _obbligato_ (It. _bound_, or _obliged_) refers to the
+     fact that this is usually a melody of independent value, so
+     important that it cannot be omitted in a complete performance.
+
+_Offertory_ (sometimes spelled _offertoire_, or _offertorium_)--a piece
+of music played or sung during the taking up of the offering in the
+church service. The word is often applied by composers to any short,
+simple piece of music (usually for organ) that is suitable for the above
+purpose.
+
+_Opus_--work; used by composers to designate the order in which their
+compositions were written, as _e.g._, Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 1.
+
+_Orchestration_--the art of writing for the orchestra, this implying an
+intimate knowledge of the range, quality, and possibilities of all the
+orchestral instruments.
+
+_Ossia_--or else; used most often to call the attention of the performer
+to a simpler passage that may be substituted for the original one by a
+player whose skill is not equal to the task he is attempting to perform.
+
+_Overture_--(from _overt_--open)--an instrumental prelude to an opera or
+oratorio. The older _overtures_ were independent compositions and bore
+no particular relation to the work which was to follow, but in modern
+music (cf. Wagner, Strauss, etc.), the _overture_ introduces the
+principal themes that are to occur in the work itself, and the
+introduction thus becomes an integral part of the work as a whole. The
+word _overture_ is sometimes applied to independent orchestral
+compositions that have no connection with vocal works, as the _Hebrides
+Overture_ by Mendelssohn.
+
+_Pizzicato_--plucked. A term found in music for stringed instruments,
+and indicating that for the moment the bow is not to be used, the tone
+being secured by _plucking_ the string.
+
+_Polacca_--a Polish dance in three-quarter measure.
+
+_Polonaise_--same as _polacca_.
+
+_Postlude_--(lit. after-play)--an organ composition to be played at the
+close of a church service.
+
+_Prelude_--(lit. before-play)--an instrumental composition to be played
+at the beginning of a church service, or before some larger work (opera,
+etc.). The term is also applied to independent piano compositions of
+somewhat indefinite form. (Cf. _preludes_ by Chopin, Rachmaninoff, etc.)
+
+_Prière_--a prayer; a term often applied (especially by French
+composers) to a quiet, devotional composition for organ.
+
+_Quintole, quintuplet_--a group of five notes to be performed in the
+time ordinarily given to four notes of the same value. There is only one
+accent in the group, this occurring of course on the first of the five
+tones.
+
+_Religioso, religiosamente_--in a devotional style.
+
+_Requiem_--the mass for the dead in the Roman Catholic service. It is so
+called from its first word _requiem_ which means _rest_. (See p. 77,
+Sec. 165.)
+
+_Rhapsody_--an irregular instrumental composition of the nature of an
+improvisation. A term first applied by Liszt to a series of piano pieces
+based on gypsy themes.
+
+_Ribattuta_--a device in instrumental music whereby a two-note phrase is
+gradually accelerated, even to the extent of becoming a trill. (See
+Appendix E, p. 150, for an example.) [Transcriber's Note: Corrected
+misspelling "Ribbatua" in original.]
+
+_Ritornello, ritornelle_--a short instrumental prelude, interlude, or
+postlude, in a vocal composition, as _e.g._, in an operatic aria or
+chorus.
+
+_Schottische_--a dance in two-quarter measure, something like the
+_polka_.
+
+_Sec, secco_--dry, unornamented: applied to a style of opera recitative
+(see p. 75, Sec. 170), and also to some particular chord in an
+instrumental composition which is to be sounded and almost instantly
+dropped.
+
+_Score_--a term used in two senses:
+
+     1. To designate some particular point to which teacher or
+     conductor wishes to call attention; as _e.g._, "Begin with the
+     _lower score_, third measure." The word _brace_ is also
+     frequently used in this sense.
+
+     2. To refer to all the parts of a composition that are to be
+     performed simultaneously, when they have been assembled on a
+     single page for use by a chorus or orchestral conductor. The
+     term _vocal score_ usually means all chorus parts together
+     with an accompaniment arranged for piano or organ, while the
+     terms _full score_ and _orchestral score_ refer to a complete
+     assemblage of _all parts_, each being printed on a separate
+     staff, but all staffs being braced and barred together.
+
+_Senza replica, senza repetizione_--without repetition; a term used in
+connection with such indications as _D.C._, _D.S._, etc., which often
+call for the repetition of some large division of a composition, the
+term _senza replica_ indicating that the smaller repeats included within
+the larger division are not to be observed the second time.
+[Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "senza repetitione" in
+original.]
+
+_Serenade, serenata_--an evening song.
+
+_Sextet_--a composition for six voices or instruments.
+
+_Sextuplet_--a group of six notes to be performed in the time ordinarily
+given to four of the same value. The sextuplet differs from a pair of
+_triplets_ in having but one accent.
+
+_Simile, similiter_--the same; indicating that the same general effect
+is to be continued.
+
+_Solfeggio, solfège_--a vocal exercise sung either on simple vowels or
+on arbitrary syllables containing these simple vowel sounds. Its purpose
+is to develop tone quality and flexibility. These terms are also often
+applied to classes in sight-singing which use the sol-fa syllables.
+
+_Sopra_--above.
+
+_Soprano_--the highest female voice. Range approximately b--c'''.
+
+_Sostenuto_--sustained or connected; the opposite of _staccato_.
+
+_Sotto_--under. _E.g._, _sotto voce_--under the voice, _i.e._, with
+subdued tone.
+
+_Solmization_--sight-singing by syllable.
+
+_Staccato_--detached; the opposite of _legato_.
+
+_Subito_--suddenly.
+
+_Tenor_--the highest male voice. Range approximately d--c''.
+
+_Tenuto_--(from _teneo_, to hold)--a direction signifying that the tones
+are to be prolonged to the full value indicated by the notes.
+
+_Toccata_--a brilliant composition for piano or organ, usually
+characterized by much rapid staccato playing.
+
+_Triplet_--a group of three tones, to be performed in the time
+ordinarily given to two of the same value. The first tone of the triplet
+is always slightly accented.
+
+_Tutti_--(derived from _totus_, _toti_, Latin--all)--a direction
+signifying that all performers are to take part. Also used occasionally
+to refer to a passage where all performers do take part.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+THE HISTORY OF MUSIC NOTATION
+
+
+Many conflicting statements have been made regarding the history and
+development of music writing, and the student who is seeking light on
+this subject is often at a loss to determine what actually did happen in
+the rise of our modern system of writing music. We have one writer for
+example asserting that staff notation was begun by drawing a single red
+line across the page, this line representing the pitch _f_ (fourth line,
+bass staff), the _neumae_ (the predecessors of our modern _notes_)
+standing either for this pitch _f_, or for a higher or lower pitch,
+according to their position _on_ the line, or _above_ or _below_ it.
+"Another line," continues this writer, "this time of yellow color, was
+soon added above the red one, and this line was to represent c' (middle
+C). Soon the colors of these lines were omitted and the _letters_ F and
+C were placed at the beginning of each of them. From this arose our F
+and C clefs, which preceded the G clef by some centuries."[37]
+
+[Footnote 37: Elson--Music Dictionary, article, "Notation."]
+
+Another writer[38] gives a somewhat different explanation, stating that
+the staff system with the use of clefs came about through writing a
+letter (C or F) in the margin of the manuscript and drawing a line from
+this letter to the neume which was to represent the tone for which this
+particular letter stood.
+
+[Footnote 38: Goddard--The Rise of Music, p. 177.]
+
+A third writer[39] asserts that because the alphabetical notation was
+not suitable for recording melodies because of its inconvenience in
+sight-singing "points were placed at definite distances above the words
+and above and below one another." "In this system ... everything
+depended on the accuracy with which the points were interspersed, and
+the scribes, as a guide to the eye, began to scratch a straight line
+across the page to indicate the position of one particular scale degree
+from which all the others could be shown by the relative distances of
+their points. But this was not found sufficiently definite and the
+scratched line was therefore colored red and a second line was added,
+colored yellow, indicating the interval of a fifth above the first."
+
+[Footnote 39: Williams in Grove's Dictionary, article, "Notation."]
+
+It will be noted that all three writers agree that a certain thing
+happened, but as in the case of the four Gospels in the New Testament,
+not all the writers agree on details and it is difficult to determine
+which account is most nearly accurate in detail as well as in general
+statement. Communication was much slower a thousand years ago than now
+and ideas about new methods of doing things did not spread rapidly,
+consequently it is entirely possible that various men or groups of men
+in various places worked out a system of notation differing somewhat in
+details of origin and development but alike in final result. The point
+is that the development of musical knowledge (rise of part-writing,
+increased interest in instrumental music, etc.), demanded a more exact
+system of notation than had previously existed, just as the development
+of science in the nineteenth century necessitated a more accurate
+scientific nomenclature, and in both cases the need gave rise to the
+result as we have it to-day.
+
+Out of the chaos of conflicting statements regarding the development of
+music notation, the student may glean an outline-knowledge of three
+fairly distinct periods or stages, each of these stages being intimately
+bound up with the development of _music_ itself in that period. These
+three stages are:
+
+     (1) The Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet
+     for representing fixed pitches.
+
+     (2) The period of the neumae.
+
+     (3) The period of staff notation.
+
+Of the Greek system little is known beyond the fact that the letters of
+the alphabet were used to represent pitches. This method was probably
+accurate enough, but it was cumbersome, and did not afford any means of
+writing "measured music" nor did it give the eye any opportunity of
+grasping the general outline of the melody in its progression upward and
+downward, as staff notation does. The Greek system seems to have been
+abandoned at some time preceding the fifth century. At any rate it was
+about this time that certain _accent marks_ began to be written above
+the text of the Latin hymns of the church, these marks serving to
+indicate in a general way the progress of the melody. E.g., an upward
+stroke of the pen indicated a rise of the melody, a downward stroke a
+fall, etc. In the course of two or three centuries these marks were
+added to and modified quite considerably, and the system of notation
+which thus grew up was called "neume notation," the word _neume_
+(sometimes spelled _neuma_, or _pneuma_) being of Greek origin and
+meaning a _nod_ or _sign_.
+
+This system of neumes was in some ways a retrogression from the Greek
+letter system, for the neumes indicated neither definite pitches nor
+definite tone-lengths. But it had this advantage over the Greek system,
+that the position of the signs on the page indicated graphically to the
+eye the general direction of the melody, as well as giving at least a
+hint concerning the relative highness or lowness of each individual tone
+(the so-called _diastematic system_), and this was a great aid to the
+eye in singing, just as the relative highness and lowness of notes on
+the modern staff is of great value in reading music at the present time.
+Thus although the neumae did not enable one to sing a new melody at
+sight as our modern staff notation does, yet they served very well to
+recall to the eye the general outline of a melody previously learned by
+ear and therefore enabled the singer (the system was used for vocal
+music only) to differentiate between that particular melody and the
+dozens of others which he probably knew. Neume notation was used mostly
+in connection with the "plain-song melodies" of the Church, and since
+the words of these chants were sung as they would be pronounced in
+reading, the deficiency of the neume system in not expressing definite
+duration values was not felt. But later on with the rise of so-called
+"measured music" (cf. invention of opera, development of independent
+instrumental music, etc.), this lack was seen to be one of the chief
+disadvantages of the system.
+
+The elements of neume-writing as given by Riemann in his Dictionary of
+Music are:
+
+"(1) The signs for a single note: Virga (Virgula) and Punctus (Punctum).
+(2) The sign for a rising interval: Pes (Podatus). (3) The sign for a
+falling interval: Clinis (Flexa). (4) Some signs for special manners of
+performance: Tremula (Bebung), Quilisma (shake), Plica (turn), etc. The
+others were either synonyms of the above-named or combinations of
+them...."
+
+Since music in the middle ages was always copied by hand, it will
+readily be understood that these neumae were not uniform either in shape
+or size, and that each writer made use of certain peculiarities of
+writing, which, although perfectly intelligible to himself, could not
+readily be interpreted by others (cf. writing shorthand). Here then we
+observe the greatest weakness of the neume system--its lack of
+uniformity and its consequent inability accurately to express musical
+ideas for universal interpretation.
+
+     Examples of several neumes are given merely in order to give
+     the beginner a general idea of their appearance.
+
+     Virga [virga symbol] or [virga symbol]. Punctus [punctus
+     symbol] or [punctus symbol]. Pes [pes symbol] or [pes symbol].
+     Clinis [clinis symbol] or [clinis symbol].
+
+As music grew more and more complex, and especially as writing in
+several parts came into use (cf. rise of organum, descant, and
+counterpoint), it became increasingly difficult to express musical ideas
+on the basis of the old notation, and numerous attempts were made to
+invent a more accurate and usable system. Among these one of the most
+interesting was that in which the words of the text were written in the
+spaces between long, parallel lines, placing the initial letters of the
+words _tone_ and _semi-tone_ at the beginning of the line to indicate
+the scale interval. An example will make this clear.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This indicated the precise melodic interval but did not give any idea of
+the rhythm, and the natural accents of the text were the only guide the
+singer had in this direction, as was the case in neume-notation and in
+early staff-notation also. Various other attempts to invent a more
+definite notation were made, but all were sporadic, and it was not until
+the idea of using the lines (later lines and spaces) to represent
+definite pitches, and writing notes of various shapes (derived from the
+neumae) to indicate relative duration-values--it was only when this
+combination of two elements was devised that any one system began to be
+universally used.
+
+Just how the transition from _neume_ to _staff_ notation was made no one
+knows: it was not done in a day nor in a year but was the result of a
+gradual process of evolution and improvement. Nor is it probable that
+any one man deserves the entire credit for the invention of staff
+notation, although this feat is commonly attributed to an Italian monk
+named Guido d'Arezzo (approximate dates 995-1050). To this same monk we
+are indebted, however, for the invention of the syllables (UT, RE, MI,
+etc.) which (in a somewhat modified form) are so widely used for
+sight-singing purposes. (For a more detailed account of the transition
+to staff notation, see Grove, op. cit. article _notation_.) It will now
+be readily seen that our modern notation is the result of a combination
+of two preceding methods (the Greek letters, and the neumes) together
+with a new element--the staff, emphasizing the idea that _higher tones_
+are written _higher_ on the staff than lower ones. The development of
+the neumes into notes of various shapes indicating relative time values
+and the division of the staff into measures with a definite measure
+signature at the beginning are natural developments of the earlier
+primitive idea. In the system of "musica mensurabilis" or _measured
+music_ which was inaugurated a little later, the _virga_ (which had
+meanwhile developed into a square-headed neume) was adopted as the
+_longa_ or long note, and the punctus in two of its forms as _breve_ and
+_semi-breve_ (short and half-short). The longa is now extinct, but the
+modern form of the breve is still used as the double-whole-note, and the
+semi-breve is our modern whole-note.
+
+Red-colored notes were sometimes used to indicate changes in value and
+before long outline notes (called _empty notes_) came into use, these
+being easier to make than the solid ones. The transition from square-
+and diamond-shaped notes to round and oval ones also came about because
+of the greater facility with which the latter could be written, and for
+the same reason notes of small denomination were later "tied together"
+or _stroked_. This latter usage began about 1700 A.D.
+
+It is interesting to find that when "measured music" was finally
+inaugurated there were at first but two measure-signatures, viz.--the
+circle, standing for three-beat measure (the so-called _perfect
+measure_) and the semi-circle (or broken circle) which indicated
+two-beat measure. Occasionally three-beat measure was indicated by three
+vertical strokes at the beginning of the melody, while two-beat measure
+was shown by two such strokes. Upon the basis of these two varieties of
+measure, primitive in conception though they may have been, has been
+built nevertheless the whole system now employed, and in the last
+analysis all forms of measure now in use will be found to be of either
+the two-beat or the three-beat variety. The circle has disappeared
+entirely as a measure-sign, but the broken circle still survives, and
+from it are derived the familiar signs [common-time symbol] and
+[cut-time symbol], which are sometimes erroneously referred to as being
+the initial letter of our word _common_ (as used in the expression
+"common time"). The transition from the older style of measure-signature
+to the present one seems to have occurred during the century following
+the invention of opera, _i.e._, from about 1600 to about 1700 A.D.
+
+The rest came into use very soon after "measured music" began to be
+composed and we soon find rests corresponding with the various
+denominations of notes in use, viz.:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The terms applied to these rests vary in different authorities, but it
+will be noted that the _pausa_, _semi-pausa_, and _suspirum_ correspond
+respectively to the double-whole-rest, whole-rest, and half-rest in use
+at present.
+
+The bar and double bar may be developments of the _maxima rest_ (as some
+writers suggest) but are probably also derived from the practice of
+drawing a line vertically through the various parts of a score to show
+which notes belonged together, thus facilitating score reading. The bar
+may occasionally be found as early as 1500, but was not employed
+universally until 1650 or later.
+
+The number of lines used in the staff has varied greatly since the time
+of Guido, there having been all the way from four to fifteen at various
+times and in various places, (_four_ being the standard number for a
+long time). These lines (when there were quite a number in the staff)
+were often divided into _groups of four_ by _red_ lines, which were not
+themselves used for notes. These red lines were gradually omitted and
+the staff divided into sections by a space, as in modern usage. The
+number of lines in each section was changed to five (in some cases six)
+for the sake of having a larger available range in each section.
+
+The clefs at the beginning of the staffs are of course simply altered
+forms of the letters F, C, and G, which were written at first by Guido
+and others to make the old neume notation more definite.
+
+The staccato sign seems not to have appeared until about the time of
+Bach, the legato sign being also invented at about the same time. The
+fermata was first used in imitative part-writing to show where each part
+was to stop, but with the development of harmonic writing the present
+practice was inaugurated. Leger lines came into use in the seventeenth
+century.
+
+Sharps and flats were invented because composers found it necessary to
+use other tones than those that could be represented by the staff
+degrees in their natural condition. The history of their origin and
+development is somewhat complicated and cannot be given here, but it
+should be noted once more that it was the need of expressing more than
+could be expressed by the older symbols that called forth the newer and
+more comprehensive method. The use of sharps and flats in key signatures
+grew up early in the seventeenth century. In the earlier signatures it
+was customary to duplicate sharps or flats on staff degrees having the
+same pitch-name, thus: [Illustration] [Illustration]. (The use of the G
+clef as here shown did not of course exist at that time.)
+
+The double-sharp and double-flat became necessary when "equal
+temperament" (making possible the use of the complete cycle of keys) was
+adopted. This was in the time of Bach (1685-1750).
+
+Signs of expression (relating to tempo and dynamics) date back at least
+as far as the year 1000 A.D., but the modern terms used for this purpose
+did not appear until some years after the invention of opera, the date
+given by C.F.A. Williams in Grove's Dictionary being 1638. These words
+and signs of expression were at first used only in connection with
+instrumental music, but were gradually applied to vocal music also.
+
+Other systems of notation have been invented from time to time in the
+course of the last two or three centuries, but in most cases they have
+died with their inventors, and in no case has any such system been
+accepted with anything even approaching unanimity. The tonic-sol-fa
+system[40] is used quite extensively in England for vocal music, but
+has gained little ground anywhere else and the chances are that the
+present system of notation, with possibly slight additions and
+modifications, will remain the standard notation for some time to come
+in spite of the attacks that are periodically made upon it on the ground
+of cumbersomeness, difficulty in teaching children, etc. The main
+characteristics of staff notation may be summed up as follows:
+
+[Footnote 40: The _tonic-sol-fa system_ represents an attempt to invent
+a simpler notation to be used by beginners, (especially in the lower
+grades of the public schools) and by singers in choral societies who
+have never learned to interpret staff notation and who therefore find
+some simpler scheme of notation necessary if they are to read music at
+all.
+
+In this system the syllables _do_, _re_, _mi_, etc., (in phonetic
+spelling) are used, the tone being arrived at in each case, first by
+means of a firmly established sense of tonality, and second by
+associating each diatonic tone with some universally felt emotional
+feeling: thus _do_ is referred to as the _strong_ tone, _mi_ as the
+_calm_ one, and _la_ as the _sad_ tone, great emphasis being placed upon
+_do_ as the center of the major tonality, and upon _la_ as the center of
+the minor. The system is thus seen to have one advantage over staff
+notation, viz.: that in presenting it _the teacher is compelled to begin
+with a presentation of actual tones_, while in many cases the teacher of
+staff notation begins by presenting facts regarding the staff and other
+symbols before the pupil knows anything about tone and rhythm as such.
+
+The symbol for each diatonic tone is the initial letter of the syllable
+(_i.e._, d for _do_, r for _re_, etc.), the key being indicated by a
+letter at the beginning of the composition. The duration-value of tones
+is indicated by a system of bars, dots, and spaces, the bar being used
+to indicate the strongest pulse of each measure (as in staff notation)
+the beats being shown by the mark: a dash indicating the continuation of
+the same tone through another beat. If a beat has two tones this is
+indicated by writing the two initial letters representing them with a .
+between them. A modulation is indicated by giving the new key letter and
+by printing the syllable-initials from the standpoint of both the old
+and the new _do_-position. The figure ' above and to the right of the
+letter indicates the tone in the octave above, while the same figure
+below and to the right indicates the octave below. A blank space
+indicates a rest. The tune of My Country, 'Tis of Thee, as printed in
+tonic sol-fa notation below will make these points clear.
+
+Key F
+
+|d  :d :r |t_1 :-.d :r  |m :m :f |m :-.r :d |r :d   :t_1 |d :--  :-- |
+|s  :s :s |s   :-.f :m  |f :f :f |f :-.m :r |m :f.m :r.d |m :-.f :s  |
+|l.f:m :r |d   :--  :-- |
+
+The advantages of the system are (1) the strong sense of key-feeling
+aroused and the ease with which modulations are felt; and (2) the fact
+that it is necessary to learn to sing in but one key, thus making
+sight-singing a much simpler matter, and transposition the easiest
+process imaginable. But these are advantages from the standpoint of the
+vocalist (producing but one tone at a time) only, and do not apply to
+instrumental music. The scheme will therefore probably be always
+restricted to vocal music and will hardly come into very extensive use
+even in this field, for the teacher of music is finding it perfectly
+possible to improve methods of presentation to such an extent that
+learning to sing from the staff becomes a very simple matter even to the
+young child. And even though this were not true, the tonic-sol-fa will
+always be hampered by the fact that since all letters are printed in a
+straight horizontal line the ear does not have the assistance of the eye
+in appreciating the rise and fall of melody, as is the case in staff
+notation.]
+
+     1. Pitches represented by lines and spaces of a staff, the
+     higher the line, the higher the pitch represented, signs
+     called clefs at the beginning of each staff making clear the
+     pitch names of the lines and spaces.
+
+     2. Duration values shown by _shapes_ of notes.
+
+     3. Accents shown by position of notes on the staff with regard
+     to bars, _i.e._, the strongest accent always falls just after
+     the bar, and the beat relatively least accented is found just
+     before the bar.
+
+     4. Extent and description of beat-groups shown by
+     measure-signs.
+
+     5. Key shown by key signature placed at the beginning of each
+     staff.
+
+     6. Rate of speed, dynamic changes, etc., shown by certain
+     Italian words (_allegro_, _andante_, etc.), whose meaning is
+     as universally understood as staff notation itself.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
+
+
+1. Broadly speaking, musical instruments may be divided into two
+classes, viz.: (1) those that have a keyboard and are therefore capable
+of sounding several tones simultaneously; (2) those that (as a rule)
+sound only one tone at a time, as the violin and trumpet. The piano is
+of course the most familiar example of the first class, and a brief
+description is therefore given.
+
+     The _piano_ was invented about two hundred years ago by
+     Cristofori (1651-1731), an Italian. It was an enormous
+     improvement over the types of keyboard instrument that were in
+     use at that time (clavichord, harpsichord, spinet, virginal)
+     and has resulted in an entirely different style of
+     composition. See note on embellishments, p. 26.
+
+2. The most characteristic things about the _piano_ as contrasted with
+its immediate predecessors are: (1) that on it the loudness and softness
+of the tone can be regulated by the force with which the keys are struck
+(hence the name _pianoforte_ meaning literally the _soft-loud_); (2) the
+fact that the piano is capable of sustaining tone to a much greater
+extent than its predecessors. In other words the tone continues sounding
+for some little time after the key is struck, while on the earlier
+instruments it stopped almost instantly after being sounded.
+
+The essentials of the piano mechanism are:
+
+     1. Felt hammers controlled by keys, each hammer striking two
+     or three strings (which are tuned in unison) and immediately
+     rebounding from these strings, allowing them to vibrate as
+     long as the key is held down. The mechanism that allows the
+     hammers to rebound from the strings and fall into position for
+     another blow is called the _escapement_.
+
+     2. A damper (made of softer felt) pressing against each string
+     and preventing it from vibrating until it is wanted.
+
+     3. A keyboard action that controls both hammers and dampers,
+     causing the damper to leave the string at the same instant
+     that the hammer strikes it.
+
+     4. A pedal (damper pedal) controlling all of the dampers, so
+     that at any moment all the strings may be released so as to be
+     free to vibrate.
+
+Other interesting details are:
+
+     1. The strings are stretched over a thin sheet of wood called
+     the sound-board. This aids greatly in intensifying the tone.
+
+     2. The soft pedal (the one at the left) in an _upright piano_
+     causes the hammers to move up nearer the strings, and the
+     shorter swing thus afforded causes a less violent blow and
+     consequently a softer tone. In the _grand piano_ this same
+     pedal shifts the mechanism to one side so that the hammers
+     strike only one or two of the strings, this resulting in a
+     softer tone of somewhat modified quality.
+
+These details regarding the mechanism of the piano can easily be
+verified by removing the front of any ordinary upright piano and
+observing what takes place when the keys are struck or the pedals
+depressed.
+
+3. There are two familiar types of _organ_ in use at the present time,
+(1) the reed organ, (2) the pipe-organ.
+
+The _reed organ_ is very simple in construction, the tone being produced
+by the vibration of metal reeds (fixed in little cells), through which
+air is forced (or sucked) from the bellows, the latter being usually
+worked by the feet of the player. More power may be secured either by
+drawing additional stops, thus throwing on more sets of reeds, or by
+opening the knee swells which either throw on more reeds (sometimes
+octave couplers) or else open a _swell box_ in which some of the reeds
+are enclosed, the tone being louder when the box is open than when
+closed. More tone may also be secured by pumping harder.
+
+4. The essential characteristic of the _pipe-organ_ is a number of sets
+or registers of pipes called _stops_, each set being capable (usually)
+of sounding the entire chromatic scale through a range of five or six
+octaves. Thus for example when the stop _melodia_ is drawn (by pulling
+out a stop-knob or tilting a tablet), one set of pipes only, sounds when
+the keyboard is played on: but if the stop _flute_ is drawn with
+_melodia_, two pipes speak every time a key is depressed. Thus if an
+organ has forty _speaking stops_, all running through the entire
+keyboard, then each time one key is depressed forty pipes will speak,
+and if a chord of five tones is played, two hundred pipes will speak.
+The object of having so many pipes is not merely to make possible a very
+powerful tone, but, rather, to give greater variety of tone-color.
+
+The pipe-organ usually has a pedal keyboard on which the feet of the
+performer play a bass part, this part often sounding an octave (or more)
+lower than the notes indicate.
+
+An _eight-foot stop_ on the organ produces tones of the same pitches as
+the piano when corresponding keys are struck: A _four-foot stop_ sounds
+tones an octave higher and a _two-foot stop_ tones two octaves higher. A
+_sixteen-foot stop_ sounds tones an octave lower than the piano, and a
+_thirty-two foot_ stop, tones two octaves lower, while some organs have
+also a _sixty-four foot_ stop which sounds three octaves lower. This
+gives the organ an exceedingly wide range, its compass being greater
+than that of any other single instrument, and comparable in both range
+of pitches and variety of color only with the modern orchestra.
+
+Modern pipe-organs always have a number of _combination pedals_ or
+_pistons_ (usually both), by means of which the organist is enabled to
+throw on a number of stops with one movement. The selection and use of
+suitable stops, couplers, combinations, etc., is called _registration_.
+
+5. The instruments mentioned at the beginning of this appendix as
+belonging to the second class are more familiar in connection with
+ensemble playing, being commonly associated with either band or
+orchestra.
+
+6. A _band_ is a company of musicians all of whom play upon either wind
+or percussion instruments, the main body of tone being produced by the
+brass and wood-wind divisions.
+
+     Sousa's band is usually made up in somewhat the following
+     manner: 4 flutes and piccolos, 12 B[flat] clarinets, 1 E[flat]
+     clarinet, 1 alto clarinet, 1 bass clarinet, 2 oboes, 2
+     bassoons, 2 sarrusophones, 4 saxophones, 4 cornets, 2
+     trumpets, 1 soprano saxhorn (fluegelhorn), 4 French horns, 4
+     trombones, 2 contra-bass tubas, 4 tubas, 1 snare drum, 1 bass
+     drum, 2 kettle drums, cymbals, triangle, bells, castanets,
+     xylophone, etc.
+
+7. An _orchestra_ is a company of musicians performing upon stringed
+instruments as well as upon wind and percussion. It is differentiated
+from the band by the fact that the main body of tone is produced by the
+strings.
+
+There are _four classes of instruments_ in the orchestra, viz.,
+_strings_, _wood-wind_, _brass_ (_wind_) and _percussion_. In addition
+to these four classes, there is the _harp_, which although a stringed
+instrument, does not belong in the same group as the other strings
+because the manner of producing the tone is altogether different.
+
+8. In the first group (the _strings_) are found the first and second
+violins, viola, violoncello (usually spelled _cello_), and double-bass.
+The first and second violins are identical in every way (but play
+different parts), while the other members of the family merely represent
+larger examples of the same type of instrument.
+
+9. In the second group (the _wood-wind_) are found the flute, piccolo,
+oboe, bassoon, English horn, double-bassoon, clarinet, and bass
+clarinet. The English horn, double-bassoon, bass clarinet, and piccolo
+are not called for in the older compositions, hence are not always
+present in the orchestra.
+
+10. In the third group (the _brass choir_) are found the French horn,
+(usually referred to as _the horn_), trumpet (sometimes replaced by the
+cornet) trombone, and tuba.
+
+11. The fourth group (_percussion_) consists of kettle drums, bass drum,
+cymbals, snare drum, triangle, bells, etc.
+
+12. In an orchestra of about 100 players the proportion of instruments
+is as about as follows, although it varies somewhat according to the
+taste of the conductor, the style of composition to be performed, etc.:
+
+18 first violins, 16 second violins, 14 violas, 12 cellos, 10 basses, 1
+harp, 3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 3 oboes, 1 English horn, 3 clarinets, 1 bass
+clarinet, 3 bassoons, 1 contra (or double) bassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets,
+3 trombones, 1 tuba, 3 kettle drums, 1 bass drum, 1 snare drum, 1 each
+of triangle, cymbals, bells, and other instruments of percussion,
+several of which are often manipulated by one performer.
+
+13. The cuts and brief descriptions here added will give at least a
+rudimentary idea of the appearance and possibilities of the instruments
+most commonly used in bands and orchestras. For fuller descriptions and
+particulars regarding range, quality, etc., the student is referred to
+Mason's "The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do," Lavignac's "Music
+and Musicians," and to the various articles which describe each
+instrument under its own name in Grove's Dictionary or in any good
+encyclopaedia. For still fuller details some work on orchestration will
+have to be consulted.
+
+14. The _violin_ has four strings, tuned thus [Illustration: g d' a'
+e''], these making available a range of about three and one-half octaves
+(g--c''''). This range[41] may be extended upward somewhat further by
+means of _harmonics_, these being produced by lightly touching the
+string at certain points (while the bow is moving across it) instead of
+holding it down against the finger-board. The highest string of the
+_violin_ (viola and cello also) is often called the _chanterelle_
+because it is most often used for playing the melody. The _violin_
+ordinarily produces but one tone at a time, but by _stopping_ two
+strings simultaneously and so drawing the bow as to set both in
+vibration, two tones may be produced at the same time, while three and
+four tones can be sounded _almost_ simultaneously.
+
+[Footnote 41: The ranges noted in connection with these descriptions of
+instruments are ordinarily the _practical orchestral or band_ ranges
+rather than those which are possible in solo performance.]
+
+[Illustration: VIOLIN. Length, 23-1/2 inches. Length of bow, 29-1/2
+inches.]
+
+The _mute_ (or _sordino_) is a small clamp made of metal, wood, or
+ivory, which when clipped to the top of the bridge causes the vibrations
+to be transmitted less freely to the body of the violin, giving rise to
+a tone modified in quality, and decreased in power.
+
+For certain special effects the player is directed to pluck the string
+(_pizzicato_), this method of playing giving rise to a dry, detached
+tone instead of the smooth, flowing one that is so characteristic of the
+_violin_ as commonly played.
+
+_Violins_ in the orchestra are divided into firsts and seconds, the
+_first violins_ being always seated at the left of the audience and the
+_seconds_ at the right.
+
+[Illustration: VIOLA. Length, 26 in. Length of bow, 28.]
+
+15. The _viola_ has four strings, also tuned in fifths, thus
+[Illustration: c g d' a']. The _viola_ looks exactly like the violin at
+a little distance, and is really only a larger sized violin, having a
+range a fifth lower. Its tone is not so incisive as that of the violin,
+being rather heavier--"more gloomy," as it is often described. The
+_viola_ is not so useful as the violin as a solo instrument because it
+is not capable of producing so many varieties of color, nevertheless it
+is invaluable for certain effects. In orchestral music it is of course
+one of the most valuable instruments for filling in the harmony. The
+_viola_ players are usually seated behind the second violin players in
+the orchestra.
+
+[Illustration: VIOLONCELLO. Length, 3 ft. 10 in. Length of bow, 28 in.]
+
+16. The _violoncello_ or _cello_ (sometimes called _bass viol_) has four
+strings, tuned thus: [Illustration: C G d a]. Its range is about three
+and one-half octaves (from C to e'' or f''), but in solo work this range
+is sometimes extended much higher. The _cello_ is much more universally
+used as a solo instrument than the viola and its tone is capable of a
+much greater degree of variation. In the orchestra it plays the bass of
+the string quartet (reinforced by the double-bass), but is also often
+used for solo passages. _Con sordino_ and _pizzicato_ passages occur as
+often for the _cello_ as for the violin.
+
+17. The _double bass_ differs from the other members of the string
+family in that it is tuned in _fourths_ instead of in _fifths_. Its four
+strings are tuned as follows [Illustration: EE AA D G] the entire range
+of the instrument being from EE to a. In music written for double-bass
+the notes are always printed an octave higher than the tones are to
+sound: that is, when the bass-player sees the note [Illustration: c] he
+plays [Illustration: C] this being done to avoid leger lines. The tone
+of the _bass_ is much heavier and the instrument itself is much more
+clumsy to handle than the other members of the group, hence it is almost
+never used as a solo instrument but it is invaluable for reinforcing the
+bass part in orchestral music. The mute is rarely used on the
+_double-bass_, but the _pizzicato_ effect is very common and the bass
+pizzicato tone is much fuller and richer than that of any other stringed
+instrument.
+
+[Illustration: DOUBLE-BASS. Length, 6 ft. 6 in. Length of bow, 23-1/2
+in.]
+
+18. The _flute_ has a range of three octaves. [Illustration: c' c'''']
+It is used in both solo and orchestral playing as well as in bands. The
+flute was formerly always made of wood, but is at present often made of
+metal.
+
+19. The _piccolo_ is a flute playing an octave higher than the one
+described above. The notes are printed as for the flute, but the player
+understands that the tone is to sound an octave higher. The _piccolo_ is
+used widely in band music and quite often in orchestral music also, but
+since the tone is so brilliant and penetrating and is incapable of any
+great variation, it is not suitable for solo performance.
+
+[Illustration: OBOE. (hautboy.) Length, 24-1/2 in. Range b e'''.
+
+CONTRA BASSOON. (Double bassoon.) Length 6 ft. Range about an octave
+lower than bassoon, but not all tones in this range are practicable.
+
+ENGLISH HORN. (Cor. Anglais.) Length, 2 ft. 11-1/2 in. Range e a''.
+
+PICCOLO. Length, 13 in. (Note that this is approximately half the length
+of the flute.)
+
+FLUTE. Length, 26-1/2 in.
+
+BASSOON. (fagotto.) Length, 4 ft. 3-1/2 in. Range BB-flat b-flat'.]
+
+20. The next four instruments to be described (_oboe_, _bassoon_,
+_English horn_, and _contra bassoon_) are often referred to as the _oboe
+family_ since the principle of tone production and general manipulation
+is the same in all four. The tone in these instruments is produced by
+the vibration of two very thin pieces of cane, which are called together
+a _double-reed_.
+
+The _oboe_ is especially valuable in the orchestra as a solo instrument,
+and its thin, nasal tones are suggestive of rustic, pastoral simplicity,
+both _oboe_ and _English horn_ being often used by orchestral composers
+in passages intended to express the idea of rural out-of-door life. The
+_English horn_ is also often used in passages where the idea of
+melancholy and suffering is to be conveyed to the audience. In a
+military band the oboe corresponds to the first violin of the orchestra.
+
+The _bassoon_ and _contra-bassoon_ are used mostly to provide a bass
+part for the harmony of the wood-wind group, but they are also sometimes
+employed (especially the _bassoon_) to depict comic or grotesque
+effects.
+
+[Illustration: BASS CLARINET. Length, 3 ft. 3 in. Range D to b-flat']
+
+[Illustration: CLARINET. Length 28 in.]
+
+21. The next two types of instruments to be described (_clarinet_ and
+_saxophone_) are alike in that the tone is produced by the vibration of
+a _single_ strip of cane (called _single reed_) which is held against
+the lower lip of the player. The _clarinet_ and _bass clarinet_ are made
+of wood and are used in both bands and orchestras, but the _saxophone_
+is usually made of metal, and, the tone being more strident and
+penetrating, the instrument is ordinarily used only in combination with
+other wind instruments, _i.e._, in bands.
+
+Since the fingering of the _clarinet_ is excessively difficult the
+performer can play in only certain keys on the same instrument, hence to
+play in different keys _clarinets_ in several keys must be provided,
+there being usually three in all. The music is written as though it were
+to be played in the key of C, but the tones produced are actually in
+other keys. For this reason the _clarinet_ is called a _transposing
+instrument_. The range of the _clarinet_ is the greatest possessed by
+any of the wind instruments, that of the clarinet in C being from
+[Illustration: e] to [Illustration: g'''].
+
+[Illustration: SAXOPHONES.
+
+SOPRANO. ALTO. Length, 15-3/4 in.
+
+TENOR. Length, 2 ft. 7-1/2 in.
+
+BASS. Length, 3 ft. 9 in.
+
+Combined range AA to g-flat''']
+
+[Illustration: SARRUSOPHONE.]
+
+The _sarrusophone_ is an instrument with a double-reed. It is made of
+brass and exists in several sizes, the only one ever used in the
+orchestra being the double-bass _sarrusophone_, which has approximately
+the same range as the double-bassoon and is sometimes (but rarely) made
+use of in the orchestra instead of the latter instrument. The tone of
+the _sarrusophone_ is something like that of the bassoon.
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH HORN. Length, 22-3/4 in.]
+
+22. The _French horn_ (often called _valve horn_ or simply _horn_)
+really consists of a long tube (about 16 feet) which is bent into
+circular form for convenience in handling. Its range is from
+[Illustration: BB] to [Illustration: f'']. In the orchestra _French
+horns_ are used in pairs, two of the players taking the higher tones,
+and two the lower. The tone is intensely mellow but incapable of any
+extensive variation, but in spite of this lack of variety the tone
+itself is so wonderfully beautiful that the instrument is one of the
+most useful in the orchestra both in solo passages and to fill in the
+harmony. The _horn_ (as well as the trumpet and trombone) differs from
+most of the wood-wind instruments in that its mouthpiece contains no
+reed, the lips of the player constituting the vibrating body as they are
+stretched across the mouthpiece and air is forced against them. The
+_horn_ is used in bands as well as in orchestras.
+
+[Illustration: TRUMPET. Length, 22-1/2 in.]
+
+23. The range of the _trumpet_ is [Illustration: g b''], the typical
+tone being brilliant and ringing. It is used in both band and orchestra,
+playing the highest parts assigned to the brass choir. The _trumpet_ is
+often replaced in both band and orchestra by its less refined cousin the
+_cornet_ because of the ease with which the latter can be played as
+compared with the trumpet, and the larger number of players that are
+available in consequence of this ease of execution.
+
+24. The _cornet_ looks something like the trumpet, but is not so slim
+and graceful in appearance. Its tube is only four and one-half feet
+long, as compared with a length of about eight feet in the trumpet, and
+sixteen feet in the French horn.
+
+The range of the _cornet_ in B[flat] is from [Illustration: e] to
+[Illustration: b-flat'']. The tone is somewhat commonplace as compared
+with the trumpet, but because of its great agility in the rendition of
+trills, repeated tones, etc., it is universally used in all sorts of
+combinations, even (as noted above) taking the place of the trumpet in
+many small orchestras.
+
+[Illustration: CORNET. Length, 13-3/4 in.]
+
+[Illustration: SLIDE TROMBONE. Length, 3 ft. 9 in. Range of tenor
+trombone (the size ordinarily used) E to b-flat']
+
+25. The pitch sounded by the _trombone_ is altered by lengthening or
+shortening the tube of which the instrument is constructed, this being
+possible because the lower part slides into the upper and can be pulled
+out to increase the total length of the tube through which the air
+passes. There are usually three _trombones_ in the orchestra, each
+playing a separate part, and the combination of this trio (with the
+_tuba_ reinforcing the bass part) is majestic and thrilling, being
+powerful enough to dominate the entire orchestra in _Fortissimo_
+passages. But the _trombones_ are useful in soft passages also, and
+their tone when playing pianissimo is rich, serene, and sonorous.
+
+26. The _bass tuba_ is a member of the saxhorn family[42] and supplies
+the lowest part of the brass choir, as the double-bass does in the
+string choir. It is used in both orchestra and band, being often
+supported in the larger bands by a still lower-toned member of the same
+family--the _contra-bass tuba_. The range of the _tuba_ is from
+[Illustration: GG] to [Illustration: g'].
+
+[Footnote 42: The _saxhorn_ was invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a
+Frenchman. The _saxophone_ is the invention of the same man.]
+
+[Illustration: BASS TUBA. Length, 3 ft. 3 in.]
+
+[Illustration: BASS DRUM. Diameter about 2-1/2 ft.]
+
+[Illustration: CYMBALS. Diameter, 13-1/4 in.]
+
+27. The _kettle-drum_ is the most important member of the percussion
+family and is always used either in pairs or in threes. The size of
+these instruments varies somewhat with the make, but when two drums are
+used the diameter is approximately that given under the illustration.
+The range of a pair of _drums_ is _one octave_ [Illustration: F f] and
+when but two drums are used the larger one takes the tones from F to
+about C of this range, and the smaller takes those from about B[flat]
+to F. The most common usage is to tune one drum to the _tonic_, and the
+other to _the dominant_ of the key in which the composition is written.
+The pitch of the _kettle-drum_ can be varied by increasing or lessening
+the tension of the head by means of thumb-screws which act on a metal
+ring.
+
+[Illustration: KETTLE-DRUMS. Diameter of Head, 24-1/2 in. and 27-1/2
+in.]
+
+The other important members of the percussion family are shown on this
+and the following page, their use being so obvious as to require no
+detailed explanation.
+
+[Illustration: TAMBOURINE. Diameter, 10 to 12 in.]
+
+[Illustration: BELLS. (Fr. carillon; Ger. Glockenspiel.)]
+
+[Illustration: SIDE DRUM. Diameter, about 15-1/2 in.]
+
+[Illustration: TRIANGLE. Height, about 8 in.]
+
+28. The _harp_ is one of the oldest of instruments (dating back over
+6000 years), but it is only in comparatively recent years that it has
+been used in the symphony orchestra. Its range is from [Illustration:
+CC-flat] to [Illustration: f-flat'''].
+
+[Illustration: HARP. Height, 5 ft. 8 in.]
+
+The modern _double-action harp_ has forty-six strings, which are tuned
+in half-steps and whole-steps so as to sound the scale of C[flat] major.
+It has a series of seven pedals around its base, each pedal having two
+_notches_ below it, into either of which the pedal may be lowered and
+held fast. The first pedal shortens the F[flat] string so that it now
+sounds F, (giving the key of G[flat]); the second one shortens the
+C[flat] string so that it sounds C (giving the key of D[flat]); the
+third pedal shortens the G[flat] string so that it sounds G (giving the
+key of A[flat]); the fourth changes D[flat] to D (giving the key of
+E[flat]), and so on until, when all the pedals are fixed in their first
+notches, the scale of C is sounded instead of C[flat] as was the case
+before any of the pedals were depressed. But if the first pedal is now
+pushed down into the second notch the original F[flat] string is still
+further shortened and now sounds the pitch F[sharp] (giving us the key
+of G), and if all the other pedals are likewise successively lowered to
+the second notch we get in turn all the _sharp keys_--D, A, E, B,
+F[sharp] and C[sharp], the last-named key being obtained as the result
+of having all the pedals fixed in their second notches, thus making all
+the tones of the original C[flat] scale a whole-step higher so that they
+now sound the C[sharp] scale.
+
+Chords of not more than four tones for each hand may be played
+simultaneously on the harp, but arpeggio and scale passages are the
+rule, and are more successful than simultaneous chords. The notation of
+harp music is essentially like that of piano music.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C
+
+ACOUSTICS
+
+
+     NOTE:--It is usually taken for granted that the student of
+     music is familiar with the significance of such terms as
+     _over-tone_, _equal temperament_, etc., and with principles
+     such as that relating to the relation between vibration rates
+     and pitches: the writer has in his own experience found,
+     however, that most students are not at all familiar with such
+     data, and this appendix is therefore added in the hope that a
+     few facts at least regarding the laws of sound may be brought
+     to the attention of some who would otherwise remain in entire
+     ignorance of the subject.
+
+1. _Acoustics_ is the science which deals with sound and the laws of its
+production and transmission. Since all sound is caused by vibration,
+_acoustics_ may be defined as the science which treats of the phenomena
+of sound-producing vibration.
+
+2. All sound (as stated above) is produced by vibration of some sort:
+strike a tuning-fork against the top of a table and _see_ the vibrations
+which cause the tone, or, if the fork is a small one and the vibrations
+cannot be seen, hold it against the edge of a sheet of paper and hear
+the blows it strikes; or, watch one of the lowest strings of the piano
+after striking the key a sharp blow; or, look closely at the heavier
+strings of the violin (or better still, the cello) and watch them
+oscillate rapidly to and fro as the bow moves across them.
+
+The vibrating body may be a string, a thin piece of wood, a piece of
+metal, a membrane (cf. drum), the lips (cf. playing the cornet), the
+vocal cords, etc. Often it is a column of air whose vibrations give rise
+to the tone, the reed or other medium merely serving to set the air in
+vibration.
+
+3. Sound is _transmitted_ through the air in somewhat this fashion: the
+vibrating body (a string for example) strikes the air-particles in its
+immediate vicinity, and they, being in contact with other such
+air-particles, strike these others, the latter in turn striking yet
+others, and so on, both a forward and backward movement being set up
+(oscillation). These particles lie so close together that no movement at
+all can be detected, and it is only when the disturbance finally reaches
+the air-particles that are in contact with the ear-drum that any effect
+is evident.
+
+This phenomenon of sound-transmission may perhaps be made more clear by
+the old illustration of a series of eight billiard balls in a row on a
+table: if the first ball is tapped lightly, striking gently against ball
+number 2, the latter (as well as numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) will not
+apparently move at all, but ball number 8 at the other end will roll
+away. The air-particles act upon each other in much this same fashion,
+the difference being that when they are set in motion by a vibrating
+body a complete vibration backward and forward causes a similar
+_backward and forward_ movement of the particles (oscillation) instead
+of simply a _forward jerk_ as in the case of the billiard balls.
+
+Another way of describing the same process is this: the vibration of
+some body produces waves in the air (cf. waves in the ocean, which carry
+water forward but do not themselves move on continuously), these waves
+spread out spherically (i.e. in all directions) and finally reach the
+ear, where they set the ear-drum in vibration, thus sending certain
+sound-stimuli to the nerves of hearing in the inner ear, and thus to the
+brain.
+
+An important thing to be noted in connection with sound-transmission is
+that sound will not travel in a vacuum: some kind of a medium is
+essential for its transmission. This medium may be air, water, a bar of
+iron or steel, the earth, etc.
+
+4. The _rate_ at which sound travels through the air is about 1100 feet
+per second, the rapidity varying somewhat with fluctuations in
+temperature and humidity. In water the rate is much higher than in air
+(about four times as great) while the velocity of sound through other
+mediums (as _e.g._, steel) is sometimes as much as sixteen times as
+great as through air.
+
+5. Sound, like light, may be _intensified_ by a suitable reflecting
+surface directly back of the vibrating body (cf. sounding board); it may
+also be reflected by some surface at a distance from its source in such
+a way that at a certain point (the focus) the sound may be very clearly
+heard, but at other places, even those _nearer_ the source of sound, it
+can scarcely be heard at all. If there is such a surface in an
+auditorium (as often occurs) there will be a certain point where
+everything can be heard very easily, but in the rest of the room it may
+be very difficult to understand what is being said or sung.
+
+_Echoes_ are caused by sound-reflection, the distance of the reflecting
+surface from the vibrating body determining the number of syllables that
+will be echoed.
+
+The _acoustics_ of an auditorium (_i.e._, its hearing properties) depend
+upon the position and nature of the reflecting surfaces and also upon
+the length of time a sound persists after the vibrating body has
+stopped. If it persists longer than 2-1/4 or 2-1/3 seconds the room will
+not be suitable for musical performances because of the mixture of
+persisting tones with following ones, this causing a blurred effect
+somewhat like that obtained by playing a series of unrelated chords on
+the piano while the damper-pedal is held down. The duration of the
+reverberation depends upon the size and height of the room, material of
+floor and walls, furniture, size of audience, etc.
+
+6. Sound may be classified roughly into _tones_ and _noises_ although
+the line of cleavage is not always sharply drawn. If I throw stones at
+the side of a barn, sounds are produced, but they are caused by
+irregular vibrations of an irregularly constructed surface and are
+referred to as _noise_. But if I tap the head of a kettle-drum, a
+regular series of vibrations is set up and the resulting sound is
+referred to as _tone_. In general the material of music consists of
+tones, but for special effects certain noises are also utilized (cf.
+castanets, etc.).
+
+7. Musical tones have three properties, viz.:
+
+     1. Pitch.
+
+     2. Intensity.
+
+     3. Quality (timbre).
+
+By _pitch_ is meant the highness or lowness of tone. It depends upon
+rate of vibration. If a body vibrates only 8 or 10 times per second no
+tone is heard at all: but if it vibrates regularly at the rate of 16 or
+18 per second a tone of very low pitch is heard. If it vibrates at the
+rate of 24 the pitch is higher, at 30 higher still, at 200 yet higher,
+and when a rate of about 38,000 per second has been reached the pitch is
+so high that most ears cannot perceive it at all. The highest tone that
+can ordinarily be heard is the E[flat] four octaves higher than the
+highest E[flat] of the piano. The entire range of sound humanly audible
+is therefore about eleven octaves (rates 16-38,000), but only about
+_eight_ of these octaves are utilized for musical purposes. The tones of
+the piano (with a range of 7-1/3 octaves) are produced by vibration
+rates approximately between 27 and 4224. In the orchestra the range is
+slightly more extended, the rates being from 33 to 4752.
+
+Certain interesting facts regarding the relation between vibration-rates
+and pitches have been worked out: it has been discovered for instance
+that if the number of vibrations is doubled, the pitch of the resulting
+tone is an octave higher; _i.e._, if a string vibrating at the rate of
+261 per second gives rise to the pitch c', then a string one-half as
+long and vibrating twice as rapidly (522) will give rise to the pitch
+c'', _i.e._, an octave higher than c'. In the same way it has been found
+that if the rate is multiplied by 5/4 the pitch of the tone will be a
+_major third_ higher; if multiplied by 3/2, a _perfect fifth_ higher,
+etc. These laws are often stated thus: the ratio of the octave to the
+fundamental is as two is to one; that of the major third as five is to
+four; that of the perfect fifth as three is to two, and so on through
+the entire series of pitches embraced within the octave, the _ratio_
+being of course the same for all octaves.
+
+9. The _intensity_ (loudness or softness) of tones depends upon the
+amplitude (width) of the vibrations, a louder tone being the result of
+vibrations of greater amplitude, and vice versa. This may be verified by
+plucking a long string (on cello or double-bass) and noting that when
+plucked gently vibrations of small amplitude are set up, while a
+vigorous pluck results in much wider vibrations, and, consequently, in a
+louder tone. It should be noted that the _pitch_ of the tone is not
+affected by the change in amplitude of vibration.
+
+The intensity of tones varies with the medium conveying them, being
+usually louder at night because the air is then more elastic. Tone
+intensity is also affected by _sympathetic vibrations_ set up in other
+bodies. If two strings of the same length are stretched side by side and
+one set in vibration so as to produce tone the other will soon begin to
+vibrate also and the combined tone will be louder than if only one
+string produced it. This phenomenon is the basis of what is known as
+resonance (cf. body of violin, resonance cavities of nose and mouth,
+sounding board of piano, etc.).
+
+10. _Quality_ depends upon the shape (or form) of the vibrations which
+give rise to the tone. A series of simple vibrations will cause a simple
+(or colorless) tone, while complex vibrations (giving rise to overtones
+of various kinds and in a variety of proportions) cause more
+individualistic peculiarities of quality. Quality is affected also by
+the shape and size of the resonance body. (Cf. last part of sec. 9
+above.)
+
+11. Practically every musical tone really consists of a combination of
+several tones sounding simultaneously, the combined effect upon the ear
+giving the impression of a single tone. The most important tone of the
+series is the _fundamental_, which dominates the combination and gives
+the pitch, but this fundamental is practically always combined with a
+greater or less number of faint and elusive attending tones called
+_overtones_ or _harmonics_. The first of these overtones is the octave
+above the fundamental; the second is the fifth above this octave; the
+third, two octaves above the fundamental, and so on through the series
+as shown in the figure below. The presence of these _overtones_ is
+accounted for by the fact that the string (or other vibrating body) does
+not merely vibrate in its entirety but has in addition to the principal
+oscillation a number of sectional movements also. Thus it is easily
+proved that a string vibrates in halves, thirds, etc., in addition to
+the principal vibration of the entire string, and it is the vibration of
+these halves, thirds, etc., which gives rise to the _harmonics_, or
+_upper partials_ as they are often called. The figure shows _Great C_
+and its first eight overtones. A similar series might be worked out from
+any other fundamental.
+
+[Illustration: (NOTE:--The B[flat] in this series is approximate only.)]
+
+It will be recalled that in the section (10) dealing with _quality_ the
+statement was made that _quality_ depends upon the shape of the
+vibrations; it should now be noted that it is the form of these
+vibrations that determines the nature and proportion of the overtones
+and hence the quality. Thus _e.g._, a tone that has too large a
+proportion of the fourth upper partial (_i.e._, the _third_ of the
+chord) will be _reedy_ and somewhat unpleasant. This is the case with
+many voices that are referred to as _nasal_. Too great a proportion of
+overtones is what causes certain pianos to sound "tin-panny." The tone
+produced by a good tuning-fork is almost entirely free from overtones:
+it has therefore no distinctive quality and is said to be a _simple_
+tone. The characteristic tone of the oboe on the other hand has many
+overtones and is therefore highly individualistic: this enables us to
+recognize the tone of the instrument even though we cannot see the
+player. Such a tone is said to be _complex_.
+
+12. The mathematical ratio referred to on page 134, if strictly carried
+out in tuning a keyboard instrument would cause the half-steps to vary
+slightly in size, and playing in certain keys (especially those having a
+number of sharps or flats in the signature) would therefore sound out of
+tune. There would be many other disadvantages in such a system, notably
+the inability to modulate freely to other keys, and since modulation is
+one of the predominant and most striking characteristics of modern
+music, this would constitute a serious barrier to advances in
+composition. To obviate these disadvantages a system of _equal
+temperament_ was invented and has been in universal use since the time
+of Bach (1685-1750) who was the first prominent composer to use it
+extensively. _Equal temperament_ means simply dividing the octave into
+twelve equal parts, thus causing all scales (as played on keyboard
+instruments at least) to sound exactly alike.
+
+     To show the practicability of equal temperament Bach wrote a
+     series of 48 _preludes and fugues_, two in each major and two
+     in each minor key. He called the collection "The Well-tempered
+     Clavichord."
+
+13. Various _standards of pitch_ have existed at different times in the
+last two centuries, and even now there is no absolute uniformity
+although conditions are much better than they were even twenty-five
+years ago. Scientists use what is known as the "scientific standard"
+(sometimes called the "philosophic standard"), viz., 256 double
+vibrations for "middle C." This pitch is not in actual use for musical
+purposes, but is retained for theoretical purposes because of its
+convenience of computation (being a power of 2). In 1885 a conference of
+musicians at Vienna ratified the pitch giving Middle C 261 vibrations,
+this having been adopted by the French as their official pitch some 26
+years before. In 1891 a convention of piano manufacturers at
+Philadelphia adopted this same pitch for the United States, and it has
+been in practically universal use ever since. This pitch (giving Middle
+C 261 vibrations) is known as "International Pitch."
+
+_Concert pitch_ is slightly higher than _International_, the difference
+between the two varying somewhat, but being almost always less than
+one-half step. This higher pitch is still often used by bands and
+sometimes by orchestras to give greater brilliancy to the wind
+instruments.
+
+     REFERENCES
+
+     Lavignac--Music and Musicians, pp. 1-66.
+
+     Broadhouse--The Student's Helmholz.
+
+     Helmholtz--Sensations of Tone.
+
+     Hamilton--Sound and its Relation to Music.
+
+     NOTE:--For a simple and illuminating treatment of the subject
+     from the standpoint of the music student, the books by
+     Lavignac and Hamilton are especially recommended.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX D
+
+TERMINOLOGY REFORM
+
+
+A recent writer[43] on _vocal terminology_ makes the following statement
+as an introduction to certain remarks advocating a more definite use of
+terms relating to tone production by the human voice:--"The correct use
+of words is the most potent factor in the development of the thinker."
+If this statement has any basis of fact whatsoever to support it then it
+must be evident to the merest novice in musical work that the popular
+use of many common terms by musicians is keeping a good many people from
+clear and logical thought in a field that needs accurate thinkers very
+badly! However this may be, it must be patent to all that our present
+terminology is in many respects neither correct nor logical, and the
+movement inaugurated by the Music Section of the National Education
+Association some years ago to secure greater uniformity in the use and
+definition of certain expressions should therefore not only command the
+respect and commendation, but the active support of all progressive
+teachers of music.
+
+[Footnote 43: Floyd S. Muckey--"Vocal Terminology," _The Musician_, May,
+1912, p. 337.]
+
+Let it be noted at the outset that such reforms as are advocated by the
+committee will never come into general use while the rank and file of
+teachers throughout the country merely _approve_ the reports so
+carefully compiled and submitted each year: these reforms will become
+effective only as individual teachers make up their minds that the end
+to be attained is worth the trouble of being careful to use only
+correct terminology every day for a month, or three months, or a
+year--whatever length of time may be necessary in order to get the new
+habits fixed in mind and muscle.
+
+The Terminology Committee was appointed by the Department of Music of
+the N.E.A. in 1906 and made its first report at Los Angeles in 1907.
+Since then the indefatigable chairman of the committee (Mr. Chas. I.
+Rice, of Worcester, Mass.) has contributed generously of both time and
+strength, and has by his annual reports to the Department set many of us
+to thinking along certain new lines, and has caused some of us at any
+rate to adopt in our own teaching certain changes of terminology which
+have enabled us to make our work more effective.
+
+In his first report Mr. Rice says:
+
+"Any one who has observed the teaching of school music in any
+considerable number of places in this country cannot fail to have
+remarked the great diversity of statement employed by different teachers
+regarding the facts which we are engaged in teaching, and the equal
+diversity of terminology used in teaching the symbols by which musicians
+seek to record these facts. To the teacher of exact sciences our
+picturesque use of the same term to describe two or more entirely
+different things never ceases to be a marvel.... Thoughtful men and
+women will become impressed with the untruthfulness of certain
+statements and little by little change their practice. Others will
+follow, influenced by example. The revolutionists will deride us for not
+moving faster while the conservatives will be suspicious of any change."
+
+At this meeting in Los Angeles a list of thirteen points was recommended
+by the committee and adopted by the Music Department. These points are
+given in the N.E.A. Volume of Proceedings for 1907, p. 875.
+
+Since 1907 the committee (consisting of Chas. I. Rice, P.C. Hayden, W.B.
+Kinnear, Leo R. Lewis, and Constance Barlow-Smith) have each year
+selected a number of topics for discussion, and have submitted valuable
+reports recommending the adoption of certain reforms. Some of the points
+recommended have usually been rejected by the Department, but many of
+them have been adopted and the reports of the committee have set many
+teachers thinking and have made us all more careful in the use and
+definition of common terms. A complete list of all points adopted by the
+Department since 1907 has been made by Mr. Rice for _School Music_, and
+this list is here reprinted from the January, 1913, number of that
+magazine.
+
+     TERMINOLOGY ADOPTIONS, 1907-1910
+
+     1. _Tone:_ Specific name for a musical sound of definite
+     pitch. Use neither _sound_, a general term, nor _note_, a term
+     of notation.
+
+     2. _Interval:_ The pitch relation between _two_ tones. Not
+     properly applicable to a single tone or scale degree. Example:
+     "Sing the fifth tone of the scale." Not "sing the fifth
+     interval of the scale."
+
+     3. _Key:_ Tones in relation to a tonic. Example: In the key of
+     G. _Not_ in the scale of G. Scales, major and minor are
+     composed of a definite selection from the many tones of the
+     key, and all scales extend through at least one octave of
+     pitch. The chromatic scale utilizes all the tones of a key
+     within the octave.
+
+     4. _Natural:_ Not a suitable compound to use in naming
+     pitches. Pitch names are either _simple_: B, or _compound_: B
+     sharp, B double-sharp, B flat or B double-flat, and there is
+     no pitch named "B natural." Example: Pitch B, _not_ "B
+     natural."
+
+     NOTE:--L.R.L. thinks that B natural should be the name when
+     the notation suggests it.
+
+     5. _Step, Half-step:_ Terms of interval _measurement_. Avoid
+     _tone_, _semi-tone_ or _half-tone_. Major second and minor
+     second are interval _names_. Example: How large are the
+     following intervals? (1) Major second, (2) minor second, (3)
+     augmented prime. Answer: (1) a step, (2) a half-step, (3) a
+     half-step.
+
+     6. _Chromatic:_ A tone of the key which is not a member of its
+     diatonic scale. (N.B.) An accidental (a notation sign) is not
+     a chromatic sign _unless_ it makes a staff-degree represent a
+     chromatic tone.
+
+     7. _Major; Minor:_ Major and Minor keys having the same
+     signature should be called relative major and minor. Major and
+     minor keys having the same tonic, but different signatures,
+     should be called tonic major and minor. Not "parallel" major
+     or minor in either case.
+
+     8. _Staff:_ Five horizontal lines and their spaces. Staff
+     _lines_ are named (numbered) upward in order, first to fifth.
+     _Spaces:_ Space below, first-second-third-fourth-space, and
+     space above[44]. (Six in all.) Additional short lines and
+     their short spaces numbered outward both ways from the main
+     staff, viz: line below, second space below. The boundary of
+     the staff is always a space.
+
+     [Footnote 44: NOTE:--Not "space below the staff" or "space
+     above the staff."]
+
+     9. _G Clef, F Clef, C Clef:_ These clefs when placed upon the
+     staff, give its degrees their first, or primary pitch meaning.
+     Each makes the degree it occupies represent a pitch of its
+     respective name. Example: The G clef makes the second line
+     represent the pitch G. Avoid "_fixes G on_." The staff with
+     clef in position represents only pitches having _simple_ or
+     _one-word_ names, A, B, C, etc.
+
+     10. _Sharps, Flats:_ Given a staff with clef in position as in
+     example above, sharps and flats make staff degrees upon which
+     they are placed represent pitches a half-step higher or lower.
+     These pitches have compound or two-word names. Example: The
+     second line stands for the pitch G (simple name). Sharp the
+     second line and it will stand for the pitch G sharp. (Compound
+     name.) The third line stands for the pitch B. (Simple name.)
+     Flat it, and the line will stand for the pitch B flat.
+     (Compound name.) N.B. These signs do not "_raise_" or
+     "_lower_" notes, tones, pitches, letters or staff degrees.
+
+     11. _Double-sharp, Double-flat:_ Given a staff with three or
+     more degrees sharped in the signature, double-sharps are used
+     (subject to the rules governing composition) to make certain
+     of these degrees, already sharped, represent pitches one
+     half-step higher yet. Similarly, when three or more degrees
+     are flatted in the signature, double-flats are used to make
+     certain degrees already flatted, represent pitches one
+     half-step lower yet. Examples: To represent sharp 2 in the key
+     of B major, double-sharp the C degree, or (equally good)
+     double-sharp the third space (G clef). To represent flat 6 in
+     the key of D flat major, double-flat the B degree, or (equally
+     good) double flat the third line (G clef). _Do not say_: "Put
+     a double-sharp on 6" or "put a double-sharp on C," or
+     "_indicate"_ a higher or lower pitch "_on_" a sharped or
+     flatted degree.
+
+     12. _Signature:_ Sharps or flats used as signatures affect the
+     staff degrees they occupy and all octaves of the same.
+     Example: With signature of four sharps, the first one affects
+     the fifth line and the first space; the second, the third
+     space; the third, the space above and the second line; the
+     fourth, the fourth line and the space below. _Do not say_: "F
+     and C are sharped," "ti is sharped," "B is flatted," "fa is
+     flatted." "Sharpened" or "flattened" are undesirable.
+
+     13. _Brace:_ The two or more staffs containing parts to be
+     sounded together; also the vertical line or bracket connecting
+     such staffs. _Not_ "line" or "score." "Staff" is better than
+     "line" for a single staff, and "score" is used meaning the
+     book containing an entire work, as "vocal score," "orchestral
+     score," "full score."
+
+     14. _Notes:_ Notes are characters designed to represent
+     relative duration. When placed on staff-degrees they
+     _indicate_ pitch. (Note the difference between "represent" and
+     "indicate.") "Sing what the note calls for" means, sing a tone
+     of the pitch represented by the staff degree occupied by the
+     note-head. The answer to the question: "What is that note?"
+     would be "half-note," "eighth-note" according to the
+     denomination of the note in question, whether it was on or off
+     the staff.
+
+     15. _Measure-sign:_ 4-4, 2-4, 6-8, are _measure-signs_. Avoid
+     "time signatures," "meter-signatures," "the fraction,"
+     "time-marks." Example: What is the measure-sign? (C) Ans. A
+     broken circle. What is its meaning? Ans. Four-quarter measure.
+     (Not four-four time, four-four rhythm, four-four meter.)
+
+     16. _Note Placing:_ Place a quarter note on the fourth line.
+     Not "put a quarter note on D."
+
+     17. _Beat-Pulse:_ A tone or rest occurs on a certain beat or
+     pulse of a measure. Not on a certain _count_.
+
+     18. _Signature Terminology:_ The right hand sharp in the
+     signature is on the staff degree that represents seven of the
+     major scale. Not "always on 7 or ti."
+
+     19. _Signature Terminology:_ The right hand flat in the
+     signature is on the staff degree that represents four of the
+     major scale. Not "always on fa."
+
+     20. _Rote, Note, Syllable:_ Singing by rote means that the
+     singer sings something learned by ear without regard to notes.
+     Singing by note means that the singer is guided to the correct
+     pitch by visible notes. Singing by syllable means that the
+     singer sings the tones of a song or part to the sol-fa
+     syllables instead of to words, neutral vowels or the hum.
+     "Sing by note" is not correct if the direction means simply to
+     sing the sol-fa syllables, whether in sight reading, rote
+     singing, or memory work. "Sing by syllable" would be correct
+     in each case.
+
+
+     ADOPTIONS OF THE 1911 MEETING AT SAN FRANCISCO
+
+     Arabic numerals, either 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, or 12, placed on the
+     staff directly after the signature and above the third line,
+     show the number of beats in a measure.
+
+     A note, either a quarter or a dotted quarter, placed in
+     parenthesis under the numeral, represents the length of one
+     beat and is called the beat-note.
+
+     The numeral and the beat-note thus grouped constitute the
+     measure-sign.
+
+     Illustrative statements covering proper terminology: the tune
+     "America" is written in three-quarter measure. The chorus:
+     "How lovely are the Messengers" is written in two-dotted
+     quarter measure.
+
+     The above forms of statement were adopted at Denver in 1909,
+     and are recommended for general use when speaking of music
+     written with the conventional measure-signs, etc.
+
+     In place of: "two-two time, three-eight time, four-four time,"
+     say as above: "This piece is written in two-half measure,
+     three-eighth measure, four-quarter measure."
+
+
+     MINOR SCALES
+
+     _Primitive Minor (ascending)_
+
+     The minor scale form having minor sixth and minor seventh
+     above tonic to be called Primitive Minor.
+
+     Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, a; C
+     minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b flat, c. [Transcriber's
+     Note: Supplied b flat missing from original.]
+
+     _Primitive Minor (descending)_
+
+     Same pitches in reverse order.
+
+     _Harmonic Minor (ascending)_
+
+     The minor scale form having minor sixth and major seventh
+     above tonic to be called Harmonic Minor.
+
+     Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g sharp, a;
+     C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b, c.
+
+     _Harmonic Minor (descending_)
+
+     Same pitches in reverse order.
+
+     _Melodic Minor (ascending)_
+
+     The minor scale form having major sixth and major seventh
+     above tonic to be called Melodic Minor.
+
+     Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f sharp, g
+     sharp, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a, b, c.
+
+     _Melodic Minor (descending)_
+
+     Same as the Primitive.
+
+
+     ADOPTIONS OF THE 1912 MEETING AT CHICAGO
+
+     _Pulse and Beat_
+
+     The Committee finds that the words: Pulse and Beat are in
+     general use as synonymous terms, meaning one of the succession
+     of throbs or impulses of which we are conscious when listening
+     to music. Each of these pulses or beats has an exact point of
+     beginning, a duration, and an exact point of ending, the
+     latter coincident with the beginning of the next pulse or
+     beat. When thus used, both words are terms of ear.
+
+     _Beat_
+
+     One of these words, Beat, is also in universal use, meaning
+     one of a series of physical motions by means of which a
+     conductor holds his group of performers to a uniform movement.
+
+     When thus used it becomes a term of eye.
+
+     The conductor's baton, if it is to be authoritative, cannot
+     wander about through the whole duration of the pulse but must
+     move quickly to a point of comparative repose, remaining until
+     just before the arrival of the next pulse when it again makes
+     a rapid swing, finishing coincidently with the initial tone
+     (or silence) of the new pulse.
+
+     Thus it is practically the end of the conductor's beat that
+     marks the beginning of the pulse.
+
+     The Committee is of opinion that Beat might preferably be used
+     as indicating the outward sign.
+
+     _Beat-Note_
+
+     This term "beat-note" is already in use in another important
+     connection (see Terminology Report, 1911) and the Committee
+     recommends that those using the above terms shall say: "This
+     note is an on-the-beat note; this one is an after-the-beat
+     note; this one a before-the-beat note."
+
+
+     DEFINITIONS
+
+     _Matters of Ear_
+
+     Pulse: The unit of movement in music, one of a series of
+     regularly recurring throbs or impulses.
+
+     Measure: A group of pulses.
+
+     Pulse-Group: Two or more tones grouped within the pulse.
+
+     _Matters of Eye_
+
+     Beat: One of a series of conventional movements made by the
+     conductor. This might include any unconventional motion which
+     served to mark the movement of the music, whether made by
+     conductor, performer or auditor.
+
+     Beat-Note: A note of the denomination indicated by the
+     measure-sign as the unit of note-value in a given measure.
+
+     _Example_
+
+     Given the following measure-signs: 2-4, 2-2, 2-8, quarter,
+     half, or eighth notes, respectively, are beat-notes.
+
+     Beat-Group: A group of notes or notes and rests, of smaller
+     denomination than the beat-note which represents a full beat
+     from beginning to end and is equal in value to the beat-note.
+     (A beat-group may begin with a rest.)
+
+     On-the-Beat Note (or rest): Any note (or rest) ranging in
+     value from a full beat down, which calls for musical action
+     (or inaction) synchronously with the conductor's beat.
+
+     After-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates
+     that a tone is to be sounded after the beginning, and before
+     or at the middle of the pulse.
+
+     Before-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates
+     that a tone is to be sounded after the middle of the pulse.
+
+     To illustrate terminology and to differentiate between Pulse
+     and Beat as terms, respectively of ear and eye, the following
+     is submitted:
+
+     Whenever a brief tone involves the musical idea of
+     syncopation, it may be regarded as an after-the-pulse tone and
+     the note that calls for it as an after-the-beat note; when it
+     involves the idea of anticipation or preparation it may be
+     regarded as a before-the-pulse tone, and the note that calls
+     for it, as a before-the-beat note.
+
+     _Measure and Meter_
+
+     "What is the measure-sign?"
+
+     "What is the meter-signature?"
+
+     These two words are used synonymously, and one of them is
+     unnecessary. The Committee recommends that Measure be retained
+     and used. Meter has its use in connection with hymns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The author does not find it possible at present to agree with all the
+recommendations made in the above report, but the summary is printed in
+full for the sake of completeness.
+
+The Music Teacher's National Association has also interested itself
+mildly in the subject of terminology reform, and at its meeting in
+Washington, D.C., in 1908, Professor Waldo S. Pratt gave his address as
+president of the Association on the subject "System and Precision in
+Musical Speech." This address interested the members of the Association
+to such an extent that Professor Pratt was asked to act as a committee
+whose purpose it should be to look into the matter of reforms necessary
+in music terminology and report at a later session. In 1910 Professor
+Pratt read a report in which he advocated the idea of making some
+changes in music nomenclature, but took the ground that the subject is
+too comprehensive to be mastered in the short time that can be given to
+it by a committee, and that it is therefore impossible to recommend
+specific changes. He also took occasion to remark that one difficulty in
+the whole matter of terminology is that many terms and expressions are
+used _colloquially_ and that such use although usually not scientific,
+is often not distinctly harmful and is not of sufficient importance to
+cause undue excitement on the part of reformers. Quoting from the report
+at this point:--"A great deal of confusion is more apparent than real
+between _note_ and _tone_, between _step_ and _degree_, between _key_
+and _tonality_. No practical harm is done by speaking of the _first
+note_ of a piece when really _first tone_ would be more accurate. To
+say that a piece is written _in the key of B[flat]_ is more convenient
+than to say that it is written in the _tonality of which B[flat] is the
+tonic_. The truth is that some of the niceties of expression upon which
+insistence is occasionally laid are merely fussy, not because they have
+not some sort of reason, but because they fail to take into account the
+practical difference between colloquial or off-hand speech and the
+diction of a scientific treatise. This is said without forgetting that
+colloquialism always needs watching and that some people form the habit
+of being careless or positively uncouth as if it were a mark of high
+artistic genius."
+
+Professor Pratt's report is thus seen to be philosophic rather than
+constructive, and terminology reform will undoubtedly make more
+immediate progress through the efforts of the N.E.A. Committee with its
+specific recommendations (even though these are sometimes admittedly
+_fussy_) than through the policy of the M.T.N.A. of waiting for some one
+to get time to take up the subject in a scholarly way. Nevertheless the
+philosophic view is sometimes badly needed, especially when the spirit
+of reform becomes too rabid and attaches too great importance to
+trifles. A judicious intermingling of the two committees in a series of
+joint meetings would undoubtedly result in mutual helpfulness, and
+possibly also in a more tangible and convincing statement of principles
+than has yet been formulated by either.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX E
+
+Sonata Op. 31, No. 3 by Beethoven
+
+Analysis by ARTHUR E. HEACOX,
+Oberlin Conservatory of Music
+
+
+     First Subject 17 measures, E[flat] major, as follows: 8 meas.
+     presentation, one meas. link, 8 meas. repetition oct. higher.
+     Rhythmic elements are A, B, C, all presented in first 8 meas.
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The analysis is presented as notations on the
+musical score of the sonata. Please see the HTML version of this e-text
+to view the score with the notations and to listen to a MIDI version.]
+
+[Illustration: Sonata Op. 31, No. 3]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+eh = a as in face; ah = a as in far; ch = ch as in chair; final eh = e
+as in met.
+
+
+A (_ah_), 95
+
+A battuta (_ah-baht-too'-tah_), 95
+
+A capella (_cah-pel'-lah_), 76
+
+A capriccio (_cah-pritch'-eo_), 54
+
+Accelerando (_aht-cheh-leh-rahn'-do_), 54
+
+Accented tones, 20
+
+Accent marks, 20
+
+Accent in measures, 44
+
+Acciaccatura (_aht-cheea-cah-too'-ra_), 25, 26
+
+Accidentals, 9
+
+Accompagnamento (_ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-to_), 95
+
+Acoustics (_ah-kow'-stics_), def., 131
+  of auditoriums, 133
+
+Adagietto (_ah-dah-jee-et'-to_), 50
+
+Adagio (_ah-dah'-jee-o_), 50
+
+À deux mains (_doo-mahng_), 42
+
+Ad libitum, 54
+
+Affrettando (_ahf-fret-tahn'-do_), 54
+
+Agitato (_ah-jee-tah'-to_), 55
+
+Agréments (_ah-greh-mahng_), 22
+
+À la or alla (_ahl'-lah_), 42
+
+Alla breve (_breh'-veh_), 95
+
+Alla marcia (_mar'-chee-ah_), 95
+
+Allargando (_ahl-lahr-gahn'-do_), 53
+
+Alla zingara (_tseen-gah'-rah_), 95
+
+Allegretto (_ahl-leh-gret'-to_), 51
+
+Allegrissimo, 52
+
+Allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 50
+
+Allegro agitato (_ah-jee-tah'-to_), 52
+
+Allegro appassionata (_-ah'-tah_), 52
+
+Allegro assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52
+
+Allegro commodo (_kom-mo'-do_), 52
+
+Allegro con brio (_bree'-o_), 52
+
+Allegro con fuoco (_foo-o'-ko_), 53
+
+Allegro con moto (_mo'-to_), 53
+
+Allegro con spirito (_spee'-ree-to_), 53
+
+Allegro di bravura (_dee brah-voo'-rah_), 53
+
+Allegro di molto (_mohl'-to_), 53
+
+Allegro furioso (_foo-ree-o'-so_), 53
+
+Allegro giusto (_jew-sto_), 53
+
+Allegro ma grazioso (_mah grah-tsi-o'-so_), 53
+
+Allegro (ma) non tanto (_tahn'-to_), 53
+
+Allegro (ma) non troppo (_trop'-po_), 53
+
+Allegro moderato (_mod-e-rah'-to_), 53
+
+Allegro quasi andante (_quah-see ahn-dahn'-teh_), 53
+
+Allegro vivace (_vee-vah'-cheh_), 53
+
+Allemande (_al-mahnd_), 71
+
+All'unisono (_oo-nee-so'-no_), 95
+
+All'ottava (_ot-tah'-vah_), 15
+
+Alt (_ahlt_), 95
+
+Alto (_ahl-to_), 95
+
+A mezza voce (_met'-zah-vo'-cheh_), 42
+
+Amore (_ah-mo'-reh_), 42, 59
+
+Andante (_ahn-dahn'-teh_), 50
+
+Andante affettuoso (_ahf-fet-too-o'-so_), 52
+
+Andante amabile (_ah-mah'-bee-leh_), 52
+
+Andante cantabile (_cahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 52
+
+Andante con moto (_mo'-to_), 52
+
+Andante grazioso (_grah-tsi-o'-so_), 52
+
+Andante maestoso (_mah-es-to'-so_), 52
+
+Andante (ma) non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 52
+
+Andante pastorale (_pahs-to-rah'-leh_), 52
+
+Andante quasi allegro (_quah-see ahl-leh'-gro_), 52
+
+Andante sostenuto (_sos-teh-noo'-to_), 52
+
+Animando (_ah-nee-mahn'-do_), 55
+
+Animato (_ah-nee-mah'-to_), 55
+
+Animato come sopra (_co-meh so'-prah_), 55
+
+Andantino (_ahn-dahn-tee'-no_), 50
+
+Antecedent, 67
+
+Anthem, 76
+
+Anticipation, 93
+
+Antiphony (_an-tif'-o-ny_), 95
+
+Antithesis (_an-tith'-_), 67
+
+A piacere (_pee-ah-cheh'-reh_), 54
+
+Appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too'-rah_), def., 25
+
+À quatre mains (_kahtr-mahng_), 95
+
+Arabesque, 95
+
+Aria (_ah'-ree-ah_), 79
+
+Arioso (_ah-ree-o'-so_), 95
+
+Arpeggiando (_ar-ped-jee-ahn'-do_), 21
+
+Arpeggiato (_-ah'-to_), 21
+
+Arpeggiento (_-en'-to_), 21
+
+Arpeggio (_ar-ped'-jee-o_), 21
+
+Art-ballad, 80
+
+Assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 42
+
+A tempo, 54
+
+A tempo primo (_pree'-mo_), 54
+
+A tempo rubato (_roo-bah'-to_), 54
+
+Attacca (_aht-tah'-kah_), 95
+
+Attacca subito (_soo'-bee-to_), 95
+
+Attacca subito il seguente (_eel seg-wen'-teh_), 95
+
+Attack, 95
+
+
+Bagpipe, 95
+
+Ballad, 80
+
+Band, 115
+
+Bar, def. and use, 12
+   double, 12
+
+Barcarole (_bar'-cah-rohl_), 95
+
+Baritone, 95
+
+Bass, 95
+
+Bass clarinet, 121
+
+Basso (_bahs'-so_), 95
+
+Bassoon, 121
+
+Bass staff, 6
+
+Bass tuba, 125
+
+Bass viol, 118
+
+Ben (_behn_), 42
+
+Ben marcato (_mahr-kah'-to_), 42
+
+Berceuse (_behr-soos'_), 95
+
+Binary form, 95
+
+Binary measure, 95
+
+Bis (_bees_), 96
+
+Bolero (_bo-leh'-ro_), 71
+
+Bourrée (_boo-reh'_), 71
+
+Brace, 96
+
+Brass instruments, 116
+
+Brillante (_breel-ahn'-teh_), 55
+
+Broken chord, 96
+
+Broken octave, 96
+
+
+Cacophony (_kak-of'-o-ny_), 96
+
+Cadence, 89
+
+Cadenza, 96
+
+Calando (_kah-lahn'-do_), 59
+
+Cancel, 3, 8
+
+Cantabile (_kahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 96
+
+Cantando (_kakn-tahn'-do_), 96
+
+Canto (_kahn'-to_), 96
+
+Cantus firmus, 64
+
+Canon, 64
+
+Cantata (_kahn-tah'-tah_), 77
+
+Carol, 96
+
+Catch, 96
+
+C clef 3, 6
+
+Cello (_chel'-lo_), 118
+
+Chaconne (_shah-con'_), 71
+
+Chamber music, 72
+
+Chanterelle (_shong-tah-rel'_), 117
+
+Chinese scale, 27
+
+Choral, 76
+
+Chords def. and lands, 87
+  inversions of, 88
+  common, 87
+  seventh, 89
+  dominant seventh, 92
+
+Chromatic, 96
+
+Chromatic scale, 38
+
+Clarinet, 121
+
+Classes of instruments in orchestra, 115
+
+Clavichord, 96
+
+Clefs, 3, 5
+
+Close position, 94
+
+Coda, 70
+
+Coi (_co'-ee_), 42
+
+Col, 42
+
+Colla, 42
+
+Colla parte (_par'-teh_), 96
+
+Colla voce (_vo'-cheh_), 96
+
+Colle, 42
+
+Collo, 42
+
+Coloratura singing, 79, 96
+
+Coll'ottava (_ot-tah'-vah_), 15
+
+Combination pedals, 115
+
+Come (_koh'-meh_), 42
+
+Come primo (_pree'-mo_), 42
+
+Common chords, 87
+
+Compound measure, 45
+
+Compound duple measure, 45
+
+Con, 42
+
+Con alcuna licenza (_ahl-koo'-nah lee-chen'-tsah_), 59
+
+Con amore (_ah-mo'-reh_), 42, 59
+
+Con anima (_ah'-nee-mah_), 55
+
+Con bravura (_brah-voo'-rah_), 59
+
+Con celerita (_che-leh'-ree-tah_), 59
+
+Concerto (_con-cher'-to_), 72
+
+Concert pitch, 138
+
+Con delicato (_deh-lee-cah'-to_), 59
+
+Con energico (_en-er-jee'-ko_), 59
+
+Con espressione (_es-pres-see-o'-neh_), 59
+
+Con forza (_fort'-za_), 60
+
+Con fuoco (_foo-o'-ko_), 60
+
+Con grand' espressione (_grahnd' es-pres-see-o'-neh_), 60
+
+Con grazia (_grahts-yah_), 60
+
+Con melinconia (or malinconia) (_-leen-ko'-ne-eh_), 60
+
+Con moto, 55
+
+Con passione (_pas-se-o'-neh_), 60
+
+Consequent, 67
+
+Consonance, 96
+
+Con spirito (_spe'-ree-to_), 60
+
+Con tenerezza (_teh-neh-ret'-za_), 60
+
+Continuous form, 80
+
+Contra, 42
+
+Contra bass tuba, 126
+
+Contra octave, 16
+
+Contralto, 96
+
+Con variazione (_vah-ri-ah-tsi-o'-neh_), 96
+
+Cornet, 124
+
+Counterpoint, def., 64, 62, 82
+
+Courante (_koo-rahnt'_), 71
+
+Crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 57
+
+Crescendo al fortissimo, 58
+
+Crescendo ed affrettando (_ahf-fret-tahn'-do_), 58
+
+Crescendo ed animando poco a poco (_ah-ni-mahn'-do_), 58
+
+Crescendo e diminuendo (_eh de-me-noo-en'-do_), 58
+
+Crescendo molto (_mohl'-to_), 58
+
+Crescendo poco a poco, 58
+
+Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine (_seen ahl fee'-neh_), 58
+
+Crescendo poi diminuendo (_po'-ee dee-mee-noo-en'-do_), 58
+
+Crescendo subito (_soo'-bee-to_), 58
+
+Cross-stroke, 1, 2
+
+Csardas (_tsar'-dahs_), 71
+
+
+Da (_dah_), 42
+
+Da capo (_kah'-po_), 13
+
+Dal segno (_sehn'-yo_), 13
+
+Dances, 71
+
+Dash over note, 17, 20
+
+Decrescendo (_deh-kreh-shen'-do_), 58
+
+Decrescendo al pianissimo (_ahl pee-ahn-is'-si-mo_), 58
+
+Degrees of staff, 5
+
+Delicato (_deh-lee-kah'-to_), 60
+
+Descriptive music, 74
+
+Di (_dee_), 42
+
+Diatonic condition, 7
+
+Diatonic scale, 28
+
+Di bravura (_brah-voo'-rah_), 42
+
+Diminuendo (_dee-mee-noo-en'-do_), 58
+
+Di molto (_mohl'-to_), 42
+
+Direct, 96
+
+Dirge, 97
+
+Discord, 97
+
+Dissonance (_dis'_), 97
+
+Divisi (_di-ve'-ze_), 97
+
+Dolce (_dohl'-cheh_), 60
+
+Dolce e cantabile (_eh kahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 60
+
+Dolcissimo (_dohl-chis'-see-mo_), 60
+
+Dolente (_do-len'-teh_), 60
+
+Dominant, 36
+
+Dominant Seventh, 92
+
+Doloroso (_do-lo-ro'-so_), 60
+
+Doppio (_dop'-pee-o_), 42
+
+Doppio movimento (_mo-vi-men'-to_), 55
+
+Dot--where placed, 3
+  uses of, 17
+  with slur or tie, 20
+  with dash, 20
+
+Double bar, 12
+
+Double bass, 118
+
+Double bassoon, 121
+
+Double flat, 3, 7
+
+Double mordent, 23
+
+Double sharp, 3, 7
+
+Doublet, 20
+
+Duet, 97
+
+Duple measure, 46
+
+Dynamics, 56
+
+
+E (_eh_), 42
+
+École (_eh'-kole_), 97
+
+Ed, 42
+
+Eight-foot stop, 114
+
+Elements of music, 82
+
+Embellishments, 22
+
+English names for notes, 11
+
+English horn, 121
+
+Enharmonic, def., 10
+
+Enharmonic scale, 32
+
+Enharmonic tie, 18
+
+Ensemble (_ong-sombl_), 42
+
+Equal temperament, 137
+
+E poi la coda (_eh-po'-ee_), 14
+
+Espressivo (_ehs-pres-see'-vo_), 60
+
+Et, 42
+
+Etto, 42
+
+Etude, 97
+
+Euphony (_yu'-fo-ny_), 97
+
+Even measure, 46
+
+
+Facile (_fah-chee'-leh_), 97
+
+Fanfare (_fahn'-fehr_), 97
+
+Fantasia (_fahn-tah-ze'-ah_), 97
+
+F Clef, 3, 5, 6
+
+Fermata (_fehr-mah'-ta_), 14, 15
+
+Fiasco (_fe-ahs'-ko_), 97
+
+Figured bass, 89
+
+Fine (_fee'-neh_), 13
+
+Five-lined octave, 16
+
+Flat, 3, 7
+
+Flute, 119
+
+Folk-song, 81
+
+Form, def., 62
+  binary, 95
+
+Forte (_for'-teh_), 56
+
+Forte piano (_pee-ah'-no_), 56
+
+Forte possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 43
+
+Fortissimo, 56
+
+Fortissimo possibile (_pos-see-bee-leh_), 56
+
+Fortisissimo, 56
+
+Forzando (_for-tsahn'-do_), 57
+
+Forzato (_for-tsah'-to_), 57
+
+Four-foot stop, 114
+
+Four-lined octave, 16
+
+Free imitation, 64
+
+French horn, 123
+
+French pitch designations, 6
+
+Fugue, 66
+
+Fundamental, 135
+
+
+Gamut (_gam'-ut_), 97
+
+Gavotte (_gah-vot'_), 71
+
+G Clef, 3, 5, 6
+
+General pause, 15
+
+German pitch designation, 6
+
+Gigue (_zheeg_), 71
+
+Giocoso (_jee-o-ko'-so_), 60
+
+Giojoso (_jee-o-yo'-so_), 60
+
+Glee, 81
+
+Glissando (_glis-sahn'-do_), 97
+
+Graces, 22
+
+Grandioso (_grahn-dee-o'-so_), 60
+
+Grand sonata, 74
+
+Grave (_grah'-veh_), 50
+
+Grazioso (_grah-tsi-o'-so_), 60
+
+Great octave, 16
+
+Great staff, 5
+
+Grosse pause (_gros-seh pah-oo'-za_) or (_gros-seh pow-zeh_), 15
+
+Gruppetto (_groo-pet'-to_), 22
+
+
+Habanera (_hah-bah-neh'-rah_), 71
+
+Half-step, 83
+
+Harmonic minor scale, 33
+
+Harmonics, 136
+
+Harmonics on violin, 117
+
+Harmony, 82
+
+Harp, 129
+
+Harpsichord, 97
+
+Head of note, 1
+
+Hold, 15
+
+Homophonic style, 63
+
+Hook, 1
+
+Humoresque (_hoo-mo-resk'_), 97
+
+Hymn to St. John, 37
+
+
+Idyl, 97
+
+Il (_eel_), 42
+
+Il basso (_bahs'-so_), 42
+
+Il più (_pee'-oo_), 42
+
+Il più forte possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 42
+
+Imitation, 64
+
+Imperfect trill, 23
+
+In alt (_in ahlt_), 97
+
+In altissimo (_ahl-tis'-si-mo_), 97
+
+Ino (_ee'-no_), 42
+
+Instrumentation, 97
+
+Instruments, classification of, 112
+
+Intensity of tones, 135
+
+Interlude, 97
+
+Intermediate tones, 38
+  see "Chromatic," p. 96
+
+International pitch, 138
+
+Interval, def., 83
+  enharmonic, 10
+  harmonic, 83
+  melodic, 83
+  names of, 83
+
+Inversion, in thematic development, 69
+
+Inversions of chords, 88
+
+Inverted mordent, 23
+
+Inverted turn, 25
+
+Issimo, 42
+
+
+Kettle-drum, 126
+
+Key, def., 28
+  signature, 8
+  enharmonic keys, 10
+  key-tone, 27, 28
+  how different from scale, 28
+
+
+L, 42
+
+La (_lah_), 42
+
+Lacrimando (_lah-kri-mahn'-do_), 60
+
+Lacrimoso (_lah-kri-mo'-so_), 60
+
+Largamente (_lar-gah-men'-teh_), 42
+
+Largando (_lar-gahn'-do_), 53
+
+Larghetto (_lar-get'-to_), 50
+
+Largo, 50
+
+Largo assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52
+
+Largo di molto (_de mohl'-to_), 52
+
+Largo ma non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 52
+
+Largo un poco (_oon po'-co_), 52
+
+Le (_leh_), 42
+
+Leading tone, 33, 36
+
+Legato (_leh-gah'-to_), 18, 60
+
+Leger lines, 5
+
+Leggierissimo (_led-jah-ris'-si-mo_), 60
+
+Leggiero (_led-jee'-ro_), 60
+
+Lentando (_len-tahn'-do_), 52
+
+Lentemente (_len-tah-men'-teh_), 52
+
+Lentissimamente (_-men'-teh_), 52
+
+Lentissamente (_-men'-teh_), 52
+
+Lento, 50
+
+Lento a capriccio (_ah-cah-preet'-chee-o_), 52
+
+Lento assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52
+
+Lento di molto (_de mohl'-to_), 52
+
+Libretto (_lee-bret'-to_), 78
+
+Lied (_leed_), 80
+
+L'istesso tempo (_lis-tes'-so_), 42, 55
+
+Loco, 15, 97
+
+Long appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too'-rah_), 25
+
+Lower tetrachord, 29
+
+Lunga pausa (_loong-ah pow'-zeh_) or (_loon-gah pah-oo'-za_), 15
+
+Lunga trillo, 97
+
+Lusingando (_loos-in-gahn'-do_), 60
+
+Lyric, 98
+
+
+Madrigal (_mad'-ri-gal_), 81
+
+Maesta (_mah'-es-tah_), 60
+
+Maestoso (_mah-es-to'-so_), 60
+
+Maggiore (_mahd-jo'-reh_), 98
+
+Main droite (_mahng droa_), 20
+
+Main gauche (_mahng gowsh_), 20
+
+Major key, 8
+
+Major scale, def., 29
+  positions, 30
+  origin of name, 33
+
+Mancando (_mahn-kahn'-do_), 59
+
+Mano destra (_mah'-no dehs'-trah_), 20
+
+Mano sinistra (_si-nees'-trah_), 20
+
+Marcato il canto (_mar-kah'-to eel kahn'-to_), 98
+
+Martellando (_mar-tel-lahn'-do_), 59
+
+Martellato (_mar-tel-lah'-to_), 59
+
+Marziale (_mart-se-ah'-leh_), 59
+
+Mass, 77
+
+Mazurka (_mah-zoor'-ka_), 71
+
+Measure, def., 44
+  how differs from "bar," 12
+  how differs from "rhythm," 44
+  syncopation in, 44
+  simple and compound, 45
+  duple or even, 46
+  triple or perfect, 46
+  quadruple, 46
+  sextuple, 46
+  compound duple, 46
+  signature, 48
+  binary, 95
+
+Mediant, 36
+
+Mellifluous (_mel-lif'-loo-us_), 98
+
+Melodic minor scales, 34
+
+Melody, 82
+
+Melos (_meh'-los_), 98
+
+Meno (_meh'-no_), 42
+
+Meno mosso (_mos'-so_), 53
+
+Mente (_men'-teh_), 42
+
+Menuet (_meh-noo-eh'_), 98
+
+Menuetto (_meh-noo-et'-to_), 98
+
+Messa di voce (_mes'-sa dee vo'-cheh_), 21
+
+Mesto (_mehs'-to_), 60
+
+Metronome, 49
+
+Mezza (_med'-zah_), 42
+
+Mezzo (_med'-zo_), 42
+
+Mezzo forte (_for'-teh_), 42, 56
+
+Mezzo piano (_pe-ah'-no_), 56
+
+Mezzo soprano (_so-prah'-no_), 98
+
+Mezzo voce (_vo'-cheh_), 60
+
+Minor key, 8
+
+Minore (_me-no'-reh_), 98
+
+Minor scale, def., 33
+  positions, 34
+
+Minuet, 71
+
+Misterioso (_mis-teh-ri-o'-so_), 60
+
+Moderato (_mod-e-rah'-to_), 51
+
+Modulation, def., 92
+  enharmonic, 10
+
+Molto (_mohl'-to_), 42
+
+Molto crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 42
+
+Monophonic style, 63, 67
+
+Mordent, 22, 23
+
+Morendo (_mo-ren'-do_), 59
+
+Moriente (_mo-ri-en'-teh_), 59
+
+Motet (_mo-tet'_), 76
+
+Movable C Clef, 6
+
+Mute, 117
+
+
+Natural, 3, 8
+
+Natural condition of staff-degrees, 8
+
+Nel, 42
+
+Nel battere (_baht-teh'-reh_), 42
+
+Nella, 42
+
+Neumae (_neoo'-mee_), 104
+
+Nocturne, 98
+
+Non (_non_), 42
+
+Non tanto (_tahn'-to_), 42
+
+Non tanto allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 53
+
+Non troppo allegro (_trop'-po_), 53
+
+Notation, history of music, 101
+
+Notes, def., 10
+  kinds of, 11
+  English names for, 11
+  dotted, 17
+  staccato, 17
+  irregular note-groups, 19
+  parts of, 1
+  how made, 1
+
+Nuance (_noo-angs_), 98
+
+
+Obbligato (_ob-blee-gah'-to_), 98
+
+Oboe (_o'-bo_), 121
+
+Octave, def., 36
+
+Octaves, names of, 16
+
+Offertory, 98
+
+One-lined octave, 16
+
+Open position, 94
+
+Opera, 78
+
+Opus, 98
+
+Oratorio, 77
+
+Orchestra, 115
+
+Orchestration, 98
+
+Organ, reed, 113
+  pipe, 114
+  point, 98
+
+Original minor scale, 33
+
+Origin of scale, 28
+
+Ossia (_os'-see-ah_), 42, 98
+
+Ossia più facile (_pe-oo' fah-chee'-leh_), 42
+
+Overtones, 136
+
+Overture, 98
+
+
+Parlando (_par-lahn'-do_), 60
+
+Part song, 81
+
+Pastorale (_pas-to-rah'-leh_), 60
+
+Pedal point, 93
+
+Pentatonic scale, 27
+
+Per (_pehr_), 42
+
+Percussion instruments, 116
+
+Perdendo (_pehr-den'-do_), 59
+
+Perdendosi (_pehr-den-do'-see_), 59
+
+Perfect measure, 46
+
+Perfect trill, 23
+
+Per il violino (_eel ve-o-le'-no_), 42
+
+Period, 67
+
+Pesante (_peh-sahn'-teh_), 55
+
+Peu (_peuh_), 42
+
+Phrase, 67
+
+Phrase mark, 18
+
+Pianissimo (_pee-ahn-is'-si-mo_), 56
+
+Pianissimo possibile (_pos-see'-bee'-leh_), 56
+
+Pianisissimo (_pee-ahn-is-is'-si-mo_), 56
+
+Piano (_pee-ah'-no_), 56
+
+Piano assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 56
+
+Piano, description of, 112
+
+Piccolo (_pik'-ko-lo_), 119
+
+Pipe organ, 114
+
+Pitch, def., 134
+  pitch names, 6
+  standards of, 137
+  concert pitch, 138
+  international pitch, 138
+
+Più (_pe-oo'_), 42
+
+Più allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 54
+
+Più forte (for'-teh), 42
+
+Più lento, 53
+
+Più mosso (_mos'-so_), 54
+
+Più tosto (_tos'-to_), 54
+
+Pizzicato (_pits-e-kah'-to_), 99, 117
+
+Pochetto (_po-ket'-to_), see ino, 42
+
+Poco, 43
+
+Poco a poco animando (_ah-nee-mahn'-do_), 54
+
+Poi (_po' ee_), 42
+
+Polacca (_po-lahk'-kah_), 99
+
+Polka, 69
+
+Polonaise (_pol-o-nez'_), 71, 99
+
+Polyphonic style, 64
+
+Pomposo (_pom-po'-so_), 60
+
+Portamento (_por'-tah-men'-to_), 20
+
+Position, open and close, 94
+
+Possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 43
+
+Postlude, 99
+
+Prall trill, 22
+
+Precipitoso (_preh-che-pi-to'-so_), 60
+
+Prelude, 99
+
+Prestissimo (_pres-tis'-see-mo_), 51
+
+Prestissimo possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 51
+
+Presto, 51
+
+Presto assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 53
+
+Presto (ma) non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 53
+
+Prière (_pre-ehr'_), 99
+
+Primary forms, 68
+
+Primitive minor scale, 33
+
+Program music, 74
+
+Pure music, 74
+
+Pure scale, 40
+
+
+Quadruple measure, 46
+
+Quality, 136
+
+Quartet, 72
+
+Quasi (_quah'-see_), 43
+
+Quintole (_kwin'-to-leh_), 99
+
+Quintolet, 20
+
+Quintuplet, 20, 99
+
+
+Raised sixth, 34
+
+Rallentando (_rahl-len-tahn'-do_), 53
+
+Rapidamente (_rah-pid-a-men'-teh_), 55
+
+Rate of speed, of sound, 132
+
+Recitative (_res-i-tah-teev'_), 78
+
+Recitativo (_reh-chee-ta-tee'-vo_), 60
+
+Reed organ, 113
+
+Relative minor, 8, 35
+
+Religioso (_reh-lee-jo'-so_), 99
+
+Repetition and contrast, 62, 70
+
+Requiem (_re'-kwi-em_), 99
+
+Rests, def., 10
+  rules for making, 2
+  kinds of, 11
+  peculiar use of, 11
+  several measures of, 14
+
+Retardation, 93
+
+Rhapsody, 99
+
+Rhythm, def., 82
+  element of music, 82
+  how differs from "measure," 44
+  correct use of word, 48
+
+Rhythmic augmentation, 69
+
+Rhythmic diminution, 69
+
+Rhythmic figures, 44
+
+Ribattuta (_re-baht-too'-tah_), 99
+
+Rigaudon (_rig'-o-don_), 71
+
+Rinforzando (_rin-for-tsahn'-do_), 57
+
+Rinforzato (_rin-for-tsah'-to_), 57
+
+Risoluto (_ree-so-loo'-to_), 60
+
+Ritardando (_ree-tar-dahn'-do_), 53
+
+Ritenente (_ree-ten-en'-teh_), 53
+
+Ritenuto (_ree-ten-oo'-to_), 53
+
+Ritornelle (_ree-tor-nell'_), 99
+
+Ritornello (_ree-tor-nel'-lo_), 99
+
+Rondo, 70, 71
+
+Rules:
+  For writing music, 1, 2
+  For turning stems, 1, 2
+  For altered staff degrees, 10
+  For embellishments, 22-26
+  For repeats, 13, 14
+  For writing chromatic scale, 38
+
+
+Sans (_sahng_), 43
+
+Sans pedales (_peh-da-leh_), 43
+
+Sarabande (_sar-ah-bahn'-deh_), 71
+
+Sarrusophone (_sar-reoos-o-fohn'_), 123
+
+Saxhorn, p. 125 (footnote)
+
+Saxophone, 121
+
+Scales, def., 27
+  origin, 28
+  how different from keys, 28
+  positions of:
+    major, 30
+    minor, 34
+    chromatic, 38
+  tones of, called, 5, 36, 37
+  Chinese, 27
+  Scotch, 27
+
+Scherzando (_skehr-tsahn'-do_), 60
+
+Scherzo (_skehr'-tso_), 71, 72
+
+Scherzoso (_skehr-tzo'-so_), 60
+
+School-round, 66
+
+Schottische (_shot'-tish_), 99
+
+Score, 99
+
+Scotch scale, 27
+
+Sec (_sek_), 99
+
+Secco (_sek'-ko_), 99
+
+Section, 67
+
+Segue (_sehg'-weh_), 14
+
+Semplice (_sem-plee'-cheh_), 60
+
+Sempre (_sem'-preh_), 43
+
+Sempre forte (_for'-teh_), 43
+
+Sempre lento malinconico assai (_mah-leen-ko'-ni-ko ahs-sah'-ee_), 55
+
+Sempre marcatissimo (_mar-kah-tis'-si-mo_), 60
+
+Sentimento (_sen-tee-men'-to_), 60
+
+Senza (_sen-tza_), 42
+
+Senza accompagnamento (_ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-toh_), 42
+
+Senza repetizione (_reh-peh-titz-e-o'-neh_), 14, 99
+
+Senza replica (_reh'-ple-kah_), 99
+
+Septimole, 20
+
+Septolet, 20
+
+Sequence, 91
+
+Serenade, 99
+
+Serenata (_seh-re-nah'-tah_), 99
+
+Seventh chord, 89
+
+Sextet, 99
+
+Sextolet, 20
+
+Sextuple measure, 46
+
+Sextuplet, 20, 100
+
+Sforzando (_sfortz-ahn'-do_), 57
+
+Sforzato (_sfortz-ah'-to_), 57
+
+Shake, 22
+
+Sharp, 3, 7
+
+Short appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too-rah_), 25
+
+Simile (_see'-mee-leh_), 14, 100
+
+Similiter (_see-mil'-i-ter_), 100
+
+Simple measure, 45
+
+Simple tone, 137
+
+Sin (_seen_), 43
+
+Sin al fine (_ahl-fee'-neh_), 14
+
+Sino (_see'-no_), 43
+
+Sixteen-foot stop, 114
+
+Sixty-four-foot stop, 114
+
+Slentando (_slen-tahn'-do_), 53
+
+Slur, 18
+
+Small octave, 16
+
+Smorzando (_smor-tzahn'-do_), 59
+
+Solenne (_so-len'-neh_), 59
+
+Solfège (_sul-fezh'_), 100
+
+Solfeggio (_sol-fed'-jo_), 100
+
+Solmization, 100
+
+Solo, 43
+
+Sonata (_so-nah'-tah_), 71
+
+Sonata allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 73
+
+Sonata form, 73
+
+Sonatina (_so-na-tee'-nah_), 74
+
+Song form, 68
+
+Sopra (_so'-prah_), 100
+
+Soprano (_so-prah'-no_), 100
+
+Sordino (_sor-dee'-no_), 117
+
+Sostenuto (_sos-teh-noo'-to_), 100
+
+Sotto (_sot'-to_), 100
+
+Sotto voce (_vo'-cheh_), 59
+
+Sound, App. C, 131
+  Production of, 131
+  Transmission of, 131
+  Rate of travel of, 131
+  Intensification of, 133
+  Reflection of, 133
+  Classification of, 133
+
+Spiritoso (_spee-ree-to'-so_), 60
+
+Staccatissimo (_stahk-kah-tis'-si-mo_), 17
+
+Staccato (_stahk-kah'-to_), 17, 20, 100
+
+Staff, 5
+
+Staff degrees, 5
+
+Standards of pitch, 137
+
+Stems, 1
+
+Step, half and whole, 83
+
+Strepitoso (_streh-pee-to'-so_), 61
+
+Stretto (_stret'-to_), 54
+
+Strict imitation, 64
+
+Stringed instruments, 115
+
+Stringendo (_strin-jen'-do_), 54
+
+Stroking notes, 2
+
+Strophe form (_stro'-feh_), 80
+
+Styles, kinds of, 63
+  how differ from forms, 62
+
+Sub, 43
+
+Sub-dominant, 36
+
+Subject, 64
+
+Subito (_soo-bee'-to_), 100
+
+Sub-mediant, 36
+
+Sub-octave, 16
+
+Suite (_sweet_), 70
+
+Super-dominant, 36
+
+Super-tonic, 36
+
+Suspension, 92
+
+Swell-box, 114
+
+Syllables for sight-singing, 37
+
+Symphonic poem, 75
+
+Symphony, def., 73
+
+Syncopation, 44
+
+
+Tail of note, 1
+
+Takt pausa (_tahkt pow'-zeh_ or _pah-oo'-za_), 11
+
+Tanto (_tahn'-to_), 43
+
+Tarantella (_tah-rahn-tel'-lah_), 71
+
+Tempered scales, 137
+
+Tempo, 48-50
+
+Tempo commodo (_ko-mo'-do_), 55
+
+Tempo di marcia (_de mar'-chee-ah_), 55
+
+Tempo di menuetto (_meh-noo-et'-to_), 55
+
+Tempo di valso (_vahl'-so_), 55
+
+Tempo giusto (_jew-sto_), 54
+
+Tempo ordinario (_or-dee-nah'-ree-o_), 55
+
+Tempo primo (_pree'-mo_), 54
+
+Tempo rubato (_roo-bah'-to_), 54
+
+Tenor, 100
+
+Tenuto (_teh-noo'-to_), 55, 100
+
+Terminology Reforms, App. D., p. 139
+
+Tetrachords in scales, 29
+
+Thematic development, 69
+
+Theme, 69
+
+Theme and variations, 69
+
+Thesis, 67
+
+Thirty-two-foot stop, 114
+
+Thorough-bass, 89
+
+Three-lined octave, 16
+
+Through-composed form, 80
+
+Tie, 18
+
+Timbre (_tambr_), 82
+
+Time, wrong uses of word, 48
+
+Toccata (_tok-kah'-tah_), 100
+
+Tonality scale, 27, 28, 38
+
+Tone, how represented, 10
+  ornamental tone, 22
+  key-tone, 27
+  of resolution, 93
+
+Tone-poem, 75
+
+Tonic, 36
+
+Tonic minor, 36
+
+Tranquillo (_trahn-quil'-lo_), 61
+
+Transposition, 94
+
+Tre (_treh_), 43
+
+Treble staff, 6
+
+Tre corde (_kor'-deh_), 43, 59
+
+Très (_treh_), 43
+
+Très lentement (_lahng-te-mahng_), 52
+
+Très vivement (_ve'-veh-mahng_), 42
+
+Triad, def., 87, 88
+
+Trill, 22
+
+Trio, 72
+
+Triple measure, 46
+
+Triplet, 19, 100
+
+Tristamente (_tris-tah-men'-teh_), 61
+
+Trombone, 125
+
+Troppo (_trop'-po_), 43
+
+Trumpet, 124
+
+Tuba, 125
+
+Turn, 24, 25
+
+Tutte le corde (_toot'-teh leh kor'-deh_), 59
+
+Tutti (_toot'-tee_), 100
+
+Two-foot stop, 114
+
+Two-lined octave, 16
+
+
+Un (_oon_), 43
+
+Una (_oo'-nah_), 43
+
+Una corda, 43, 59
+
+Uno (_oo'-no_), 43
+
+Un peu (_oon peuh_), 43
+
+Un peu crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 43
+
+Un poco animate (_ah-ni-mah-'to_), 54
+
+Untempered scale, 40
+
+Upper partials, 136
+
+Upper tetrachord, 29
+
+
+Veloce (_veh-lo'-cheh_), 55
+
+Viola (_vee-o'-lah_), 117
+
+Violin, 117
+
+Violoncello (_vee-o-lohn-chel'-lo_), 118
+
+Vivo (_vee'-vo_), 51
+
+Vivace (_vee-vah'-cheh_), 51
+
+Vivacissimo (_vee-vah-chis'-see-mo_), 51
+
+Vocal music, 76
+
+Volante (_vo-lahn'-teh_), 55
+
+
+Waltz, 68
+
+Whole-step, 83
+
+Whole-step scale, 28, 40
+
+Wood-wind instruments, 115
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY***
+
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Music Notation and Terminology, by Karl W. Gehrkens</title>
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+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Music Notation and Terminology, by Karl W.
+Gehrkens</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Music Notation and Terminology</p>
+<p>Author: Karl W. Gehrkens</p>
+<p>Release Date: October 8, 2006  [eBook #19499]<br />
+Most recently updated: February 14, 2011</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by David Newman, Linda Cantoni,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net/">http://www.pgdp.net/</a>).<br />
+    Thanks to Alex Guzman for the realization of the figured bass in Figure 67,<br />
+    and to Bunji Hisamori and the Classical Midi Connection<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.classicalmidiconnection.com">http://www.classicalmidiconnection.com</a>)<br />
+    for the MIDI sequence of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 31, No. 3.</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="notes"><i>Transcriber's Note:</i> This e-text contains
+Unicode characters representing music symbols (sharp, flat, and natural)
+that may not display properly in your browser or font. A mouse-hover
+description of these symbols has been provided, e.g.:
+A<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>
+G<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>
+C<span lang="el" title="natural">&#9838;</span><span title="natural">.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<h1>MUSIC NOTATION<br />
+AND TERMINOLOGY</h1>
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">By</span> KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M.</h2>
+
+<h3>
+ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL MUSIC<br />
+OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC<br />
+</h3>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/logo.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="logo" title="logo" />
+</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY<br />
+NEW YORK 1914<br />
+</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1914, by</span><br />
+THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The study of <i>music notation and terminology</i> by classes in
+conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools
+is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such
+courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which
+might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the
+really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in
+music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the
+present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more
+systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more
+<i>intelligent</i> class of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to
+establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after
+having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a
+concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most
+of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of
+which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps
+knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly
+and economically to others.</p>
+
+<p>To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the
+author has been for several years gathering material from all available
+sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in
+related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only
+some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but
+will also enable him to see more clearly <i>why</i> certain terms have the
+meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their
+definition.</p>
+
+<p>The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of
+terms has of course been influenced largely by the author's own
+individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that
+important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For
+this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would
+probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would
+satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms.</p>
+
+<p>In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to
+use such words as <i>note</i>, <i>tone</i>, et cetera with at least a fair degree
+of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author on this point may be
+criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his
+opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be
+profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been
+inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large
+extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is
+well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of
+edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually
+begin to come, the <i>need</i> of reform must be felt by a fairly large
+number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few
+musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the
+changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful
+thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points
+at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought
+to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and
+that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.</p>
+
+<p>It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the
+teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span>studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter
+purpose a pronouncing index has been appended.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have
+been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear
+and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt
+or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an
+almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove's
+Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the
+arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H.
+Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox,
+Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice,
+Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of
+the Music Teachers' National Association who have offered valuable
+advice along certain specific lines.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right">K.W.G.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oberlin Conservatory of Music</span>, <i>June, 1913</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+<a href="#CHAPTER_I"><span class="smcap">Chapter I</span>.</a>&#8212;Some Principles of Correct Notation <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Note.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2, 3. Rules for turning stems.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Use of cross-stroke.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Rest.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. G Clef.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. F Clef and C Clef.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Sharp and double-sharp.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Flat, double-flat and natural.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Tie.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Dot after a note.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_II"><span class="smcap">Chapter II</span>.</a>&#8212;Symbols of Music Defined <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Staff and Great Staff.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. Leger Lines.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">14. Staff degrees.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">15. Clef.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">16. Treble and bass Clefs.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">17. Movable C Clef.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">18. Sharp.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">19. Flat.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">20. Double-sharp and double-flat.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_III"><span class="smcap">Chapter III</span>.</a>&#8212;Symbols of Music Defined (<i>continued</i>) <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">21. Natural</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">27. Enharmonic.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">29. Rests.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">30. Lists of notes and rests.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">31. English names for.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">32. Less common forms.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">34. Bar.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">35. Double-bar.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV</span>.</a>&#8212;Abbreviations, Signs, etc. <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">36-40. Signs for repetition.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">41. Continuation.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">42. Rest.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">43. Pause.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">44. Hold.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">45-47. Alteration of Pitch.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">48. Octave names.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_V"><span class="smcap">Chapter V</span>.</a>&#8212;Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (<i>continued</i>) <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">49-51. Dots after notes.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">52. Dots over or under notes.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">53. Dash over note.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">54. Tie.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">55. Slur.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">56. Slur or tie with dots.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">57. Dash over note.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">58. Dash and dot over note.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">59. Accent marks.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">60. m.d., m.g., etc.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">61. Arpeggio.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">62. Messa di voce.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">63. Violin bow signs.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><span class="smcap">Chapter VI</span>.</a>&#8212;Embellishments <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">64. Definition and kinds.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">65. Trill.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">66-68. Mordent.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">69-72. Turn.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">73, 74. Appoggiatura.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">75. Acciaccatura.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><span class="smcap">Chapter VII</span>.</a>&#8212;Scales <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">76. Definition, and old forms.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">77. Origin.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">78. Key.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">79. Three general classes.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">80. Diatonic, defined.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">81. Major diatonic.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">82. Tetrachords.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">83. The fifteen positions.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><span class="smcap">Chapter VIII</span>.</a>&#8212;Scales (<i>continued</i>) <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">84. Minor diatonic.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">85. Original form.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">86. Harmonic minor.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">87. Melodic minor.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">88. Eleven positions.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">89. Relative minor.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">90. Tonic minor.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">91. Diatonic scale names.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">92. Syllable-names.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">93. Chromatic scale.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">94. Nine positions.</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">95. Whole-step scale.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><span class="smcap">Chapter IX</span>.</a>&#8212;Auxiliary Words and Endings <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_X"><span class="smcap">Chapter X</span>.</a>&#8212;Measure <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">97. Definition.&#8212;Two essential characteristics. Rhythm vers measure.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">98. Syncopation.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">99. Simple and compound measures.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">100. Commonest varieties.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">101. Other varieties.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">102. Rare varieties.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">103. The signs, C and
+<img src="images/cuttime.jpg" width="20" height="29" alt="cut-time" title="cut-time" />.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><span class="smcap">Chapter XI</span>.</a>&#8212;Tempo <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">104. Misuses of the word &quot;time.&quot;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">105-107. How to correct these: by substituting &quot;rhythm,&quot; &quot;measure,&quot;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">and &quot;tempo.&quot;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><span class="smcap">Chapter XII</span>.</a>&#8212;Tempo (<i>continued</i>) <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">110-119. Tempo-terms.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><span class="smcap">Chapter XIII</span>.</a>&#8212;Dynamics <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><span class="smcap">Chapter XIV</span>.</a>&#8212;Terms Relating to Forms and Styles <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">132. Definition of form.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">133. Basis of form.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">134. Difference between form and style.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">135. Introductory.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">136. Two styles.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">137. Monophonic music.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">138. Polyphonic music.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">139. Counterpoint.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">140. Imitation.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">141. Canon.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">142. School round.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">143. Fugue.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XV"><span class="smcap">Chapter XV</span>.</a>&#8212;Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (<i>continued</i>) <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">144. Phrase-section.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">146. Primary forms.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">147. Theme.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">148. Thematic development.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">149. Rondo.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">150. Suite.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">151. Dances in suite.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">152. Scherzo.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">153. Sonata.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">155. Concerto.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">156. Symphony.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">157. Sonata-form.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">159. Program music.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">160. Symphonic or tone poem.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><span class="smcap">Chapter XVI</span>.</a>&#8212;Terms Relating to Vocal Music <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">161. Anthem.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">162. A capella.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">163. Motet.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">164. Choral.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">165. Mass.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">166. Cantata.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">167. Oratorio.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">168. Opera.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">169. Libretto.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">170. Recitative.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">171. Aria.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">172. Lied.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">173. Ballad.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">174. Folk-song.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">175. Madrigal.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">176. Glee.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">177. Part-song.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XVII"><span class="smcap">Chapter XVII</span>.</a>&#8212;Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">178. The four elements of music.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">179. Rhythm.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">180. Melody.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">181. Harmony.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">182. Timbre.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">183. Interval&#8212;harmonic and melodic.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">184. Number name and specific name.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">185. Prime.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">186. Second.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">187. Third.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">188. Fourth.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">189. Fifth.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">190. Sixth.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">191. Seventh.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">192. Octave.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">193. Ninth.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">195. Inverted intervals.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII"><span class="smcap">Chapter XVIII</span>.</a>&#8212;Chords, Cadences, etc. <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">196. Chord. Triad. Root.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">198. The Common chords.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">200. Figured bass.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">202. Cadence.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">203. Authentic cadence.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">205. Plagal cadence.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">206. Half-cadence.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">207. Deceptive cadence.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">208. Sequence.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh.</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">210. Suspension.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">211. Retardation.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">212. Anticipation.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">213. Pedal point.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">214. Close and open position.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">215. Transposition.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XIX"><span class="smcap">Chapter XIX</span>.</a>&#8212;Miscellaneous Terms <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XX"><span class="smcap">Chapter XX</span>.</a>&#8212;Miscellaneous Terms (<i>continued</i>) <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#APPENDIX_A"><span class="smcap">Appendix A</span>.</a>&#8212;The History of Music Notation <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#APPENDIX_B"><span class="smcap">Appendix B</span>.</a>&#8212;Musical Instruments <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Two classes.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Piano.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Instruments used for ensemble playing.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. Band.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Orchestra.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. The stringed instruments.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Wood-wind.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Brass.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Percussion.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. Books recommended.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">14. Violin.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">15. Viola.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">16. Violoncello.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">17. Double-bass.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">18. Flute.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">19. Piccolo.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">20. Oboe family.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">22. French horn.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">23. Trumpet.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">24. Cornet.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">25. Trombone.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">26. Tuba.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">27. Kettle-drum.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">28. Harp.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#APPENDIX_C"><span class="smcap">Appendix C</span>.</a>&#8212;Acoustics <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Definition.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Sound, production of.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Sound, transmission of.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Rate of travel.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Intensification of.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. Classification of.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Tones, properties of.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Pitch.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Intensity.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Quality.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Overtones.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Equal temperament.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. Standards of pitch.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#APPENDIX_D"><span class="smcap">Appendix D</span>.</a>&#8212;Terminology Reform <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#APPENDIX_E"><span class="smcap">Appendix E</span>.</a>&#8212;Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3 <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+<a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Pronouncing Index</span></a> <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Some Principles of Correct Notation</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="SEC_1">1.</a> The <i>note</i> (from <i>nota</i>&#8212;Latin&#8212;a mark or sign) consists of either
+one, two, or three parts, (<img src="images/notes.jpg" width="55" height="24" alt="notes" title="notes" />) these being referred to
+respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called <i>tail</i> or
+cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned
+up, but on the left side when turned down.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+<img src="images/quarter.jpg" width="36" height="24" alt="quarter notes" title="quarter notes" /> The hook is
+always on the right side.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+<img src="images/eighth.jpg" width="39" height="24" alt="eighth notes" title="eighth notes" /></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with
+a heavy pressure on the pen point, but in writing at the board
+they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an
+inch long, turned on its side.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following
+<i>rules for turning stems</i> apply: (1) If the note-head is <i>below</i> the
+third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is <i>above</i> the
+third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is <i>on</i> the
+third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the
+symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The
+following examples will illustrate these points.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig01.jpg" width="700" height="92" alt="Fig. 1" title="Fig. 1" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig01.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper
+part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that
+the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano
+and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by <i>one</i>
+performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices
+have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in
+common as in Fig. 3.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig02.jpg" width="300" height="87" alt="Fig. 2" title="Fig. 2" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig02.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig03.jpg" width="300" height="177" alt="Fig. 3" title="Fig. 3" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig03.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written
+in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by
+<i>one cross-stroke</i>. In such a case all the stems must of course be
+turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of
+the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus <i>stroked</i> may be of
+the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig04.jpg" width="400" height="90" alt="Fig. 4" title="Fig. 4" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig04.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to
+each note. (See <a href="#Page_19">p. 19</a>, <a href="#SEC_55">Sec. 55</a>, C.)</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Rests</i>, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by
+using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under <a href="#SEC_1">Sec. 1</a>.) The
+double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third space
+unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff
+they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may
+be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on
+the spaces. The hook<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> of the eighth rest is usually placed on the
+<i>third</i> space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.</p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>G clef</i> should be begun at the second line rather than below the
+staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it
+most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by
+dividing it into two parts, thus,
+<img src="images/gclef.jpg" width="38" height="40" alt="G clef" title="G clef" />. The descending stroke
+crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular
+part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces.</p>
+
+<p>7. The <i>F clef</i> is made either thus,
+<img src="images/bass.jpg" width="20" height="24" alt="bass clef" title="bass clef" />, or thus,
+<img src="images/oldbass.jpg" width="20" height="23" alt="old bass clef" title="old bass clef" /> the dots being placed one on either side of the
+fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef
+marks. The C <i>clef</i> has also two forms,
+<img src="images/cclef1.jpg" width="33" height="24" alt="C clef" title="C clef" /> and
+<img src="images/cclef2.jpg" width="16" height="24" alt="C clef" title="C clef" />.</p>
+
+<p>8. The <i>sharp</i> is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy
+slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right,
+<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>. The sharp should never be made thus, #.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>double sharp</i> is made either thus
+<img src="images/doublesharp.jpg" width="16" height="15" alt="double-sharp" title="double-sharp" /> or
+*, the first form being at present the more common.</p>
+
+<p>9. The <i>flat</i> is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the
+curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The <i>double flat</i>
+consists of two flats,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> <span lang="el" title="double-flat">&#9837;&#9837;</span>. The <i>natural</i> or <i>cancel</i> is
+made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus
+<img src="images/natural.jpg" width="27" height="24" alt="natural" title="natural" /> <span lang="el" title="natural">&#9838;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>10. The <i>tie</i> usually connects the <i>heads</i> of notes, thus
+<img src="images/tie.jpg" width="26" height="24" alt="tie" title="tie" />.</p>
+
+<p>11. The <i>dot after a note</i> always appears on a space, whether the
+note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot
+after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the space <i>above</i>
+that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below
+it if the following note is lower.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig05.jpg" width="550" height="87" alt="Fig. 5" title="Fig. 5" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig05.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Note.</i>&#8212;Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a
+theory, and in order to form the habit of writing correctly,
+<i>drill</i> is necessary. This may perhaps be best secured by
+asking students to write (at the board or on ruled paper) from
+verbal dictation, thus: Teacher says,</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Key of B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, three-quarter measure: First measure, DO a
+quarter note, RE a quarter, and MI a quarter. Second measure,
+SOL a quarter, LA a quarter, and SOL a quarter. Third measure,
+LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth measure,
+high DO a dotted half.&quot; Pupils respond by writing the exercise
+dictated, after which mistakes in the turning of stems, etc.,
+are corrected. The <i>pitch names</i> may be dictated instead of
+the syllables if desired, and still further practice may be
+provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other
+keys.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Symbols of Music Defined</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>12. A <i>staff</i> is a collection of parallel lines, together with the
+spaces belonging to them. The modern staff has five lines and six
+spaces, these being ordinarily referred to as first line, second line,
+third line, fourth line, and fifth line (beginning with the lowest); and
+space below (<i>i.e.</i>, space below the first line), first space, second
+space, third space, fourth space, and space above.</p>
+
+<p>The definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of
+the portions of the &quot;great staff,&quot; the latter term being often applied
+to the combination of treble and bass staffs (with one leger line
+between) so commonly used in piano music, etc.</p>
+
+<p>13. The <i>extent of the staff</i> may be increased either above or below by
+the addition of short lines called <i>leger lines</i>,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and notes may be
+written on either these lines or on the spaces above and below them.</p>
+
+<p>14. The lines and spaces constituting the staff (including leger lines
+if any) are often referred to as <i>staff degrees</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, each separate
+line and space is considered to be &quot;a degree of the staff.&quot; The tones of
+a scale are also sometimes referred to as &quot;degrees of the scale.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>15. A <i>clef</i><a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches
+are to be represented by its lines and spaces. Thus, <i>e.g.</i>, the G clef
+shows us not only that the second line of the staff represents G, but
+that the first line represents E, the first space F, etc. The F clef
+similarly shows us that the fifth line<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> of the bass staff represents the
+first A below middle C, the fourth line the first F below middle C, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of
+the letters G and F, which (among others) were used to designate the
+pitches represented by certain lines when staff notation was first
+inaugurated. For a fuller discussion of this matter see
+<span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected error Appendix I"><a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix A</a></span>, <a href="#Page_101">p. 101</a>.</p>
+
+<p>16. When the G clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the
+<i>treble staff</i>, and when the F clef is used, as the <i>bass staff</i>. Such
+expressions as &quot;singing from the treble clef,&quot; or &quot;singing in the treble
+clef,&quot; and &quot;singing in the bass clef&quot; are still frequently heard, but
+are preferably replaced by &quot;singing from the treble staff,&quot; and &quot;singing
+from the bass staff.&quot; Fig. 6 shows the permanent names of lines and
+spaces when the G and F clefs are used.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig06.jpg" width="636" height="156" alt="Fig. 6" title="Fig. 6" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>17. <i>The movable C clef</i> <img src="images/cclef1.jpg" width="33" height="24" alt="C clef" title="C clef" /> or
+<img src="images/cclef2.jpg" width="16" height="24" alt="C clef" title="C clef" />,
+formerly in very common use, is now utilized for only two purposes,
+viz., (1) in music written for certain orchestral instruments (cello,
+viola, etc.) of extended range, in order to avoid having to use too many
+leger lines; and (2) for indicating the tenor part in vocal music. This
+latter usage seems also to be disappearing however, and the tenor part
+is commonly written on the treble staff, it being understood that the
+tones are to be sung an octave lower than the notes would indicate.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The C clef as used in its various positions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and
+9. It will be noted that in each case the line on which the clef is
+placed represents &quot;middle C.&quot;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig07-09.jpg" width="450" height="111" alt="Figs. 7-9" title="Figs. 7-9" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_18">18.</a> A <i>sharp</i> is a character which causes the degree of the staff with
+which it is associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it
+otherwise would.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Thus in Fig. 10 (<i>a</i>) the fifth line and first space represent
+the pitch F, but in Fig. 10 (<i>b</i>) these same staff degrees
+represent an entirely different tone&#8212;F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>. The student
+should note that the sharp does not then <i>raise</i> anything; it
+merely causes a staff degree to represent a higher tone than
+it otherwise would. There is just as much difference between F
+and F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> as between B and C, and yet one would never think
+of referring to C as &quot;B raised&quot;!</p></div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="200" height="99" alt="Fig. 10" title="Fig. 10" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>19. A <i>flat</i> is a character that causes the degree of the staff with
+which it is associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it
+otherwise would. (See note under <a href="#SEC_18">Sec. 18</a> and apply the same discussion
+here.)</p>
+
+<p>20. A <i>double-sharp</i> causes the staff degree on which it is placed to
+represent a pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp.
+Similarly, a double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed
+to represent a pitch one whole-step lower than it would without any
+flat.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Double-sharps and double-flats are generally used on staff
+degrees that have already been sharped or flatted, therefore
+their practical effect is to cause staff degrees to represent
+pitches respectively a half-step higher and a half-step lower
+than would be represented by those same degrees in their
+diatonic condition. Thus in Fig. 10 (<i>b</i>) the first space in
+its diatonic condition<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> represents F-sharp, and the
+double-sharp on this degree would cause it to represent a
+pitch one-half step higher than F-sharp, <i>i.e.</i>,
+F-double-sharp.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Symbols of Music Defined</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</h2>
+
+
+<p>21. The <i>natural</i><a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> (sometimes called <i>cancel</i>) annuls the effect of
+previous sharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the
+measure in which it occurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the
+combination of a natural with a sharp, or a natural with a flat is often
+found: in this case only one sharp or flat is annulled. (Sometimes also
+the single sharp or flat will be found by itself, cancelling the
+double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used when a
+composition changes key, as in Fig. 11, where a change from E to G is
+shown.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="150" height="82" alt="Fig. 11" title="Fig. 11" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>22. The group of sharps or flats (or absence of them) at the beginning
+of a staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is
+written. They are called collectively the <i>key-signature</i>.</p>
+
+<p>23. The same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys, the
+major key, or its relative minor, hence in order to determine in what
+key a melody is one must note whether the tones are grouped about the
+major tonic DO or the minor tonic LA. In a harmonized composition it is
+almost always possible to determine the key by referring to the last
+bass note; if the final chord is clearly the DO chord the composition is
+in the major key, but if this final chord is clearly the LA chord then
+it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> minor key.
+Thus if a final chord appears as that in Fig. 12 the composition is
+clearly in G major, while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is just as
+surely in E minor.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig12-13.jpg" width="320" height="186" alt="Figs. 12-13" title="Figs. 12-13" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="music/fig12-13.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p>24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps and double-flats, occurring
+in the course of the composition (<i>i.e.</i>, after the key signature) are
+called <i>accidentals</i>, whether they actually cause a staff degree to
+represent a different pitch as in Fig. 14 or simply make clear a
+notation about which there might otherwise be some doubt as in Fig. 15,
+measure two. The effect of such accidentals terminates at the bar.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig14-15.jpg" width="600" height="84" alt="Figs. 14-15" title="Figs. 14-15" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="music/fig14-15.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p>25. In the case of a <i>tie across a bar</i> an accidental remains in force
+until the combined value of the tied notes expires. In Fig. 16 first
+measure, third beat, an accidental sharp makes the third space represent
+the pitch C sharp. By virtue of the tie across the bar the third space
+continues to represent C sharp thru the first beat of the second
+measure, but for the remainder of the measure the third space will
+represent C unless the sharp is repeated as in Fig. 17.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig16-17.jpg" width="600" height="80" alt="Figs. 16-17" title="Figs. 16-17" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig16-17.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>26. The following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches
+different from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the
+beginner in the study of music notation. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> rules are quoted from
+&quot;The Worcester Musical Manual,&quot; by Charles I. Rice.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+1. To sharp a natural degree, use a sharp. Fig. 18.<br />
+2. To sharp a sharped degree, use a double sharp. Fig. 19.<br />
+3. To sharp a flatted degree, use a natural. Fig. 20.<br />
+4. To flat a natural degree, use a flat. Fig. 21.<br />
+5. To flat a flatted degree, use a double flat. Fig. 22.<br />
+6. To flat a sharped degree, use a natural. Fig. 23.
+</p></div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig18-23.jpg" width="550" height="179" alt="Figs. 18-23" title="Figs. 18-23" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig18-23.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_27">27.</a> When two different notations represent the same pitch, the word
+<i>enharmonic</i> is applied. Thus we may say that F sharp and G flat (on
+keyboard instruments at least) are enharmonically the same.</p>
+
+<p>This word <i>enharmonic</i> is used in such expressions as enharmonic change,
+enharmonic keys, enharmonic interval, enharmonic modulation, enharmonic
+relation, etc., and in all such combinations it has the same meaning,
+viz.&#8212;a change in notation but no change in the pitch represented.</p>
+
+<p>28. A <i>note</i> is a character expressing relative duration, which when
+placed on a staff indicates that a certain tone is to be sounded for a
+certain relative length of time. The pitch of the tone to be sounded is
+shown by the position of the note on the staff, while the length of time
+it is to be prolonged is shown by the shape of the note. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, a
+half-note on the second line of the treble staff indicates that a
+specific pitch (g') is to be played or sung for a period of time twice
+as long as would be indicated by a quarter-note in the same composition.</p>
+
+<p>29. A <i>rest</i> is a character which indicates a rhythmic silence of a
+certain relative length.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>30. The <i>notes and rests in common use</i> are as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/whole.jpg" width="18" height="12" alt="whole note" title="whole note" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Whole-note. An open note-head without stem.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/half.jpg" width="41" height="24" alt="half note" title="half note" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Half-note. An open note-head with stem.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/quarter.jpg" width="36" height="24" alt="quarter note" title="quarter note" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Quarter-note. A closed note-head with stem.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/eighth.jpg" width="39" height="24" alt="eighth note" title="eighth note" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Eighth-note. A closed note-head with stem and one hook.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/sixteenth.jpg" width="39" height="31" alt="sixteenth note" title="sixteenth note" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Sixteenth-note. A closed note-head with stem and two hooks.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/thirtysecond.jpg" width="39" height="38" alt="32nd note" title="32nd note" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Thirty-second-note. A closed note-head with stem and three hooks.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/wholerest.jpg" width="30" height="10" alt="whole rest" title="whole rest" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Whole-rest.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/halfrest.jpg" width="30" height="7" alt="half rest" title="half rest" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Half-rest.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/quarterrest.jpg" width="40" height="20" alt="quarter rest" title="quarter rest" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Quarter-rest.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/eighthrest.jpg" width="13" height="13" alt="eighth rest" title="eighth rest" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Eighth-rest.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/sixteenthrest.jpg" width="13" height="21" alt="sixteenth rest" title="sixteenth rest" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Sixteenth-rest.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="text-align: left"><img src="images/thirtysecondrest.jpg" width="13" height="33" alt="32nd rest" title="32nd rest" /></td>
+  <td style="text-align: left">Thirty-second-rest.</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>31. The <i>English names</i> for these notes are:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+Whole-note&#8212;semi-breve.<br />
+Half-note&#8212;minim.<br />
+Quarter-note&#8212;crotchet.<br />
+Eighth-note&#8212;quaver.<br />
+Sixteenth-note&#8212;semi-quaver.<br />
+Thirty-second-note&#8212;demi-semi-quaver.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>The corresponding rests are referred to by the same system of
+nomenclature: <i>e.g.</i>, <i>semi-breve rest</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>32. <i>Sixty-fourth</i> and <i>one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes</i> are
+occasionally found, but are not in common use. The <i>double-whole-note</i>
+(<i>breve</i>), made <img src="images/breve1.jpg" width="43" height="24" alt="breve" title="breve" /> or
+<img src="images/breve2.jpg" width="27" height="24" alt="breve" title="breve" />, is still used,
+especially in English music, which frequently employs the half-note as
+the beat-unit. Thus in four-half measure the breve would be necessary to
+indicate a tone having four beats.</p>
+
+<p>33. The <i>whole-rest</i> has a peculiarity of usage not common to any of the
+other duration symbols, viz., that it is often employed as a
+<i>measure-rest</i>, filling an entire measure of beats, no matter what the
+measure-signature may be. Thus, not only in four-quarter-measure, but in
+two-quarter, three-quarter, six-eighth, and other varieties, the
+whole-rest fills the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> entire measure, having a value sometimes greater,
+sometimes less than the corresponding whole-note. Because of this
+peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed <i>Takt-pausa</i>
+(measure-rest) by the Germans.</p>
+
+<p>34. A <i>bar</i> is a vertical line across the staff, dividing it into
+measures. The word <i>bar</i> is often used synonymously with <i>measure</i> by
+orchestral conductors and others; thus, &quot;begin at the fourteenth bar
+after J.&quot; This use of the word, although popular, is incorrect.</p>
+
+<p>35. A <i>double-bar</i> consists of two vertical lines across the staff, at
+least one of the two being a heavy line. The double bar marks the end of
+a division, movement, or entire composition.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Abbreviations, Signs, Etc.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>36. A <i>double bar</i> (or single heavy bar) with either two or four dots
+indicates that a section is to be repeated. If the repeat marks occur at
+only one point the entire preceding part is to be repeated, but if the
+marks occur twice (the first time at the right of the bar but the second
+time at the left), only the section thus enclosed by the marks is to be
+repeated.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/doublebar.jpg" width="100" height="42" alt="double bar" title="double bar" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>37. Sometimes a different cadence (or ending) is to be used for the
+repetition, and this is indicated as in Fig. 24.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig24.jpg" width="350" height="86" alt="Fig. 24" title="Fig. 24" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>38. The Italian word <i>bis</i> is occasionally used to indicate that a
+certain passage or section is to be repeated. This use is becoming
+obsolete.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_39">39.</a> The words <i>da capo</i> (<i>D.C.</i>) mean literally &quot;from the head,&quot; <i>i.e.</i>,
+repeat from the beginning. The words <i>dal segno</i> (<i>D.S.</i>) indicate a
+repetition from the sign (<img src="images/segno1.jpg" width="21" height="20" alt="segno" title="segno" /> or
+<img src="images/segno2.jpg" width="20" height="20" alt="segno" title="segno" />) instead of
+from the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of both <i>D.C.</i> and <i>D.S.</i> the word <i>fine</i> (meaning literally
+<i>the end</i>) is ordinarily used to designate the point at which the
+repeated section is to terminate. The fermata (<img src="images/fermata.jpg" width="30" height="17" alt="fermata" title="fermata" />) was
+formerly in common use for this same purpose, but is seldom so employed
+at present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>D.C.</i> (<i>sin</i><a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>) <i>al fine</i> means&#8212;repeat from the beginning
+to the word &quot;fine.&quot;</p>
+
+
+<p><i>D.C. al</i>
+<img src="images/fermata.jpg" width="30" height="17" alt="fermata" title="fermata" /> means&#8212;repeat to the fermata (or
+hold).</p>
+
+<p><i>D.C. senza <span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling repetitione">repetizione</span></i>, or <i>D.C. ma senza repetizione</i>,
+both mean&#8212;repeat from the beginning, but without observing other
+repeat marks during the repetition.</p>
+
+<p><i>D.C. e poi la coda</i> means&#8212;repeat the first section only to
+the mark <img src="images/coda.jpg" width="21" height="20" alt="coda" title="coda" />, then skip to the coda. (See <a href="#Page_74">p. 74</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_157">Sec. 157</a>, for discussion of <i>coda</i>).</p></div>
+
+<p>40. In certain cases where the repetition of characteristic figures can
+be indicated without causing confusion, it is the practice of composers
+(especially in orchestral music) to make use of certain <i>signs of
+repetition</i>. Some of the commonest of these abbreviations are shown in
+the following examples.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig25-27.jpg" width="600" height="181" alt="Figs. 25-27" title="Figs. 25-27" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig25-27.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>In Fig. 28 the repetition of an entire measure is called for.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="300" height="73" alt="Fig. 28" title="Fig. 28" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig28.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>41. The word <span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected error similie"><i>simile</i></span>
+(sometimes <i>segue</i>) indicates that a certain effect previously begun is
+to be continued, as <i>e.g.</i>, staccato playing, pedalling, style of bowing
+in violin music, etc. The word <i>segue</i> is also occasionally used to show
+that an accompaniment figure (especially in orchestral music) is to be
+continued.</p>
+
+<p>42. <i>When some part is to rest for two or more measures</i> several methods
+of notation are possible. A rest of two measures is usually indicated
+thus
+<img src="images/2measrest.jpg" width="39" height="42" alt="2-measure rest" title="2-measure rest" />. Three measures thus
+<img src="images/3measrest.jpg" width="61" height="42" alt="3-measure rest" title="3-measure rest" />. Four measures
+thus
+<img src="images/4measrest.jpg" width="37" height="42" alt="4-measure rest" title="4-measure rest" />. Rests of more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> four measures are usually
+indicated in one of the following ways:
+<img src="images/multimeasrest1.jpg" width="300" height="67" alt="multi-measure rest" title="multi-measure rest" />. Sometimes the
+number of measures is written directly on the staff, thus;
+<img src="images/multimeasrest2.jpg" width="100" height="42" alt="multi-measure rest" title="multi-measure rest" />.</p>
+
+<p>43. The letters G.P. (general pause, or grosse pause), the words <i>lunga
+pausa</i>, or simply the word <i>lunga</i>, are sometimes written over a rest to
+show that there is to be a prolonged pause or rest in all parts. Such
+expressions are found only in ensemble music, <i>i.e.</i>, music in which
+several performers are engaged at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>44. The <i>fermata</i> or <i>hold</i>
+<img src="images/fermata.jpg" width="30" height="17" alt="fermata" title="fermata" /> over a note or chord
+indicates that the tone is to be prolonged, the duration of the
+prolongation depending upon the character of the music and the taste of
+the performer or conductor. It has already been noted that the hold over
+a bar was formerly used to designate the end of the composition, as the
+word <i>fine</i> is employed at present, but this usage has practically
+disappeared and the hold over the bar now usually indicates a short rest
+between two sections of a composition.</p>
+
+<p>45. The sign <i>8va......</i> (an abbreviation of <span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected error al ottava"><i>all'ottava</i></span>,
+literally at the octave) above the staff, indicates that all tones are to be
+sounded an octave higher than the notes would indicate. When found below
+the staff the same sign serves to indicate that the tones are to be
+sounded an octave lower. The term <i>8va bassa</i> has also this latter
+signification.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_46">46.</a> Sometimes the word <i>loco</i> (in place) is used to show that the part
+is no longer to be sounded an octave higher (or lower), but this is more
+often indicated by the termination of the dotted (or wavy) line.</p>
+
+<p>47. The sign <i>Col 8</i> (<span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected error col ottava"><i>coll'ottava</i></span>&#8212;with
+the octave) shows that the
+tones an octave higher or lower are to be sounded <i>with</i> the tones
+indicated by the printed notes. </p>
+
+<p>48. For the sake of definiteness in referring to pitches, a particular
+name is applied to each octave, and all pitches in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> the octave are
+referred to by means of a uniform nomenclature. The following figure
+will make this system clear:</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig29.jpg" width="600" height="192" alt="Fig. 29" title="Fig. 29" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>Thus <i>e.g.</i>, &quot;great G&quot; (written simply G), is the G represented by the
+first line of the bass staff. Small A (written a), is represented by the
+fifth line of the bass staff. Two-lined G, (written
+<img src="images/2lineg.jpg" width="12" height="24" alt="2-lined G" title="2-lined G" />),
+is represented by the space above the fifth line, treble staff.
+Three-lined C, (written
+<img src="images/3linec.jpg" width="10" height="24" alt="3-lined C" title="3-lined C" />), is represented by the
+second added line above the treble staff, etc. The <i>one-lined octave</i>
+may be described as the octave from <i>middle C</i> to the B represented by
+the third line of the treble staff, and any tone within that octave is
+referred to as &quot;one-lined.&quot; Thus&#8212;<i>one-lined</i> D, <i>one-lined</i> G, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In scientific works on acoustics, etc., the pitches in the sub
+octave (or sub-contra octave as it is often called) are
+referred to as C<sub>2</sub>, D<sub>2</sub>, E<sub>2</sub>, etc.; those in the contra
+octave as C<sub>1</sub>, D<sub>1</sub>, etc.; in the great octave, as c<sup>1</sup>,
+d<sup>1</sup>, etc.; in the small octave as c<sup>2</sup>, d<sup>2</sup>, etc.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Abbreviations, Signs, Etc.</span>, (<i>Continued</i>)</h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="SEC_49">49.</a> <i>A dot after a note</i> shows that the value of the note is to be half
+again as great as it would be without the dot, <i>i.e.</i>, the value is to
+be three-halves that of the original note.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/dot.jpg" width="400" height="45" alt="dotted notes" title="dotted notes" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_50">50.</a> <i>When two dots follow the note</i> the second dot adds half as much as
+the first dot has added, <i>i.e.</i>, the entire value is seven-fourths that
+of the original note.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/2dot.jpg" width="300" height="42" alt="double dotted notes" title="double dotted notes" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_51">51.</a> <i>When three dots follow the note</i> the third dot adds one-half the
+value added by the second, <i>i.e.</i>, the entire value of the triple-dotted
+note is fifteen-eighths that of the original note.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/3dot.jpg" width="200" height="48" alt="triple dotted notes" title="triple dotted notes" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>52. <i>A dot over or under a note</i> is called the <i>staccato mark</i> and
+indicates that the tone is to be sounded and then instantly released.
+<img src="images/staccato.jpg" width="150" height="50" alt="staccato" title="staccato" /> In music for organ and for some other instruments the
+staccato note is sometimes interpreted differently, this depending on
+the character of the instrument.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>On stringed instruments of the violin family the staccato
+effect is usually secured by a long, rapid stroke of the bow
+for each tone; in the case of harp and drum the hand is
+quickly brought in contact with the vibrating body, thus
+stopping the tone instantly. On the organ the tone is often
+prolonged to one-half the value of the printed note before the
+keys are released.</p></div>
+
+<p>53. <i>The wedge-shaped dash over the note</i> (staccatissimo) was formerly
+employed to indicate a tone still more detached<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> than that indicated by
+the dot, but this sign is really superfluous, and is seldom used at
+present. <img src="images/staccatissimo.jpg" width="150" height="50" alt="staccatissimo" title="staccatissimo" /></p>
+
+<p>54. <i>A tie</i> is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes that call
+for the same tone. It indicates that they are to be sounded as one tone
+having a duration equal to the combined value of both notes. <i>E.g.</i>, a
+half-note tied to a quarter-note would indicate a tone equal in
+duration-length to that shown by a dotted half-note; two half-notes tied
+would indicate a tone equal in duration to that shown by a whole-note.
+(See examples under Sections <a href="#SEC_49">49</a>, <a href="#SEC_50">50</a>, and
+<a href="#SEC_51">51</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 30 illustrates the more common variety of tie, while Fig. 31 shows
+an example of the <i>enharmonic<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> tie</i>.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/ties.jpg" width="450" height="79" alt="Figs. 30-31" title="Figs. 30-31" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="music/fig30-31.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_55">55.</a> The <i>slur</i> is used in so many different ways that it is impossible
+to give a general definition. It consists of a curved line, sometimes
+very short (in which case it looks like the tie), but sometimes very
+long, connecting ten, fifteen, or more notes. Some of the more common
+uses of the slur are:</p>
+
+<p>A. <i>To indicate legato</i> (sustained or connected) <i>tones</i>, as contrasted
+with staccato (detached) ones.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In violin music this implies playing all tones thus slurred in
+one bow; in music for the voice and for wind instruments it
+implies singing or playing them in one breath.</p></div>
+
+<p>B. <i>As a phrase-mark</i>, in the interpretation of which the first tone of
+the phrase is often accented slightly, and the last one shortened in
+value.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This interpretation of the phrase is especially common when
+the phrase is short (as in the two-note phrase), and when the
+tones constituting the phrase are of short duration, <i>e.g.</i>,
+the phrase given in Fig. 32 would be played approximately as
+written in Fig. 33.</p></div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig32-33.jpg" width="600" height="97" alt="Figs. 32-33" title="Figs. 32-33" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig32-33.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>But if the notes are of greater value, especially in slow
+tempi, the slur merely indicates legato, <i>i.e.</i>, sustained or
+connected rendition. Fig. 34 illustrates such a case.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="250" height="87" alt="Fig. 34" title="Fig. 34" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig34.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>This is a matter of such diverse usage that it is difficult to
+generalize regarding it. The tendency seems at present to be
+in the direction of using the slur (<i>in instrumental music</i>)
+as a phrase-mark exclusively, it being understood that unless
+there is some direction to the contrary, the tones are to be
+performed in a connected manner.</p></div>
+
+<p>C. In vocal music, to show that two or more tones are to be sung to one
+syllable of text. See Fig. 35.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig35.jpg" width="450" height="118" alt="Fig. 35" title="Fig. 35" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig35.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) this same
+thing is often indicated by <i>stroking</i> the stems together as
+in Fig. 36. This can only be done in cases where the natural
+grouping of notes in the measure will not be destroyed.</p></div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig36.jpg" width="500" height="95" alt="Fig. 36" title="Fig. 36" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig36.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>D. To mark special note-groups (triplets, etc.), in which case the slur
+is accompanied by a figure indicating the number of notes in the group.
+See Fig. 37 (<i>a</i>)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The most common of these irregular note-groups is the
+<i>triplet</i>, which consists of three notes to be performed in
+the time ordinarily given to two of the same value. Sometimes
+the triplet consists of only two notes as in Fig. 37 (<i>b</i>). In
+such a case the first two of the three notes composing the
+triplet are considered to be tied.</p></div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="600" height="171" alt="Fig. 37" title="Fig. 37" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig37.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>When the triplet form is perfectly obvious, the Fig. 3 (as
+well as the slur) may be omitted.</p>
+
+<p>Other examples of irregular note-groups, together with the
+names commonly applied, follow.</p></div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/doublet.jpg" width="600" height="110" alt="irregular note groups" title="irregular note groups" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>56. The <i>combination of slur or tie and dots</i> over the notes indicates
+that the tones are to be somewhat detached, but not sharply so.
+<img src="images/slurdots.jpg" width="189" height="50" alt="slur and dots" title="slur and dots" /></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This effect is sometimes erroneously termed <i>portamento</i> (lit.
+<i>carrying</i>), but this term is more properly reserved for an
+entirely different effect, <i>viz.</i>, when a singer, or player on
+a stringed instrument, passes from a high tone to a low one
+(or vice versa) touching lightly on some or all of the
+diatonic tones between the two melody tones.</p></div>
+
+<p>57. The horizontal <i>dash over a note</i>
+<img src="images/dashnote.jpg" width="16" height="24" alt="dash over note" title="dash over note" /> indicates that the
+tone is to be slightly accented, and sustained. This mark is also
+sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the tones are no
+longer to be performed in detached fashion, but are to be sustained.
+This latter use is especially common in music for stringed instruments.</p>
+
+<p>58. The combination of <i>dash and dot over a note</i>
+<img src="images/dashdot.jpg" width="16" height="28" alt="dash and dot over note" title="dash and dot over note" />
+indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented and separated from
+its neighboring tones.</p>
+
+<p>59. <i>Accent marks</i> are made in a variety of fashions. The most common
+forms follow. <img src="images/accents.jpg" width="38" height="12" alt="accents" title="accents" /> <i>sf</i>
+<i>fz</i>. All indicate that a certain tone or chord is to be differentiated
+from its neighboring tones or chords by receiving a certain relative
+amount of stress.</p>
+
+<p>60. In music for keyboard instruments it is sometimes necessary to
+indicate that a certain part is to be played by a certain hand. The
+abbreviations r.h. (right hand), m.d. (mano destra, It.), and m.d. (main
+droite, Fr.), designate that a passage or tone is to be played with the
+right hand, while l.h. (left hand), m.s. (mano sinistra, It.), and m.g.
+(main gauche, Fr.), show that the left hand is to be employed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>61. <i>The wavy line placed vertically beside a chord</i>
+<img src="images/arpeggio.jpg" width="65" height="50" alt="arpeggio" title="arpeggio" />
+indicates that the tones are to be sounded consecutively instead of
+simultaneously, beginning with the lowest tone, all tones being
+sustained until the duration-value of the chord has expired. This is
+called <i>arpeggio playing</i>. When the wavy line extends through the entire
+chord (covering both staffs) as in Fig. 38, all the tones of the chord
+are to be played one after another, beginning with the lowest: but if
+there is a separate wavy line for each staff as at Fig. 39 then the
+lowest tone represented on the upper staff is to be played
+simultaneously with the lowest tone represented on the bass staff.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig38-39.jpg" width="650" height="214" alt="Figs. 38-39" title="Figs. 38-39" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig38-39.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word arpeggio (plural arpeggi) is a derivation of the
+Italian word <i>arpa</i> (meaning harp), and from this word <i>arpa</i>
+and its corresponding verb <i>arpeggiare</i> (to play on the harp)
+are derived also a number of other terms commonly used in
+instrumental music. Among these are&#8212;arpeggiamento,
+arpeggiando, arpeggiato, etc., all of these terms referring to
+a <i>harp style</i> of performance, the tones being sounded one
+after another in rapid succession instead of simultaneously as
+on the piano.</p></div>
+
+<p>62. The sign
+<img src="images/cresc-decresc.jpg" width="83" height="12" alt="crescendo-decrescendo" title="crescendo-decrescendo" /> over a note indicates that
+the tone is to be begun softly, gradually increased in power, and as
+gradually decreased again, ending as softly as it began. In vocal music
+this effect is called <i>messa di voce</i>.</p>
+
+<p>63. In music for stringed instruments of the violin family, the sign
+<img src="images/downbow.jpg" width="11" height="12" alt="downbow" title="downbow" /> indicates down-bow and the sign
+<img src="images/upbow.jpg" width="13" height="12" alt="upbow" title="upbow" />
+up-bow. In cello music the down-bow sign is sometimes written
+<img src="images/cellobow.jpg" width="17" height="12" alt="cello downbow" title="cello downbow" />.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Embellishments</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>64. <i>Embellishments (or graces) (Fr. agr&#233;ments</i>) are ornamental tones,
+either represented in full in the score or indicated by certain signs.
+The following are the embellishments most commonly found: Trill (or
+shake), mordent, inverted mordent (or prall trill), turn (gruppetto),
+inverted turn, appoggiatura and acciaccatura.</p>
+
+<p>Usage varies greatly in the interpretation of the signs representing
+these embellishments and it is impossible to give examples of all the
+different forms. The following definitions represent therefore only the
+most commonly found examples and the most generally accepted
+interpretations.</p>
+
+<p>65. The <i>trill (or shake</i>) consists of the rapid alternation of two
+tones to the full value of the printed note. The lower of these two
+tones is represented by the printed note, while the upper one is the
+next higher tone in the diatonic scale of the key in which the
+composition is written. The interval between the two tones may therefore
+be either a half-step or a whole-step.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Whether the trill is to begin with the principal tone
+(represented by the printed note) or with the one above is a
+matter of some dispute among theorists and performers, but it
+may safely be said that the majority of modern writers on the
+subject would have it begin on the principal tone rather than
+on the tone above. Fig. 40.</p>
+
+<p>When the principal note is preceded by a small note on the
+degree above, it is of course understood that the trill begins
+on the tone above. Fig. 41.</p></div>
+
+<p>The trill is indicated by the sign
+<img src="images/trill.jpg" width="113" height="12" alt="trill" title="trill" />.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig40.jpg" width="600" height="179" alt="Fig. 40" title="Fig. 40" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig40.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig41.jpg" width="550" height="121" alt="Fig. 41" title="Fig. 41" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig41.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>The above examples would be termed <i>perfect trills</i> because they close
+with a turn. By inference, an <i>imperfect trill</i> is one closing without a
+turn.</p>
+
+<p>66. The <i>mordent</i>
+<img src="images/mordent.jpg" width="21" height="12" alt="mordent" title="mordent" /> consists of three tones; first the
+one represented by the printed note; second the one next below it in the
+diatonic scale; third the one represented by the printed note again.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig42.jpg" width="400" height="113" alt="Fig. 42" title="Fig. 42" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig42.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>67. The <i>double (or long) mordent</i> has five tones (sometimes seven)
+instead of three, the first two of the three tones of the regular
+mordent being repeated once or more. (See Fig. 43.)</p>
+
+<p>In the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as
+quickly as possible, the time taken by the embellishment being
+subtracted from the value of the principal note as printed.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig43.jpg" width="350" height="102" alt="Fig. 43" title="Fig. 43" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig43.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>68. The <i>inverted mordent</i>
+<img src="images/invmordent.jpg" width="25" height="12" alt="inverted mordent" title="inverted mordent" /> (note the absence
+of the vertical line) is like the mordent except that the tone below is
+replaced by the tone above in each case. This ornament is sometimes
+called a &quot;transient shake&quot; because it is really only a part of the more
+elaborate grace called &quot;trill.&quot; (See Fig. 44.)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig44.jpg" width="600" height="108" alt="Fig. 44" title="Fig. 44" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig44.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The confusion at present attending the interpretation of the
+last two embellishments described, might be largely obviated
+if the suggestion of a recent writer<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> to call the one the
+<i>upward mordent</i>, and the other the <i>downward mordent</i> were to
+be universally adopted.</p></div>
+
+<p>69. The <i>turn</i> consists of four tones; first, the diatonic scale-tone
+above the principal tone; second, the principal tone itself; third, the
+tone below the principal tone; and fourth, the principal tone again.</p>
+
+<p>When the sign (<img src="images/turn1.jpg" width="22" height="10" alt="turn" title="turn" /> or
+<img src="images/turn2.jpg" width="23" height="12" alt="turn" title="turn" />) occurs over a note
+of small value in rapid tempo (Fig. 45) the turn consists of four tones
+of equal value; but if it occurs over a note of greater value, or in a
+slow tempo, the tones are usually played quickly (like the mordent), and
+the fourth tone is then held until the time-value of the note has
+expired. (Fig. 46.)</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig45-46.jpg" width="500" height="135" alt="Figs. 45-46" title="Figs. 45-46" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig45-46.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>70. <i>When the turn-sign is placed a little to the right of the note</i> the
+principal tone is sounded first and held to almost its full time-value,
+then the turn is played just before the next tone of the melody. In this
+case the four tones are of equal length as in the first example. (See
+Fig. 47.)</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig47.jpg" width="350" height="90" alt="Fig. 47" title="Fig. 47" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig47.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The student should note the difference between these two
+effects; in the case of a turn <i>over</i> the note the turn comes
+at the beginning, but in the case of the sign <i>after</i> the note
+the turn comes at the very end. But in both cases the time
+taken by the embel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>lishment is taken from the time-value of
+the principal note. For further details see Grove's Dictionary
+of Music and Musicians, Vol. V, p. 184. Also Elson, op. cit.
+p. 274.</p></div>
+
+<p>71. Sometimes an accidental occurs with the turn, and in this case when
+written above the sign it refers to the highest tone of the turn, but
+when written below, to the lowest (Fig. 48).</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig48.jpg" width="400" height="117" alt="Fig. 48" title="Fig. 48" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig48.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>72. In the <i>inverted turn</i> the order of tones is reversed, the lowest
+one coming first, the principal tone next, the highest tone third, and
+the principal tone again, last.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig49.jpg" width="350" height="113" alt="Fig. 49" title="Fig. 49" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig49.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>73. The <i>appoggiatura</i> (lit. <i>leaning note</i>) consists of an ornamental
+tone introduced before a tone of a melody, thus delaying the melody tone
+until the ornamental tone has been heard. The time taken for this
+ornamental tone is taken from that of the melody tone.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The appoggiatura was formerly classified into <i>long
+appoggiatura</i> and <i>short appoggiatura</i>, but modern writers
+seem to consider the term &quot;short appoggiatura&quot; to be
+synonymous with acciaccatura<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>, and to avoid confusion the
+word <i>acciaccatura</i> will be used in this sense, and defined
+under its own heading.</p></div>
+
+<p>74. Three rules for the interpretation of the appoggiatura are commonly
+cited, viz.:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) When it is possible to divide the principal tone into
+halves, then the appoggiatura receives one-half the value of
+the printed note. (Fig. 50.)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(2) When the principal note is dotted (division into halves
+being therefore not possible), the appoggiatura receives
+two-thirds of the value. (Fig. 51.)</p>
+
+<p>(3) When the principal note is tied to a note of smaller
+denomination the appoggiatura receives the value of the first
+of the two notes. (Fig. 52.)</p></div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig50-52.jpg" width="600" height="185" alt="Figs. 50-52" title="Figs. 50-52" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig50-52.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>75. The <i>acciaccatura</i> (or short appoggiatura) is written like the
+appoggiatura except that it has a light stroke across its stem.
+<img src="images/acciaccatura.jpg" width="86" height="50" alt="acciaccatura" title="acciaccatura" /> It has no definite duration-value, but is sounded as
+quickly as possible, taking its time from that of the principal tone.
+The appoggiatura is always accented, but the acciaccatura never is, the
+stress always falling on the melody tone. (See Grove, op. cit. Vol. I,
+p. 96.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The use of embellishments is on the wane, and the student of
+to-day needs the above information only to aid him in the
+interpretation of music written in previous centuries. In the
+early days of instrumental music it was necessary to introduce
+graces of all sorts because the instruments in use were not
+capable of sustaining tone for any length of time; but with
+the advent of the modern piano with its comparatively great
+sustaining power, and also with the advent in vocal music of a
+new style of singing (German Lieder singing as contrasted with
+Italian coloratura singing), ornamental tones were used less
+and less, and when found now are usually written out in full
+in the score instead of being indicated by signs.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Scales</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>76. A <i>scale</i> (from <i>scala</i>, a Latin word meaning <i>ladder</i>; Ger.
+<i>Ton-leiter</i>) is an ascending or descending series of tones, progressing
+according to some definite system, and all bearing (in the case of
+tonality scales at least) a very intimate relation to the first
+tone&#8212;the <i>key-tone</i> or <i>tonic</i>. (See <a href="#Page_28">p. 28</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_78">Sec. 78</a>; also note 1 at
+bottom of<a href="#Page_38"> p. 38</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Many different kinds of scales have existed in various musical
+eras, the point of resemblance among them all being the fact
+that they have all more or less recognized the <i>octave</i> as the
+natural limit of the series. The difference among the various
+scales has been in the selection of intervals between the
+scale-tones, and, consequently, in the number of tones within
+the octave. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, in our major scale the intervals
+between the tones are all whole-steps except two (which are
+half-steps), and the result is a scale of <i>eight</i> tones
+(including in this number both the key-tone and its octave):
+but in the so-called <i>pentatonic</i> scale of the Chinese and
+other older civilizations we find larger intervals (<i>e.g.</i>,
+the step-and-a-half), and consequently a smaller number of
+tones within the octave. Thus in the scale upon which many of
+the older Scotch folk songs are based the intervals are
+arranged as follows:</p></div>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">1</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">2</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">3</td>
+<td>step-and-<br />a-half</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">4</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">5</td>
+<td>step-and-<br />a-half</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">6</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The result is a scale of six tones, corresponding
+approximately with C&#8212;D&#8212;E&#8212;G&#8212;A&#8212;C in our modern system.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>pentatonic</i> is thus seen to be a misnomer since the
+sixth tone is necessary for the completion of the series, just
+as the eighth tone is essential in our diatonic scales.</p>
+
+<p>The following Chinese tune (called &quot;Jasmine&quot;) is based on the
+pentatonic scale.</p></div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/jasmine.jpg" width="650" height="177" alt="Jasmine" title="Jasmine" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/jasmine.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>77. In studying the theory of the scale the student should bear in mind
+the fact that a scale is not an arbitrary series of tones which some one
+has invented, and which others are required to make use of. It is rather
+the result of accustoming the ear to certain melodic combinations (which
+were originally hit upon by accident), and finally analyzing and
+systematizing these combinations into a certain definite order or
+arrangement. The application of this idea may be verified when it is
+recalled that most primitive peoples have invented melodies of some
+sort, but that only in modern times, and particularly since the
+development of instrumental music, have these melodies been analyzed,
+and the scale upon which they have been based, discovered, the inventors
+of the melodies being themselves wholly ignorant of the existence of
+such scales.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_78">78.</a> A <i>key</i> is a number of tones grouping themselves naturally (both
+melodically and harmonically) about a central tone&#8212;the key tone. The
+word <i>tonality</i> is often used synonymously with <i>key</i> in this sense.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The difference between <i>key</i> and <i>scale</i> is therefore this,
+that while both <i>key</i> and <i>scale</i> employ the same tone
+material, by <i>key</i> we mean the material in general, without
+any particular order or arrangement in mind, while by <i>scale</i>
+we mean the same tones, but now arranged into a regular
+ascending or descending series. It should be noted in this
+connection also that not all scales present an equally good
+opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality
+or key-feeling: neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale
+possess the necessary characteristics for being used as
+tonality scales in the same sense that our major and minor
+scales are so used.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_79">79.</a> There are <i>three general classes of scales</i> extant at the present
+time, viz.: (1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>80. The word <i>diatonic</i> means &quot;through the tones&quot; (<i>i.e.</i>, through the
+tones of the key), and is applied to both major and minor scales of our
+modern tonality system. In general a diatonic scale may be defined as
+one which proceeds by half-steps and whole-steps. There is, however, one
+exception to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> this principle, viz., in the progression six to seven in
+the harmonic minor scale, which is of course a step-and-a-half. (See <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_86">Sec. 86</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>81. A <i>major diatonic scale</i> is one in which the intervals between the
+tones are arranged as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">1</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">2</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">3</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">4</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">5</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">6</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">7</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">8</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>In other words, a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals
+between three and four, and between seven and eight are half-steps, all
+the others being whole-steps. A composition based on this scale is said
+to be written in the major mode, or in a major key. The major diatonic
+scale may begin on any one of the twelve pitches C, C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> or D<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>,
+D, D<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> or E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, E, F, F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> or G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, G, G<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> or
+A<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, A, A<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> or B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, B, but in each case it is the same
+scale because the intervals between its tones are the same. We have then
+one major scale only, but this scale may be written in many different
+positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of
+different pitches.</p>
+
+<p>82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two
+identical series of four tones each; <i>i.e.</i>, the first four tones of the
+scale are separated from one another by exactly the same intervals and
+these intervals appear in exactly the same order as in the case of the
+last four tones of the scale. Fig. 53 will make this clear. The first
+four tones of any diatonic scale (major or minor) are often referred to
+as the <i>lower tetrachord</i><a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> and the upper four tones as the <i>upper
+tetrachord</i>.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig53.jpg" width="500" height="108" alt="Fig. 53" title="Fig. 53" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig53.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of any
+<i>sharp</i> scale is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of
+the next major scale involving sharps, while the lower tetrachord of any
+<i>flat</i> scale is used as the upper tetrachord of the next flat scale. See
+Figs. 54 and 55.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig54-55.jpg" width="500" height="229" alt="Figs. 54-55" title="Figs. 54-55" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig54-55.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>83. From the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written
+in fifteen different positions, as follows:</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/scales.jpg" width="650" height="555" alt="scales" title="scales" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/scales2.jpg" width="650" height="835" alt="scales" title="scales" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/scales.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning
+on F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> and G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> call for the same keys on the piano, <i>i.e.</i>,
+while the notation is different, the actual tones of the scale are the
+same. The scales of C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> and D<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> likewise employ the same tones.
+When two scales thus employ the same tones<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> but differ in notation they
+are said to be <i>enharmonic</i>, (cf. <a href="#Page_38">p. 38</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_93">Sec. 93</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Note</i>.&#8212;The student is advised to adopt some uniform method
+of writing scales, preferably the one followed in those given
+above, the necessary sharps and flats appearing before the
+notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the end
+as a signature. He is also advised to repeat these scales and
+signatures over and over until absolute familiarity is
+attained. <i>E.g.</i>,
+E&#8212;F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;A&#8212;B&#8212;C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;D<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;E; signature,
+four sharps, F, C, G, and D.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Scales</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</h2>
+
+
+<p>84. The <i>minor diatonic scale</i> is used in several slightly different
+forms, but the characteristic interval between the first and third tones
+(which differentiates it from the major scale) remains the same in every
+case. This interval between the first and third tones consists of four
+half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale
+and this difference in size has given rise to the designation <i>major</i>
+for the scale having the larger third, and <i>minor</i> for the scale having
+the smaller one.</p>
+
+<p>85. <i>The original (or primitive) form</i> of the minor scale has its tones
+arranged as follows.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">1</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">2</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">3</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">4</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">5</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">6</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">7</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">8</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>As its name implies, this is the oldest of the three forms (being
+derived from the old Greek Aeolian scale), but because of the absence of
+a &quot;leading tone&quot; it is suitable for the simplest one-part music only,
+and is therefore little used at present.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_86">86.</a> <i>The harmonic minor scale</i> is like the primitive form except that it
+substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the
+older (<i>i.e.</i>, the primitive) form. This change was made because the
+development of writing music in several parts (particularly <i>harmonic</i>
+part-writing) made necessary a &quot;leading tone,&quot; <i>i.e.</i>, a tone with a
+strong tendency to move on up to the key-tone as a closing point. In
+order<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> to secure a tone with such a strongly upward tendency the
+interval between <i>seven</i> and <i>eight</i> had to be reduced in size to a
+half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of
+the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and
+seventh tones of the scale.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">1</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">2</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">3</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">4</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">5</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">6</td>
+<td>step and<br />a half</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">7</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">8</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>87. <i>The melodic minor scale</i> substitutes a tone one half-step higher
+than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change
+is made in the ascending scale only, the descending scale being like the
+primitive form. The higher sixth (commonly referred to as the &quot;raised
+sixth&quot;) was used to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a
+step-and-a-half<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> (augmented second), while the return to the
+primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too
+much like the tonic major scale.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">1</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">2</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">3</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">4</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">5</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">6</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">7</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">8</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">7</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">6</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">5</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">4</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">3</td>
+<td>half<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">2</td>
+<td>whole<br />step</td>
+<td style="font-size: 150%">1</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>This form is used only to a very limited extent, and then principally in
+vocal music, the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of
+the augmented second.</p>
+
+<p>88. The minor scale in its various positions (up to five sharps and five
+flats) and in all three forms follows: a composition based on any one of
+these forms (or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to
+be <i>in the minor mode</i>. It will be noted that the first four tones are
+alike in all three forms; <i>i.e.</i>, the lower tetrachord in the minor
+scale is invariable no matter, what may happen to the upper tetrachord.
+The sign + marks the step-and-a-half.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/minorscales.jpg" width="650" height="905" alt="minor scales" title="minor scales" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/minorscaleslg.jpg">[Enlarge]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/minor.mid">[Listen to A minor
+scales]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Note.</i>&#8212;The student is advised to recite the <i>harmonic form</i>
+of the minor scale as was suggested in the case of the major
+scale, noting that the &quot;raised seventh&quot; does not affect the
+key-signature. <i>E.g.</i>,&#8212;E&#8212;F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;G&#8212;A&#8212;B&#8212;C&#8212;D<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;E;
+signature, one sharp, F.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>89. A minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to
+be its <i>relative minor</i>. <i>E.g.</i>,&#8212;e is the relative minor of G, c of
+E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, d of F, etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor
+key or scale, while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale
+unless accompanied by the word <i>minor</i>. Relative keys are therefore
+defined as those having the same signature. G and e are relative keys,
+as are also A and f<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>90. A minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is
+referred to as its <i>tonic minor</i>. Thus, <i>e.g.</i>, c with three flats in
+its signature is the tonic minor of C with all degrees in natural
+condition; e with one sharp is the tonic minor of E with four sharps,
+etc. Tonic keys are therefore those having the same key-tone.</p>
+
+<p>91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major and minor) are
+often referred to by specific names, as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. <i>Tonic</i>&#8212;the tone. (This refers to the fact that the tonic
+is the principal tone, or generating tone of the key, <i>i.e.</i>,
+it is <i>the</i> tone.)</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Super-tonic</i>&#8212;above the tone.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Mediant</i>&#8212;midway between tonic and dominant.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Sub-dominant</i>&#8212;the under dominant. (This name does not
+refer to the position of the tone under the dominant but to
+the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant
+tone&#8212;the under dominant&#8212;just as the fifth above is the upper
+dominant).</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Dominant</i>&#8212;the governing tone. (From the Latin word
+<i>dominus</i> meaning <i>master</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Super-dominant</i>&#8212;above the dominant. Or
+<i>Sub-mediant</i>&#8212;midway between tonic and sub-dominant.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Leading tone</i>&#8212;the tone which demands resolution to the
+tonic (one-half step above it).</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Octave</i>&#8212;the eighth tone.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>92. The syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales
+in teaching sight-singing are as follows:<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+Major&#8212;DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI, DO.<br />
+<br />
+Minor<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>&#8212;original&#8212;LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.8em;">harmonic&#8212;LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SI, LA.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.8em;">melodic &#8212;LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI, SI, LA,
+SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA.</span><br />
+</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and
+pronunciation that have occurred (and are still occurring) in
+these syllables. The first one (ut) was changed to <i>DO</i> as
+early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of
+producing a good singing tone on <i>ut</i>. For the same reason and
+also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the
+same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fa system (invented in
+England about 1812 and systematized about 1850) changed SI to
+TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by
+teachers of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate
+tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables (DOH, LAH,
+etc.), has not, however, been favorably received in this
+country and the tendency seems to be toward still further
+simplification rather than toward elaboration. It is probable
+that further changes in both spelling and pronunciation will
+be made in the near future, one such change that seems
+especially desirable being some other syllable than RE for the
+second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable
+may be reserved for &quot;flat-two,&quot; thus providing a uniform
+vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending
+chromatic scale, as is already the case in the ascending form.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_93">93.</a> The <i>chromatic scale</i><a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> is one which proceeds always by
+half-steps. Its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what
+tone it begins. Since, however, we have (from the standpoint of the
+piano keyboard) five pairs of tones<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> which are enharmonically the
+same, it may readily be seen that the chromatic scale might be notated
+in all sorts of fashions, and this is in fact the real status of the
+matter, there being no one method uniformly agreed upon by composers.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Parry (Grove's Dictionary, article <i>chromatic</i>) recommends
+writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in
+chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage
+occurs. Thus, taking C as a type, &quot;the first accidental will
+be D<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic;
+the next will be E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, the minor third of the key; the next
+F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>, the major third of the super-tonic&#8212;all of which can
+occur without causing modulation&#8212;and the remaining two will
+be A<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> and B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, the minor sixth and seventh of the
+key.&quot; According to this plan the chromatic scale beginning
+with C would be spelled&#8212;C, D<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, D, E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, E, F,
+F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>, G, A<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, A, B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, B, C&#8212;the form being the
+same both ascending and descending. This is of course written
+exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of
+such a form is its definiteness.</p></div>
+
+<p>94. For <i>sight-singing purposes</i> the chromatic scale<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> is usually
+written by representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps,
+(in some cases naturals and double-sharps), and the intermediate tones
+in descending by flats (sometimes naturals and double-flats). The
+chromatic scale in nine different positions, written from this
+standpoint, follows, and the syllables most commonly applied in
+sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales the student
+of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common prac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>tice of
+modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys, the intermediate tones
+<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>4 and <span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>7 are quite universally used in both ascending and
+descending melody passages. In other words the scales that follow would
+more nearly represent actual usage if in each case <span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>4 (FI) were
+substituted for <span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>5 (SE) in the descending scale; and if <span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>7
+(TE) were substituted for <span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>6 (LI) in the ascending form.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/chromatic.jpg" width="650" height="771" alt="chromatic scales" title="chromatic scales" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/chromatic2.jpg" width="650" height="250" alt="chromatic scales" title="chromatic scales" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/chromatic.mid">[Listen to C chromatic scale]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Note.</i>&#8212;In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing
+standpoint the student is urged to adopt a three-step process;
+first, writing the major diatonic scale both ascending and
+descending; second, marking the half-steps; third, inserting
+accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the
+above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been
+represented by black note-heads so as to differentiate them
+from the notes representing diatonic scale tones.</p></div>
+
+<p>95. The <i>whole-step scale</i> (the third type mentioned in
+<a href="#SEC_79">Sec. 79</a>) is, as
+its name implies, a scale in which the intervals between the tones
+consist in every instance of whole-steps. This reduces the number of
+tones in the scale to seven. Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D, E,
+F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> or G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, A<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, C. This scale has been used
+somewhat extensively by the ultramodern French school of composition
+represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any
+progress toward universal adoption. The remarks of a recent English
+writer<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> on this subject may be interesting to the student who is
+puzzled by the apparent present-day tendencies of French music. He says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&quot;The student of some interesting modern developments will also
+speedily discover that the adoption of the so-called
+whole-tone scale as a basis of music is, except upon a keyed
+instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament,
+unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument
+can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave
+which is in tune with the starting note, unless he
+deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters
+it while playing it. The obvious result of the application of
+the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would
+be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the
+pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of
+tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the
+pure scale would be distorted and destroyed, unless string
+players were to face the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> practically impossible drudgery of
+studying both the equal temperament and the pure scale from
+the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's
+notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the
+scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads
+founded upon ignorance of it. It is a curious commentary upon
+this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third act of
+<i>Tristan</i> (bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone
+scale and drew his pen through it, as was to be expected from
+a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the
+pure scale inbred in him.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>There may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether
+Mr. Stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the
+difference between &quot;tempered&quot; and &quot;pure&quot; scales,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> but even so, there
+is a far more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never
+become popular as the major and minor scales now are, viz., the fact
+that it offers no possibility of <i>inculcating tonality feeling</i>, which
+has always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music. Tonality
+scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of contraction and
+relaxation&#8212;an active tone (or chord) followed by a passive one, but no
+such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it seems suitable
+therefore only for that class of music whose outlines are <i>purposely
+intended to be</i> vague and indefinite&#8212;the impressionistic style of music
+writing.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Auxiliary Words and Endings</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="SEC_96">96.</a> Being a list of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and
+endings, often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical
+effects.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+<i>A</i>&#8212;preposition&#8212;variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>A cappella</i>&#8212;in church style.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>A capriccio</i>&#8212;at the fancy of the performer.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>&#192; deux mains</i>&#8212;for two hands.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>A mezza voce</i>&#8212;with half voice.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>&#192; la</i>, or <i>alla</i>&#8212;in the manner of. <i>Alla marcia</i>&#8212;in the style of a
+march.</p>
+
+<p><i>Assai</i>&#8212;very, or very much. <i>Allegro assai</i>&#8212;very fast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ben</i>&#8212;well. <i>Ben marcato</i>&#8212;well marked.</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collo</i>&#8212;with, or with the.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Con amore</i>&#8212;with tenderness.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Colla voce</i>&#8212;with the voice.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Come</i>&#8212;as, like. <i>Come primo</i>&#8212;as at first.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contra</i>&#8212;against. In compound words means &quot;an octave below.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><i>Da</i>&#8212;from. <i>Da Capo</i>&#8212;from the head.</p>
+
+<p><i>Di</i>&#8212;by, with, of, for. <i>Di bravura</i>&#8212;with daring.</p>
+
+<p><i>Di molto</i>&#8212;exceedingly&#8212;very much. <i>Allegro di molto</i>&#8212;exceedingly
+rapid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Doppio</i>&#8212;double. <i>Doppio movimento</i>&#8212;double movement.</p>
+
+<p><i>E, ed, et</i>&#8212;and. <i>Cresc. et accel.</i>&#8212;louder and faster.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ensemble</i>&#8212;together, the opposite of solo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Il, La, l', le</i>&#8212;the. <i>Il basso</i>&#8212;the bass. <i>L'istesso tempo</i>&#8212;the same
+speed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Il pi&#249;</i>&#8212;the most. <i>Il pi&#249; forte possible</i>&#8212;as loudly as possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Issimo</i>&#8212;Italian superlative ending. <i>Forte</i>&#8212;<i>fortissimo</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ino, etto</i>&#8212;Italian diminutive endings. <i>Andante</i>&#8212;<i>andantino</i>.
+<i>Poco</i>&#8212;<i>pochetto</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Meno</i>&#8212;less. <i>Meno forte</i>&#8212;less loud.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mente</i>&#8212;the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb.
+<i>Largo largamente</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mezzo</i> or <i>mezza</i>&#8212;half, or medium. <i>Mezzo forte</i>&#8212;medium loud.</p>
+
+<p><i>Molto</i>&#8212;much, or very much. <i>Molto cresc.</i>&#8212;very much louder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nel, nella, etc.</i>&#8212;in the, or at the. <i>Nel battere</i>&#8212;at the down beat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Non</i>&#8212;not. <i>Non tanto</i>&#8212;not too much.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ossia</i>&#8212;or else. <i>Ossia pi&#249; facile</i>&#8212;or else more easily.</p>
+
+<p><i>Per</i>&#8212;for. <i>Per il violino</i>&#8212;for the violin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peu</i>&#8212;little. <i>Un peu cresc.</i>&#8212;a little increase in tone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pi&#249;</i>&#8212;more. <i>Pi&#249; forte</i>&#8212;more loudly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Poco</i>&#8212;little. <i>Poco a poco</i>&#8212;little by little.</p>
+
+<p><i>Poi</i>&#8212;then. <i>E poi la coda</i>&#8212;and then the coda.</p>
+
+<p><span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected error possible for Italian possibile"><i>Possibile</i></span>&#8212;possible.
+<i>Forte possibile</i>&#8212;as loudly as possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quasi</i>&#8212;in the manner of. <i>Allegro quasi andante</i>&#8212;a fairly rapid
+movement, yet in the style of an andante; almost as slow as an andante.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sans</i>&#8212;without. <i>Sans pedales</i>&#8212;without pedals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sempre</i>&#8212;always, or continually. <i>Sempre forte</i>&#8212;a long passage to be
+played forte throughout its entirety.</p>
+
+<p><i>Senza</i>&#8212;without. <i>Senza accompagnamento</i>&#8212;without accompaniment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sino, sin</i>&#8212;as far as. See <a href="#Page_14">p. 14</a>, note.</p>
+
+<p><i>Solo</i>&#8212;alone. Opposite of ensemble.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sub</i>&#8212;under or lower. <i>Sub-dominant</i>&#8212;the under dominant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tanto</i>&#8212;same as <i>troppo</i>, q.v.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tre</i>&#8212;three. <i>Tre corde</i>&#8212;three strings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tr&#232;s</i>&#8212;very. <i>Tr&#232;s vivement</i>&#8212;very lively.</p>
+
+<p><i>Troppo</i>&#8212;too much. <i>Non tanto allegro</i>, or <i>non troppo allegro</i>&#8212;not
+too fast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Una, un, uno</i>&#8212;one, or a. <i>Una corda</i>&#8212;one string. <i>Un peu</i>&#8212;a little.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student
+greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping
+to look up each individual one.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Measure</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="SEC_97">97.</a> From the standpoint of the eye, a <i>measure</i> is that portion of the
+staff found between two bars, (in certain cases this space may be less
+than a measure, as <i>e.g.</i>, at the beginning and end of a movement); but
+from the standpoint of the ear a single, isolated measure is not
+possible, and the term must therefore be defined in the plural form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Measures</i> are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each
+group having at least one accented and one non-accented beat. The
+strongest accent falls normally on the first beat in the measure.</p>
+
+<p>Two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical
+measure:</p>
+
+<p>(1) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always
+actually sounded, one or more of these beats being stronger than the
+rest;</p>
+
+<p>(2) Certain rhythmic figures (<img src="images/rhythm.jpg" width="207" height="50" alt="rhythmic figure" title="rhythmic figure" /> etc.) which form the
+actual musical content of these groups.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The student will note the essential difference between rhythm
+and measure. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a
+series of beats (or pulses), while measure is the grouping of
+these beats according to some specified system. In listening
+to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel the <i>rhythm</i>
+equally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats
+into&#8212;<i>one</i>, two | <i>one</i>, two |&#8212;etc., while B feels the
+groups as&#8212;<i>one</i>, two, <i>three</i>, four | <i>one</i>, two, <i>three</i>,
+four |&#8212;etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing,
+inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain
+extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have
+adopted for practical purposes.</p></div>
+
+<p>98. In <i>syncopation</i> the normal system of accenting is temporarily
+suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part
+of the measure. Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary
+interruption of a normal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> series of accents, <i>i.e.</i>, accenting a beat
+that is usually not accented. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, in Fig. 56, measure <i>one</i> has
+the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure,
+(strong accent on one, secondary accent on three); but measure <i>three</i>
+has only one accent, and it falls on the second beat.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig56.jpg" width="500" height="77" alt="Fig. 56" title="Fig. 56" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig56.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_99">99.</a> Measures are usually classified as <i>simple</i> and <i>compound</i>. A
+<i>simple measure</i> is one which has but a single accent, <i>i.e.</i>, the
+measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups. There are two
+main classes of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat
+measure. A <i>compound measure</i> is (as its name implies) one made up by
+combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single
+measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups. The principal
+compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as
+compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and
+twelve-beat measures are also classified as compound measures.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>An English writer<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> classifies measures as duple, triple, or
+quadruple, specifying that a simple measure is one in which
+each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided
+into halves (<img src="images/simpmeas.jpg" width="203" height="30" alt="simple measure" title="simple measure" /> etc.) and that a compound measure
+is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note,
+whose value can be divided into three parts, (<img src="images/compmeas.jpg" width="257" height="30" alt="compound measure" title="compound measure" />).
+There is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as
+to the meaning of the words <i>simple</i> and <i>compound</i> when
+applied in this connection, the principal question at issue
+being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety, or
+whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures,
+either by placing two of these in a group or by the
+elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats,
+as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way
+out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true&#8212;but
+in different compositions. That is, it is frequently
+impossible to tell whether a composition that is being
+listened to is in two-beat, or in four-beat measure; and yet
+it <i>is</i> sometimes possible so to discriminate. Since, however,
+one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between
+two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to
+leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat
+measure as a compound variety.</p></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+<p>100. The <i>commonest varieties of measure</i> are:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. <i>Duple</i> (sometimes called even measure, or even time), in
+which there are two beats, the first one being accented.
+Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
+two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively.</p>
+
+
+<p>2. <i>Triple</i>, (the old perfect measure), in which there are
+three beats, the first one being accented, the second and
+third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2, three-eighth,
+three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Quadruple</i>, in which there are four beats, the first and
+third being accented (primary accent on <i>one</i>, secondary
+accent on <i>three</i>), the second and fourth unaccented. (See
+note above, under <a href="#SEC_99">Sec. 99</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Sextuple</i>, in which there are six beats, the first and
+fourth being accented, the others not. In rapid tempi this is
+always taken as compound duple measure, a dotted quarter note
+having a beat. It will be noted that the two measures
+<img src="images/sextuple.jpg" width="229" height="35" alt="sextuple" title="sextuple" /> are identical in effect with
+<img src="images/sextuple2.jpg" width="224" height="50" alt="sextuple" title="sextuple" />.</p></div>
+
+<p>101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but
+these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures
+respectively, being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is
+thought of as a triplet.
+<img src="images/98bar.jpg" width="173" height="39" alt="9/8 bar" title="9/8 bar" /> is identical in effect with
+<img src="images/34bar.jpg" width="165" height="50" alt="3/4 bar" title="3/4 bar" />.</p>
+
+<p>102. <i>Quintuple</i> (five-beat) and <i>septuple</i> (seven-beat) measures are
+occasionally met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic.
+The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of
+two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition),
+while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> seven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three, or
+of three and four.</p>
+
+<p>103. The sign <img src="images/common.jpg" width="22" height="24" alt="common time" title="common time" /> is usually understood to mean
+four-quarter measure, and the sign
+<img src="images/cuttime.jpg" width="20" height="29" alt="cut-time" title="cut-time" />, two-half measure,
+but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes used to
+indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the sign
+<img src="images/cuttime.jpg" width="20" height="29" alt="cut-time" title="cut-time" /> always indicates
+that a half-note has a beat. <img src="images/cuttime.jpg" width="20" height="29" alt="cut-time" title="cut-time" /><img src="images/cuttime.jpg" width="20" height="29" alt="cut-time" title="cut-time" /> may occasionally be found indicating four-half measure
+but this is rare.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The student will note that the sign
+  <img src="images/common.jpg" width="22" height="24" alt="common time" title="common time" /> is
+not a <i>letter</i> C, but an incomplete circle, differentiating
+two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect)
+measure. See <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix A</a>, p.
+<span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: supplied missing page number"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></span>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Tempo</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>104. The word <i>time</i> in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused,
+having been used to indicate:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) Rhythm; as &quot;the time was wrong.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>(2) Variety of measure-signature; as &quot;two-four time.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>(3) Rate of speed; as &quot;the time was too slow.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and
+inexact use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certain
+<i>changes in terminology</i> as noted in Sections <a href="#SEC_105">105</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_106">106</a>, and <a href="#SEC_107">107</a>. Such
+changes may cause some confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if
+our musical terminology is to be at all exact.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_105">105.</a> The <i>first of the changes</i> mentioned in the above paragraph is to
+substitute the word <i>rhythm</i> for the word <i>time</i> when correcting
+mistakes involving misplaced accent, etc. <i>E.g.</i>, &quot;Your <i>rhythm</i> in the
+third measure of the lower score was wrong,&quot; instead of &quot;Your
+<i>time</i>&#8212;was wrong.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_106">106.</a> The <i>second change</i> mentioned would eliminate such blind and
+misleading expressions as &quot;two-four time,&quot; &quot;three-four time,&quot; &quot;four-four
+time,&quot; &quot;six-eight time,&quot; etc., and substitute therefor such
+self-explanatory designations as &quot;two-quarter measure,&quot; &quot;three-quarter
+measure,&quot; &quot;four-quarter measure,&quot; &quot;six-eighth measure,&quot; etc. <i>E.g.</i>,
+&quot;The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is in
+<i>four-quarter measure</i>.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_107">107.</a> The <i>third change</i> referred to above would substitute the word
+<i>tempo</i> (plural&#8212;<i>tempi</i>) for the word <i>time</i> in all allusions to rate
+of speed. <i>E.g.</i>, &quot;The scherzo was played in very rapid <i>tempo</i>.&quot;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word <i>tempo</i> has been used in this connection so long by
+professional musicians that there can be no possible objection
+to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there
+is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in
+all countries where modern music (<i>i.e.</i>, civilized music) is
+performed, and just here is found the principal reason for the
+popularity of the Italian language in musical terminology.
+Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried
+to break down this popularity by using their own respective
+vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications, but in
+spite of these attempts the Italian language is still quite
+universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so, for if
+we are to have a <i>music notation</i> that is universal, so that
+an American is able to play music written by a Frenchman or a
+German, or a Russian, then we ought also to have a certain
+number of expressions referring to tempo, etc., which will be
+understood by all, <i>i.e.</i>, a music terminology that is
+universal. The Italian language was the first in the field, is
+the most universally known in this particular at the present
+time, and is entirely adequate. It should therefore be
+retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto.</p></div>
+
+<p>108. There are several <i>ways of finding the correct tempo</i> of a
+composition:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of
+many compositions. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's
+Metronome 92) means that if the metronome (either Maelzel's or
+some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at
+the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they
+will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at
+which the beats (or pulses) should follow one another. This is
+undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in
+spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> and of the
+mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving
+metronomic indications.</p>
+
+
+<p>2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is
+to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that
+&quot;feels right&quot; for that particular piece of music. This is
+perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is
+open only to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> musician of long experience, sure judgment,
+and sound scholarship.</p>
+
+<p>3. A third method of finding tempi is through the
+interpretation of certain words used quite universally by
+composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the
+general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method
+is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same
+word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of
+speed can be indicated, and in the last analysis the conductor
+or performer must fall back on the second method cited
+above&#8212;<i>i.e.</i>, individual judgment.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_109">109.</a> In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions
+relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful
+in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer's mind as he
+conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of
+the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is
+absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in
+groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. <i>Grave</i> (lit. weighty, serious), <i>larghissimo</i>,
+<i>adagissimo</i>, and <i>lentissimo</i>&#8212;indicating the very slowest
+tempo used in rendering music.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Largo</i>,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> <i>adagio</i>,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and <i>lento</i>&#8212;indicating quite a
+slow tempo.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>3. <i>Larghetto</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, <i>a little largo</i>) and <i>adagietto</i> (<i>a
+little adagio</i>)&#8212;a slow tempo, but not quite so slow as
+<i>largo</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Andante</i> (going, or walking, as contrasted with running)
+and <i>andantino</i>&#8212;indicating a moderately slow tempo.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Andantino</i> is now quite universally taken slightly faster
+than <i>andante</i>, in spite of the fact that if <i>andante</i> means
+&quot;going,&quot; and if &quot;<i>ino</i>&quot; is the diminutive ending, then
+<i>andantino</i> means &quot;going less,&quot; <i>i.e.</i>, more slowly!</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Moderato</i>&#8212;a moderate tempo.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Allegro</i> and <i>allegretto</i><a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>&#8212;a moderately quick tempo,
+<i>allegretto</i> being usually interpreted as meaning a tempo
+somewhat slower than <i>allegro</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The word <i>allegro</i> means literally happy, joyous, and this
+literal meaning is still <i>sometimes</i> applicable, but in the
+majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Vivo</i>, <i>vivace</i>, (lit. lively)&#8212;a tempo between <i>allegro</i>
+and <i>presto</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Presto</i>, <i>prestissimo</i>, <i>vivacissimo</i>, and <i>prestissimo
+possibile</i>&#8212;the most rapid tempo possible.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Tempo</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</h2>
+
+
+<p>110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined in <a href="#SEC_109">Sec. 109</a> with one
+another and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with
+their approximate meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression
+not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms
+defined in <a href="#SEC_109">paragraph 109</a> and recalling the use of certain auxiliary
+terms quoted in <a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Chapter IX</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Largo assai</i>&#8212;very slow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Largo di molto</i>&#8212;very slow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Largo ma non troppo</i>&#8212;slow, but not too slow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Largo un poco</i>&#8212;slow, but not so slow as <i>largo</i>. (<i>Cf.
+larghetto</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Lentemente</i>&#8212;slowly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lentando</i>&#8212;with increasing slowness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tr&#232;s lentement</i>&#8212;very slowly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lentissamente</i>&#8212;very slowly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lentissamamente</i>&#8212;very slowly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lento assai</i>&#8212;very slowly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lento a capriccio</i>&#8212;slowly but capriciously.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lento di molto</i>&#8212;very slowly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante</i> <span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected error affetuoso"><i>affettuoso</i></span>&#8212;moderately slow, and with tenderness and
+pathos.</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante amabile</i>&#8212;moderately slow, and lovingly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante cantabile</i>&#8212;moderately slow, and in singing style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante grazioso</i>&#8212;moderately slow, and gracefully.</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante maestoso</i>&#8212;moderately slow, and majestically.</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante con moto</i>&#8212;slightly faster than <i>andante</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante (ma) non troppo</i>&#8212;not too slowly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante pastorale</i>&#8212;moderately slow, and in simple and
+unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral).</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante quasi allegro</i>&#8212;almost as rapid in tempo as
+<i>allegro</i>; (lit. an <i>andante</i> in the style of <i>allegro</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Andante sostenuto</i>&#8212;moderately slow and sustained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegrissimo</i>&#8212;much faster than <i>allegro</i>. (The superlative
+degree of <i>allegro</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro agitato</i>&#8212;a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated
+style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro appassionata</i>&#8212;a moderately rapid tempo, and in
+passionate style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro assai</i> (very <i>allegro</i>)&#8212;faster than <i>allegro</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro commodo</i>&#8212;a conveniently rapid tempo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro con brio</i>&#8212;an <i>allegro</i> played in brilliant style.
+Faster than <i>allegro</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro con fuoco</i>&#8212;an <i>allegro</i> played with fire, <i>i.e.</i>,
+with extreme animation. Faster than <i>allegro</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro con spirito</i>&#8212;an <i>allegro</i> performed with spirit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro con moto</i>&#8212;faster than <i>allegro</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro di bravura</i>&#8212;an <i>allegro</i> performed in brilliant
+style, <i>i.e.</i>, demanding great skill in execution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro furioso</i> (furiously)&#8212;quicker than <i>allegro</i>; very
+brilliant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro giusto</i>&#8212;an <i>allegro</i> movement, but in exact rhythm.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro ma grazioso</i>&#8212;an <i>allegro</i> played in graceful style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro (ma) non tanto</i>&#8212;an <i>allegro</i> movement, but not too
+rapid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro (ma) non troppo</i>&#8212;an <i>allegro</i> movement, but not too
+rapid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro (ma) non presto</i>&#8212;an <i>allegro</i> movement, but not too
+rapid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro moderato</i>&#8212;slower than <i>allegro</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allegro vivace</i>&#8212;faster than <i>allegro</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Presto assai</i>&#8212;as rapidly as possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Presto (ma) non troppo</i>&#8212;a <i>presto</i> movement, but not too
+rapid.</p></div>
+
+<p>111. There are certain <i>terms which indicate a modification of the
+normal tempo</i> of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a)
+those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those
+which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions
+of these two classes are shown below.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Terms indicating a slower tempo.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Terms indicating a <i>gradual</i> retard.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ritenente</i>, (<i>rit.</i>), <i>ritenuto</i> (<i>rit.</i>), <i>ritardando</i>
+(<i>rit.</i>), <i>rallentando</i> (<i>rall.</i>), <i>slentando</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely
+slower <i>at once</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pi&#249; lento</i> (lit. more slowly), <i>meno mosso</i> (lit. less
+movement).</p>
+
+<p>3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase
+in power.</p>
+
+<p><i>Largando</i>, <i>allargando.</i> These words are both derived from
+<i>largo</i>, meaning large, broad.</p></div>
+
+<p>(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see
+<a href="#Page_59">page 59</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_127">Sec. 127</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2
+as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each
+measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little
+slower than the preceding one, while such terms as <i>pi&#249; lento</i>
+and <i>meno mosso</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly
+slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some
+composers (<i>e.g.</i>, Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had
+this same distinction in mind between <i>rallentando</i> and
+<i>ritardando</i> on the one hand, and <i>ritenuto</i> and <i>ritenente</i>
+on the other, considering the former (<i>rall.</i> and <i>rit.</i>) to
+indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter
+(<i>ritenuto</i> and <i>ritenente</i>) to indicate a definitely slower
+rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate
+between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be
+worth while for the student to try to remember the
+distinction.</p></div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Accelerando</i>, <span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling affretando"><i>affrettando</i></span>
+(this term implies some degree of excitement also), <i>stringendo</i>,
+<i>poco a poco animato</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely
+faster at once.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pi&#249; allegro</i>, <i>pi&#249; tosto</i>, <i>pi&#249; mosso</i>, <i>stretto</i>, <i>un poco
+animato</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been
+suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some
+such expression as <i>a tempo</i> (lit. in time), <i>a tempo primo</i> (lit. in
+the first time), <i>tempo primo</i>, or <i>tempo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>113. <i>Tempo rubato</i> (or <i>a tempo rubato</i>) means literally <i>in robbed
+time</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, duration taken from one measure or beat and given to
+another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to
+any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the
+score.</p>
+
+<p>The terms <i>ad libitum</i>, (<i>ad lib.</i>), <i>a piacere</i>, and <i>a capriccio</i>,
+also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer.
+<i>Ad libitum</i> means at liberty; <i>a piacere</i>, at pleasure; and <i>a
+capriccio</i>, at the caprice (of the performer).</p>
+
+<p>114. The term <i>tempo giusto</i> is the opposite of <i>tempo rubato</i> (and of
+the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally <i>in exact
+time</i>. (<i>Tempo giusto</i> is sometimes translated <i>quite rapidly</i>,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> but
+this is very unusual.)</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+<p>115. <i>L'istesso tempo</i> means&#8212;at the same rate of speed. <i>E.g.</i>, when a
+measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note
+from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried
+through the entire movement.</p>
+
+<p>116. <i>Tenuto</i> (<i>ten.</i>) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to
+its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to
+show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used
+merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone&#8212;<i>i.e.</i>, to give it its
+full value.</p>
+
+<p>117. <i>Veloce</i> means&#8212;swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages
+(<i>e.g.</i>, cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without
+much regard for measure rhythm. The words <i>rapidamente</i>, <i>brillante</i> and
+<i>volante</i> (flying) have the same meaning as <i>veloce</i>.</p>
+
+<p>118. The following <i>expressions referring to tempo</i> are also in common
+use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already
+defined.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Con moto</i>&#8212;with motion; <i>i.e.</i>, not too slow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pesante</i>&#8212;slowly, heavily.</p>
+
+<p><i>Doppio movimento</i>&#8212;twice as rapid as before.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tempo ordinario</i>&#8212;in ordinary tempo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tempo commodo</i>&#8212;in convenient tempo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sempre lento malinconico assai</i>&#8212;always slowly and in a very
+melancholy style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Animando</i>, <i>animato</i>, <i>con anima</i>&#8212;with animation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agitato</i>&#8212;agitated.</p></div>
+
+<p>119. <i>Tempo di marcia</i> is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783)
+as equivalent to <i>andante</i>, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives <i>tempo di
+menuetto</i> as equivalent to <i>allegretto</i>, and <i>tempo di valso</i> as
+equivalent to <i>allegro moderato</i> (which he regards as indicating a more
+rapid tempo than <i>allegretto</i>).</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Dynamics</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="SEC_120">120.</a> The word <i>dynamics</i> (cf. dynamic&#8212;the opposite of static) as used
+in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power
+(<i>i.e.</i>, the comparative loudness and softness) of tones.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to
+<i>dynamics</i> are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to
+indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not
+possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be.
+Thus <i>dynamics</i>, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on
+the taste of the performer or conductor.</p>
+
+<p>The following <i>words referring to dynamics</i> are in common use:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Pianisissimo</i> (<i>ppp</i>)&#8212;as softly as possible. (It will be
+noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative of <i>piano</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Pianissimo</i> (<i>pp</i>)&#8212;very softly. (The superlative of
+<i>piano</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Piano</i> (<i>p</i>)&#8212;softly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mezzo piano</i> (<i>mp</i>)&#8212;medium softly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mezzo forte</i> (<i>mf</i>)&#8212;medium loudly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forte</i> (<i>f</i>)&#8212;loudly (lit. strong).</p>
+
+<p><i>Fortissimo</i> (<i>ff</i>)&#8212;very loudly. (The superlative of
+<i>forte</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Fortisissimo</i> (<i>fff</i>)&#8212;as loudly as possible.</p>
+
+<p>The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both
+<i>piano</i> and <i>forte</i> seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative
+degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even
+five <i>p</i>'s or <i>f</i>'s is not desirable.</p></div>
+
+<p>121. The terms defined in <a href="#SEC_120">Sec. 120</a> are often combined with others, as
+<i>e.g.</i>,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Pianissimo possibile</i>&#8212;as softly as possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Piano assai</i>&#8212;very softly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fortissimo possibile</i>&#8212;as loudly as possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forte piano</i> (<i>fp</i>)&#8212;loud, followed at once by soft.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other
+expressions relating to <i>dynamics</i> may easily be arrived at by recalling
+the list of auxiliary terms quoted under <a href="#SEC_96">Sec. 96</a>.</p>
+
+<p>122. The terms <i>sforzando</i>, <i>forzando</i>, <i>sforzato</i> and <i>forzato</i> all
+indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are
+abbreviated as follows:&#8212;<i>sf</i>,<i>fz</i>, and <i>sfz</i>, the abbreviation being
+placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The
+signs <img src="images/vaccent.jpg" width="12" height="12" alt="vertical accent" title="vertical accent" /> and
+<img src="images/haccent.jpg" width="22" height="12" alt="horizontal accent" title="horizontal accent" /> are also
+commonly used to indicate such an accent.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in
+mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an
+absolute meaning: the mark <i>sf</i> occurring in the midst of a
+<i>piano</i> passage will indicate a much milder form of accent
+than would the same mark occurring in the midst of a <i>forte</i>
+passage.</p></div>
+
+<p>123. The words <i>rinforzando</i> and <i>rinforzato</i> (abb.&#8212;<i>rinf.</i> and <i>rfz.</i>)
+mean literally <i>reinforced</i>, and are used to indicate a sudden increase
+in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of
+applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of <i>sforzando</i>,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>124. <i>Crescendo</i> (abb.&#8212;<i>cresc.</i> or
+<img src="images/crescendo.jpg" width="42" height="12" alt="crescendo" title="crescendo" />) means a gradual
+increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not mean <i>loud</i>,
+nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some
+auxiliary term such as <i>subito</i>, or <i>molto</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Broadly speaking there are <i>two varieties of crescendo</i>: (1) that in
+which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that
+in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the
+preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving
+forth a tone which can be varied <i>after it begins</i>. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, the
+human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain
+wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and
+gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has
+been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box,
+kettle drum, etc., the power of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> tone cannot be varied after the
+tone has once been sounded, and a <i>crescendo</i> effect is therefore
+possible only in a <i>passage</i>, in rendering which each succeeding tone is
+struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety
+of <i>crescendo</i> offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed
+most strikingly, as <i>e.g.</i>, when a long passage begins very softly and
+increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the
+instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an
+effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements
+of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The difference between <i>sforzando</i>, <i>rinforzando</i>, and
+<i>crescendo</i> should now be noted: <i>sforzando</i> indicates that a
+single tone or chord is to be louder; <i>rinforzando</i>, that an
+entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone;
+but <i>crescendo</i> indicates that there is to be a gradual
+increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during
+the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage.</p></div>
+
+<p>125. Certain <i>combinations of the word crescendo</i> with other words are
+so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Crescendo al fortissimo</i>&#8212;keep on gradually increasing in
+power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been
+reached.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crescendo subito</i>&#8212;increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).</p>
+
+<p><i>Crescendo poco a poco</i>&#8212;increase in power very, very
+gradually.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crescendo poi diminuendo</i>&#8212;first increase, then diminish the
+tone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crescendo e diminuendo</i>&#8212;same as <i>cresc. poi dim.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Crescendo molto</i>&#8212;increase in power very greatly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crescendo ed animando poco a poco</i>&#8212;growing gradually louder
+in tone and quicker in <i>tempo</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crescendo ed</i> <span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling affretando"><i>affrettando</i></span>&#8212;gradually louder and faster.
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine</i>&#8212;crescendo gradually even
+up to the very end.</p></div>
+
+<p>126. <i>Decrescendo</i> (<i>decresc.</i> or
+<img src="images/decrescendo.jpg" width="40" height="12" alt="decrescendo" title="decrescendo" />) means a gradual
+diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite of <i>crescendo</i>. The word
+<i>diminuendo</i> is synonymous with <i>decrescendo</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decrescendo</i> (or <i>diminuendo</i>) <i>al pianissimo</i> means&#8212;decrease
+gradually in power until the <i>pianissimo</i> (or very soft) point is
+reached.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_127">127.</a> A number of <i>terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo</i>
+are in use. The most common of these are:&#8212;<i>mancando</i>, <i>moriente</i>,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+<i>morendo</i>, <i>perdendo</i> (from <i>perdere</i>&#8212;to lose), <i>perdendosi</i>,
+<i>calando</i>, and <i>smorzando</i>.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Such expressions are usually
+translated&#8212;&quot;gradually dying away.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>128. In piano music the abbreviation <i>Ped.</i> indicates that the damper
+pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the sign
+<img src="images/damper1.jpg" width="12" height="12" alt="damper release" title="damper release" /> shows that it is to be released. In many modern editions
+this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately
+indicated by the sign
+<img src="images/damper2.jpg" width="55" height="15" alt="damper" title="damper" />.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The term <i>senza sordini</i> is also occasionally found in old
+editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed,
+while <i>con sordini</i> shows that it is to be released. These
+expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed
+instruments, in which the term <i>con sordini</i> means that the
+mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be
+affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both
+power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does
+not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed
+instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes
+occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even
+though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier
+sonatas.</p></div>
+
+<p>129. The words <i>una corda</i> (lit.&#8212;one string) indicate that the &quot;soft
+pedal&quot; (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the words <i>tre
+corde</i> (lit. three strings) or <i>tutte le corde</i> (all the strings) show
+that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the
+fact that on grand pianos the &quot;soft pedal&quot; when depressed moves the
+hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they
+strike only two (in the older pianos only one, hence <i>una corda</i>), all
+three strings (<i>tre corde</i>) being struck again after the release of the
+pedal.</p>
+
+<p>130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject
+of dynamics are:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Con alcuna licenza</i>&#8212;with some degree of license.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con amore</i>&#8212;with tenderness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con bravura</i>&#8212;with boldness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con celerita</i>&#8212;with rapidity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con delicato</i>&#8212;with delicacy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con energico</i>&#8212;with energy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con espressione</i>&#8212;with expression.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Con forza</i>&#8212;with force.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con fuoco</i>&#8212;with fire and passion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con grand' espressione</i>&#8212;with great expression.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con grazia</i>&#8212;with grace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con melinconia</i>&#8212;with melancholy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con passione</i>&#8212;with passion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con spirito</i>&#8212;with spirit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con tenerezza</i>&#8212;with tenderness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Delicato</i>&#8212;delicately.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dolce</i>&#8212;sweetly, gently.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dolcissimo</i>&#8212;most sweetly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dolce e cantabile</i>&#8212;gently and with singing tone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dolente</i> &#160;&#160;}<br />
+<i>Doloroso</i> } plaintively or sorrowfully.
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Espressivo</i>&#8212;expressively.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grandioso</i>&#8212;grandly, pompously.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grazioso</i>&#8212;gracefully.</p>
+
+<p><i>Giocoso</i>&#8212;humorously, (cf. jocose).</p>
+
+<p><i>Giojoso</i>&#8212;joyfully, (cf. joyous).</p>
+
+<p><i>Lacrimando</i>, <i>lacrimoso</i>&#8212;sorrowfully.</p>
+
+<p><i>Legato</i>&#8212;smoothly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leggiero</i>&#8212;lightly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leggierissimo</i>&#8212;most lightly; almost a staccato.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lusingando</i>&#8212;caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maesta</i>, <i>maestoso</i>&#8212;majestically.</p>
+
+<p><i>Martellando</i>, <i>martellato</i>&#8212;strongly accented,
+(lit.&#8212;hammered).</p>
+
+<p><i>Marziale</i>&#8212;martial&#8212;war-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mesto</i>&#8212;pensively.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mezzo voce</i>&#8212;with half voice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Misterioso</i>&#8212;mysteriously.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parlando</i>&#8212;well accented or enunciated; applied to melody
+playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Pastorale</i>&#8212;in simple and unaffected style, (lit.&#8212;pastoral,
+rural).</p>
+
+<p><i>Pomposo</i>&#8212;pompously.</p>
+
+<p><i>Precipitoso</i>&#8212;precipitously.</p>
+
+<p><i>Recitativo</i>&#8212;well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in
+instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the
+accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, see <a href="#Page_78">p. 78</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Risoluto</i>&#8212;firmly, resolutely.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scherzando</i>, <i>scherzoso</i>, etc.&#8212;jokingly. These terms are
+derived from the word <i>scherzo</i> meaning <i>a musical joke</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Semplice</i>&#8212;simply.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sempre marcatissimo</i>&#8212;always well marked, <i>i.e.</i>, strongly
+accented.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sentimento</i>&#8212;with sentiment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Solenne</i>&#8212;solemn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sotto voce</i>&#8212;in subdued voice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spiritoso</i>&#8212;with spirit.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Strepitoso</i>&#8212;precipitously.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tranquillo</i>&#8212;tranquilly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tristamente</i>&#8212;sadly.</p></div>
+
+<p>131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem
+to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thus
+<i>e.g.</i>, <i>crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando</i>,
+is seen to mean merely&#8212;&quot;increase gradually to <i>forte</i> and accelerate a
+very little bit.&quot; A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly
+in the interpretation of such expressions.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Terms Relating to Forms and Styles</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>132. A <i>form</i> in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of
+a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is
+easily recognized by the ear. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, although every fugue is
+different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement
+of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the
+<i>fugue form</i> has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is
+hearing whenever a fugue is played. The word <i>form</i> is therefore seen to
+be somewhat synonymous with the word <i>plan</i> as used in architecture; it
+is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the
+canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Speaking broadly we may say that <i>form</i> in any art consists in
+the placing together of certain parts in such relations of
+proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music
+this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect,
+as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the
+work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one
+whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer.</p></div>
+
+<p>133. The primal <i>basis of form</i> is the repetition of some characteristic
+effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these
+repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the
+same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is
+accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by
+introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_134">134.</a> The student should note at the outset of this topic the <i>difference
+in meaning between</i> the terms <i>form</i> and <i>style</i>:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> A <i>form</i> is a plan
+for building a certain definite kind of composition, but a <i>style</i> is
+merely a manner of writing. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, the <i>fugue</i> is a
+<i>form</i>&#8212;<i>i.e.</i>, it is a plan, which although capable of variation in
+details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; but
+<i>counterpoint</i> is merely a <i>style</i> or manner of writing (just as Gothic
+architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of
+several <i>forms</i>.</p>
+
+<p>135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to
+explain in simple language certain terms relating to <i>forms</i> and
+<i>styles</i> which are in common use; in many cases the definition is too
+meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that
+the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually
+be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The
+article &quot;Form&quot; and the separate articles under each term here defined,
+as found in Grove's Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples
+of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette&#8212;&quot;The
+Appreciation of Music,&quot; Supplementary Volume.)</p>
+
+<p>136. In a very general way there may be said to be <i>two styles of
+musical composition</i>, the monophonic (or homophonic)&#8212;the
+one-voiced&#8212;and the polyphonic&#8212;the many voiced. The polyphonic<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+style antedates the monophonic historically.</p>
+
+<p>137. In <i>monophonic music</i> there is one voice which has a pronounced
+melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a
+harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the
+ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three
+other voices forming a &quot;four-part harmony.&quot; The sonata, symphony, opera,
+modern piano piece, etc., are also largely <i>monophonic</i>, though
+polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>138. In <i>polyphonic music</i> each voice is to a certain extent melodically
+interesting, and the &quot;harmony&quot; is the result of combining several
+melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating
+a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint,
+canon, round, fugue, etc., are all <i>polyphonic</i> in style. The word
+<i>contrapuntal</i> is often used synonymously with <i>polyphonic</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Sections <a href="#SEC_139">139</a> to
+  <a href="#SEC_143">143</a> relate especially to terms describing
+polyphonic music.)</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_139">139.</a> <i>Counterpoint</i> is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies
+to a given melody, the latter being known as the &quot;cantus firmus,&quot; or
+subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as &quot;the art of combining
+melodies.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word <i>counterpoint</i> comes from the three words &quot;<i>punctus
+contra punctum</i>,&quot; meaning &quot;point against point.&quot; The word
+point as here used refers to the <i>punctus</i>&#8212;one of the neumae
+of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate
+predecessors of modern notes.</p>
+
+<p>Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in
+contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part
+&quot;inventions&quot; by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental
+counterpoint, while such choruses as those in &quot;The Messiah&quot; by
+Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint.</p></div>
+
+<p>140. <i>Imitation</i> is the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme
+previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the
+term <i>strict imitation</i> is applied, but if only approximate, then the
+term <i>free imitation</i> is used in referring to it. The repetition need
+not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be <i>strict</i>; on
+the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a
+fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in
+which the <i>third</i> part comes in an octave <i>lower</i> than the first part.</p>
+
+<p>141. A <i>canon</i> is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict
+imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another
+part has played or sung. The term &quot;canonic style&quot; is sometimes applied
+to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part
+canon is given in Fig. 57.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>CANON IN THREE VOICES, IN THE UNISON AND OCTAVE</b></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig57.jpg" width="650" height="761" alt="Fig. 57. Mozart Canon" title="Fig. 57. Mozart Canon" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig57.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word <i>canon</i> means <i>law</i>, and was applied to this
+particular form of composition because the rules relating to
+its composition were invariable. It is because of this
+non-flexibility that the <i>canon</i> is so little used as a form
+at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of
+writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as
+to give him room for the exercise of his own particular
+individuality of conception, and this the <i>canon</i> does not do.
+For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have
+successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the
+present time composers have as it were created their own
+forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that
+no one but the composer himself could recognize the form <i>as</i>
+a form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> because it had not been adopted to a great enough
+extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal.
+The result is that in much present-day music it is very
+difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar
+design, and the impression made by such music is in
+consequence much less definite than that made by music of the
+classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state
+of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is
+necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of
+structure to make the art work capable of standing as a
+universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression
+of some particular composer or of some period of composition.</p></div>
+
+<p>142. The common <i>school round</i> is an example of canon, each voice
+repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice
+is going on with its melody. The <i>round</i> is therefore defined as a
+variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_143">143.</a> The <i>fugue</i> (Latin, <i>fuga</i> = flight) is a form of contrapuntal
+composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key,
+<i>i.e.</i>, a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called &quot;the
+answer&quot;) may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called
+&quot;the question&quot;), but is usually not so.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The <i>fugue</i> differs from the canon also in that the subject is
+given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the
+canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going
+on. The <i>fugue</i> is not nearly so strict in form as the canon
+and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing
+musical ideas. A canon may be perfect in <i>form</i> and yet be
+very poor music; this same statement might of course be made
+about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Terms Relating to Forms and Styles</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Sections <a href="#SEC_144">144</a> to
+  <a href="#SEC_160">160</a> relate particularly to terms used in
+descriptions of <i>monophonic</i> music<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>.)</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_144">144.</a> A <i>phrase</i> is a short musical thought (at least two measures in
+length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The
+typical <i>phrase</i> is four measures long. The two-measure <i>phrase</i> is
+often called <i>section</i>. The word <i>phrase</i> as used in music terminology
+corresponds with the same word as used in language study.</p>
+
+<p>145. A <i>period</i> is a little piece of music typically eight measures
+long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined
+divisions of a larger form. The <i>period</i> (when complete in itself) is
+the smallest monophonic form.</p>
+
+<p>The essential characteristic of the <i>regular period</i> is the fact that it
+usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called <i>antecedent</i> and
+<i>consequent</i> or <i>thesis</i> and <i>antithesis</i>), the first phrase giving rise
+to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key,
+deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of
+completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The second half of the period is sometimes a literal
+repetition of the first half, in all respects except the
+cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one
+of the elements&#8212;rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs.
+58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost
+invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes)
+the more obvious the form of the period, while the more
+complex the music, the less regular the period.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig58-59.jpg" width="650" height="531" alt="Figs. 58-59" title="Figs. 58-59" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig58.mid">[Listen to Fig. 58]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig59.mid">[Listen to Fig. 59]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>146. The <i>primary forms</i> are built up by combining two or more periods.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>small two-part primary form</i> (often called <i>song-form</i> or
+<i>Lied-form</i>) consists of two periods so placed that the second
+constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of
+this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the
+first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity.
+The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven)
+quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are
+&quot;Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes,&quot; and &quot;The Last Rose of Summer.&quot;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/beethoven1.jpg" width="640" height="121" alt="Beethoven" title="Beethoven" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/beethoven2.jpg" width="646" height="102" alt="Beethoven" title="Beethoven" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/beethoven.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>small three-part primary form</i> is like the two-part primary form
+except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated
+between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure
+phrase.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>large two- and three-part primary forms</i> usually have
+sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise
+similar in construction.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>These various <i>primary forms</i> are used in constructing many
+varieties of compositions, among them the <i>theme and
+variations</i>, the <i>polka</i>, the <i>waltz</i>, the <i>march</i>, etc., as
+well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets,
+etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be
+regular here because the form of vocal music is largely
+dependent upon the structure of the text.</p></div>
+
+<p>147. A <i>theme</i> is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue,
+as the basis of the development section in &quot;sonata form,&quot; etc. Sometimes
+it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are
+made, as <i>e.g.</i>, in the familiar <i>theme and variations</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_148">148.</a> <i>Thematic development</i> consists in taking a short theme (or several
+short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and
+contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality
+changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a
+composition. Fig. 60 <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, and <i>f</i> show how the theme
+given in Fig. 60 (<i>a</i>) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are
+hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied
+without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic
+development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, <span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected error Sec. 3">No. 3</span>, as
+analyzed in <a href="#APPENDIX_E">Appendix E</a>.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig60a.jpg" width="650" height="116" alt="Fig. 60" title="Fig. 60" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig60b.jpg" width="650" height="216" alt="Fig. 60" title="Fig. 60" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig60.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>For further illustrations of development in the case of this
+same theme, see&#8212;Christiani&#8212;The Principles of Expression in
+Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing
+themes have been adapted.</p></div>
+
+<p>149. A <i>rondo</i> is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in
+which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same
+form (<i>i.e.</i>, not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme
+being separated by contrasting material.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>rondo</i> is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been
+used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic
+construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in
+dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first
+subject again; (6) second subject, in <i>tonic key</i>; (7) coda (or ending).</p>
+
+<p>The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and
+contrast (mentioned in <a href="#SEC_134">Sec. 134</a>) as here worked out, as the rondo was
+the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily
+solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is
+readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of
+all&#8212;the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of
+sonatas or sonatinas.</p>
+
+<p>150. A <i>suite</i> is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in
+nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an
+introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to
+secure contrast of movement&#8212;a quick dance being usually followed by a
+slower one.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The suite is interesting to students of the development of
+music as being the first form <i>in several movements</i> to be
+generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity
+from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the
+eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata,
+whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>suite</i> was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord,
+clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvo&#345;&#225;k, Lachner,
+Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_151">151.</a> Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Allemande</i>&#8212;duple or quadruple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bolero</i>&#8212;triple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bour&#233;e</i>&#8212;duple or quadruple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chaconne</i>&#8212;triple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Courante</i>&#8212;a very old dance in triple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Csardas</i>&#8212;Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gavotte</i>&#8212;quadruple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gigue</i> (or <i>jig</i>)&#8212;duple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Habanera</i>&#8212;Spanish dance in triple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minuet</i>&#8212;slow dance in triple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mazurka</i>&#8212;Polish dance in triple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polonaise</i>&#8212;Polish dance in triple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rigaudon</i>&#8212;lively dance in duple or triple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sarabande</i>&#8212;triple measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tarantella</i>&#8212;swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>allemande</i> is especially interesting to students of music form
+because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the
+sonata-allegro (<i>i.e.</i>, the first movement of the sonata). The
+<i>sarabande</i> and <i>courante</i> are likewise interesting as the prototypes of
+the second movement, and the <i>bour&#233;e</i>, <i>minuet</i>, etc., for their
+connection with the third movement.</p>
+
+<p>152. The <i>scherzo</i> (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental
+composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the
+sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an
+independent piece.</p>
+
+<p>153. A <i>sonata</i> is an instrumental composition of three or more
+movements (usually four), the first and last of which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> almost always
+in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity
+of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a
+broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its
+name from the fact that its first movement is cast in <i>sonata-form</i>.
+(See <a href="#SEC_157">Sec. 157</a> for description of sonata-form.)</p>
+
+<p>When the <i>sonata</i> has four movements, these are usually arranged as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A quick movement (<i>allegro</i>, <i>presto</i>, etc.), often
+preceded by a slower introduction.</p>
+
+<p>2. A slow movement (<i>largo</i>, <i>andante</i>, <i>adagio</i>, etc.).</p>
+
+<p>3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case
+the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is
+played.</p>
+
+<p>4. A quick movement&#8212;the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes
+another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.</p></div>
+
+<p>These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of
+contrasting rhythms.</p>
+
+<p>154. A <i>trio</i> is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin,
+and cello), while a <i>quartet</i> is a sonata for four instruments, the most
+common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins,
+viola, and violoncello.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>chamber music</i> is often applied to instrumental music for
+trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are
+suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The words <i>trio</i> and <i>quartet</i> are also applied to vocal works
+for three and four voices respectively, these having no
+relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The word
+<i>trio</i> is also applied to the middle section of minuets,
+scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage
+of writing this part for three instruments only.</p></div>
+
+<p>155. A <i>concerto</i> is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral
+accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt
+it to a composition in which there must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> necessarily be opportunity for
+a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements
+in the <i>concerto</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The great majority of <i>concertos</i> are for piano and orchestra,
+but examples of concertos for violin, cello, flute, oboe, and
+other solo instruments (all with orchestral accompaniment)
+have also been written. A few modern composers have applied
+the term <i>concerto</i> to certain large organ works (with no
+orchestral accompaniment, the composition being written for
+just the one instrument), but this use of the word is so
+contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly
+justifiable.</p>
+
+<p>When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra),
+this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that
+there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should
+be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been
+arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ).</p></div>
+
+<p>156. A <i>symphony</i> is a sonata for full orchestra. In general its
+construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of
+much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal
+and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the
+highest type of instrumental music ever evolved.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The <i>symphony</i> was accepted as a standard form in the time of
+Haydn (1732-1809) and was developed enormously by Haydn
+himself, Mozart (1756-1791), and Beethoven (1770-1827),
+reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous &quot;Nine
+Symphonies&quot; of the last-named composer. Later symphony writers
+whose works are at present being performed include Schumann,
+Tschaikowsky, and Dvo&#345;&#225;k.</p></div>
+
+<p>The word <i>symphony</i> was formerly used synonymously with <i>ritornelle</i>,
+both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of
+vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_157">157.</a> <i>Sonata-form</i> (sometimes called <i>sonata-allegro</i>) is a plan for the
+construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies,
+etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third
+division being a more or less literal repetition of the first.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>These <i>three parts of sonata-form</i> with their usual
+subdivisions are:</p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="smcap">Exposition</span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">(1) Principal theme (or first subject).</span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">(2) Link-episode (or modulation group).</span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">(3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly
+related key.</span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">(4) Closing group.</span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">(5) Coda.</span></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="smcap">Development Section</span></p>
+
+<p>Treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost
+infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of
+thematic development. (See <a href="#SEC_148">Sec. 148</a>).</p>
+
+<p>III. <span class="smcap">Recapitulation (or Reprise)</span></p>
+
+<p>Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in the
+<i>exposition</i>, but differing from this first section in one
+essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary
+theme in a <i>related</i> key, the entire recapitulation is in the
+<i>principal</i> key. This third section is always followed by a
+coda (which may either be very short or quite extended),
+bringing the whole movement to a more definite close.</p>
+
+<p>The second part of <i>sonata-form</i> (the development section) is
+sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three
+divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an
+opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and
+inventive skill. It is principally because of this development
+section that the sonata is so far superior as a <i>form</i> to its
+predecessors. For an analyzed example of <i>sonata-form</i>, see
+<a href="#APPENDIX_E">Appendix E</a>. The student is advised to take other sonatas and
+go through the first movements with a view to finding at least
+the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the
+form will of course be so irregular that all the parts
+indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of
+the scheme will always be present.</p></div>
+
+<p>158. A <i>sonatina</i>, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs
+from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development,
+the second section being of slight importance as compared with the
+corresponding section of a sonata.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>grand sonata</i> is like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually
+large dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>159. <i>Program music</i> is instrumental music which is supposed to convey
+to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in
+him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the
+composer's mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general
+idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a
+poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer,
+but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except
+the title of the composition.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Program music</i> represents a mean between <i>pure music</i> (cf.
+the piano sonata or the string quartet) on the one hand, and
+<i>descriptive music</i> (in which actual imitations of bird-calls,
+whistles, the blowing of the wind, the galloping of horses,
+the rolling of thunder, etc., occur), on the other. Most
+program music is written for the orchestra, examples being
+Liszt's &quot;The Preludes,&quot; Strauss' &quot;Till Eulenspiegel,&quot; etc.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_160">160.</a> A <i>symphonic poem</i> (or <i>tone poem</i>) is an orchestral composition of
+large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying
+the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often
+characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also
+examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the
+entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it
+occurs to the particular moods expressed by the <i>program</i> at those
+points.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The <i>symphonic poem</i> was invented by Liszt (1811-1886) and has
+since been used extensively by Strauss, Saint-Sa&#235;ns and
+others. It came into existence as a part of the general
+movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata
+successively to go out of fashion, viz., the tendency to
+invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way,
+but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in
+his own individual way.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Terms Relating to Vocal Music</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>161. An <i>anthem</i> is a sacred choral composition, usually based on
+Biblical or liturgical<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> words. It may or may not have an instrumental
+accompaniment, and is usually written in four parts, but may have five,
+six, eight, or more.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word <i>anthem</i> is derived from <i>antifona</i> (or <i>antiphona</i>),
+meaning a psalm or hymn sung responsively, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<i>antiphonally</i>, by two choirs, or by choir and congregation.</p></div>
+
+<p>A <i>full anthem</i> is one containing no solo parts; a <i>solo anthem</i> is one
+in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus, while a <i>verse
+anthem</i> is one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for
+concerted solo voices (<i>i.e.</i>, trios, quartets, etc.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_162">162.</a> <i>A capella</i> (sometimes spelled <i>cappella</i>) or <i>alla capella music</i>
+is part-singing (either sacred or secular) without accompaniment.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This term means literally &quot;in chapel style,&quot; and refers to the
+fact that in the early days of the church all singing was
+unaccompanied.</p></div>
+
+<p>163. <i>A motet</i> is a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style. It
+has no solo parts, thus corresponding to the madrigal (q.v.) in secular
+music. The motet is intended for <i>a capella</i> performance, but is often
+given with organ accompaniment.</p>
+
+<p>164. A <i>choral</i> is a hymn-tune of the German Protestant Church. It is
+usually harmonized in four voices. The <i>choral</i> (sometimes spelled
+<i>chorale</i>) is described as having &quot;a plain melody, a strong harmony, and
+a stately rhythm.&quot; It differs from the ordinary English and American
+hymn-tune in being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> usually sung at a much slower tempo, and in having a
+pause at the end of each line of text.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_165">165.</a> The <i>mass</i> is the liturgy for the celebration of the Lord's Supper
+in the service of the Roman Catholic Church. As used in the terminology
+of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when
+a composer writes a musical <i>mass</i>, and which form the basis of the
+celebration of the Communion.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> These six hymns are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Kyrie.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Gloria</i> (including the <i>Gratias agimus</i>, <i>Qui tollis</i>,
+<i>Quoniam</i>, <i>Cum Sancto Spirito</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Credo</i> (including the <i>Et Incarnatus</i>, <i>Crucifixus</i>, and <i>Et
+Resurrexit</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Sanctus</i> (including the <i>Hosanna</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Benedictus.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Agnus Dei</i> (including the <i>Dona nobis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>requiem mass</i> is the &quot;mass for the dead&quot; and differs
+considerably from the ordinary mass. Both regular and requiem
+<i>masses</i> have been written by many of the great composers
+(Bach, Beethoven, Verdi, Gounod), and in many cases these
+<i>masses</i> are so complex that they are not practicable for the
+actual service of the Church, and are therefore performed only
+by large choral societies, as concert works.</p></div>
+
+<p>166. A <i>cantata</i> is a vocal composition for chorus and soloists, the
+text being either sacred or secular. The accompaniment may be written
+for piano, organ, or orchestra.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>When sacred in character the <i>cantata</i> differs from the
+oratorio in being shorter and less dramatic, in not usually
+having definite characters, and in being written for church
+use, while the oratorio is intended for concert performance.</p>
+
+<p>When secular in subject the <i>cantata</i> differs from the opera
+in not usually having definite characters, and in being always
+rendered without scenery or action.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of the <i>sacred cantata</i> are: Stainer's &quot;The
+Crucifixion,&quot; Clough-Leighter's &quot;The Righteous Branch,&quot; and
+Gaul's &quot;The Holy City.&quot; Examples of the <i>secular cantata</i> are:
+Bruch's &quot;Armenius,&quot; Coleridge-Taylor's &quot;Hiawatha.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>167. An <i>oratorio</i> is a composition on a large scale for chorus,
+soloists, and orchestra, the text usually dealing with some religious
+subject. The <i>oratorio</i>, as noted above, is not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> intended for the church
+service, but is written for concert performance.</p>
+
+<p>168. An <i>opera</i> is a composition for vocal soloists, chorus, and
+orchestra, with characters, action, scenery, and dramatic movement. It
+is a drama set to music.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Grand opera</i> is opera with a serious plot, in which
+everything is sung, there being no spoken dialog at all.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opera comique</i> is a species of opera in which part of the
+dialog is spoken and part sung. <i>Opera comique</i> is not
+synonymous with <i>comic opera</i>, for the plot of opera comique
+is as often serious as not. In fact the entire distinction
+between the terms <i>grand opera</i> and <i>opera comique</i> is being
+broken down, the latter term referring merely to operas first
+given at the Opera Comique in Paris, and the former term to
+those given at the Grand Opera House in the same city.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>comic opera</i> is a humorous opera, the plot providing many
+amusing situations and the whole ending happily. It
+corresponds with the <i>comedy</i> in literature.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>light opera</i> is one with an exceedingly trivial plot, in
+which songs, dances, and pretty scenery contribute to the
+amusement of the audience. The music is lively, but usually as
+trivial as the plot.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>music drama</i> was used by Wagner in referring to his
+own <i>operas</i>, and is also sometimes applied to other modern
+<i>operas</i> in which the dramatic element is supposed to
+predominate over the musical.</p></div>
+
+<p>169. A <i>libretto</i> (lit.&#8212;little book) is the word-text of an opera,
+oratorio, cantata, or some other similar work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_170">170.</a> <i>Recitative</i> is a style of vocal solo common to operas, oratorios,
+and cantatas, especially those written some time ago. Its main
+characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance, both
+rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by
+musical considerations.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Recitative</i> undoubtedly originated in the intoning of the
+priest in the ritualistic service of the Church, but when
+applied to the opera it became an important means of securing
+dramatic effects, especially in situations in which the action
+of the play moved along rapidly. <i>Recitative</i> is thus seen to
+be a species of musical declamation.</p>
+
+<p>In the early examples of <i>recitative</i> there was scarcely any
+accompaniment, often only one instrument (like the cello)
+being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody: when full
+chords were played they were not written out in the score, but
+were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain
+signs and figures. (See &quot;thorough-bass,&quot; <a href="#Page_85">p. 85</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_200">Sec. 200</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>But about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly
+different style of <i>recitative</i> was invented, and in this type
+the orchestra was employed much more freely in the
+accompaniment, especially in the parts between the phrases of
+the text, but to some extent also to support the voice while
+singing. This new style was called <i>recitativo stromento</i>
+(<i>i.e.</i>, accompanied recitative), while the original type was
+called <i>recitativo secco</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, dry recitative).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>During the last century the style of <i>recitative</i> has been
+still further developed by Gluck and Wagner, both of whom used
+the orchestra as an independent entity, with interesting
+melodies, harmonies and rhythms all its own, while the vocal
+part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment. But even in
+this latest phase of <i>recitative</i>, it is the word-text that
+decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part.
+Fig. 61 shows an example of <i>dry recitative</i>, taken from &quot;The
+Messiah.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig61.jpg" width="650" height="550" alt="Messiah" title="Messiah" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig61.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_171">171.</a> <i>Aria</i> is likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas, etc., but
+its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the
+recitative. In the <i>aria</i> the word-text is usually entirely subordinate
+to the melody, and the latter is often very ornate, containing trills,
+runs, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as
+&quot;coloratura singing,&quot; but it should be noted that not all <i>arias</i> are
+coloratura in style.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The familiar solos from The Messiah&#8212;&quot;Rejoice Greatly,&quot; and
+&quot;The trumpet shall sound&quot; are good examples of the aria style.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>172. A <i>lied</i> (Ger. = song) is a vocal solo in which the text, the
+melody, and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the
+effect of the whole.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Strictly speaking the word <i>lied</i> means &quot;a poem to be sung,&quot;
+and this meaning will explain at once the difference between
+the <i>lied</i> on the one hand, and the Italian recitative and
+aria on the other, for in the <i>lied</i> the text is of great
+importance, but the music is also interesting, while in the
+recitative the text was important but the music very slight,
+and in the aria the text was usually inconsequential while the
+music held the center of interest.</p></div>
+
+<p>The most pronounced characteristic of the <i>lied</i> is the fact that it
+usually portrays a single mood, sentiment, or picture, thus differing
+from the ballad, which is narrative in style. It will be noted that this
+&quot;single mood, or sentiment, or picture&quot; was originally conceived by the
+poet who wrote the word-text, and that the composer in writing music to
+this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet, and has
+then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more
+vivid that thought. This intensification of the poet's thought comes as
+often through the rhythm, harmony, and dynamics of the accompaniment as
+through the expressiveness of the voice part.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The style of song-writing in which each verse is sung to the
+same tune is called the &quot;strophe form,&quot; while that in which
+each verse has a different melody is often referred to as the
+&quot;continuous&quot; or &quot;through-composed&quot; form (Ger.
+durch-componiert).</p></div>
+
+<p>173. A <i>ballad</i> was originally a short, simple song, the words being in
+narrative style, <i>i.e.</i>, the word-text telling a story. In the earlier
+<i>ballads</i> each verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune
+(strophe form), but in the <i>art-ballad</i> as developed by Loewe and others
+the continuous style of composition is employed, this giving the
+composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the
+events described by the poem. These later <i>ballads</i> are in consequence
+neither &quot;short&quot; nor &quot;simple&quot; but compare in structure with the lied
+itself.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>174. A <i>folk-song</i> is a short song sung by and usually originating among
+the common people. Its dominant characteristic is usually <i>simplicity</i>,
+this applying to word-text, melody, and accompaniment (if there is one).
+The text of the <i>folk-song</i> is usually based on some event connected
+with ordinary life, but there are also many examples in which historical
+and legendary happenings are dealt with. Auld Lang Syne, and Comin' thru
+the Rye, are examples of <i>folk-songs</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>There has been some difference of opinion as to whether a
+song, the composer of which is known, can ever constitute a
+real <i>folk-song</i>: recent writers seem to be taking the
+sensible view of the matter, viz.: that if a song has the
+characteristics of a folk- rather than an art-song, and if it
+remains popular for some time among the common people, then it
+is just as much a <i>folk-song</i> whether the composer happens to
+be known or not.</p></div>
+
+<p>175. A <i>madrigal</i> is a secular vocal composition having from three to
+eight parts. It is in contrapuntal style, like the motet, and is usually
+sung a capella.</p>
+
+<p>176. A <i>glee</i> is a vocal composition in three or more parts, being
+usually more simple in style than the madrigal, and sometimes having
+more than one movement. The <i>glee</i> may be either gay or sad in mood, and
+seems to be a composition peculiar to the English people.</p>
+
+<p>177. A <i>part-song</i> is a composition for two or more voices, (usually
+four) to be sung a capella. It is written in monophonic rather than in
+polyphonic style, thus differing from the madrigal and glee. Morley's
+&quot;Now is the Month of Maying&quot; is an example of the <i>part-song</i>, as is
+also Sullivan's &quot;O Hush Thee, My Baby.&quot; The term <i>part-song</i> is often
+loosely applied to glees, madrigals, etc.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>178. The <i>four elements</i> commonly attributed to music (in the order of
+their development) are: Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, and Timbre (or
+tone-color).</p>
+
+<p>179. <i>Rhythm</i> is the regular recurrence of accent. In music it is more
+specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and
+non-accented beats (or pulses)&#8212;according to some specified
+measure-system. Since rhythm implies continuity, there must usually be
+at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm
+possible. (See <a href="#Page_44">p. 44</a>, <a href="#SEC_97">Sec. 97</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>180. A <i>melody</i> is a succession of single tones of various pitches so
+arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified, coherent, and
+pleasing to the ear.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The soprano part of hymn-tunes and other simple harmonized
+compositions is often referred to as &quot;the melody.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>181. <i>Harmony</i> is the science of chord construction and combination.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The term <i>harmony</i> refers to tones sounding simultaneously,
+<i>i.e.</i>, to <i>chords</i>, as differentiated from tones sounding
+consecutively, as in melody. The word <i>harmony</i> may therefore
+be applied to any group of tones of different pitches sounded
+as a chord, although specifically we usually refer to a
+<i>succession</i> of such chords when we speak of &quot;harmony.&quot; It is
+possible to use the same combination of tones in either melody
+or harmony; in fact these two elements as applied to modern
+music have developed together and the style of present-day
+melody is directly based upon the development that has
+recently taken place in harmonic construction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Harmony</i> (as contrasted with <i>counterpoint</i>) first began to
+be an important factor in music about 1600 A.D., <i>i.e.</i>, at
+the time when opera and oratorio came into existence, when
+form was established, and when our modern major and minor
+scales were adopted. Before this practically all music was
+composed on a contrapuntal basis.</p></div>
+
+<p>182. <i>Timbre</i> is that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to
+distinguish a tone produced by one instrument (or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> voice) from a tone
+produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word <i>timbre</i> is synonymous with the terms <i>quality of
+tone</i>, and <i>tone quality</i> (Ger.&#8212;Klang-farbe), the excuse for
+using it being that it expresses adequately in one word an
+idea that in our language takes at least two: this excuse
+would disappear (and incidentally a much-mispronounced word
+would be eliminated) if the single word <i>quality</i> were to be
+adopted as the equivalent of <i>timbre</i>. Thus, <i>e.g.</i>, the
+soprano voice singing c' has a <i>quality</i> different from the
+contralto voice singing the same tone.</p>
+
+<p>(The remainder of this chapter and all of <a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">Chapter XVIII</a> deal
+with terms commonly encountered in the study of <i>harmony</i>.
+Courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales,
+but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively
+treated, this chapter will omit it, and will begin with the
+next topic in harmony study, viz.&#8212;the interval.)</p></div>
+
+<p>183. An <i>interval</i> is the relation of two tones with regard to pitch. If
+the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is an <i>harmonic
+interval</i>, but if sounded consecutively the result is a <i>melodic
+interval</i>. Fig. 62 represents the pitches f' and a' as a harmonic
+interval, while Fig. 63 represents the same pitches arranged as a
+melodic interval.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig62-63.jpg" width="325" height="81" alt="Figs. 62-63" title="Figs. 62-63" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig62-63.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>184. In classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in
+mind:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) The <i>number name</i> of the interval (third, fifth, sixth,
+etc.), is derived from the order of letters as found in the
+diatonic scale. Thus the interval C&#8212;E is a <i>third</i> because E
+is the third tone from C (counting C as one) in the diatonic
+scale. C&#8212;G is a <i>fifth</i> because G is the fifth tone above C
+in the diatonic scale.</p>
+
+<p>It should be noted however that the same <i>number-names</i> apply
+even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified
+by sharps, flats, etc. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, C&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> is still a
+<i>fifth</i>, as are also C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> and C<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) In determining the <i>specific</i> name of any interval
+(<i>perfect</i> fifth, <i>major</i> third, etc.), the half-step and
+whole-step (often referred to respectively as <i>minor</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> <i>second</i>,
+and <i>major second</i>) are used as units of measurement.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>half-step</i> is usually defined as &quot;the smallest usable
+interval between two tones.&quot; Thus, C&#8212;C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> is a
+<i>half-step</i>, as are also B&#8212;C, F&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>whole-step</i> consists of two half-steps. C&#8212;D is a
+<i>whole-step</i>, as are also B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>&#8212;C, E&#8212;F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>,
+F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>, G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>&#8212;A<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The expressions <i>half-step</i> and <i>whole-step</i> are much to be
+preferred to <i>half-tone</i> and <i>whole-tone</i>, as being more clear
+and definite. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, the sentence &quot;The two tones are a
+<i>half-step</i> apart&quot; is much better than &quot;The two tones are a
+<i>half-tone</i> apart.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>185. A <i>prime</i> is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
+properly represented by the same degree of the staff.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A <i>perfect prime</i> is one whose tones have the same pitch.
+Middle C sounded by piano and violin at the same time would
+offer an example.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>augmented prime</i> is one whose second tone is one half-step
+higher than the first. Ex. C&#8212;C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>186. A <i>second</i> is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
+properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff. (The first line
+and first space are adjacent degrees, as are also the third line and
+fourth space.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A <i>minor second</i> is one comprising one half-step. Ex. B&#8212;C.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>major second</i> is one comprising two half-steps. Ex.
+B&#8212;C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>augmented second</i> is one comprising three half-steps. Ex.
+F&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>187. A <i>third</i> is an interval comprising two seconds.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A <i>diminished third</i> has two minor seconds (<i>i.e.</i>, two
+half-steps). C&#8212;E<span lang="el" title="double-flat">&#9837;&#9837;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>minor third</i> has one minor and one major second (<i>i.e.</i>,
+three half-steps). C&#8212;E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>major third</i> has two major seconds (<i>i.e.</i>, four
+half-steps). C&#8212;E.</p></div>
+
+<p>188. <i>A fourth</i> is an interval comprising three seconds.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A <i>diminished fourth</i> has two minor and one major second.
+C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;F.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>perfect fourth</i> has one minor and two major seconds. C&#8212;F.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>augmented fourth</i> (tritone) has three major seconds.
+C&#8212;F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>189. A <i>fifth</i> is an interval comprising four seconds.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A <i>diminished fifth</i> has two minor and two major seconds.
+C&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>perfect fifth</i> has one minor and three major seconds. C&#8212;G.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>augmented fifth</i> has four major seconds. C&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>190. A <i>sixth</i> is an interval comprising five seconds.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A <i>minor sixth</i> has two minor and three major seconds.
+C&#8212;A<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>major sixth</i> has one minor and four major seconds. C&#8212;A.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>augmented sixth</i> has five major seconds. C&#8212;A<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>191. A <i>seventh</i> is an interval comprising six seconds.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A <i>diminished seventh</i> has three minor and three major
+seconds. C&#8212;B<span lang="el" title="double-flat">&#9837;&#9837;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>minor seventh</i> has two minor and four major seconds.
+C&#8212;B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>major seventh</i> has one minor and five major seconds. C&#8212;B.</p></div>
+
+<p>192. An <i>octave</i> is an interval comprising seven seconds.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A <i>diminished octave</i> has three minor and four major seconds.
+C&#8212;C<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>A perfect octave</i> has two minor and five major seconds. C&#8212;C.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>augmented octave</i> has one minor and six major seconds.
+C&#8212;C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>193. A <i>ninth</i> is usually treated as a second, a <i>tenth</i> as a third,
+etc. The interval of two octaves is often referred to as a <i>fifteenth</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>194. If the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between
+each tone and the key-tone noted, it will be observed that the intervals
+are all either major or perfect. See Fig. 64.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig64.jpg" width="650" height="145" alt="Fig. 64" title="Fig. 64" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig64.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>In this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller
+than <i>major</i> is always <i>minor</i>, while that next smaller than <i>perfect</i>
+or <i>minor</i> is always <i>diminished</i>: but that the interval next larger
+than both <i>major</i> and <i>perfect</i> is <i>augmented</i>.</p>
+
+<p>195. An interval is said to be <i>inverted</i> when the tone originally the
+upper becomes the lower. Thus C&#8212;E, a major third, inverted becomes
+E&#8212;C, a minor sixth.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Chords, Cadences, Etc.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>196. A <i>chord</i> is a combination of several tones sounding together and
+bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is the
+<i>triad</i>, which consists of a fundamental tone called the <i>root</i>, with
+the third and fifth above it. C&#8212;E&#8212;G is a triad, as are also D&#8212;F&#8212;A,
+F&#8212;A&#8212;C, and G&#8212;B&#8212;D.</p>
+
+<p>197. Triads are classified as <i>major</i>, <i>minor</i>, <i>diminished</i>, or
+<i>augmented</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A <i>major triad</i> has a major third and a perfect fifth, <i>i.e.</i>,
+it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex.
+C&#8212;E&#8212;G.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>minor triad</i> has a minor third and a perfect fifth, <i>i.e.</i>,
+it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex.
+C&#8212;E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>&#8212;G.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>diminished triad</i> has a minor third and a diminished fifth,
+<i>i.e.</i>, it is a minor third with another minor third on top of
+it. Ex. C&#8212;E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>augmented triad</i> has a major third and an augmented fifth,
+<i>i.e.</i>, it is a major third with another major third on top of
+it. Ex. C&#8212;E&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V,
+are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the
+<i>common chords</i>. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to
+show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral
+(with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of
+the scale. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, the large I shows that the triad on the first
+tone (in major) is a <i>major triad</i>, the small <span class="smcap">ii</span> shows that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> triad
+on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this
+clear.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig65.jpg" width="650" height="145" alt="Fig. 65" title="Fig. 65" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig65.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>The triads in the minor scale are as follows:</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/triads.jpg" width="650" height="164" alt="minor triads" title="minor triads" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/triads.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>199. A triad is said to be <i>in fundamental position</i> when its root is
+the lowest tone. It is said to be in the <i>first inversion</i> when the
+<i>third</i> is the lowest tone, and in the <i>second inversion</i> when the fifth
+is the lowest tone. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, in Fig. 66 the same chord (C&#8212;E&#8212;G) is
+arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position,
+at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig66.jpg" width="250" height="104" alt="Fig. 66" title="Fig. 66" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig66.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_200">200.</a> When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to
+show what chord is to be played or written. Thus, <i>e.g.</i>, the figure 6
+over a bass note means that the note given is the <i>third</i> of a chord,
+the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note: <i>i.e.</i>, the
+chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the
+figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is the <i>fifth</i> of the chord,
+the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the
+note given; <i>i.e.</i>, the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The use of these and other similar figures and signs is called <i>figured
+bass</i> (or <i>thorough bass</i>) <i>notation</i>. An example of a <i>figured bass</i> is
+given in Fig. 67.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig67.jpg" width="650" height="228" alt="Fig. 67" title="Fig. 67" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig67.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Thorough bass notation</i> was formerly used extensively in
+writing accompaniments to vocal works, the accompanist having
+to interpret the notes and signs given, and then to make up an
+interesting accompaniment as he went along. Much of Handel's
+music was written in this way, but in modern editions of these
+works the chords have been printed in full and the signs
+omitted.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_201">201.</a> A <i>seventh chord</i> consists of a fundamental tone with its third,
+fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. A <i>ninth chord</i>
+consists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth.</p>
+
+<p>202. A <i>cadence</i> is the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers
+to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word <i>cadence</i> is derived from <i>cadere</i>, a Latin word
+meaning to <i>fall</i>, the reference being to the falling of the
+voice (<i>i.e.</i>, the dropping to the normal pitch) at the close
+of a sentence.</p></div>
+
+<p>203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on
+I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V&#8212;I
+is called the <i>authentic cadence</i>.</p>
+
+<p>204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is
+that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is the
+<i>root</i> of that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the
+cadence is called <i>perfect</i><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> <i>authentic</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> and when the third or
+fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is called
+<i>imperfect authentic</i>. Fig. 68 shows the chord G&#8212;B&#8212;D cadencing to
+C&#8212;E&#8212;G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called a <i>perfect
+authentic cadence</i>, but the last two (c) and (d) are <i>imperfect
+authentic</i>.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig68.jpg" width="500" height="156" alt="Fig. 68" title="Fig. 68" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig68.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>205. A <i>plagal cadence</i> is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by
+the sub-dominant chord (IV&#8212;I). The <i>plagal cadence</i> (sometimes called
+the <i>church cadence</i>, or <i>amen cadence</i>), like the authentic, is
+described as being <i>perfect</i> when the soprano of the tonic chord is the
+root of that chord, and <i>imperfect</i> when the soprano of the final chord
+is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F&#8212;A&#8212;C
+cadencing to C&#8212;E&#8212;G in three ways. The first one (a) is called a
+<i>perfect plagal cadence</i>, the last two are <i>imperfect plagal</i>.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig69.jpg" width="500" height="153" alt="Fig. 69" title="Fig. 69" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig69.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>206. A <i>half-cadence</i> occurs when the dominant chord is used as the
+final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord.
+This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is
+not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in
+the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of the <i>half-cadence</i> at the close
+of such a phrase.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig70.jpg" width="482" height="218" alt="Fig. 70. Bach" title="Fig. 70. Bach" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig70.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>207. A <i>deceptive cadence</i> is the progression of the dominant chord to
+some other chord than the tonic, the word <i>deceptive</i> implying that the
+ear expects to hear V resolve to I and is deceived when it does not do
+so. The most common form of <i>deceptive cadence</i> is that in which V (or
+V<sup>7</sup>) resolves to VI. It is used to give variety, but as in the case of
+the half-cadence, is not available at the end of a composition. Fig. 71
+gives an example.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig71.jpg" width="509" height="221" alt="Fig. 71. Wm. Mather" title="Fig. 71. Wm. Mather" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig71.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>208. A <i>sequence</i> is a succession of similar harmonic progressions,
+these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part.
+See Fig. 72.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig72.jpg" width="550" height="183" alt="Fig. 72" title="Fig. 72" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig72.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>The word <i>sequence</i> is also applied to a succession of similar melodic
+progressions, as in Fig. 73.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig73.jpg" width="650" height="90" alt="Fig. 73" title="Fig. 73" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig73.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>209. <i>Modulation</i> is a change of key without any break in the continuity
+of chords or melody tones. <i>Harmonic modulations</i> are usually effected
+through the medium of a chord, some or all of whose tones are common to
+both keys. Examples of both <i>harmonic</i> and <i>melodic modulations</i> are
+shown in Figs. 74 and 75.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig74.jpg" width="450" height="213" alt="Fig. 74" title="Fig. 74" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig74.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>The chord most frequently used in modulating is the <i>dominant seventh</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i>, a seventh chord (see <a href="#SEC_201">Sec. 201</a>) on the dominant tone of the key.
+In the key of C this chord is G&#8212;B&#8212;D&#8212;F; in the key of D it is
+A&#8212;C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>&#8212;E&#8212;G; in the key of A<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> it is
+E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>&#8212;G&#8212;B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>&#8212;D<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>, etc.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig75.jpg" width="640" height="96" alt="Fig. 75" title="Fig. 75" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig75.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>210. A <i>suspension</i> is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
+higher than the regular chord-tone, this temporary tone being later
+replaced by the regular chord-tone. See Fig. 76 (<i>a</i>).</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig76.jpg" width="225" height="195" alt="Fig. 76" title="Fig. 76" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig76.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>211. A <i>retardation</i> is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
+lower than the regular tone, this tone (as in the case of the
+suspension) being later replaced by the regular chord tone. See Fig. 77
+(<i>a</i>).</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig77.jpg" width="244" height="191" alt="Fig. 77" title="Fig. 77" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig77.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>The &quot;regular chord tone&quot; to which both suspension and retardation
+resolve is called the <i>tone of resolution</i>.</p>
+
+<p>212. The <i>anticipation</i> is a chord-tone introduced just before the rest
+of the chord to which it belongs is sounded. See Fig. 78 (<i>a</i>).</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig78.jpg" width="288" height="199" alt="Fig. 78" title="Fig. 78" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig78.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>213. A <i>pedal point</i> (or <i>organ point</i>) is a tone sustained through a
+succession of harmonic progressions, to the chords of some of which it
+usually belongs. The term <i>pedal point</i> originated in organ playing,
+(where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are
+playing a succession of harmonies), but as now used it may be applied to
+any kind of music. The dominant and tonic are the tones most often used
+in this way. See Fig. 79.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/fig79.jpg" width="500" height="220" alt="Fig. 79. Schumann" title="Fig. 79. Schumann" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/fig79.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>214. When the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written
+close together (the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an
+octave apart), the term <i>close position</i> is applied. But when the upper
+voices are not written close together, the term <i>open position</i> is
+applied.</p>
+
+<p>215. By <i>transposition</i> is meant playing, singing, or writing a piece of
+music in some other key than the original. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, if a song
+written in the key of G is too high in range for a soloist, the
+accompanist sometimes <i>transposes</i> it to a lower key (as F or E), thus
+causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when
+the same song was played in the original key.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Terms</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected error battua"><i>A battuta</i></span>&#8212;with the beat; in strict rhythm.
+</p>
+
+<p><i>&#192; quatre mains</i>&#8212;for four hands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Accompagnamento</i>&#8212;the accompaniment.</p>
+
+<p><i>All'unisono</i>&#8212;in unison.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alla breve</i>&#8212;2/2 measure.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The term <i>alla breve</i> is also sometimes used as a tempo indication, to
+show a rate of speed so great that a half-note has a beat, <i>i.e.</i>, only
+two beats in a measure&#8212;hence twice as fast as before.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Alla capella</i>&#8212;usually the same as a capella (see <a href="#Page_76">p. 76</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_162">Sec. 162</a>) but
+sometimes <i>used</i> in the same sense as <i>alla breve</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alla marcia</i>&#8212;in march style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alla zingara</i>&#8212;in gypsy style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alt</i>&#8212;see <i>in alt</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alto</i>&#8212;the lowest female voice. Range approximately g-e''.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word <i>alto</i> is derived from the Latin word <i>altus</i>, meaning <i>high</i>,
+the term being formerly applied to the highest male voice, which
+originally sang (and still does so in many male choirs) the alto part.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Animato come sopra</i>&#8212;in animated style as above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiphony</i> (<i>antiphonal</i>)&#8212;the responsive singing of two choirs,
+usually one at either end of the church, or at either side of the
+chancel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arabesque</i>&#8212;an instrumental composition in light, somewhat fantastic
+style.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The term <i>arabesque</i> is derived from the word <i>Arabian</i>, and was
+originally applied to a style of decoration.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Arioso</i>&#8212;in the style of an air or song, <i>i.e.</i>, a flowing, vocal
+style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Attacca</i>&#8212;attack the next division without any pause.</p>
+
+<p><i>Attacca subito</i>&#8212;same as <i>attacca</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: In last 3 entries, corrected misspelling attaca"><i>Attacca</i></span> <i>subito il seguente</i>&#8212;attack
+at once that which follows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Attack</i>&#8212;the promptness or firmness with which a phrase is begun.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bagpipe</i>&#8212;A Scotch instrument on which the tone is produced by a
+combination of bellows and reeds. Its characteristic effect is the
+continuous sounding of a low tone (sometimes several tones) while the
+melody is being played on the higher reeds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Barcarole</i> (or <i>barcarolle</i>)&#8212;a boat song. Also applied to a vocal or
+instrumental composition in the style of the gondolier's boat song.</p>
+
+<p><i>Baritone</i> (or <i>barytone</i>)&#8212;the male voice having a range between that
+of the tenor and that of the bass. Approximate range G-g'.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bass</i>&#8212;the lowest male voice. Approximate range E-e'.</p>
+
+<p><i>Basso</i>&#8212;same as <i>bass</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Berceuse</i>&#8212;a cradle song.</p>
+
+<p><i>Binary form</i>&#8212;a form in two parts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Binary measure</i>&#8212;a measure having two beats.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Bis</i>&#8212;twice. Used to indicate a repetition. (Rare.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Brace</i>&#8212;the sign used to join several staffs, showing that all tones
+represented on these staffs are to be performed together. The term is
+often used also in referring to the music written on staffs so joined;
+as&#8212;&quot;Begin with the upper <i>brace</i>.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><i>Broken chord</i>&#8212;a chord whose tones are not all sounded simultaneously,
+as <i>e.g.</i>, in an accompaniment group.</p>
+
+<p><i>Broken octave</i>&#8212;an octave whose tones are sounded one at a time instead
+of simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cacophony</i>&#8212;harsh, discordant, unpleasant, especially <i>incorrect</i>
+combinations of tones. The opposite of <i>euphony</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cadenza</i>&#8212;A brilliant passage, usually in an instrumental composition,
+introduced just before the close of a movement. The <i>cadenza</i> was
+formerly improvised by the performer, (thus giving an opportunity of
+displaying his technical skill), but since Beethoven, composers have
+usually written their own <i>cadenzas</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cantabile</i>&#8212;in a singing style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cantando</i>&#8212;same as <i>cantabile</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Canto</i>&#8212;the highest voice part; <i>i.e.</i>, the soprano part.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Note the derivation of <i>canto</i>, <i>cantabile</i>, etc., from the Latin word
+<i>cantus</i>, meaning a <i>song</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Carol</i>&#8212;a hymn of joyful praise, usually sung in connection with Easter
+or Christmas festivities. The word <i>carol</i> meant originally <i>a dance</i>,
+hence the <i>happy</i> character of songs of this type.</p>
+
+<p><i>Catch</i>&#8212;a round set to humorous words.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chromatic</i> (noun)&#8212;a term somewhat loosely applied to any tone not
+belonging to the key as indicated by the signature. Many teachers are
+replacing the word <i>chromatic</i> in this sense with the term <i>intermediate
+tone</i>, this term being applicable whether the foreign tone is actually
+used for ornamental purposes as a <i>chromatic</i>, or to effect a
+modulation. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, &quot;F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> is the <i>intermediate tone</i> between F
+and G in the key of C.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><i>Clavichord</i>&#8212;an instrument with keys, resembling the square piano in
+appearance. The tone was produced by forcing wedge-shaped pieces of
+metal against the strings, thus setting them in vibration. The
+<i>clavichord</i> was one of the immediate predecessors of the piano, much of
+the music written by Bach being composed for it, although this music is
+now played on the modern piano.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colla voce</i>&#8212;with the voice: <i>i.e.</i>, play the accompaniment according
+to the soloist's performance rather than strictly according to the
+rhythm indicated in the score.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colla parte</i>&#8212;same as <i>colla voce</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coloratura</i>&#8212;florid passages in singing. Also applied to the style of
+singing employed in rendering such passages. (See <a href="#Page_76">p. 76</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_171">Sec. 171</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Consonance</i>&#8212;A combination of tones agreeable to the ear and requiring
+no resolution to other tone-combinations in order to give the effect of
+finality. The major triad C&#8212;E&#8212;G is an example of a consonant chord.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contralto</i>&#8212;same as <i>alto</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Con variazioni</i>&#8212;with variations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Direct</i>&#8212;a sign (<img src="images/direct.jpg" width="18" height="15" alt="direct" title="direct" />) placed at the end of the last staff
+on a page, to indicate what the first note on the next page is going to
+be. This sign is now practically obsolete.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Dirge</i>&#8212;a funeral chant. The dirge is named from the first word of a
+chant used in the &quot;office for the dead,&quot; which begins&#8212;<i>Dirige Domine,
+Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam</i> (Direct, O Lord, My God, my way
+in Thy sight).</p>
+
+<p><i>Discord</i>&#8212;an ugly, unharmonious combination of tones.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dissonance</i>&#8212;a harmonic combination of tones giving rise to the feeling
+of incompleteness or unrest, and therefore requiring resolution to some
+other combination which has an agreeable or final feeling. (cf.
+consonance.) The diminished triad C&#8212;E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>&#8212;G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> is an example of a
+dissonant chord.</p>
+
+<p><i>Divisi</i>&#8212;divided. An indication showing that the first violins, or the
+sopranos, or any other body of performers ordinarily sounding in unison
+are now to divide into two or more parts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Duet</i>&#8212;a composition for two performers. (From the It. word
+<i>due</i>&#8212;two.)</p>
+
+<p><i>&#201;cole</i>&#8212;a school or style of composition or performance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Etude</i>&#8212;a study. Also an instrumental composition in the style of a
+study, but intended for artistic performance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Euphony</i>&#8212;agreeable tone combinations; the opposite of cacophony. (From
+the Greek word meaning <i>well-sounding</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Facile</i>&#8212;easy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fanfare</i>&#8212;a trumpet call.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fantasia</i>&#8212;An instrumental composition not based on any regular form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fiasco</i>&#8212;a complete failure or breakdown.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This use of the word <i>fiasco</i> (which means in Italian a flask, or
+bottle) is said to have reference to the bursting of a bottle, the
+complete ruin of the bottle being compared with the complete failure of
+a performance.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Gamut</i>&#8212;all the tones of a scale.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glissando</i>&#8212;playing a scale on the keyboard by drawing the finger along
+over the keys, thus depressing them in very rapid succession. The word
+is derived from the French word <i>glisser</i>&#8212;to glide.</p>
+
+<p><i>Harpsichord</i>&#8212;one of the immediate predecessors of the piano.</p>
+
+<p><i>Humoresque</i>&#8212;a capricious, fantastic composition. (Cf. <i>fantasia</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Idyl</i>&#8212;a short, romantic piece of music in simple and unaffected style.</p>
+
+<p><i>In alt</i>&#8212;pitches in the first octave above the treble staff. Thus
+<i>e.g.</i>, &quot;C in alt&quot; is the C represented by the second added line above
+the treble staff.</p>
+
+<p><i>In altissimo</i>&#8212;pitches in the octave above the <i>alt</i> octave.</p>
+
+<p><i>Instrumentation</i>&#8212;see <i>orchestration</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Interlude</i>&#8212;a short movement between two larger movements.</p>
+
+<p><i>Loco</i>&#8212;place; <i>i.e.</i>, play as written. (See <a href="#Page_15">p. 15</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_46">Sec. 46</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Lunga trillo</i>&#8212;a long trill.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Terms</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</h2>
+
+
+<p><i>Lyric</i>&#8212;a short, song-like poem of simple character. Also applied to
+instrumental pieces of like character.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maggiore</i>&#8212;major.</p>
+
+<p><i>Marcato il canto</i>&#8212;the melody well marked; <i>i.e.</i>, subdue the
+accompaniment so that the melody may stand out strongly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Melos</i>&#8212;melody. This word <i>melos</i> is also applied to the peculiar style
+of vocal solo found in Wagner's music dramas. See <i>recitative</i> (<a href="#Page_75">p. 75</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_170">Sec. 170</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Mellifluous</i>&#8212;pleasing; pleasant sounding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Menuetto, menuet</i>&#8212;same as <i>minuet</i>. (See <a href="#Page_68">p. 68</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_151">Sec. 151</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Mezzo soprano</i>&#8212;a woman's voice of soprano quality, but of somewhat
+lower compass than the soprano voice. Range approximately b to g''.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minore</i>&#8212;minor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nocturne</i> (sometimes spelled <i>nocturn</i>, <i>notturna</i>, <i>nokturne</i>,
+etc.)&#8212;a night piece; a quiet, melodious, somewhat sentimental
+composition, usually for piano solo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nuance</i>&#8212;delicate shading; subtle variations in tempo and dynamics
+which make the rendition of music more expressive.</p>
+
+<p><i>Obbligato</i> (sometimes incorrectly spelled <i>obligato</i>)&#8212;an accessory
+melody accompanying harmonized music, (usually vocal music).</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word <i>obbligato</i> (It. <i>bound</i>, or <i>obliged</i>) refers to the fact that
+this is usually a melody of independent value, so important that it
+cannot be omitted in a complete performance.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Offertory</i> (sometimes spelled <i>offertoire</i>, or <i>offertorium</i>)&#8212;a piece
+of music played or sung during the taking up of the offering in the
+church service. The word is often applied by composers to any short,
+simple piece of music (usually for organ) that is suitable for the above
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opus</i>&#8212;work; used by composers to designate the order in which their
+compositions were written, as <i>e.g.</i>, Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 1.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orchestration</i>&#8212;the art of writing for the orchestra, this implying an
+intimate knowledge of the range, quality, and possibilities of all the
+orchestral instruments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ossia</i>&#8212;or else; used most often to call the attention of the performer
+to a simpler passage that may be substituted for the original one by a
+player whose skill is not equal to the task he is attempting to perform.</p>
+
+<p><i>Overture</i>&#8212;(from <i>overt</i>&#8212;open)&#8212;an instrumental prelude to an opera or
+oratorio. The older <i>overtures</i> were independent compositions and bore
+no particular relation to the work which was to follow, but in modern
+music (cf. Wagner, Strauss, etc.), the <i>overture</i> introduces the
+principal themes that are to occur in the work itself, and the
+introduction thus becomes an integral part of the work as a whole. The
+word <i>overture</i> is sometimes applied to independent orchestral
+compositions that have no connection with vocal works, as the <i>Hebrides
+Overture</i> by Mendelssohn.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Pizzicato</i>&#8212;plucked. A term found in music for stringed instruments,
+and indicating that for the moment the bow is not to be used, the tone
+being secured by <i>plucking</i> the string.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polacca</i>&#8212;a Polish dance in three-quarter measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polonaise</i>&#8212;same as <i>polacca</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Postlude</i>&#8212;(lit. after-play)&#8212;an organ composition to be played at the
+close of a church service.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prelude</i>&#8212;(lit. before-play)&#8212;an instrumental composition to be played
+at the beginning of a church service, or before some larger work (opera,
+etc.). The term is also applied to independent piano compositions of
+somewhat indefinite form. (Cf. <i>preludes</i> by Chopin, Rachmaninoff, etc.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Pri&#232;re</i>&#8212;a prayer; a term often applied (especially by French
+composers) to a quiet, devotional composition for organ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quintole, quintuplet</i>&#8212;a group of five notes to be performed in the
+time ordinarily given to four notes of the same value. There is only one
+accent in the group, this occurring of course on the first of the five
+tones.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religioso, religiosamente</i>&#8212;in a devotional style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Requiem</i>&#8212;the mass for the dead in the Roman Catholic service. It is so
+called from its first word <i>requiem</i> which means <i>rest</i>. (See <a href="#Page_77">p. 77</a>,
+<a href="#SEC_165">Sec. 165</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhapsody</i>&#8212;an irregular instrumental composition of the nature of an
+improvisation. A term first applied by Liszt to a series of piano pieces
+based on gypsy themes.</p>
+
+<p><span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling Ribbatua"><i>Ribattuta</i></span>&#8212;a
+device in instrumental music whereby a two-note phrase is
+gradually accelerated, even to the extent of becoming a trill. (See
+<a href="#APPENDIX_E">Appendix E</a>, p. 150, for an example.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Ritornello, ritornelle</i>&#8212;a short instrumental prelude, interlude, or
+postlude, in a vocal composition, as <i>e.g.</i>, in an operatic aria or
+chorus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Schottische</i>&#8212;a dance in two-quarter measure, something like the
+<i>polka</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sec, secco</i>&#8212;dry, unornamented: applied to a style of opera recitative
+(see <a href="#Page_75">p. 75</a>, <a href="#SEC_170">Sec. 170</a>), and also to some particular chord in an
+instrumental composition which is to be sounded and almost instantly
+dropped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Score</i>&#8212;a term used in two senses:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. To designate some particular point to which teacher or
+conductor wishes to call attention; as <i>e.g.</i>, &quot;Begin with the
+<i>lower score</i>, third measure.&quot; The word <i>brace</i> is also
+frequently used in this sense.</p>
+
+<p>2. To refer to all the parts of a composition that are to be
+performed simultaneously, when they have been assembled on a
+single page for use by a chorus or orchestral conductor. The
+term <i>vocal score</i> usually means all chorus parts together
+with an accompaniment arranged for piano or organ, while the
+terms <i>full score</i> and <i>orchestral score</i> refer to a complete
+assemblage of <i>all parts</i>, each being printed on a separate
+staff, but all staffs being braced and barred together.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Senza replica, senza</i> <span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling repetitione"><i>repetizione</i></span>&#8212;without repetition; a term used in
+connection with such indications as <i>D.C.</i>, <i>D.S.</i>, etc., which often
+call for the repetition of some large division of a composition, the
+term <i>senza replica</i> indicating that the smaller repeats included within
+the larger division are not to be observed the second time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Serenade, serenata</i>&#8212;an evening song.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sextet</i>&#8212;a composition for six voices or instruments.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Sextuplet</i>&#8212;a group of six notes to be performed in the time ordinarily
+given to four of the same value. The sextuplet differs from a pair of
+<i>triplets</i> in having but one accent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Simile, similiter</i>&#8212;the same; indicating that the same general effect
+is to be continued.</p>
+
+<p><i>Solfeggio, solf&#232;ge</i>&#8212;a vocal exercise sung either on simple vowels or
+on arbitrary syllables containing these simple vowel sounds. Its purpose
+is to develop tone quality and flexibility. These terms are also often
+applied to classes in sight-singing which use the sol-fa syllables.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sopra</i>&#8212;above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soprano</i>&#8212;the highest female voice. Range approximately b&#8212;c'''.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sostenuto</i>&#8212;sustained or connected; the opposite of <i>staccato</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sotto</i>&#8212;under. <i>E.g.</i>, <i>sotto voce</i>&#8212;under the voice, <i>i.e.</i>, with
+subdued tone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Solmization</i>&#8212;sight-singing by syllable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Staccato</i>&#8212;detached; the opposite of <i>legato</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Subito</i>&#8212;suddenly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tenor</i>&#8212;the highest male voice. Range approximately d&#8212;c''.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tenuto</i>&#8212;(from <i>teneo</i>, to hold)&#8212;a direction signifying that the tones
+are to be prolonged to the full value indicated by the notes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Toccata</i>&#8212;a brilliant composition for piano or organ, usually
+characterized by much rapid staccato playing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triplet</i>&#8212;a group of three tones, to be performed in the time
+ordinarily given to two of the same value. The first tone of the triplet
+is always slightly accented.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tutti</i>&#8212;(derived from <i>totus</i>, <i>toti</i>, Latin&#8212;all)&#8212;a direction
+signifying that all performers are to take part. Also used occasionally
+to refer to a passage where all performers do take part.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_A" id="APPENDIX_A"></a>APPENDIX A</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">The History of Music Notation</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Many conflicting statements have been made regarding the history and
+development of music writing, and the student who is seeking light on
+this subject is often at a loss to determine what actually did happen in
+the rise of our modern system of writing music. We have one writer for
+example asserting that staff notation was begun by drawing a single red
+line across the page, this line representing the pitch <i>f</i> (fourth line,
+bass staff), the <i>neumae</i> (the predecessors of our modern <i>notes</i>)
+standing either for this pitch <i>f</i>, or for a higher or lower pitch,
+according to their position <i>on</i> the line, or <i>above</i> or <i>below</i> it.
+&quot;Another line,&quot; continues this writer, &quot;this time of yellow color, was
+soon added above the red one, and this line was to represent c' (middle
+C). Soon the colors of these lines were omitted and the <i>letters</i> F and
+C were placed at the beginning of each of them. From this arose our F
+and C clefs, which preceded the G clef by some centuries.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another writer<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> gives a somewhat different explanation, stating that
+the staff system with the use of clefs came about through writing a
+letter (C or F) in the margin of the manuscript and drawing a line from
+this letter to the neume which was to represent the tone for which this
+particular letter stood.</p>
+
+<p>A third writer<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> asserts that because the alphabetical notation was
+not suitable for recording melodies because of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> inconvenience in
+sight-singing &quot;points were placed at definite distances above the words
+and above and below one another.&quot; &quot;In this system ... everything
+depended on the accuracy with which the points were interspersed, and
+the scribes, as a guide to the eye, began to scratch a straight line
+across the page to indicate the position of one particular scale degree
+from which all the others could be shown by the relative distances of
+their points. But this was not found sufficiently definite and the
+scratched line was therefore colored red and a second line was added,
+colored yellow, indicating the interval of a fifth above the first.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted that all three writers agree that a certain thing
+happened, but as in the case of the four Gospels in the New Testament,
+not all the writers agree on details and it is difficult to determine
+which account is most nearly accurate in detail as well as in general
+statement. Communication was much slower a thousand years ago than now
+and ideas about new methods of doing things did not spread rapidly,
+consequently it is entirely possible that various men or groups of men
+in various places worked out a system of notation differing somewhat in
+details of origin and development but alike in final result. The point
+is that the development of musical knowledge (rise of part-writing,
+increased interest in instrumental music, etc.), demanded a more exact
+system of notation than had previously existed, just as the development
+of science in the nineteenth century necessitated a more accurate
+scientific nomenclature, and in both cases the need gave rise to the
+result as we have it to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the chaos of conflicting statements regarding the development of
+music notation, the student may glean an outline-knowledge of three
+fairly distinct periods or stages, each of these stages being intimately
+bound up with the development of <i>music</i> itself in that period. These
+three stages are:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) The Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet
+for representing fixed pitches.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The period of the neumae.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The period of staff notation.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of the Greek system little is known beyond the fact that the letters of
+the alphabet were used to represent pitches. This method was probably
+accurate enough, but it was cumbersome, and did not afford any means of
+writing &quot;measured music&quot; nor did it give the eye any opportunity of
+grasping the general outline of the melody in its progression upward and
+downward, as staff notation does. The Greek system seems to have been
+abandoned at some time preceding the fifth century. At any rate it was
+about this time that certain <i>accent marks</i> began to be written above
+the text of the Latin hymns of the church, these marks serving to
+indicate in a general way the progress of the melody. E.g., an upward
+stroke of the pen indicated a rise of the melody, a downward stroke a
+fall, etc. In the course of two or three centuries these marks were
+added to and modified quite considerably, and the system of notation
+which thus grew up was called &quot;neume notation,&quot; the word <i>neume</i>
+(sometimes spelled <i>neuma</i>, or <i>pneuma</i>) being of Greek origin and
+meaning a <i>nod</i> or <i>sign</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This system of neumes was in some ways a retrogression from the Greek
+letter system, for the neumes indicated neither definite pitches nor
+definite tone-lengths. But it had this advantage over the Greek system,
+that the position of the signs on the page indicated graphically to the
+eye the general direction of the melody, as well as giving at least a
+hint concerning the relative highness or lowness of each individual tone
+(the so-called <i>diastematic system</i>), and this was a great aid to the
+eye in singing, just as the relative highness and lowness of notes on
+the modern staff is of great value in reading music at the present time.
+Thus although the neumae did not enable one to sing a new melody at
+sight as our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> modern staff notation does, yet they served very well to
+recall to the eye the general outline of a melody previously learned by
+ear and therefore enabled the singer (the system was used for vocal
+music only) to differentiate between that particular melody and the
+dozens of others which he probably knew. Neume notation was used mostly
+in connection with the &quot;plain-song melodies&quot; of the Church, and since
+the words of these chants were sung as they would be pronounced in
+reading, the deficiency of the neume system in not expressing definite
+duration values was not felt. But later on with the rise of so-called
+&quot;measured music&quot; (cf. invention of opera, development of independent
+instrumental music, etc.), this lack was seen to be one of the chief
+disadvantages of the system.</p>
+
+<p>The elements of neume-writing as given by Riemann in his Dictionary of
+Music are:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;(1) The signs for a single note: Virga (Virgula) and Punctus (Punctum).
+(2) The sign for a rising interval: Pes (Podatus). (3) The sign for a
+falling interval: Clinis (Flexa). (4) Some signs for special manners of
+performance: Tremula (Bebung), Quilisma (shake), Plica (turn), etc. The
+others were either synonyms of the above-named or combinations of
+them....&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Since music in the middle ages was always copied by hand, it will
+readily be understood that these neumae were not uniform either in shape
+or size, and that each writer made use of certain peculiarities of
+writing, which, although perfectly intelligible to himself, could not
+readily be interpreted by others (cf. writing shorthand). Here then we
+observe the greatest weakness of the neume system&#8212;its lack of
+uniformity and its consequent inability accurately to express musical
+ideas for universal interpretation.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Examples of several neumes are given merely in order to give
+the beginner a general idea of their appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Virga <img src="images/virga1.jpg" width="28" height="30" alt="virga" title="virga" /> or
+<img src="images/virga2.jpg" width="29" height="30" alt="virga" title="virga" />. Punctus
+<img src="images/punctus1.jpg" width="12" height="12" alt="punctus" title="punctus" /> or
+<img src="images/punctus2.jpg" width="16" height="12" alt="punctus" title="punctus" />. Pes
+<img src="images/pes1.jpg" width="41" height="30" alt="pes" title="pes" /> or
+<img src="images/pes2.jpg" width="48" height="40" alt="pes" title="pes" />.
+Clinis <img src="images/clinis1.jpg" width="35" height="30" alt="clinis" title="clinis" /> or
+<img src="images/clinis2.jpg" width="48" height="30" alt="clinis" title="clinis" />.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As music grew more and more complex, and especially as writing in
+several parts came into use (cf. rise of organum, descant, and
+counterpoint), it became increasingly difficult to express musical ideas
+on the basis of the old notation, and numerous attempts were made to
+invent a more accurate and usable system. Among these one of the most
+interesting was that in which the words of the text were written in the
+spaces between long, parallel lines, placing the initial letters of the
+words <i>tone</i> and <i>semi-tone</i> at the beginning of the line to indicate
+the scale interval. An example will make this clear.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/notation.jpg" width="325" height="97" alt="text notation" title="text notation" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>This indicated the precise melodic interval but did not give any idea of
+the rhythm, and the natural accents of the text were the only guide the
+singer had in this direction, as was the case in neume-notation and in
+early staff-notation also. Various other attempts to invent a more
+definite notation were made, but all were sporadic, and it was not until
+the idea of using the lines (later lines and spaces) to represent
+definite pitches, and writing notes of various shapes (derived from the
+neumae) to indicate relative duration-values&#8212;it was only when this
+combination of two elements was devised that any one system began to be
+universally used.</p>
+
+<p>Just how the transition from <i>neume</i> to <i>staff</i> notation was made no one
+knows: it was not done in a day nor in a year but was the result of a
+gradual process of evolution and improvement. Nor is it probable that
+any one man deserves the entire credit for the invention of staff
+notation, although this feat is commonly attributed to an Italian monk
+named Guido d'Arezzo (approximate dates 995-1050). To this same monk we
+are indebted, however, for the invention of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> syllables (UT, RE, MI,
+etc.) which (in a somewhat modified form) are so widely used for
+sight-singing purposes. (For a more detailed account of the transition
+to staff notation, see Grove, op. cit. article <i>notation</i>.) It will now
+be readily seen that our modern notation is the result of a combination
+of two preceding methods (the Greek letters, and the neumes) together
+with a new element&#8212;the staff, emphasizing the idea that <i>higher tones</i>
+are written <i>higher</i> on the staff than lower ones. The development of
+the neumes into notes of various shapes indicating relative time values
+and the division of the staff into measures with a definite measure
+signature at the beginning are natural developments of the earlier
+primitive idea. In the system of &quot;musica mensurabilis&quot; or <i>measured
+music</i> which was inaugurated a little later, the <i>virga</i> (which had
+meanwhile developed into a square-headed neume) was adopted as the
+<i>longa</i> or long note, and the punctus in two of its forms as <i>breve</i> and
+<i>semi-breve</i> (short and half-short). The longa is now extinct, but the
+modern form of the breve is still used as the double-whole-note, and the
+semi-breve is our modern whole-note.</p>
+
+<p>Red-colored notes were sometimes used to indicate changes in value and
+before long outline notes (called <i>empty notes</i>) came into use, these
+being easier to make than the solid ones. The transition from square-
+and diamond-shaped notes to round and oval ones also came about because
+of the greater facility with which the latter could be written, and for
+the same reason notes of small denomination were later &quot;tied together&quot;
+or <i>stroked</i>. This latter usage began about 1700 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to find that when &quot;measured music&quot; was finally
+inaugurated there were at first but two measure-signatures, viz.&#8212;the
+circle, standing for three-beat measure (the so-called <i>perfect
+measure</i>) and the semi-circle (or broken circle) which indicated
+two-beat measure. Occasionally three-beat measure was indicated by three
+vertical strokes at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> beginning of the melody, while two-beat measure
+was shown by two such strokes. Upon the basis of these two varieties of
+measure, primitive in conception though they may have been, has been
+built nevertheless the whole system now employed, and in the last
+analysis all forms of measure now in use will be found to be of either
+the two-beat or the three-beat variety. The circle has disappeared
+entirely as a measure-sign, but the broken circle still survives, and
+from it are derived the familiar signs
+<img src="images/common.jpg" width="22" height="24" alt="common time" title="common time" /> and
+<img src="images/cuttime.jpg" width="20" height="29" alt="cut-time" title="cut-time" />, which are sometimes erroneously referred to as being
+the initial letter of our word <i>common</i> (as used in the expression
+&quot;common time&quot;). The transition from the older style of measure-signature
+to the present one seems to have occurred during the century following
+the invention of opera, <i>i.e.</i>, from about 1600 to about 1700 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>The rest came into use very soon after &quot;measured music&quot; began to be
+composed and we soon find rests corresponding with the various
+denominations of notes in use, viz.:</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/oldrests.jpg" width="515" height="96" alt="old rests" title="old rests" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>The terms applied to these rests vary in different authorities, but it
+will be noted that the <i>pausa</i>, <i>semi-pausa</i>, and <i>suspirum</i> correspond
+respectively to the double-whole-rest, whole-rest, and half-rest in use
+at present.</p>
+
+<p>The bar and double bar may be developments of the <i>maxima rest</i> (as some
+writers suggest) but are probably also derived from the practice of
+drawing a line vertically through the various parts of a score to show
+which notes belonged together, thus facilitating score reading. The bar
+may occasionally be found as early as 1500, but was not employed
+universally until 1650 or later.</p>
+
+<p>The number of lines used in the staff has varied greatly since the time
+of Guido, there having been all the way from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> four to fifteen at various
+times and in various places, (<i>four</i> being the standard number for a
+long time). These lines (when there were quite a number in the staff)
+were often divided into <i>groups of four</i> by <i>red</i> lines, which were not
+themselves used for notes. These red lines were gradually omitted and
+the staff divided into sections by a space, as in modern usage. The
+number of lines in each section was changed to five (in some cases six)
+for the sake of having a larger available range in each section.</p>
+
+<p>The clefs at the beginning of the staffs are of course simply altered
+forms of the letters F, C, and G, which were written at first by Guido
+and others to make the old neume notation more definite.</p>
+
+<p>The staccato sign seems not to have appeared until about the time of
+Bach, the legato sign being also invented at about the same time. The
+fermata was first used in imitative part-writing to show where each part
+was to stop, but with the development of harmonic writing the present
+practice was inaugurated. Leger lines came into use in the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Sharps and flats were invented because composers found it necessary to
+use other tones than those that could be represented by the staff
+degrees in their natural condition. The history of their origin and
+development is somewhat complicated and cannot be given here, but it
+should be noted once more that it was the need of expressing more than
+could be expressed by the older symbols that called forth the newer and
+more comprehensive method. The use of sharps and flats in key signatures
+grew up early in the seventeenth century. In the earlier signatures it
+was customary to duplicate sharps or flats on staff degrees having the
+same pitch-name, thus:
+<img src="images/sharpsflats.jpg" width="174" height="66" alt="sharps and flats" title="sharps and flats" />. (The use of the G
+clef as here shown did not of course exist at that time.)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The double-sharp and double-flat became necessary when &quot;equal
+temperament&quot; (making possible the use of the complete cycle of keys) was
+adopted. This was in the time of Bach (1685-1750).</p>
+
+<p>Signs of expression (relating to tempo and dynamics) date back at least
+as far as the year 1000 A.D., but the modern terms used for this purpose
+did not appear until some years after the invention of opera, the date
+given by C.F.A. Williams in Grove's Dictionary being 1638. These words
+and signs of expression were at first used only in connection with
+instrumental music, but were gradually applied to vocal music also.</p>
+
+<p>Other systems of notation have been invented from time to time in the
+course of the last two or three centuries, but in most cases they have
+died with their inventors, and in no case has any such system been
+accepted with anything even approaching unanimity. The tonic-sol-fa
+system<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> is used quite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> extensively in England for vocal music, but
+has gained little ground anywhere else and the chances are that the
+present system of notation, with possibly slight additions and
+modifications, will remain the standard notation for some time to come
+in spite of the attacks that are periodically made upon it on the ground
+of cumbersomeness, difficulty in teaching children, etc. The main
+characteristics of staff notation may be summed up as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Pitches represented by lines and spaces of a staff, the
+higher the line, the higher the pitch represented, signs
+called clefs at the beginning of each staff making clear the
+pitch names of the lines and spaces.</p>
+
+<p>2. Duration values shown by <i>shapes</i> of notes.</p>
+
+<p>3. Accents shown by position of notes on the staff with regard
+to bars, <i>i.e.</i>, the strongest accent always falls just after
+the bar, and the beat relatively least accented is found just
+before the bar.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. Extent and description of beat-groups shown by
+measure-signs.</p>
+
+<p>5. Key shown by key signature placed at the beginning of each
+staff.</p>
+
+<p>6. Rate of speed, dynamic changes, etc., shown by certain
+Italian words (<i>allegro</i>, <i>andante</i>, etc.), whose meaning is
+as universally understood as staff notation itself.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_B" id="APPENDIX_B"></a>APPENDIX B</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Musical Instruments</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>1. Broadly speaking, musical instruments may be divided into two
+classes, viz.: (1) those that have a keyboard and are therefore capable
+of sounding several tones simultaneously; (2) those that (as a rule)
+sound only one tone at a time, as the violin and trumpet. The piano is
+of course the most familiar example of the first class, and a brief
+description is therefore given.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The <i>piano</i> was invented about two hundred years ago by
+Cristofori (1651-1731), an Italian. It was an enormous
+improvement over the types of keyboard instrument that were in
+use at that time (clavichord, harpsichord, spinet, virginal)
+and has resulted in an entirely different style of
+composition. See note on embellishments, <a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. The most characteristic things about the <i>piano</i> as contrasted with
+its immediate predecessors are: (1) that on it the loudness and softness
+of the tone can be regulated by the force with which the keys are struck
+(hence the name <i>pianoforte</i> meaning literally the <i>soft-loud</i>); (2) the
+fact that the piano is capable of sustaining tone to a much greater
+extent than its predecessors. In other words the tone continues sounding
+for some little time after the key is struck, while on the earlier
+instruments it stopped almost instantly after being sounded.</p>
+
+<p>The essentials of the piano mechanism are:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Felt hammers controlled by keys, each hammer striking two
+or three strings (which are tuned in unison) and immediately
+rebounding from these strings, allowing them to vibrate as
+long as the key<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> is held down. The mechanism that allows the
+hammers to rebound from the strings and fall into position for
+another blow is called the <i>escapement</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. A damper (made of softer felt) pressing against each string
+and preventing it from vibrating until it is wanted.</p>
+
+<p>3. A keyboard action that controls both hammers and dampers,
+causing the damper to leave the string at the same instant
+that the hammer strikes it.</p>
+
+<p>4. A pedal (damper pedal) controlling all of the dampers, so
+that at any moment all the strings may be released so as to be
+free to vibrate.</p></div>
+
+<p>Other interesting details are:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The strings are stretched over a thin sheet of wood called
+the sound-board. This aids greatly in intensifying the tone.</p>
+
+<p>2. The soft pedal (the one at the left) in an <i>upright piano</i>
+causes the hammers to move up nearer the strings, and the
+shorter swing thus afforded causes a less violent blow and
+consequently a softer tone. In the <i>grand piano</i> this same
+pedal shifts the mechanism to one side so that the hammers
+strike only one or two of the strings, this resulting in a
+softer tone of somewhat modified quality.</p></div>
+
+<p>These details regarding the mechanism of the piano can easily be
+verified by removing the front of any ordinary upright piano and
+observing what takes place when the keys are struck or the pedals
+depressed.</p>
+
+<p>3. There are two familiar types of <i>organ</i> in use at the present time,
+(1) the reed organ, (2) the pipe-organ.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>reed organ</i> is very simple in construction, the tone being produced
+by the vibration of metal reeds (fixed in little cells), through which
+air is forced (or sucked) from the bellows, the latter being usually
+worked by the feet of the player.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> More power may be secured either by
+drawing additional stops, thus throwing on more sets of reeds, or by
+opening the knee swells which either throw on more reeds (sometimes
+octave couplers) or else open a <i>swell box</i> in which some of the reeds
+are enclosed, the tone being louder when the box is open than when
+closed. More tone may also be secured by pumping harder.</p>
+
+<p>4. The essential characteristic of the <i>pipe-organ</i> is a number of sets
+or registers of pipes called <i>stops</i>, each set being capable (usually)
+of sounding the entire chromatic scale through a range of five or six
+octaves. Thus for example when the stop <i>melodia</i> is drawn (by pulling
+out a stop-knob or tilting a tablet), one set of pipes only, sounds when
+the keyboard is played on: but if the stop <i>flute</i> is drawn with
+<i>melodia</i>, two pipes speak every time a key is depressed. Thus if an
+organ has forty <i>speaking stops</i>, all running through the entire
+keyboard, then each time one key is depressed forty pipes will speak,
+and if a chord of five tones is played, two hundred pipes will speak.
+The object of having so many pipes is not merely to make possible a very
+powerful tone, but, rather, to give greater variety of tone-color.</p>
+
+<p>The pipe-organ usually has a pedal keyboard on which the feet of the
+performer play a bass part, this part often sounding an octave (or more)
+lower than the notes indicate.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>eight-foot stop</i> on the organ produces tones of the same pitches as
+the piano when corresponding keys are struck: A <i>four-foot stop</i> sounds
+tones an octave higher and a <i>two-foot stop</i> tones two octaves higher. A
+<i>sixteen-foot stop</i> sounds tones an octave lower than the piano, and a
+<i>thirty-two foot</i> stop, tones two octaves lower, while some organs have
+also a <i>sixty-four foot</i> stop which sounds three octaves lower. This
+gives the organ an exceedingly wide range, its compass being greater
+than that of any other single instrument, and comparable in both range
+of pitches and variety of color only with the modern orchestra.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Modern pipe-organs always have a number of <i>combination pedals</i> or
+<i>pistons</i> (usually both), by means of which the organist is enabled to
+throw on a number of stops with one movement. The selection and use of
+suitable stops, couplers, combinations, etc., is called <i>registration</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. The instruments mentioned at the beginning of this appendix as
+belonging to the second class are more familiar in connection with
+ensemble playing, being commonly associated with either band or
+orchestra.</p>
+
+<p>6. A <i>band</i> is a company of musicians all of whom play upon either wind
+or percussion instruments, the main body of tone being produced by the
+brass and wood-wind divisions.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sousa's band is usually made up in somewhat the following
+manner: 4 flutes and piccolos, 12 B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> clarinets, 1 E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>
+clarinet, 1 alto clarinet, 1 bass clarinet, 2 oboes, 2
+bassoons, 2 sarrusophones, 4 saxophones, 4 cornets, 2
+trumpets, 1 soprano saxhorn (fluegelhorn), 4 French horns, 4
+trombones, 2 contra-bass tubas, 4 tubas, 1 snare drum, 1 bass
+drum, 2 kettle drums, cymbals, triangle, bells, castanets,
+xylophone, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p>7. An <i>orchestra</i> is a company of musicians performing upon stringed
+instruments as well as upon wind and percussion. It is differentiated
+from the band by the fact that the main body of tone is produced by the
+strings.</p>
+
+<p>There are <i>four classes of instruments</i> in the orchestra, viz.,
+<i>strings</i>, <i>wood-wind</i>, <i>brass</i> (<i>wind</i>) and <i>percussion</i>. In addition
+to these four classes, there is the <i>harp</i>, which although a stringed
+instrument, does not belong in the same group as the other strings
+because the manner of producing the tone is altogether different.</p>
+
+<p>8. In the first group (the <i>strings</i>) are found the first and second
+violins, viola, violoncello (usually spelled <i>cello</i>), and double-bass.
+The first and second violins are identical in every way (but play
+different parts), while the other members of the family merely represent
+larger examples of the same type of instrument.</p>
+
+<p>9. In the second group (the <i>wood-wind</i>) are found the flute, piccolo,
+oboe, bassoon, English horn, double-bassoon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> clarinet, and bass
+clarinet. The English horn, double-bassoon, bass clarinet, and piccolo
+are not called for in the older compositions, hence are not always
+present in the orchestra.</p>
+
+<p>10. In the third group (the <i>brass choir</i>) are found the French horn,
+(usually referred to as <i>the horn</i>), trumpet (sometimes replaced by the
+cornet) trombone, and tuba.</p>
+
+<p>11. The fourth group (<i>percussion</i>) consists of kettle drums, bass drum,
+cymbals, snare drum, triangle, bells, etc.</p>
+
+<p>12. In an orchestra of about 100 players the proportion of instruments
+is as about as follows, although it varies somewhat according to the
+taste of the conductor, the style of composition to be performed, etc.:</p>
+
+<p>18 first violins, 16 second violins, 14 violas, 12 cellos, 10 basses, 1
+harp, 3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 3 oboes, 1 English horn, 3 clarinets, 1 bass
+clarinet, 3 bassoons, 1 contra (or double) bassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets,
+3 trombones, 1 tuba, 3 kettle drums, 1 bass drum, 1 snare drum, 1 each
+of triangle, cymbals, bells, and other instruments of percussion,
+several of which are often manipulated by one performer.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/violin.jpg" width="122" height="400" alt="violin" title="violin" class="floatr" />13. The cuts and brief descriptions here added will give at least a
+rudimentary idea of the appearance and possibilities of the instruments
+most commonly used in bands and orchestras. For fuller descriptions and
+particulars regarding range, quality, etc., the student is referred to
+Mason's &quot;The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do,&quot; Lavignac's &quot;Music
+and Musicians,&quot; and to the various articles which describe each
+instrument under its own name in Grove's Dictionary or in any good
+encyclopaedia. For still fuller details some work on orchestration will
+have to be consulted.</p>
+
+<p>14. The <i>violin</i> has four strings, tuned thus
+<img src="images/violintune.jpg" width="77" height="77" alt="violin strings g d' a' e''" title="violin strings g d' a' e''" />, these making available a range of about three and one-half octaves
+(g&#8212;c''''). This range<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> may be extended upward somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> further by
+means of <i>harmonics</i>, these being produced by lightly touching the
+string at certain points (while the bow is moving across it) instead of
+holding it down against the finger-board. The highest string of the
+<i>violin</i> (viola and cello also) is often called the <i>chanterelle</i>
+because it is most often used for playing the melody. The <i>violin</i>
+ordinarily produces but one tone at a time, but by <i>stopping</i> two
+strings simultaneously and so drawing the bow as to set both in
+vibration, two tones may be produced at the same time, while three and
+four tones can be sounded <i>almost</i> simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/viola.jpg" width="171" height="400" alt="viola" title="viola" class="floatl" />The <i>mute</i> (or <i>sordino</i>) is a small clamp made of metal, wood, or
+ivory, which when clipped to the top of the bridge causes the vibrations
+to be transmitted less freely to the body of the violin, giving rise to
+a tone modified in quality, and decreased in power.</p>
+
+<p>For certain special effects the player is directed to pluck the string
+(<i>pizzicato</i>), this method of playing giving rise to a dry, detached
+tone instead of the smooth, flowing one that is so characteristic of the
+<i>violin</i> as commonly played.</p>
+
+<p><i>Violins</i> in the orchestra are divided into firsts and seconds, the
+<i>first violins</i> being always seated at the left of the audience and the
+<i>seconds</i> at the right.</p>
+
+<p>15. The <i>viola</i> has four strings, also tuned in fifths, thus
+<img src="images/violatune.jpg" width="75" height="122" alt="viola strings c g d' a'" title="viola strings c g d' a'" />. The <i>viola</i> looks exactly like the violin at
+a little distance, and is really only a larger sized violin, having a
+range a fifth lower. Its tone is not so incisive as that of the violin,
+being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> rather heavier&#8212;&quot;more gloomy,&quot; as it is often described. The
+<i>viola</i> is not so useful as the violin as a solo instrument because it
+is not capable of producing so many varieties of color, nevertheless it
+is invaluable for certain effects. In orchestral music it is of course
+one of the most valuable instruments for filling in the harmony. The
+<i>viola</i> players are usually seated behind the second violin players in
+the orchestra.</p>
+
+<p>
+<img src="images/cello.jpg" width="173" height="500" alt="cello" title="cello" class="floatr" />16. The <i>violoncello</i> or <i>cello</i> (sometimes called <i>bass viol</i>) has four
+strings, tuned thus:
+<img src="images/cellotune.jpg" width="77" height="68" alt="cello strings C G d a" title="cello strings C G d a" />.
+Its range is about three
+and one-half octaves (from C to e'' or f''), but in solo work this range
+is sometimes extended much higher. The <i>cello</i> is much more universally
+used as a solo instrument than the viola and its tone is capable of a
+much greater degree of variation. In the orchestra it plays the bass of
+the string quartet (reinforced by the double-bass), but is also often
+used for solo passages. <i>Con sordino</i> and <i>pizzicato</i> passages occur as
+often for the <i>cello</i> as for the violin.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/doublebass.jpg" width="237" height="600" alt="double bass" title="double bass" class="floatl" />17. The <i>double bass</i> differs from the other members of the string
+family in that it is tuned in <i>fourths</i> instead of in <i>fifths</i>. Its four
+strings are tuned as follows
+<img src="images/basstune.jpg" width="65" height="63" alt="bass strings EE AA D G" title="bass strings EE AA D G" /> the entire range
+of the instrument being from EE to a. In music written for double-bass
+the notes are always printed an octave higher than the tones are to
+sound: that is, when the bass-player sees the note
+<img src="images/bassc.jpg" width="63" height="32" alt="bass c" title="bass c" /> he
+plays <img src="images/pedalc.jpg" width="63" height="46" alt="pedal C" title="pedal C" /> this being done to avoid leger lines. The tone
+of the <i>bass</i> is much heavier and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> the instrument itself is much more
+clumsy to handle than the other members of the group, hence it is almost
+never used as a solo instrument but it is invaluable for reinforcing the
+bass part in orchestral music. The mute is rarely used on the
+<i>double-bass</i>, but the <i>pizzicato</i> effect is very common and the bass
+pizzicato tone is much fuller and richer than that of any other stringed
+instrument.</p>
+
+<p>18. The <i>flute</i> has a range of three octaves.
+<img src="images/fluterange.jpg" width="124" height="97" alt="flute range c' c''''" title="flute range c' c''''" />
+It is used in both solo and orchestral playing as well as in bands. The
+flute was formerly always made of wood, but is at present often made of
+metal.</p>
+
+<p>19. The <i>piccolo</i> is a flute playing an octave higher than the one
+described above. The notes are printed as for the flute, but the player
+understands that the tone is to sound an octave higher. The <i>piccolo</i> is
+used widely in band music and quite often in orchestral music also, but
+since the tone is so brilliant and penetrating and is incapable of any
+great variation, it is not suitable for solo performance.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><img src="images/oboe.jpg" width="113" height="400" alt="oboe" title="oboe" /><img src="images/contrabassoon.jpg" width="125" height="500" alt="contrabassoon" title="contrabassoon" /><img src="images/enghorn.jpg" width="79" height="900" alt="English horn" title="English horn" /><img src="images/piccolo.jpg" width="73" height="600" alt="piccolo" title="piccolo" /><img src="images/flute.jpg" width="57" height="600" alt="flute" title="flute" /><img src="images/bassoon.jpg" width="220" height="900" alt="bassoon" title="bassoon" /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>20. The next four instruments to be described (<i>oboe</i>, <i>bassoon</i>,
+<i>English horn</i>, and <i>contra bassoon</i>) are often referred to as the <i>oboe
+family</i> since the principle of tone production and general manipulation
+is the same in all four. The tone in these instruments is produced by
+the vibration of two very thin pieces of cane, which are called together
+a <i>double-reed</i>.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/bassclarinet.jpg" width="171" height="500" alt="bass clarinet" title="bass clarinet" class="floatl" /><img src="images/clarinet.jpg" width="78" height="500" alt="clarinet" title="clarinet" class="floatr" />The <i>oboe</i> is especially valuable in the orchestra as a solo instrument,
+and its thin, nasal tones are suggestive of rustic, pastoral simplicity,
+both <i>oboe</i> and <i>English horn</i> being often used by orchestral composers
+in passages intended to express the idea of rural out-of-door life. The
+<i>English horn</i> is also often used in passages where the idea of
+melancholy and suffering is to be conveyed to the audience. In a
+military band the oboe corresponds to the first violin of the orchestra.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>bassoon</i> and <i>contra-bassoon</i> are used mostly to provide a bass
+part for the harmony of the wood-wind group, but they are also sometimes
+employed (especially the <i>bassoon</i>) to depict comic or grotesque
+effects.</p>
+
+<p>21. The next two types of instruments to be described (<i>clarinet</i> and
+<i>saxophone</i>) are alike in that the tone is produced by the vibration of
+a <i>single</i> strip of cane (called <i>single reed</i>) which is held against
+the lower lip of the player. The <i>clarinet</i> and <i>bass clarinet</i> are made
+of wood and are used in both bands and orchestras, but the <i>saxophone</i>
+is usually made of metal, and, the tone being more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> strident and
+penetrating, the instrument is ordinarily used only in combination with
+other wind instruments, <i>i.e.</i>, in bands.</p>
+
+<p>Since the fingering of the <i>clarinet</i> is excessively difficult the
+performer can play in only certain keys on the same instrument, hence to
+play in different keys <i>clarinets</i> in several keys must be provided,
+there being usually three in all. The music is written as though it were
+to be played in the key of C, but the tones produced are actually in
+other keys. For this reason the <i>clarinet</i> is called a <i>transposing
+instrument</i>. The range of the <i>clarinet</i> is the greatest possessed by
+any of the wind instruments, that of the clarinet in C being from
+<img src="images/lowe.jpg" width="78" height="44" alt="e" title="e" /> to
+<img src="images/g3.jpg" width="78" height="94" alt="g'''" title="g'''" />.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><img src="images/saxes.jpg" width="522" height="650" alt="saxophones" title="saxophones" /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><img src="images/sarrusophone.jpg" width="193" height="600" alt="sarrusophone" title="sarrusophone" class="floatr" />The <i>sarrusophone</i> is an instrument with a double-reed. It is made of
+brass and exists in several sizes, the only one ever used in the
+orchestra being the double-bass <i>sarrusophone</i>, which has approximately
+the same range as the double-bassoon and is sometimes (but rarely) made
+use of in the orchestra instead of the latter instrument. The tone of
+the <i>sarrusophone</i> is something like that of the bassoon.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/frenchhorn.jpg" width="264" height="400" alt="French horn" title="French horn" class="floatl" />22. The <i>French horn</i> (often called <i>valve horn</i> or simply <i>horn</i>)
+really consists of a long tube (about 16 feet) which is bent into
+circular form for convenience in handling. Its range is from
+<img src="images/doublepedalb.jpg" width="66" height="65" alt="BB" title="BB" /> to
+<img src="images/highf.jpg" width="75" height="57" alt="f''" title="f''" />. In the orchestra <i>French
+horns</i> are used in pairs, two of the players taking the higher tones,
+and two the lower. The tone is intensely mellow but incapable of any
+extensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> variation, but in spite of this lack of variety the tone
+itself is so wonderfully beautiful that the instrument is one of the
+most useful in the orchestra both in solo passages and to fill in the
+harmony. The <i>horn</i> (as well as the trumpet and trombone) differs from
+most of the wood-wind instruments in that its mouthpiece contains no
+reed, the lips of the player constituting the vibrating body as they are
+stretched across the mouthpiece and air is forced against them. The
+<i>horn</i> is used in bands as well as in orchestras.</p>
+
+<p>23. The range of the <i>trumpet</i> is
+<img src="images/trumpetrange.jpg" width="77" height="83" alt="trumpet range g b''" title="trumpet range g b''" />, the typical
+tone being brilliant and ringing. It is used in both band and orchestra,
+playing the highest parts assigned to the brass choir. The <i>trumpet</i> is
+often replaced in both band and orchestra by its less refined cousin the
+<i>cornet</i> because of the ease with which the latter can be played as
+compared with the trumpet, and the larger number of players that are
+available in consequence of this ease of execution.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/trumpet.jpg" width="484" height="250" alt="trumpet" title="trumpet" /></p>
+
+<p>
+<img src="images/cornet.jpg" width="298" height="550" alt="cornet" title="cornet" class="floatr" />24. The <i>cornet</i> looks something like the trumpet, but is not so slim
+and graceful in appearance. Its tube is only four and one-half feet
+long, as compared with a length of about eight feet in the trumpet, and
+sixteen feet in the French horn.</p>
+
+<p>The range of the <i>cornet</i> in B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> is from
+<img src="images/lowe.jpg" width="78" height="44" alt="e" title="e" /> to
+<img src="images/highbflat.jpg" width="84" height="73" alt="b-flat''" title="b-flat''" />. The tone is somewhat commonplace as compared
+with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> trumpet, but because of its great agility in the rendition of
+trills, repeated tones, etc., it is universally used in all sorts of
+combinations, even (as noted above) taking the place of the trumpet in
+many small orchestras.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/trombone.jpg" width="151" height="600" alt="trombone" title="trombone" class="floatl" />25. The pitch sounded by the <i>trombone</i> is altered by lengthening or
+shortening the tube of which the instrument is constructed, this being
+possible because the lower part slides into the upper and can be pulled
+out to increase the total length of the tube through which the air
+passes. There are usually three <i>trombones</i> in the orchestra, each
+playing a separate part, and the combination of this trio (with the
+<i>tuba</i> reinforcing the bass part) is majestic and thrilling, being
+powerful enough to dominate the entire orchestra in <i>Fortissimo</i>
+passages. But the <i>trombones</i> are useful in soft passages also, and
+their tone when playing pianissimo is rich, serene, and sonorous.</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/tuba.jpg" width="241" height="400" alt="tuba" title="tuba" class="floatr" />26. The <i>bass tuba</i> is a member of the saxhorn family<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> supplies
+the lowest part of the brass choir, as the double-bass does in the
+string choir. It is used in both orchestra and band, being often
+supported in the larger bands by a still lower-toned member of the same
+family&#8212;the <i>contra-bass tuba</i>. The range of the <i>tuba</i> is from
+<img src="images/doublepedalg.jpg" width="67" height="74" alt="double pedal G" title="double pedal G" /> to
+<img src="images/g1.jpg" width="73" height="57" alt="g'" title="g'" />.</p>
+
+<p>27. The <i>kettle-drum</i> is the most important member of the percussion
+family and is always used either in pairs or in threes. The size of
+these instruments varies somewhat with the make, but when two drums are
+used the diameter is approximately that given under the illustration.
+The range of a pair of <i>drums</i> is <i>one octave</i>
+<img src="images/drumrange.jpg" width="66" height="47" alt="F f" title="F f" /> and
+when but two drums are used the larger one takes the tones from F to
+about C of this range, and the smaller takes those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> from about B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>
+to F. The most common usage is to tune one drum to the <i>tonic</i>, and the
+other to <i>the dominant</i> of the key in which the composition is written.
+The pitch of the <i>kettle-drum</i> can be varied by increasing or lessening
+the tension of the head by means of thumb-screws which act on a metal
+ring.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><img src="images/bassdrum.jpg" width="241" height="400" alt="bass drum" title="bass drum" /><img src="images/cymbals.jpg" width="236" height="400" alt="cymbals" title="cymbals" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/kettle.jpg" width="708" height="400" alt="kettle drums" title="kettle drums" /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The other important members of the percussion family are shown on this
+and the following page, their use being so obvious as to require no
+detailed explanation.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/tambourine.jpg" width="350" height="192" alt="tambourine" title="tambourine" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/bells.jpg" width="650" height="554" alt="bells" title="bells" /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sidedrum.jpg" width="274" height="400" alt="side drum" title="side drum" /><img src="images/triangle.jpg" width="305" height="400" alt="triangle" title="triangle" /></p>
+
+<p><img src="images/harp.jpg" width="307" height="650" alt="harp" title="harp" class="floatr" />28. The <i>harp</i> is one of the oldest of instruments (dating back over
+6000 years), but it is only in comparatively recent years that it has
+been used in the symphony orchestra. Its range is from
+<img src="images/doublepedalcflat.jpg" width="68" height="77" alt="double pedal C-flat" title="double pedal C-flat" /> to
+<img src="images/fflat4.jpg" width="72" height="106" alt="f-flat''''" title="f-flat''''" />.</p>
+
+<p>The modern <i>double-action harp</i> has forty-six strings, which are tuned
+in half-steps and whole-steps so as to sound the scale of C<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> major.
+It has a series of seven pedals around its base, each pedal having two
+<i>notches</i> below it, into either of which the pedal may be lowered and
+held fast. The first pedal shortens the F<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> string so that it now
+sounds F, (giving the key of G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>); the second one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> shortens the
+C<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> string so that it sounds C (giving the key of D<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>); the
+third pedal shortens the G<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> string so that it sounds G (giving the
+key of A<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>); the fourth changes D<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> to D (giving the key of
+E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span>), and so on until, when all the pedals are fixed in their first
+notches, the scale of C is sounded instead of C<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> as was the case
+before any of the pedals were depressed. But if the first pedal is now
+pushed down into the second notch the original F<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> string is still
+further shortened and now sounds the pitch F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> (giving us the key
+of G), and if all the other pedals are likewise successively lowered to
+the second notch we get in turn all the <i>sharp keys</i>&#8212;D, A, E, B,
+F<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> and C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span>, the last-named key being obtained as the result
+of having all the pedals fixed in their second notches, thus making all
+the tones of the original C<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> scale a whole-step higher so that they
+now sound the C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> scale.</p>
+
+<p>Chords of not more than four tones for each hand may be played
+simultaneously on the harp, but arpeggio and scale passages are the
+rule, and are more successful than simultaneous chords. The notation of
+harp music is essentially like that of piano music.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_C" id="APPENDIX_C"></a>APPENDIX C</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Acoustics</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>:&#8212;It is usually taken for granted that the student of
+music is familiar with the significance of such terms as
+<i>over-tone</i>, <i>equal temperament</i>, etc., and with principles
+such as that relating to the relation between vibration rates
+and pitches: the writer has in his own experience found,
+however, that most students are not at all familiar with such
+data, and this appendix is therefore added in the hope that a
+few facts at least regarding the laws of sound may be brought
+to the attention of some who would otherwise remain in entire
+ignorance of the subject.</p></div>
+
+<p>1. <i>Acoustics</i> is the science which deals with sound and the laws of its
+production and transmission. Since all sound is caused by vibration,
+<i>acoustics</i> may be defined as the science which treats of the phenomena
+of sound-producing vibration.</p>
+
+<p>2. All sound (as stated above) is produced by vibration of some sort:
+strike a tuning-fork against the top of a table and <i>see</i> the vibrations
+which cause the tone, or, if the fork is a small one and the vibrations
+cannot be seen, hold it against the edge of a sheet of paper and hear
+the blows it strikes; or, watch one of the lowest strings of the piano
+after striking the key a sharp blow; or, look closely at the heavier
+strings of the violin (or better still, the cello) and watch them
+oscillate rapidly to and fro as the bow moves across them.</p>
+
+<p>The vibrating body may be a string, a thin piece of wood, a piece of
+metal, a membrane (cf. drum), the lips (cf. playing the cornet), the
+vocal cords, etc. Often it is a column of air whose vibrations give rise
+to the tone, the reed or other medium merely serving to set the air in
+vibration.</p>
+
+<p>3. Sound is <i>transmitted</i> through the air in somewhat this fashion: the
+vibrating body (a string for example) strikes the air-particles in its
+immediate vicinity, and they, being in con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>tact with other such
+air-particles, strike these others, the latter in turn striking yet
+others, and so on, both a forward and backward movement being set up
+(oscillation). These particles lie so close together that no movement at
+all can be detected, and it is only when the disturbance finally reaches
+the air-particles that are in contact with the ear-drum that any effect
+is evident.</p>
+
+<p>This phenomenon of sound-transmission may perhaps be made more clear by
+the old illustration of a series of eight billiard balls in a row on a
+table: if the first ball is tapped lightly, striking gently against ball
+number 2, the latter (as well as numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) will not
+apparently move at all, but ball number 8 at the other end will roll
+away. The air-particles act upon each other in much this same fashion,
+the difference being that when they are set in motion by a vibrating
+body a complete vibration backward and forward causes a similar
+<i>backward and forward</i> movement of the particles (oscillation) instead
+of simply a <i>forward jerk</i> as in the case of the billiard balls.</p>
+
+<p>Another way of describing the same process is this: the vibration of
+some body produces waves in the air (cf. waves in the ocean, which carry
+water forward but do not themselves move on continuously), these waves
+spread out spherically (i.e. in all directions) and finally reach the
+ear, where they set the ear-drum in vibration, thus sending certain
+sound-stimuli to the nerves of hearing in the inner ear, and thus to the
+brain.</p>
+
+<p>An important thing to be noted in connection with sound-transmission is
+that sound will not travel in a vacuum: some kind of a medium is
+essential for its transmission. This medium may be air, water, a bar of
+iron or steel, the earth, etc.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>rate</i> at which sound travels through the air is about 1100 feet
+per second, the rapidity varying somewhat with fluctuations in
+temperature and humidity. In water the rate is much higher than in air
+(about four times as great)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> while the velocity of sound through other
+mediums (as <i>e.g.</i>, steel) is sometimes as much as sixteen times as
+great as through air.</p>
+
+<p>5. Sound, like light, may be <i>intensified</i> by a suitable reflecting
+surface directly back of the vibrating body (cf. sounding board); it may
+also be reflected by some surface at a distance from its source in such
+a way that at a certain point (the focus) the sound may be very clearly
+heard, but at other places, even those <i>nearer</i> the source of sound, it
+can scarcely be heard at all. If there is such a surface in an
+auditorium (as often occurs) there will be a certain point where
+everything can be heard very easily, but in the rest of the room it may
+be very difficult to understand what is being said or sung.</p>
+
+<p><i>Echoes</i> are caused by sound-reflection, the distance of the reflecting
+surface from the vibrating body determining the number of syllables that
+will be echoed.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>acoustics</i> of an auditorium (<i>i.e.</i>, its hearing properties) depend
+upon the position and nature of the reflecting surfaces and also upon
+the length of time a sound persists after the vibrating body has
+stopped. If it persists longer than 2-1/4 or 2-1/3 seconds the room will
+not be suitable for musical performances because of the mixture of
+persisting tones with following ones, this causing a blurred effect
+somewhat like that obtained by playing a series of unrelated chords on
+the piano while the damper-pedal is held down. The duration of the
+reverberation depends upon the size and height of the room, material of
+floor and walls, furniture, size of audience, etc.</p>
+
+<p>6. Sound may be classified roughly into <i>tones</i> and <i>noises</i> although
+the line of cleavage is not always sharply drawn. If I throw stones at
+the side of a barn, sounds are produced, but they are caused by
+irregular vibrations of an irregularly constructed surface and are
+referred to as <i>noise</i>. But if I tap the head of a kettle-drum, a
+regular series of vibrations is set up and the resulting sound is
+referred to as <i>tone</i>. In general the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> material of music consists of
+tones, but for special effects certain noises are also utilized (cf.
+castanets, etc.).</p>
+
+<p>7. Musical tones have three properties, viz.:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Pitch.</p>
+
+<p>2. Intensity.</p>
+
+<p>3. Quality (timbre).</p></div>
+
+<p>By <i>pitch</i> is meant the highness or lowness of tone. It depends upon
+rate of vibration. If a body vibrates only 8 or 10 times per second no
+tone is heard at all: but if it vibrates regularly at the rate of 16 or
+18 per second a tone of very low pitch is heard. If it vibrates at the
+rate of 24 the pitch is higher, at 30 higher still, at 200 yet higher,
+and when a rate of about 38,000 per second has been reached the pitch is
+so high that most ears cannot perceive it at all. The highest tone that
+can ordinarily be heard is the E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> four octaves higher than the
+highest E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> of the piano. The entire range of sound humanly audible
+is therefore about eleven octaves (rates 16-38,000), but only about
+<i>eight</i> of these octaves are utilized for musical purposes. The tones of
+the piano (with a range of 7-1/3 octaves) are produced by vibration
+rates approximately between 27 and 4224. In the orchestra the range is
+slightly more extended, the rates being from 33 to 4752.</p>
+
+<p>Certain interesting facts regarding the relation between vibration-rates
+and pitches have been worked out: it has been discovered for instance
+that if the number of vibrations is doubled, the pitch of the resulting
+tone is an octave higher; <i>i.e.</i>, if a string vibrating at the rate of
+261 per second gives rise to the pitch c', then a string one-half as
+long and vibrating twice as rapidly (522) will give rise to the pitch
+c'', <i>i.e.</i>, an octave higher than c'. In the same way it has been found
+that if the rate is multiplied by 5/4 the pitch of the tone will be a
+<i>major third</i> higher; if multiplied by 3/2, a <i>perfect fifth</i> higher,
+etc. These laws are often stated thus: the ratio of the octave to the
+fundamental is as two is to one; that of the major third as five is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+four; that of the perfect fifth as three is to two, and so on through
+the entire series of pitches embraced within the octave, the <i>ratio</i>
+being of course the same for all octaves.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_9A">9.</a> The <i>intensity</i> (loudness or softness) of tones depends upon the
+amplitude (width) of the vibrations, a louder tone being the result of
+vibrations of greater amplitude, and vice versa. This may be verified by
+plucking a long string (on cello or double-bass) and noting that when
+plucked gently vibrations of small amplitude are set up, while a
+vigorous pluck results in much wider vibrations, and, consequently, in a
+louder tone. It should be noted that the <i>pitch</i> of the tone is not
+affected by the change in amplitude of vibration.</p>
+
+<p>The intensity of tones varies with the medium conveying them, being
+usually louder at night because the air is then more elastic. Tone
+intensity is also affected by <i>sympathetic vibrations</i> set up in other
+bodies. If two strings of the same length are stretched side by side and
+one set in vibration so as to produce tone the other will soon begin to
+vibrate also and the combined tone will be louder than if only one
+string produced it. This phenomenon is the basis of what is known as
+resonance (cf. body of violin, resonance cavities of nose and mouth,
+sounding board of piano, etc.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="SEC_10A">10.</a> <i>Quality</i> depends upon the shape (or form) of the vibrations which
+give rise to the tone. A series of simple vibrations will cause a simple
+(or colorless) tone, while complex vibrations (giving rise to overtones
+of various kinds and in a variety of proportions) cause more
+individualistic peculiarities of quality. Quality is affected also by
+the shape and size of the resonance body. (Cf. last part of <a href="#SEC_9A">sec. 9</a>
+above.)</p>
+
+<p>11. Practically every musical tone really consists of a combination of
+several tones sounding simultaneously, the combined effect upon the ear
+giving the impression of a single tone. The most important tone of the
+series is the <i>fundamental</i>, which dominates the combination and gives
+the pitch,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> but this fundamental is practically always combined with a
+greater or less number of faint and elusive attending tones called
+<i>overtones</i> or <i>harmonics</i>. The first of these overtones is the octave
+above the fundamental; the second is the fifth above this octave; the
+third, two octaves above the fundamental, and so on through the series
+as shown in the figure below. The presence of these <i>overtones</i> is
+accounted for by the fact that the string (or other vibrating body) does
+not merely vibrate in its entirety but has in addition to the principal
+oscillation a number of sectional movements also. Thus it is easily
+proved that a string vibrates in halves, thirds, etc., in addition to
+the principal vibration of the entire string, and it is the vibration of
+these halves, thirds, etc., which gives rise to the <i>harmonics</i>, or
+<i>upper partials</i> as they are often called. The figure shows <i>Great C</i>
+and its first eight overtones. A similar series might be worked out from
+any other fundamental.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/greatc.jpg" width="524" height="200" alt="Great C" title="Great C" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="music/greatc.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>It will be recalled that in the section (<a href="#SEC_10A">10</a>) dealing with <i>quality</i> the
+statement was made that <i>quality</i> depends upon the shape of the
+vibrations; it should now be noted that it is the form of these
+vibrations that determines the nature and proportion of the overtones
+and hence the quality. Thus <i>e.g.</i>, a tone that has too large a
+proportion of the fourth upper partial (<i>i.e.</i>, the <i>third</i> of the
+chord) will be <i>reedy</i> and somewhat unpleasant. This is the case with
+many voices that are referred to as <i>nasal</i>. Too great a proportion of
+overtones is what causes certain pianos to sound &quot;tin-panny.&quot; The tone
+pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>duced by a good tuning-fork is almost entirely free from overtones:
+it has therefore no distinctive quality and is said to be a <i>simple</i>
+tone. The characteristic tone of the oboe on the other hand has many
+overtones and is therefore highly individualistic: this enables us to
+recognize the tone of the instrument even though we cannot see the
+player. Such a tone is said to be <i>complex</i>.</p>
+
+<p>12. The mathematical ratio referred to on <a href="#Page_134">page 134</a>, if strictly carried
+out in tuning a keyboard instrument would cause the half-steps to vary
+slightly in size, and playing in certain keys (especially those having a
+number of sharps or flats in the signature) would therefore sound out of
+tune. There would be many other disadvantages in such a system, notably
+the inability to modulate freely to other keys, and since modulation is
+one of the predominant and most striking characteristics of modern
+music, this would constitute a serious barrier to advances in
+composition. To obviate these disadvantages a system of <i>equal
+temperament</i> was invented and has been in universal use since the time
+of Bach (1685-1750) who was the first prominent composer to use it
+extensively. <i>Equal temperament</i> means simply dividing the octave into
+twelve equal parts, thus causing all scales (as played on keyboard
+instruments at least) to sound exactly alike.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>To show the practicability of equal temperament Bach wrote a
+series of 48 <i>preludes and fugues</i>, two in each major and two
+in each minor key. He called the collection &quot;The Well-tempered
+Clavichord.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>13. Various <i>standards of pitch</i> have existed at different times in the
+last two centuries, and even now there is no absolute uniformity
+although conditions are much better than they were even twenty-five
+years ago. Scientists use what is known as the &quot;scientific standard&quot;
+(sometimes called the &quot;philosophic standard&quot;), viz., 256 double
+vibrations for &quot;middle C.&quot; This pitch is not in actual use for musical
+purposes, but is retained for theoretical purposes because of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+convenience of computation (being a power of 2). In 1885 a conference of
+musicians at Vienna ratified the pitch giving Middle C 261 vibrations,
+this having been adopted by the French as their official pitch some 26
+years before. In 1891 a convention of piano manufacturers at
+Philadelphia adopted this same pitch for the United States, and it has
+been in practically universal use ever since. This pitch (giving Middle
+C 261 vibrations) is known as &quot;International Pitch.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><i>Concert pitch</i> is slightly higher than <i>International</i>, the difference
+between the two varying somewhat, but being almost always less than
+one-half step. This higher pitch is still often used by bands and
+sometimes by orchestras to give greater brilliancy to the wind
+instruments.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">References</span></p>
+
+<p>Lavignac&#8212;Music and Musicians, pp. 1-66.</p>
+
+<p>Broadhouse&#8212;The Student's Helmholz.</p>
+
+<p>Helmholtz&#8212;Sensations of Tone.</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton&#8212;Sound and its Relation to Music.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note</span>:&#8212;For a simple and illuminating treatment of the subject
+from the standpoint of the music student, the books by
+Lavignac and Hamilton are especially recommended.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_D" id="APPENDIX_D"></a>APPENDIX D</h2>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Terminology Reform</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>A recent writer<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> on <i>vocal terminology</i> makes the following statement
+as an introduction to certain remarks advocating a more definite use of
+terms relating to tone production by the human voice:&#8212;&quot;The correct use
+of words is the most potent factor in the development of the thinker.&quot;
+If this statement has any basis of fact whatsoever to support it then it
+must be evident to the merest novice in musical work that the popular
+use of many common terms by musicians is keeping a good many people from
+clear and logical thought in a field that needs accurate thinkers very
+badly! However this may be, it must be patent to all that our present
+terminology is in many respects neither correct nor logical, and the
+movement inaugurated by the Music Section of the National Education
+Association some years ago to secure greater uniformity in the use and
+definition of certain expressions should therefore not only command the
+respect and commendation, but the active support of all progressive
+teachers of music.</p>
+
+<p>Let it be noted at the outset that such reforms as are advocated by the
+committee will never come into general use while the rank and file of
+teachers throughout the country merely <i>approve</i> the reports so
+carefully compiled and submitted each year: these reforms will become
+effective only as individual teachers make up their minds that the end
+to be attained is worth the trouble of being careful to use only
+correct<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> terminology every day for a month, or three months, or a
+year&#8212;whatever length of time may be necessary in order to get the new
+habits fixed in mind and muscle.</p>
+
+<p>The Terminology Committee was appointed by the Department of Music of
+the N.E.A. in 1906 and made its first report at Los Angeles in 1907.
+Since then the indefatigable chairman of the committee (Mr. Chas. I.
+Rice, of Worcester, Mass.) has contributed generously of both time and
+strength, and has by his annual reports to the Department set many of us
+to thinking along certain new lines, and has caused some of us at any
+rate to adopt in our own teaching certain changes of terminology which
+have enabled us to make our work more effective.</p>
+
+<p>In his first report Mr. Rice says:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Any one who has observed the teaching of school music in any
+considerable number of places in this country cannot fail to have
+remarked the great diversity of statement employed by different teachers
+regarding the facts which we are engaged in teaching, and the equal
+diversity of terminology used in teaching the symbols by which musicians
+seek to record these facts. To the teacher of exact sciences our
+picturesque use of the same term to describe two or more entirely
+different things never ceases to be a marvel.... Thoughtful men and
+women will become impressed with the untruthfulness of certain
+statements and little by little change their practice. Others will
+follow, influenced by example. The revolutionists will deride us for not
+moving faster while the conservatives will be suspicious of any change.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>At this meeting in Los Angeles a list of thirteen points was recommended
+by the committee and adopted by the Music Department. These points are
+given in the N.E.A. Volume of Proceedings for 1907, p. 875.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1907 the committee (consisting of Chas. I. Rice, P.C. Hayden, W.B.
+Kinnear, Leo R. Lewis, and Constance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> Barlow-Smith) have each year
+selected a number of topics for discussion, and have submitted valuable
+reports recommending the adoption of certain reforms. Some of the points
+recommended have usually been rejected by the Department, but many of
+them have been adopted and the reports of the committee have set many
+teachers thinking and have made us all more careful in the use and
+definition of common terms. A complete list of all points adopted by the
+Department since 1907 has been made by Mr. Rice for <i>School Music</i>, and
+this list is here reprinted from the January, 1913, number of that
+magazine.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p style="text-align: center"><span class="smcap">Terminology Adoptions</span>, 1907-1910</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Tone:</i> Specific name for a musical sound of definite
+pitch. Use neither <i>sound</i>, a general term, nor <i>note</i>, a term
+of notation.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Interval:</i> The pitch relation between <i>two</i> tones. Not
+properly applicable to a single tone or scale degree. Example:
+&quot;Sing the fifth tone of the scale.&quot; Not &quot;sing the fifth
+interval of the scale.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Key:</i> Tones in relation to a tonic. Example: In the key of
+G. <i>Not</i> in the scale of G. Scales, major and minor are
+composed of a definite selection from the many tones of the
+key, and all scales extend through at least one octave of
+pitch. The chromatic scale utilizes all the tones of a key
+within the octave.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Natural:</i> Not a suitable compound to use in naming
+pitches. Pitch names are either <i>simple</i>: B, or <i>compound</i>: B
+sharp, B double-sharp, B flat or B double-flat, and there is
+no pitch named &quot;B natural.&quot; Example: Pitch B, <i>not</i> &quot;B
+natural.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note</span>:&#8212;L.R.L. thinks that B natural should be the name when
+the notation suggests it.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Step, Half-step:</i> Terms of interval <i>measurement</i>. Avoid
+<i>tone</i>, <i>semi-tone</i> or <i>half-tone</i>. Major second and minor
+second are interval <i>names</i>. Example: How large are the
+following intervals? (1) Major second, (2) minor second, (3)
+augmented prime. Answer: (1) a step, (2) a half-step, (3) a
+half-step.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Chromatic:</i> A tone of the key which is not a member of its
+diatonic scale. (N.B.) An accidental (a notation sign) is not
+a chromatic sign <i>unless</i> it makes a staff-degree represent a
+chromatic tone.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Major; Minor:</i> Major and Minor keys having the same
+signature should be called relative major and minor. Major and
+minor keys having the same tonic, but different signatures,
+should be called tonic major and minor. Not &quot;parallel&quot; major
+or minor in either case.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Staff:</i> Five horizontal lines and their spaces. Staff
+<i>lines</i> are named (numbered) upward in order, first to fifth.
+<i>Spaces:</i> Space below, first-second-third-fourth-space, and
+space above<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>. (Six in all.) Additional short lines and
+their short spaces numbered outward both ways from the main
+staff, viz: line below, second space below. The boundary of
+the staff is always a space.</p>
+
+
+<p>9. <i>G Clef, F Clef, C Clef:</i> These clefs when placed upon the
+staff, give its degrees their first, or primary pitch meaning.
+Each makes the degree it occupies represent a pitch of its
+respective name. Example: The G clef makes the second line
+represent the pitch G. Avoid &quot;<i>fixes G on</i>.&quot; The staff with
+clef in position represents only pitches having <i>simple</i> or
+<i>one-word</i> names, A, B, C, etc.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Sharps, Flats:</i> Given a staff with clef in position as in
+example above, sharps and flats make staff degrees upon which
+they are placed represent pitches a half-step higher or lower.
+These pitches have compound or two-word names. Example: The
+second line stands for the pitch G (simple name). Sharp the
+second line and it will stand for the pitch G sharp. (Compound
+name.) The third line stands for the pitch B. (Simple name.)
+Flat it, and the line will stand for the pitch B flat.
+(Compound name.) N.B. These signs do not &quot;<i>raise</i>&quot; or
+&quot;<i>lower</i>&quot; notes, tones, pitches, letters or staff degrees.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Double-sharp, Double-flat:</i> Given a staff with three or
+more degrees sharped in the signature, double-sharps are used
+(subject to the rules governing composition) to make certain
+of these degrees, already sharped, represent pitches one
+half-step higher yet. Similarly, when three or more degrees
+are flatted in the signature, double-flats are used to make
+certain degrees already flatted, represent pitches one
+half-step lower yet. Examples: To represent sharp 2 in the key
+of B major, double-sharp the C degree, or (equally good)
+double-sharp the third space (G clef). To represent flat 6 in
+the key of D flat major, double-flat the B degree, or (equally
+good) double flat the third line (G clef). <i>Do not say</i>: &quot;Put
+a double-sharp on 6&quot; or &quot;put a double-sharp on C,&quot; or
+&quot;<i>indicate&quot;</i> a higher or lower pitch &quot;<i>on</i>&quot; a sharped or
+flatted degree.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Signature:</i> Sharps or flats used as signatures affect the
+staff de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>grees they occupy and all octaves of the same.
+Example: With signature of four sharps, the first one affects
+the fifth line and the first space; the second, the third
+space; the third, the space above and the second line; the
+fourth, the fourth line and the space below. <i>Do not say</i>: &quot;F
+and C are sharped,&quot; &quot;ti is sharped,&quot; &quot;B is flatted,&quot; &quot;fa is
+flatted.&quot; &quot;Sharpened&quot; or &quot;flattened&quot; are undesirable.</p>
+
+<p>13. <i>Brace:</i> The two or more staffs containing parts to be
+sounded together; also the vertical line or bracket connecting
+such staffs. <i>Not</i> &quot;line&quot; or &quot;score.&quot; &quot;Staff&quot; is better than
+&quot;line&quot; for a single staff, and &quot;score&quot; is used meaning the
+book containing an entire work, as &quot;vocal score,&quot; &quot;orchestral
+score,&quot; &quot;full score.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Notes:</i> Notes are characters designed to represent
+relative duration. When placed on staff-degrees they
+<i>indicate</i> pitch. (Note the difference between &quot;represent&quot; and
+&quot;indicate.&quot;) &quot;Sing what the note calls for&quot; means, sing a tone
+of the pitch represented by the staff degree occupied by the
+note-head. The answer to the question: &quot;What is that note?&quot;
+would be &quot;half-note,&quot; &quot;eighth-note&quot; according to the
+denomination of the note in question, whether it was on or off
+the staff.</p>
+
+<p>15. <i>Measure-sign:</i> 4-4, 2-4, 6-8, are <i>measure-signs</i>. Avoid
+&quot;time signatures,&quot; &quot;meter-signatures,&quot; &quot;the fraction,&quot;
+&quot;time-marks.&quot; Example: What is the measure-sign? (C) Ans. A
+broken circle. What is its meaning? Ans. Four-quarter measure.
+(Not four-four time, four-four rhythm, four-four meter.)</p>
+
+<p>16. <i>Note Placing:</i> Place a quarter note on the fourth line.
+Not &quot;put a quarter note on D.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>17. <i>Beat-Pulse:</i> A tone or rest occurs on a certain beat or
+pulse of a measure. Not on a certain <i>count</i>.</p>
+
+<p>18. <i>Signature Terminology:</i> The right hand sharp in the
+signature is on the staff degree that represents seven of the
+major scale. Not &quot;always on 7 or ti.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>19. <i>Signature Terminology:</i> The right hand flat in the
+signature is on the staff degree that represents four of the
+major scale. Not &quot;always on fa.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>20. <i>Rote, Note, Syllable:</i> Singing by rote means that the
+singer sings something learned by ear without regard to notes.
+Singing by note means that the singer is guided to the correct
+pitch by visible notes. Singing by syllable means that the
+singer sings the tones of a song or part to the sol-fa
+syllables instead of to words, neutral vowels or the hum.
+&quot;Sing by note&quot; is not correct if the direction means simply to
+sing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> sol-fa syllables, whether in sight reading, rote
+singing, or memory work. &quot;Sing by syllable&quot; would be correct
+in each case.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><span class="smcap">Adoptions of the 1911 Meeting at San Francisco</span></p>
+
+<p>Arabic numerals, either 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, or 12, placed on the
+staff directly after the signature and above the third line,
+show the number of beats in a measure.</p>
+
+<p>A note, either a quarter or a dotted quarter, placed in
+parenthesis under the numeral, represents the length of one
+beat and is called the beat-note.</p>
+
+<p>The numeral and the beat-note thus grouped constitute the
+measure-sign.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrative statements covering proper terminology: the tune
+&quot;America&quot; is written in three-quarter measure. The chorus:
+&quot;How lovely are the Messengers&quot; is written in two-dotted
+quarter measure.</p>
+
+<p>The above forms of statement were adopted at Denver in 1909,
+and are recommended for general use when speaking of music
+written with the conventional measure-signs, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In place of: &quot;two-two time, three-eight time, four-four time,&quot;
+say as above: &quot;This piece is written in two-half measure,
+three-eighth measure, four-quarter measure.&quot;</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><span class="smcap">Minor Scales</span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Primitive Minor (ascending)</i></p>
+
+<p>The minor scale form having minor sixth and minor seventh
+above tonic to be called Primitive Minor.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, a; C
+minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b flat, c.</p>
+
+<p class="notes"><i>Transcriber's Note:</i> Above, supplied b flat missing from
+original.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Primitive Minor (descending)</i></p>
+
+<p>Same pitches in reverse order.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Harmonic Minor (ascending)</i></p>
+
+<p>The minor scale form having minor sixth and major seventh
+above tonic to be called Harmonic Minor.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g sharp, a;
+C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b, c.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Harmonic Minor (descending</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Same pitches in reverse order.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Melodic Minor (ascending)</i></p>
+
+<p>The minor scale form having major sixth and major seventh
+above tonic to be called Melodic Minor.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f sharp, g
+sharp, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a, b, c.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Melodic Minor (descending)</i></p>
+
+<p>Same as the Primitive.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><span class="smcap">Adoptions of the 1912 Meeting at Chicago</span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Pulse and Beat</i></p>
+
+<p>The Committee finds that the words: Pulse and Beat are in
+general use as synonymous terms, meaning one of the succession
+of throbs or impulses of which we are conscious when listening
+to music. Each of these pulses or beats has an exact point of
+beginning, a duration, and an exact point of ending, the
+latter coincident with the beginning of the next pulse or
+beat. When thus used, both words are terms of ear.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Beat</i></p>
+
+<p>One of these words, Beat, is also in universal use, meaning
+one of a series of physical motions by means of which a
+conductor holds his group of performers to a uniform movement.</p>
+
+<p>When thus used it becomes a term of eye.</p>
+
+<p>The conductor's baton, if it is to be authoritative, cannot
+wander about through the whole duration of the pulse but must
+move quickly to a point of comparative repose, remaining until
+just before the arrival of the next pulse when it again makes
+a rapid swing, finishing coincidently with the initial tone
+(or silence) of the new pulse.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it is practically the end of the conductor's beat that
+marks the beginning of the pulse.</p>
+
+<p>The Committee is of opinion that Beat might preferably be used
+as indicating the outward sign.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Beat-Note</i></p>
+
+<p>This term &quot;beat-note&quot; is already in use in another important
+connection (see Terminology Report, 1911) and the Committee
+recommends that those using the above terms shall say: &quot;This
+note is an on-the-beat note; this one is an after-the-beat
+note; this one a before-the-beat note.&quot;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><span class="smcap">Definitions</span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Matters of Ear</i></p>
+
+<p>Pulse: The unit of movement in music, one of a series of
+regularly recurring throbs or impulses.</p>
+
+<p>Measure: A group of pulses.</p>
+
+<p>Pulse-Group: Two or more tones grouped within the pulse.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Matters of Eye</i></p>
+
+<p>Beat: One of a series of conventional movements made by the
+conductor. This might include any unconventional motion which
+served to mark the movement of the music, whether made by
+conductor, performer or auditor.</p>
+
+<p>Beat-Note: A note of the denomination indicated by the
+measure-sign as the unit of note-value in a given measure.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Example</i></p>
+
+<p>Given the following measure-signs: 2-4, 2-2, 2-8, quarter,
+half, or eighth notes, respectively, are beat-notes.</p>
+
+<p>Beat-Group: A group of notes or notes and rests, of smaller
+denomination than the beat-note which represents a full beat
+from beginning to end and is equal in value to the beat-note.
+(A beat-group may begin with a rest.)</p>
+
+<p>On-the-Beat Note (or rest): Any note (or rest) ranging in
+value from a full beat down, which calls for musical action
+(or inaction) synchronously with the conductor's beat.</p>
+
+<p>After-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates
+that a tone is to be sounded after the beginning, and before
+or at the middle of the pulse.</p>
+
+<p>Before-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates
+that a tone is to be sounded after the middle of the pulse.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate terminology and to differentiate between Pulse
+and Beat as terms, respectively of ear and eye, the following
+is submitted:</p>
+
+<p>Whenever a brief tone involves the musical idea of
+syncopation, it may be regarded as an after-the-pulse tone and
+the note that calls for it as an after-the-beat note; when it
+involves the idea of anticipation or preparation it may be
+regarded as a before-the-pulse tone, and the note that calls
+for it, as a before-the-beat note.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>Measure and Meter</i></p>
+
+<p>&quot;What is the measure-sign?&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;What is the meter-signature?&quot;</p>
+
+<p>These two words are used synonymously, and one of them is
+unnecessary. The Committee recommends that Measure be retained
+and used. Meter has its use in connection with hymns.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The author does not find it possible at present to agree with all the
+recommendations made in the above report, but the summary is printed in
+full for the sake of completeness.</p>
+
+<p>The Music Teacher's National Association has also interested itself
+mildly in the subject of terminology reform, and at its meeting in
+Washington, D.C., in 1908, Professor Waldo S. Pratt gave his address as
+president of the Association on the subject &quot;System and Precision in
+Musical Speech.&quot; This address interested the members of the Association
+to such an extent that Professor Pratt was asked to act as a committee
+whose purpose it should be to look into the matter of reforms necessary
+in music terminology and report at a later session. In 1910 Professor
+Pratt read a report in which he advocated the idea of making some
+changes in music nomenclature, but took the ground that the subject is
+too comprehensive to be mastered in the short time that can be given to
+it by a committee, and that it is therefore impossible to recommend
+specific changes. He also took occasion to remark that one difficulty in
+the whole matter of terminology is that many terms and expressions are
+used <i>colloquially</i> and that such use although usually not scientific,
+is often not distinctly harmful and is not of sufficient importance to
+cause undue excitement on the part of reformers. Quoting from the report
+at this point:&#8212;&quot;A great deal of confusion is more apparent than real
+between <i>note</i> and <i>tone</i>, between <i>step</i> and <i>degree</i>, between <i>key</i>
+and <i>tonality</i>. No practical harm is done by speaking of the <i>first
+note</i> of a piece when really <i>first tone</i> would be more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> accurate. To
+say that a piece is written <i>in the key of B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span></i> is more convenient
+than to say that it is written in the <i>tonality of which B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> is the
+tonic</i>. The truth is that some of the niceties of expression upon which
+insistence is occasionally laid are merely fussy, not because they have
+not some sort of reason, but because they fail to take into account the
+practical difference between colloquial or off-hand speech and the
+diction of a scientific treatise. This is said without forgetting that
+colloquialism always needs watching and that some people form the habit
+of being careless or positively uncouth as if it were a mark of high
+artistic genius.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Professor Pratt's report is thus seen to be philosophic rather than
+constructive, and terminology reform will undoubtedly make more
+immediate progress through the efforts of the N.E.A. Committee with its
+specific recommendations (even though these are sometimes admittedly
+<i>fussy</i>) than through the policy of the M.T.N.A. of waiting for some one
+to get time to take up the subject in a scholarly way. Nevertheless the
+philosophic view is sometimes badly needed, especially when the spirit
+of reform becomes too rabid and attaches too great importance to
+trifles. A judicious intermingling of the two committees in a series of
+joint meetings would undoubtedly result in mutual helpfulness, and
+possibly also in a more tangible and convincing statement of principles
+than has yet been formulated by either.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_E" id="APPENDIX_E"></a>APPENDIX E</h2>
+
+<h2>Sonata Op. 31, No. 3 by Beethoven</h2>
+
+<p style="text-align: right">
+Analysis by <span class="smcap">Arthur E. Heacox</span>,<br />
+Oberlin Conservatory of Music</p>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p class="notes"><i>Transcriber's Note:</i> The original book contains only the first
+movement of the sonata. Click on the &quot;Enlarge&quot;
+link below each page image to view a larger version of that
+page. To listen to the music, click <a href="music/sonata.mid">here</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p>First Subject 17 measures, E<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> major, as follows: 8 meas.
+presentation, one meas. link, 8 meas. repetition oct. higher.
+Rhythmic elements are A, B, C, all presented in first 8 meas.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata01sm.jpg" width="319" height="373" alt="Sonata p. 1" title="Sonata p. 1" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata01lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 1]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata02sm.jpg" width="323" height="499" alt="Sonata p. 2" title="Sonata p. 2" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata02lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 2]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata03sm.jpg" width="323" height="492" alt="Sonata p. 3" title="Sonata p. 3" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata03lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 3]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata04sm.jpg" width="321" height="496" alt="Sonata p. 4" title="Sonata p. 4" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata04lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 4]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata05sm.jpg" width="320" height="501" alt="Sonata p. 5" title="Sonata p. 5" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata05lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 5]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata06sm.jpg" width="318" height="501" alt="Sonata p. 6" title="Sonata p. 6" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata06lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 6]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata07sm.jpg" width="318" height="491" alt="Sonata p. 7" title="Sonata p. 7" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata07lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 7]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata08sm.jpg" width="317" height="494" alt="Sonata p. 8" title="Sonata p. 8" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata08lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 8]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata09sm.jpg" width="320" height="492" alt="Sonata p. 9" title="Sonata p. 9" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata09lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 9]</a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/sonata10sm.jpg" width="318" height="492" alt="Sonata p. 10" title="Sonata p. 10" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="images/sonata10lg.jpg">[Enlarge page 10]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center">eh = a as in face; ah = a as in far; ch = ch as in chair;
+final eh = e as in met.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p>
+A (<i>ah</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+A battuta (<i>ah-baht-too'-tah</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+A capella (<i>cah-pel'-lah</i>), <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+A capriccio (<i>cah-pritch'-eo</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Accelerando (<i>aht-cheh-leh-rahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Accented tones, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Accent marks, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Accent in measures, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Acciaccatura (<i>aht-cheea-cah-too'-ra</i>), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Accidentals, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Accompagnamento (<i>ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Acoustics (<i>ah-kow'-stics</i>), def., <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of auditoriums, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Adagietto (<i>ah-dah-jee-et'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Adagio (<i>ah-dah'-jee-o</i>), <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+&#192; deux mains (<i>doo-mahng</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Ad libitum, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Affrettando (<i>ahf-fret-tahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Agitato (<i>ah-jee-tah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Agr&#233;ments (<i>ah-greh-mahng</i>), <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+&#192; la or alla (<i>ahl'-lah</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Alla breve (<i>breh'-veh</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Alla marcia (<i>mar'-chee-ah</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Allargando (<i>ahl-lahr-gahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Alla zingara (<i>tseen-gah'-rah</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegretto (<i>ahl-leh-gret'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegrissimo, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro (<i>ahl-leh'-gro</i>), <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro agitato (<i>ah-jee-tah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro appassionata (<i>-ah'-tah</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro assai (<i>ahs-sah'-ee</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro commodo (<i>kom-mo'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro con brio (<i>bree'-o</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro con fuoco (<i>foo-o'-ko</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro con moto (<i>mo'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro con spirito (<i>spee'-ree-to</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro di bravura (<i>dee brah-voo'-rah</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro di molto (<i>mohl'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro furioso (<i>foo-ree-o'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro giusto (<i>jew-sto</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro ma grazioso (<i>mah grah-tsi-o'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro (ma) non tanto (<i>tahn'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro (ma) non troppo (<i>trop'-po</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro moderato (<i>mod-e-rah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro quasi andante (<i>quah-see ahn-dahn'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allegro vivace (<i>vee-vah'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Allemande (<i>al-mahnd</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+All'unisono (<i>oo-nee-so'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+All'ottava (<i>ot-tah'-vah</i>), <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+Alt (<i>ahlt</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Alto (<i>ahl-to</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+A mezza voce (<i>met'-zah-vo'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Amore (<i>ah-mo'-reh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante (<i>ahn-dahn'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante affettuoso (<i>ahf-fet-too-o'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante amabile (<i>ah-mah'-bee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante cantabile (<i>cahn-tah'-bee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante con moto (<i>mo'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante grazioso (<i>grah-tsi-o'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante maestoso (<i>mah-es-to'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante (ma) non troppo (<i>mah non trop'-po</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante pastorale (<i>pahs-to-rah'-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>Andante quasi allegro (<i>quah-see ahl-leh'-gro</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Andante sostenuto (<i>sos-teh-noo'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Animando (<i>ah-nee-mahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Animato (<i>ah-nee-mah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Animato come sopra (<i>co-meh so'-prah</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Andantino (<i>ahn-dahn-tee'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Antecedent, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Anthem, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Anticipation, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+<br />
+Antiphony (<i>an-tif'-o-ny</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Antithesis (<i>an-tith'-</i>), <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+A piacere (<i>pee-ah-cheh'-reh</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Appoggiatura (<i>ap-pod-jea-too'-rah</i>), def., <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+&#192; quatre mains (<i>kahtr-mahng</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Arabesque, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Aria (<i>ah'-ree-ah</i>), <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+<br />
+Arioso (<i>ah-ree-o'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Arpeggiando (<i>ar-ped-jee-ahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Arpeggiato (<i>-ah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Arpeggiento (<i>-en'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Arpeggio (<i>ar-ped'-jee-o</i>), <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Art-ballad, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Assai (<i>ahs-sah'-ee</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+A tempo, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+A tempo primo (<i>pree'-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+A tempo rubato (<i>roo-bah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Attacca (<i>aht-tah'-kah</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Attacca subito (<i>soo'-bee-to</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Attacca subito il seguente (<i>eel seg-wen'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Attack, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Bagpipe, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Ballad, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Band, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+<br />
+Bar, def. and use, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">double, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Barcarole (<i>bar'-cah-rohl</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Baritone, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Bass, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Bass clarinet, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Basso (<i>bahs'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Bassoon, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Bass staff, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Bass tuba, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Bass viol, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+Ben (<i>behn</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Ben marcato (<i>mahr-kah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Berceuse (<i>behr-soos'</i>), <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Binary form, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Binary measure, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Bis (<i>bees</i>), <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Bolero (<i>bo-leh'-ro</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Bourr&#233;e (<i>boo-reh'</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Brace, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Brass instruments, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+Brillante (<i>breel-ahn'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Broken chord, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Broken octave, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Cacophony (<i>kak-of'-o-ny</i>), <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Cadence, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Cadenza, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Calando (<i>kah-lahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Cancel, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Cantabile (<i>kahn-tah'-bee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Cantando (<i>kakn-tahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Canto (<i>kahn'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Cantus firmus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Canon, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Cantata (<i>kahn-tah'-tah</i>), <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Carol, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Catch, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+C clef <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Cello (<i>chel'-lo</i>), <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+Chaconne (<i>shah-con'</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Chamber music, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Chanterelle (<i>shong-tah-rel'</i>), <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+Chinese scale, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Choral, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Chords def. and lands, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inversions of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">common, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seventh, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dominant seventh, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chromatic, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Chromatic scale, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<br />
+Clarinet, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Classes of instruments in orchestra, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+<br />
+Clavichord, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Clefs, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Close position, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+<br />
+Coda, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Coi (<i>co'-ee</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Col, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>Colla, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Colla parte (<i>par'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Colla voce (<i>vo'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Colle, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Collo, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Coloratura singing, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Coll'ottava (<i>ot-tah'-vah</i>), <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+Combination pedals, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+<br />
+Come (<i>koh'-meh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Come primo (<i>pree'-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Common chords, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+Compound measure, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Compound duple measure, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Con, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Con alcuna licenza (<i>ahl-koo'-nah lee-chen'-tsah</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Con amore (<i>ah-mo'-reh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Con anima (<i>ah'-nee-mah</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Con bravura (<i>brah-voo'-rah</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Con celerita (<i>che-leh'-ree-tah</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Concerto (<i>con-cher'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Concert pitch, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+Con delicato (<i>deh-lee-cah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Con energico (<i>en-er-jee'-ko</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Con espressione (<i>es-pres-see-o'-neh</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Con forza (<i>fort'-za</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Con fuoco (<i>foo-o'-ko</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Con grand' espressione (<i>grahnd' es-pres-see-o'-neh</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Con grazia (<i>grahts-yah</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Con melinconia (or malinconia) (<i>-leen-ko'-ne-eh</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Con moto, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Con passione (<i>pas-se-o'-neh</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Consequent, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Consonance, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Con spirito (<i>spe'-ree-to</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Con tenerezza (<i>teh-neh-ret'-za</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Continuous form, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Contra, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Contra bass tuba, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+Contra octave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Contralto, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Con variazione (<i>vah-ri-ah-tsi-o'-neh</i>), <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Cornet, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
+<br />
+Counterpoint, def., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Courante (<i>koo-rahnt'</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo (<i>kre-shen'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo al fortissimo, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo ed affrettando (<i>ahf-fret-tahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo ed animando poco a poco (<i>ah-ni-mahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo e diminuendo (<i>eh de-me-noo-en'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo molto (<i>mohl'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo poco a poco, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine (<i>seen ahl fee'-neh</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo poi diminuendo (<i>po'-ee dee-mee-noo-en'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescendo subito (<i>soo'-bee-to</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Cross-stroke, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+Csardas (<i>tsar'-dahs</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Da (<i>dah</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Da capo (<i>kah'-po</i>), <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<br />
+Dal segno (<i>sehn'-yo</i>), <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<br />
+Dances, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Dash over note, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Decrescendo (<i>deh-kreh-shen'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Decrescendo al pianissimo (<i>ahl pee-ahn-is'-si-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Degrees of staff, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Delicato (<i>deh-lee-kah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Descriptive music, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Di (<i>dee</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Diatonic condition, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+Diatonic scale, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Di bravura (<i>brah-voo'-rah</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Diminuendo (<i>dee-mee-noo-en'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Di molto (<i>mohl'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Direct, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Dirge, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Discord, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Dissonance (<i>dis'</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Divisi (<i>di-ve'-ze</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Dolce (<i>dohl'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Dolce e cantabile (<i>eh kahn-tah'-bee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Dolcissimo (<i>dohl-chis'-see-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Dolente (<i>do-len'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Dominant, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Dominant Seventh, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+Doloroso (<i>do-lo-ro'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>Doppio (<i>dop'-pee-o</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Doppio movimento (<i>mo-vi-men'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Dot&#8212;where placed, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with slur or tie, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with dash, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Double bar, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Double bass, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+Double bassoon, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Double flat, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+Double mordent, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br />
+<br />
+Double sharp, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+Doublet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Duet, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Duple measure, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Dynamics, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+E (<i>eh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+&#201;cole (<i>eh'-kole</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Ed, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Eight-foot stop, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Elements of music, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Embellishments, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+English names for notes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+English horn, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Enharmonic, def., <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<br />
+Enharmonic scale, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+Enharmonic tie, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+Ensemble (<i>ong-sombl</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Equal temperament, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+E poi la coda (<i>eh-po'-ee</i>), <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+<br />
+Espressivo (<i>ehs-pres-see'-vo</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Et, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Etto, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Etude, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Euphony (<i>yu'-fo-ny</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Even measure, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Facile (<i>fah-chee'-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Fanfare (<i>fahn'-fehr</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Fantasia (<i>fahn-tah-ze'-ah</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+F Clef, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Fermata (<i>fehr-mah'-ta</i>), <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+Fiasco (<i>fe-ahs'-ko</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Figured bass, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Fine (<i>fee'-neh</i>), <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<br />
+Five-lined octave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Flat, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+Flute, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Folk-song, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Form, def., <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">binary, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Forte (<i>for'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Forte piano (<i>pee-ah'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Forte possibile (<i>pos-see'-bee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Fortissimo, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Fortissimo possibile (<i>pos-see-bee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Fortisissimo, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Forzando (<i>for-tsahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Forzato (<i>for-tsah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Four-foot stop, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Four-lined octave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Free imitation, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+French horn, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br />
+<br />
+French pitch designations, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Fugue, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Fundamental, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Gamut (<i>gam'-ut</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Gavotte (<i>gah-vot'</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+G Clef, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+General pause, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+German pitch designation, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Gigue (<i>zheeg</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Giocoso (<i>jee-o-ko'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Giojoso (<i>jee-o-yo'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Glee, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Glissando (<i>glis-sahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Graces, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Grandioso (<i>grahn-dee-o'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Grand sonata, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Grave (<i>grah'-veh</i>), <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Grazioso (<i>grah-tsi-o'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Great octave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Great staff, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Grosse pause (<i>gros-seh pah-oo'-za</i>) or (<i>gros-seh pow-zeh</i>), <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+Gruppetto (<i>groo-pet'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Habanera (<i>hah-bah-neh'-rah</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Half-step, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+Harmonic minor scale, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<br />
+Harmonics, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
+<br />
+Harmonics on violin, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>Harmony, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Harp, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+Harpsichord, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Head of note, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Hold, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+Homophonic style, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Hook, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Humoresque (<i>hoo-mo-resk'</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Hymn to St. John, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Idyl, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Il (<i>eel</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Il basso (<i>bahs'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Il pi&#249; (<i>pee'-oo</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Il pi&#249; forte possibile (<i>pos-see'-bee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Imitation, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Imperfect trill, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br />
+<br />
+In alt (<i>in ahlt</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+In altissimo (<i>ahl-tis'-si-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Ino">Ino</a> (<i>ee'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Instrumentation, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Instruments, classification of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<br />
+Intensity of tones, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br />
+<br />
+Interlude, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Intermediate tones, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">see &quot;Chromatic,&quot; p. <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br />
+<br />
+International pitch, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+Interval, def., <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enharmonic, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harmonic, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">melodic, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Inversion, in thematic development, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Inversions of chords, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Inverted mordent, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br />
+<br />
+Inverted turn, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Issimo, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Kettle-drum, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+Key, def., <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">signature, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enharmonic keys, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">key-tone, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how different from scale, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+L, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+La (<i>lah</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Lacrimando (<i>lah-kri-mahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Lacrimoso (<i>lah-kri-mo'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Largamente (<i>lar-gah-men'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Largando (<i>lar-gahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Larghetto (<i>lar-get'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Largo, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Largo assai (<i>ahs-sah'-ee</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Largo di molto (<i>de mohl'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Largo ma non troppo (<i>mah non trop'-po</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Largo un poco (<i>oon po'-co</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Le (<i>leh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Leading tone, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Legato (<i>leh-gah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Leger lines, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Leggierissimo (<i>led-jah-ris'-si-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Leggiero (<i>led-jee'-ro</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Lentando (<i>len-tahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Lentemente (<i>len-tah-men'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Lentissimamente (<i>-men'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Lentissamente (<i>-men'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Lento, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Lento a capriccio (<i>ah-cah-preet'-chee-o</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Lento assai (<i>ahs-sah'-ee</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Lento di molto (<i>de mohl'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Libretto (<i>lee-bret'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Lied (<i>leed</i>), <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+L'istesso tempo (<i>lis-tes'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Loco, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Long appoggiatura (<i>ap-pod-jea-too'-rah</i>), <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Lower tetrachord, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<br />
+Lunga pausa (<i>loong-ah pow'-zeh</i>) or (<i>loon-gah pah-oo'-za</i>), <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+Lunga trillo, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Lusingando (<i>loos-in-gahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Lyric, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Madrigal (<i>mad'-ri-gal</i>), <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Maesta (<i>mah'-es-tah</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Maestoso (<i>mah-es-to'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Maggiore (<i>mahd-jo'-reh</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Main droite (<i>mahng droa</i>), <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Main gauche (<i>mahng gowsh</i>), <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Major key, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Major scale, def., <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">positions, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of name, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mancando (<i>mahn-kahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Mano destra (<i>mah'-no dehs'-trah</i>), <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>Mano sinistra (<i>si-nees'-trah</i>), <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Marcato il canto (<i>mar-kah'-to eel kahn'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Martellando (<i>mar-tel-lahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Martellato (<i>mar-tel-lah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Marziale (<i>mart-se-ah'-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Mass, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Mazurka (<i>mah-zoor'-ka</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Measure, def., <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how differs from &quot;bar,&quot; <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how differs from &quot;rhythm,&quot; <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syncopation in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">simple and compound, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">duple or even, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">triple or perfect, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quadruple, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sextuple, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound duple, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">signature, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">binary, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mediant, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Mellifluous (<i>mel-lif'-loo-us</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Melodic minor scales, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Melody, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Melos (<i>meh'-los</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Meno (<i>meh'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Meno mosso (<i>mos'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Mente (<i>men'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Menuet (<i>meh-noo-eh'</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Menuetto (<i>meh-noo-et'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Messa di voce (<i>mes'-sa dee vo'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Mesto (<i>mehs'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Metronome, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Mezza (<i>med'-zah</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Mezzo (<i>med'-zo</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Mezzo forte (<i>for'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Mezzo piano (<i>pe-ah'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Mezzo soprano (<i>so-prah'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Mezzo voce (<i>vo'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Minor key, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Minore (<i>me-no'-reh</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Minor scale, def., <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">positions, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Minuet, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Misterioso (<i>mis-teh-ri-o'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Moderato (<i>mod-e-rah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Modulation, def., <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enharmonic, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Molto (<i>mohl'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Molto crescendo (<i>kre-shen'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Monophonic style, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Mordent, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br />
+<br />
+Morendo (<i>mo-ren'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Moriente (<i>mo-ri-en'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Motet (<i>mo-tet'</i>), <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Movable C Clef, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Mute, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Natural, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Natural condition of staff-degrees, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Nel, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Nel battere (<i>baht-teh'-reh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Nella, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Neumae (<i>neoo'-mee</i>), <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+Nocturne, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Non (<i>non</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Non tanto (<i>tahn'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Non tanto allegro (<i>ahl-leh'-gro</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Non troppo allegro (<i>trop'-po</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Notation, history of music, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+Notes, def., <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English names for, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dotted, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">staccato, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irregular note-groups, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parts of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how made, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Nuance (<i>noo-angs</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Obbligato (<i>ob-blee-gah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Oboe (<i>o'-bo</i>), <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Octave, def., <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Octaves, names of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Offertory, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+One-lined octave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Open position, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+<br />
+Opera, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Opus, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Oratorio, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Orchestra, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+<br />
+Orchestration, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Organ, reed, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pipe, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">point, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Original minor scale, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<br />
+Origin of scale, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Ossia (<i>os'-see-ah</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Ossia pi&#249; facile (<i>pe-oo' fah-chee'-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Overtones, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
+<br />
+Overture, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Parlando (<i>par-lahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Part song, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Pastorale (<i>pas-to-rah'-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Pedal point, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+<br />
+Pentatonic scale, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Per (<i>pehr</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Percussion instruments, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+Perdendo (<i>pehr-den'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Perdendosi (<i>pehr-den-do'-see</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Perfect measure, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Perfect trill, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br />
+<br />
+Per il violino (<i>eel ve-o-le'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Period, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Pesante (<i>peh-sahn'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Peu (<i>peuh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Phrase, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Phrase mark, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+Pianissimo (<i>pee-ahn-is'-si-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Pianissimo possibile (<i>pos-see'-bee'-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Pianisissimo (<i>pee-ahn-is-is'-si-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Piano (<i>pee-ah'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Piano assai (<i>ahs-sah'-ee</i>), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Piano, description of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<br />
+Piccolo (<i>pik'-ko-lo</i>), <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Pipe organ, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Pitch, def., <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pitch names, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">standards of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">concert pitch, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">international pitch, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pi&#249; (<i>pe-oo'</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Pi&#249; allegro (<i>ahl-leh'-gro</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Pi&#249; forte (for'-teh), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Pi&#249; lento, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Pi&#249; mosso (<i>mos'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Pi&#249; tosto (<i>tos'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Pizzicato (<i>pits-e-kah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+Pochetto (<i>po-ket'-to</i>), <a href="#Ino">see ino</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Poco, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Poco a poco animando (<i>ah-nee-mahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Poi (<i>po' ee</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Polacca (<i>po-lahk'-kah</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Polka, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Polonaise (<i>pol-o-nez'</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Polyphonic style, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Pomposo (<i>pom-po'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Portamento (<i>por'-tah-men'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Position, open and close, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+<br />
+Possibile (<i>pos-see'-bee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Postlude, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Prall trill, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Precipitoso (<i>preh-che-pi-to'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Prelude, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Prestissimo (<i>pres-tis'-see-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Prestissimo possibile (<i>pos-see'-bee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Presto, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Presto assai (<i>ahs-sah'-ee</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Presto (ma) non troppo (<i>mah non trop'-po</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Pri&#232;re (<i>pre-ehr'</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Primary forms, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+Primitive minor scale, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<br />
+Program music, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Pure music, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Pure scale, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Quadruple measure, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Quality, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
+<br />
+Quartet, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Quasi (<i>quah'-see</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Quintole (<i>kwin'-to-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Quintolet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Quintuplet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Raised sixth, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Rallentando (<i>rahl-len-tahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Rapidamente (<i>rah-pid-a-men'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Rate of speed, of sound, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
+<br />
+Recitative (<i>res-i-tah-teev'</i>), <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Recitativo (<i>reh-chee-ta-tee'-vo</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Reed organ, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<br />
+Relative minor, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Religioso (<i>reh-lee-jo'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Repetition and contrast, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>Requiem (<i>re'-kwi-em</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Rests, def., <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rules for making, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiar use of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">several measures of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Retardation, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+<br />
+Rhapsody, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Rhythm, def., <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">element of music, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how differs from &quot;measure,&quot; <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">correct use of word, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Rhythmic augmentation, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Rhythmic diminution, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Rhythmic figures, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Ribattuta (<i>re-baht-too'-tah</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Rigaudon (<i>rig'-o-don</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Rinforzando (<i>rin-for-tsahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Rinforzato (<i>rin-for-tsah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Risoluto (<i>ree-so-loo'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Ritardando (<i>ree-tar-dahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Ritenente (<i>ree-ten-en'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Ritenuto (<i>ree-ten-oo'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Ritornelle (<i>ree-tor-nell'</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Ritornello (<i>ree-tor-nel'-lo</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Rondo, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Rules:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For writing music, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For turning stems, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For altered staff degrees, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For embellishments, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-26</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For repeats, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For writing chromatic scale, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Sans (<i>sahng</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sans pedales (<i>peh-da-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sarabande (<i>sar-ah-bahn'-deh</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Sarrusophone (<i>sar-reoos-o-fohn'</i>), <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br />
+<br />
+Saxhorn, p. <a href="#Page_125">125</a> (footnote)<br />
+<br />
+Saxophone, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Scales, def., <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how different from keys, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">positions of:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">major, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">minor, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">chromatic, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tones of, called, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chinese, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scotch, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Scherzando (<i>skehr-tsahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Scherzo (<i>skehr'-tso</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Scherzoso (<i>skehr-tzo'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+School-round, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Schottische (<i>shot'-tish</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Score, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Scotch scale, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Sec (<i>sek</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Secco (<i>sek'-ko</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Section, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Segue (<i>sehg'-weh</i>), <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+<br />
+Semplice (<i>sem-plee'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Sempre (<i>sem'-preh</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sempre forte (<i>for'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sempre lento malinconico assai (<i>mah-leen-ko'-ni-ko ahs-sah'-ee</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Sempre marcatissimo (<i>mar-kah-tis'-si-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Sentimento (<i>sen-tee-men'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Senza (<i>sen-tza</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Senza accompagnamento (<i>ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-toh</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Senza repetizione (<i>reh-peh-titz-e-o'-neh</i>), <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Senza replica (<i>reh'-ple-kah</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Septimole, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Septolet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Sequence, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+<br />
+Serenade, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Serenata (<i>seh-re-nah'-tah</i>), <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Seventh chord, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Sextet, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Sextolet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Sextuple measure, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Sextuplet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Sforzando (<i>sfortz-ahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Sforzato (<i>sfortz-ah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Shake, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Sharp, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+Short appoggiatura (<i>ap-pod-jea-too-rah</i>), <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Simile (<i>see'-mee-leh</i>), <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Similiter (<i>see-mil'-i-ter</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Simple measure, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>Simple tone, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Sin (<i>seen</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sin al fine (<i>ahl-fee'-neh</i>), <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+<br />
+Sino (<i>see'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sixteen-foot stop, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Sixty-four-foot stop, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Slentando (<i>slen-tahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Slur, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+Small octave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Smorzando (<i>smor-tzahn'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Solenne (<i>so-len'-neh</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Solf&#232;ge (<i>sul-fezh'</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Solfeggio (<i>sol-fed'-jo</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Solmization, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Solo, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sonata (<i>so-nah'-tah</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Sonata allegro (<i>ahl-leh'-gro</i>), <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Sonata form, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Sonatina (<i>so-na-tee'-nah</i>), <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Song form, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+Sopra (<i>so'-prah</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Soprano (<i>so-prah'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Sordino (<i>sor-dee'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+Sostenuto (<i>sos-teh-noo'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Sotto (<i>sot'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Sotto voce (<i>vo'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Sound, <a href="#APPENDIX_C">App. C</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Production of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Transmission of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rate of travel of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Intensification of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reflection of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Classification of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Spiritoso (<i>spee-ree-to'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Staccatissimo (<i>stahk-kah-tis'-si-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+Staccato (<i>stahk-kah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Staff, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Staff degrees, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Standards of pitch, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Stems, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Step, half and whole, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+Strepitoso (<i>streh-pee-to'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Stretto (<i>stret'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Strict imitation, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Stringed instruments, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+<br />
+Stringendo (<i>strin-jen'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Stroking notes, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+Strophe form (<i>stro'-feh</i>), <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Styles, kinds of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how differ from forms, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sub, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sub-dominant, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Subject, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Subito (<i>soo-bee'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Sub-mediant, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Sub-octave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Suite (<i>sweet</i>), <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Super-dominant, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Super-tonic, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Suspension, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+Swell-box, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Syllables for sight-singing, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Symphonic poem, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+Symphony, def., <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Syncopation, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Tail of note, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Takt pausa (<i>tahkt pow'-zeh</i> or <i>pah-oo'-za</i>), <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+Tanto (<i>tahn'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Tarantella (<i>tah-rahn-tel'-lah</i>), <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempered scales, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempo, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-50<br />
+<br />
+Tempo commodo (<i>ko-mo'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempo di marcia (<i>de mar'-chee-ah</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempo di menuetto (<i>meh-noo-et'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempo di valso (<i>vahl'-so</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempo giusto (<i>jew-sto</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempo ordinario (<i>or-dee-nah'-ree-o</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempo primo (<i>pree'-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempo rubato (<i>roo-bah'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Tenor, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Tenuto (<i>teh-noo'-to</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Terminology Reforms, <a href="#APPENDIX_D">App. D</a>, p. <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Tetrachords in scales, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<br />
+Thematic development, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Theme, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Theme and variations, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Thesis, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Thirty-two-foot stop, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Thorough-bass, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Three-lined octave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Through-composed form, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Tie, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>Timbre (<i>tambr</i>), <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Time, wrong uses of word, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Toccata (<i>tok-kah'-tah</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Tonality scale, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<br />
+Tone, how represented, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ornamental tone, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">key-tone, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of resolution, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tone-poem, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+Tonic, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Tonic minor, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Tranquillo (<i>trahn-quil'-lo</i>), <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Transposition, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+<br />
+Tre (<i>treh</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Treble staff, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Tre corde (<i>kor'-deh</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Tr&#232;s (<i>treh</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Tr&#232;s lentement (<i>lahng-te-mahng</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Tr&#232;s vivement (<i>ve'-veh-mahng</i>), <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Triad, def., <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Trill, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Trio, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Triple measure, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Triplet, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Tristamente (<i>tris-tah-men'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Trombone, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Troppo (<i>trop'-po</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Trumpet, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
+<br />
+Tuba, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Turn, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Tutte le corde (<i>toot'-teh leh kor'-deh</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Tutti (<i>toot'-tee</i>), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Two-foot stop, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Two-lined octave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Un (<i>oon</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Una (<i>oo'-nah</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Una corda, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Uno (<i>oo'-no</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Un peu (<i>oon peuh</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Un peu crescendo (<i>kre-shen'-do</i>), <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Un poco animate (<i>ah-ni-mah-'to</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Untempered scale, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Upper partials, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
+<br />
+Upper tetrachord, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Veloce (<i>veh-lo'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Viola (<i>vee-o'-lah</i>), <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+Violin, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+Violoncello (<i>vee-o-lohn-chel'-lo</i>), <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+Vivo (<i>vee'-vo</i>), <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Vivace (<i>vee-vah'-cheh</i>), <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Vivacissimo (<i>vee-vah-chis'-see-mo</i>), <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Vocal music, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Volante (<i>vo-lahn'-teh</i>), <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Waltz, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+Whole-step, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+Whole-step scale, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Wood-wind instruments, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> It should be noted at the outset that this statement
+regarding the down-turned stem on the left side of the note-head, and
+also a number of similar principles here cited, refer more specifically
+to music as it appears on the printed page. In the case of hand-copied
+music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note, thus
+<img src="images/quarter2.jpg" width="12" height="24" alt="quarter note" title="quarter note" />.
+This is done because of greater facility in writing, and
+for the same reason other slight modifications of the notation here
+recommended may sometimes be encountered. In dealing with children it is
+best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according
+to which <i>printed</i> music is notated, in order to avoid those
+non-satisfying and often embarrassing explanations of differences which
+will otherwise be unavoidable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> An exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of
+unequal value stroked together, when the hook appears on the left side,
+thus <img src="images/unequal.jpg" width="41" height="31" alt="unequal beamed notes" title="unequal beamed notes" />.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> It is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat
+suggested by Mattheson (who also suggested the St. Andrew's cross
+(<img src="images/standrew.jpg" width="12" height="12" alt="St. Andrew's cross" title="St. Andrew's cross" />) for the double-sharp) may some time be readopted. This figure
+was the Greek letter B, made thus, <span lang="el" title="Greek: b">&#946;</span>, and its use would make
+our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The word <i>leger</i> is derived from the French word <i>L&#201;GER</i>,
+meaning light, and this use of the word refers to the fact that the
+leger lines, being added by hand, are lighter&#8212;<i>i.e.</i>, less solid in
+color&#8212;than the printed lines of the staff itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The word <i>clef</i> is derived from <i>CLAVIS</i>&#8212;a key&#8212;the
+reference being to the fact that the clef unlocks or makes clear the
+meaning of the staff, as a key to a puzzle enables us to solve the
+puzzle.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The Germans use the same pitch designations as we do with
+two exceptions, viz., our B is called by them H, and our B<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> is
+called B. The scale of C therefore reads: C, D, E, F, G, A, H, C; the
+scale of F reads F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F. The signatures are in all cases
+written exactly as we write them.
+</p><p>
+In France and Italy where the &quot;fixed DO&quot; system is in vogue, pitches are
+usually referred to by the syllable names; <i>e.g.</i>, C is referred to as
+DO (or UT), D as RE, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The expression &quot;diatonic condition&quot; as here used refers to
+the staff after the signature has been placed upon it, in other words
+after the staff has been prepared to represent the pitches of the
+diatonic scale.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> It has already been noted (<a href="#Page_6">p. 6</a>, Note) that in the German
+scale our b-flat is called b, and our b is called H. From this
+difference in terminology has grown up the custom of using the H (now
+made <span lang="el" title="natural">&#9838;</span>) to show that <i>any</i> staff-degree is in <i>natural</i>
+condition, <i>i.e.</i>, not sharped or flatted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The word <i>sin</i> is a contraction of the Italian
+word <i>sino</i>, meaning &quot;as far as&quot; or &quot;until&quot;; in the term given
+above (<a href="#SEC_39">Sec. 39</a>) it is really superfluous as the word <i>al</i>
+includes in itself both preposition and article, meaning &quot;to
+the.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> For definition of enharmonic see <a href="#Page_10">p. 10</a>,
+  <a href="#SEC_27">Sec. 27</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Elson&#8212;Dictionary of Music, article <i>mordent</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> In organ music the acciaccatura is still taken to mean
+that the embellishing tone and the melody tone are to be sounded
+together, the former being then instantly released, while the latter is
+held to its full time-value.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> If strictly logical terminology is to be insisted upon the
+whole-tone scale should be called the &quot;whole-step&quot; scale.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The word <i>tetrachord</i> means literally &quot;four strings&quot; and
+refers to the primitive instrument, the four strings of which were so
+tuned that the lowest and the highest tones produced were a perfect
+fourth apart. With the Greeks the tetrachord was the unit of analysis as
+the octave is with us to-day, and all Greek scales are capable of
+division into two tetrachords, the arrangement of the intervals between
+the tones in each tetrachord differentiating one scale from another, but
+the tetrachords themselves always consisting of groups of four tones,
+the highest being a perfect fourth above the lowest.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The step-and-a-half (augmented second) is &quot;unmelodic&quot;
+because it is the same size as a <i>minor third</i> and the mind finds it
+difficult to take in as a <i>second</i> (notes representing it being on
+adjacent staff-degrees) an interval of the same size as a third.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> These syllables are said to have been derived originally
+from the initial syllables of the &quot;Hymn to Saint John,&quot; the music of
+which was a typical Gregorian chant. The application of these syllables
+to the scale tones will be made clear by reference to this hymn as given
+below. It will be observed that this hymn provided syllables only for
+the six tones of the <i>hexachord</i> then recognized; when the octave scale
+was adopted (early in the sixteenth century) the initial letters of the
+last line (s and i) were combined into a syllable for the seventh tone.
+</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/hymn.jpg" width="600" height="179" alt="Hymn to St. John" title="Hymn to St. John" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><a href="music/stjohn.mid">[Listen]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> A considerable number of teachers (particularly those who
+did not learn to sing by syllable in childhood) object to calling the
+tonic of the minor scale <i>la</i>, insisting that both major and minor tonic
+should be called <i>do</i>. According to this plan the syllables used in
+singing the harmonic minor scale would be: DO, RE, ME, FA, SOL, LE, TI,
+DO.
+</p><p>
+There is no particular basis for this theory, for although all scales
+must of course begin with the key-tone or tonic, this tonic may be
+referred to by any syllable which will serve as a basis for an
+association process enabling one to feel the force of the tone as a
+closing point&#8212;a <i>home tone</i>. Thus in the Dorian mode the tonic would be
+RE, in the Phrygian, MI, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The student should differentiate between the so-called
+&quot;tonality&quot; scales like the major and minor, the tones of which are
+actually used as a basis for &quot;key-feeling&quot; with the familiar experience
+of coming home to the tonic after a melodic or harmonic excursion, and
+on the other hand the purely artificial and mechanical construction of
+the chromatic scale.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Many other enharmonic notations are possible, altho the
+&quot;five pairs of tones&quot; above referred to are the most common. Thus
+E<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> and F are enharmonically the same, as are also C<span lang="el" title="flat">&#9837;</span> and B,
+C<span lang="el" title="sharp">&#9839;</span> and B[double-sharp], etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The word <i>chromatic</i> means literally <i>colored</i> and was
+first applied to the intermediate tones because by using them the singer
+could get smoother and more diversely-shaded progressions, <i>i.e.</i>, could
+get more <i>color</i> than by using only the diatonic tones. Composers were
+not long discovering the peculiar value of these additional tones and
+soon found that these same tones were exceedingly valuable also in
+modulating, hence the two uses of intermediate tones at the present
+time&#8212;first, to embellish a melody; second, to modulate to another key.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Stanford&#8212;Musical Composition (1911) p. 17.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Recent tests in Germany seem to prove conclusively that
+the <i>tempered</i> scale is the scale ordinarily employed by both vocalists
+and players on stringed instruments, and that the ideal of and agitation
+for a <i>pure</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, <i>untempered</i>) scale in vocal and in string music
+is somewhat of a myth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Pearse&#8212;Rudiments of Musical Knowledge, p. 37.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> For explanation of terminology, see <a href="#Page_48">p. 48</a>,
+  <a href="#SEC_106">Sec.
+106</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> To test the accuracy of a metronome, set the
+weight at 60 and see if it beats seconds. If it gives more
+than 62 or 63 or less than 57 or 58 clicks per minute it will
+not be of much service in giving correct tempi and should be
+taken to a jeweller to be regulated.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Largo, larghetto, etc., are derivatives of the
+Latin word <i>largus</i>, meaning large, broad.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Adagio means literally at ease.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> There has been some difference of opinion as to
+which of these two terms indicates the more rapid tempo: an
+analysis tells us that if <i>allegro</i> means quick, and if <i>etto</i>
+is the diminutive ending, then <i>allegretto</i> means a little
+quick&#8212;<i>i.e.</i>, slower than <i>allegro</i>. These two terms are,
+however, so closely allied in meaning that a dispute over the
+matter is a mere waste of breath.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Bussler&#8212;Elements of Notation and Harmony, p. 76.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Both <i>moriente</i> and <i>morendo</i> mean literally&#8212;<i>dying</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> From <i>smorzare</i> (It.)&#8212;to extinguish.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Polyphonic music flourished from 1000 A.D. to about 1750
+A.D., the culmination of the polyphonic period being reached in the
+music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven,
+and the later writers have used the monophonic style more than the
+polyphonic, although a combination of the two is often found, as <i>e.g.</i>,
+in the later works of Beethoven.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> There is a very pronounced disagreement among theorists as
+to what terms are to be used in referring to certain forms and parts of
+forms and it seems impossible to make a compromise that will satisfy
+even a reasonable number. In order to make the material in this chapter
+consistent with itself therefore it has been thought best by the author
+to follow the terminology of some single recognized work on form, and
+the general plan of monophonic form here given is therefore that of the
+volume called <i>Musical Form</i>, by Bussler-Cornell.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> A <i>liturgy</i> is a prescribed form or method of conducting a
+religious service, and the parts sung in such a service (as <i>e.g.</i>, the
+holy communion, baptism, etc.), are referred to as the <i>musical</i>
+liturgy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> It should be understood that this statement refers to the
+service called &quot;the high mass&quot; only, there being no music at all in
+connection with the so-called &quot;low mass.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Many theorists (including Durand in his monumental
+&quot;Treatise on Harmony&quot;) consider the V&#8212;I cadence to be the only one
+which may legitimately be called <i>perfect</i>, but the majority of writers
+seem to take the view that either authentic or plagal cadence may be
+either perfect or imperfect, depending upon the soprano tone, as noted
+above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Elson&#8212;Music Dictionary, article, &quot;Notation.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Goddard&#8212;The Rise of Music, p. 177.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Williams in Grove's Dictionary, article, &quot;Notation.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> The <i>tonic-sol-fa system</i> represents an attempt to invent
+a simpler notation to be used by beginners, (especially in the lower
+grades of the public schools) and by singers in choral societies who
+have never learned to interpret staff notation and who therefore find
+some simpler scheme of notation necessary if they are to read music at
+all.
+</p><p>
+In this system the syllables <i>do</i>, <i>re</i>, <i>mi</i>, etc., (in phonetic
+spelling) are used, the tone being arrived at in each case, first by
+means of a firmly established sense of tonality, and second by
+associating each diatonic tone with some universally felt emotional
+feeling: thus <i>do</i> is referred to as the <i>strong</i> tone, <i>mi</i> as the
+<i>calm</i> one, and <i>la</i> as the <i>sad</i> tone, great emphasis being placed upon
+<i>do</i> as the center of the major tonality, and upon <i>la</i> as the center of
+the minor. The system is thus seen to have one advantage over staff
+notation, viz.: that in presenting it <i>the teacher is compelled to begin
+with a presentation of actual tones</i>, while in many cases the teacher of
+staff notation begins by presenting facts regarding the staff and other
+symbols before the pupil knows anything about tone and rhythm as such.
+</p><p>
+The symbol for each diatonic tone is the initial letter of the syllable
+(<i>i.e.</i>, d for <i>do</i>, r for <i>re</i>, etc.), the key being indicated by a
+letter at the beginning of the composition. The duration-value of tones
+is indicated by a system of bars, dots, and spaces, the bar being used
+to indicate the strongest pulse of each measure (as in staff notation)
+the beats being shown by the mark: a dash indicating the continuation of
+the same tone through another beat. If a beat has two tones this is
+indicated by writing the two initial letters representing them with a .
+between them. A modulation is indicated by giving the new key letter and
+by printing the syllable-initials from the standpoint of both the old
+and the new <i>do</i>-position. The figure ' above and to the right of the
+letter indicates the tone in the octave above, while the same figure
+below and to the right indicates the octave below. A blank space
+indicates a rest. The tune of My Country, 'Tis of Thee, as printed in
+tonic sol-fa notation below will make these points clear.
+</p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Key F</p>
+<p>
+| d :d :r | t<sub>1</sub> :-.d :r | m :m :f | m :-.r :d | r :d :t<sub>1</sub> | d :&#8212; :&#8212; |<br />
+| s :s :s | s :-.f :m | f :f :f | f :-.m :r | m :f.m :r.d | m :-.f :s |<br />
+| l.f :m :r | d :&#8212; :&#8212; |
+</p></div>
+<p>
+The advantages of the system are (1) the strong sense of key-feeling
+aroused and the ease with which modulations are felt; and (2) the fact
+that it is necessary to learn to sing in but one key, thus making
+sight-singing a much simpler matter, and transposition the easiest
+process imaginable. But these are advantages from the standpoint of the
+vocalist (producing but one tone at a time) only, and do not apply to
+instrumental music. The scheme will therefore probably be always
+restricted to vocal music and will hardly come into very extensive use
+even in this field, for the teacher of music is finding it perfectly
+possible to improve methods of presentation to such an extent that
+learning to sing from the staff becomes a very simple matter even to the
+young child. And even though this were not true, the tonic-sol-fa will
+always be hampered by the fact that since all letters are printed in a
+straight horizontal line the ear does not have the assistance of the eye
+in appreciating the rise and fall of melody, as is the case in staff
+notation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The ranges noted in connection with these descriptions of
+instruments are ordinarily the <i>practical orchestral or band</i> ranges
+rather than those which are possible in solo performance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> The <i>saxhorn</i> was invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a
+Frenchman. The <i>saxophone</i> is the invention of the same man.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Floyd S. Muckey&#8212;&quot;Vocal Terminology,&quot; <i>The Musician</i>, May,
+1912, p. 337.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Note</span>:&#8212;Not &quot;space below the staff&quot; or &quot;space
+above the staff.&quot;</p></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Music Notation and Terminology, by Karl W.
+Gehrkens
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Music Notation and Terminology
+
+
+Author: Karl W. Gehrkens
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2006  [eBook #19499]
+[Most recently updated: February 14, 2011]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by David Newman, Linda Cantoni, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/). Thanks to
+Alex Guzman for the realization of the figured bass in Figure 67, and to
+Bunji Hisamori and the Classical Midi Connection
+(http://www.classicalmidiconnection.com) for the MIDI sequence of the
+Beethoven Sonata Op. 31, No. 3.
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file
+      which includes the original illustrations and also audio
+      files to which the reader can listen.
+      See 19499-h.htm or 19499-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/9/19499/19499-h/19499-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/9/19499/19499-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      In this e-text, a superscript is indicated by a carat (^)
+      and a subscript by a single underscore (_).
+      Italics are indicated by two underscores, e.g. _larghetto_.
+      The Czech r (with its diacritical) is represented by [vr],
+      e.g. Dvo[vr]ak.]
+
+
+
+
+
+MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY
+
+by
+
+KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M.
+
+Associate Professor of School Music
+Oberlin Conservatory of Music
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: [publisher logo]]
+
+
+
+The A. S. Barnes Company
+New York 1914
+Copyright, 1914, by
+The A. S. Barnes Company
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The study of _music notation and terminology_ by classes in
+conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools
+is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such
+courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which
+might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the
+really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in
+music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the
+present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more
+systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more
+_intelligent_ class of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to
+establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after
+having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a
+concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most
+of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of
+which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps
+knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly
+and economically to others.
+
+To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the
+author has been for several years gathering material from all available
+sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in
+related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only
+some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but
+will also enable him to see more clearly _why_ certain terms have the
+meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the
+derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their
+definition.
+
+The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of
+terms has of course been influenced largely by the author's own
+individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that
+important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For
+this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would
+probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would
+satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms.
+
+In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to
+use such words as _note_, _tone_, et cetera with at least a fair degree
+of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author on this point may be
+criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his
+opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be
+profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been
+inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large
+extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is
+well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of
+edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually
+begin to come, the _need_ of reform must be felt by a fairly large
+number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few
+musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the
+changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful
+thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points
+at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought
+to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and
+that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.
+
+It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the
+teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms
+studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter
+purpose a pronouncing index has been appended.
+
+It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have
+been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear
+and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt
+or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an
+almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove's
+Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the
+arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H.
+Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox,
+Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice,
+Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of
+the Music Teachers' National Association who have offered valuable
+advice along certain specific lines.
+
+K.W.G.
+
+OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC, _June, 1913_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I.--Some Principles of Correct Notation                      1
+   1. Note.
+   2, 3. Rules for turning stems.
+   4. Use of cross-stroke.
+   5. Rest.
+   6. G Clef.
+   7. F Clef and C Clef.
+   8. Sharp and double-sharp.
+   9. Flat, double-flat and natural.
+  10. Tie.
+  11. Dot after a note.
+
+CHAPTER II.--Symbols of Music Defined                                5
+  12. Staff and Great Staff.
+  13. Leger Lines.
+  14. Staff degrees.
+  15. Clef.
+  16. Treble and bass Clefs.
+  17. Movable C Clef.
+  18. Sharp.
+  19. Flat.
+  20. Double-sharp and double-flat.
+
+CHAPTER III.--Symbols of Music Defined (_continued_)                 8
+  21. Natural
+  22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key.
+  24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar.
+  26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees.
+  27. Enharmonic.
+  28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.
+  29. Rests.
+  30. Lists of notes and rests.
+  31. English names for.
+  32. Less common forms.
+  33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.
+  34. Bar.
+  35. Double-bar.
+
+CHAPTER IV.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc.                             13
+  36-40. Signs for repetition.
+  41. Continuation.
+  42. Rest.
+  43. Pause.
+  44. Hold.
+  45-47. Alteration of Pitch.
+  48. Octave names.
+
+CHAPTER V.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (_continued_)                17
+  49-51. Dots after notes.
+  52. Dots over or under notes.
+  53. Dash over note.
+  54. Tie.
+  55. Slur.
+  56. Slur or tie with dots.
+  57. Dash over note.
+  58. Dash and dot over note.
+  59. Accent marks.
+  60. m.d., m.g., etc.
+  61. Arpeggio.
+  62. Messa di voce.
+  63. Violin bow signs.
+
+CHAPTER VI.--Embellishments                                         22
+  64. Definition and kinds.
+  65. Trill.
+  66-68. Mordent.
+  69-72. Turn.
+  73, 74. Appoggiatura.
+  75. Acciaccatura.
+
+CHAPTER VII.--Scales                                                27
+  76. Definition, and old forms.
+  77. Origin.
+  78. Key.
+  79. Three general classes.
+  80. Diatonic, defined.
+  81. Major diatonic.
+  82. Tetrachords.
+  83. The fifteen positions.
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--Scales (_continued_)                                 33
+  84. Minor diatonic.
+  85. Original form.
+  86. Harmonic minor.
+  87. Melodic minor.
+  88. Eleven positions.
+  89. Relative minor.
+  90. Tonic minor.
+  91. Diatonic scale names.
+  92. Syllable-names.
+  93. Chromatic scale.
+  94. Nine positions.
+  95. Whole-step scale.
+
+CHAPTER IX.--Auxiliary Words and Endings                            42
+
+CHAPTER X.--Measure                                                 44
+  97. Definition.--Two essential characteristics.
+   Rhythm vers measure.
+  98. Syncopation.
+  99. Simple and compound measures.
+ 100. Commonest varieties.
+ 101. Other varieties.
+ 102. Rare varieties.
+ 103. The signs, C and [cut-time symbol].
+
+CHAPTER XI.--Tempo                                                  48
+ 104. Misuses of the word "time."
+ 105-107. How to correct these: by substituting "rhythm," "measure,"
+   and "tempo."
+ 108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo.
+ 109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.
+
+CHAPTER XII.--Tempo (_continued_)                                   52
+ 110-119. Tempo-terms.
+
+CHAPTER XIII.--Dynamics                                             56
+ 120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.
+
+CHAPTER XIV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles                    62
+ 132. Definition of form.
+ 133. Basis of form.
+ 134. Difference between form and style.
+ 135. Introductory.
+ 136. Two styles.
+ 137. Monophonic music.
+ 138. Polyphonic music.
+ 139. Counterpoint.
+ 140. Imitation.
+ 141. Canon.
+ 142. School round.
+ 143. Fugue.
+
+CHAPTER XV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (_continued_)       67
+ 144. Phrase-section.
+ 145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.
+ 146. Primary forms.
+ 147. Theme.
+ 148. Thematic development.
+ 149. Rondo.
+ 150. Suite.
+ 151. Dances in suite.
+ 152. Scherzo.
+ 153. Sonata.
+ 154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.
+ 155. Concerto.
+ 156. Symphony.
+ 157. Sonata-form.
+ 158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.
+ 159. Program music.
+ 160. Symphonic or tone poem.
+
+CHAPTER XVI.--Terms Relating to Vocal Music                         76
+ 161. Anthem.
+ 162. A capella.
+ 163. Motet.
+ 164. Choral.
+ 165. Mass.
+ 166. Cantata.
+ 167. Oratorio.
+ 168. Opera.
+ 169. Libretto.
+ 170. Recitative.
+ 171. Aria.
+ 172. Lied.
+ 173. Ballad.
+ 174. Folk-song.
+ 175. Madrigal.
+ 176. Glee.
+ 177. Part-song.
+
+CHAPTER XVII.--Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals                82
+ 178. The four elements of music.
+ 179. Rhythm.
+ 180. Melody.
+ 181. Harmony.
+ 182. Timbre.
+ 183. Interval--harmonic and melodic.
+ 184. Number name and specific name.
+ 185. Prime.
+ 186. Second.
+ 187. Third.
+ 188. Fourth.
+ 189. Fifth.
+ 190. Sixth.
+ 191. Seventh.
+ 192. Octave.
+ 193. Ninth.
+ 194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals.
+ 195. Inverted intervals.
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.--Chords, Cadences, etc.                              87
+ 196. Chord. Triad. Root.
+ 197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads.
+ 198. The Common chords.
+ 199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion.
+ 200. Figured bass.
+ 201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.
+ 202. Cadence.
+ 203. Authentic cadence.
+ 204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic.
+ 205. Plagal cadence.
+ 206. Half-cadence.
+ 207. Deceptive cadence.
+ 208. Sequence.
+ 209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh.
+ 210. Suspension.
+ 211. Retardation.
+ 212. Anticipation.
+ 213. Pedal point.
+ 214. Close and open position.
+ 215. Transposition.
+
+CHAPTER XIX.--Miscellaneous Terms                                   95
+
+CHAPTER XX.--Miscellaneous Terms (_continued_)                      98
+
+APPENDIX A.--The History of Music Notation                         101
+
+APPENDIX B.--Musical Instruments                                   112
+   1. Two classes.
+   2. Piano.
+   3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.
+   5. Instruments used for ensemble playing.
+   6. Band.
+   7. Orchestra.
+   8. The stringed instruments.
+   9. Wood-wind.
+  10. Brass.
+  11. Percussion.
+  12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra.
+  13. Books recommended.
+  14. Violin.
+  15. Viola.
+  16. Violoncello.
+  17. Double-bass.
+  18. Flute.
+  19. Piccolo.
+  20. Oboe family.
+  21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone.
+  22. French horn.
+  23. Trumpet.
+  24. Cornet.
+  25. Trombone.
+  26. Tuba.
+  27. Kettle-drum.
+  28. Harp.
+
+APPENDIX C.--Acoustics                                             131
+   1. Definition.
+   2. Sound, production of.
+   3. Sound, transmission of.
+   4. Rate of travel.
+   5. Intensification of.
+   6. Classification of.
+   7. Tones, properties of.
+   8. Pitch.
+   9. Intensity.
+  10. Quality.
+  11. Overtones.
+  12. Equal temperament.
+  13. Standards of pitch.
+
+APPENDIX D.--Terminology Reform                                    139
+
+APPENDIX E.--Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3           149
+
+PRONOUNCING INDEX                                                  159
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SOME PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT NOTATION
+
+
+1. The _note_ (from _nota_--Latin--a mark or sign) consists of either
+one, two, or three parts, ([Illustration]) these being referred to
+respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called _tail_ or
+cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned
+up, but on the left side when turned down.[1] [Illustration] The hook is
+always on the right side.[2] [Illustration]
+
+[Footnote 1: It should be noted at the outset that this statement
+regarding the down-turned stem on the left side of the note-head, and
+also a number of similar principles here cited, refer more specifically
+to music as it appears on the printed page. In the case of hand-copied
+music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note, thus
+[note symbol]. This is done because of greater facility in writing, and
+for the same reason other slight modifications of the notation here
+recommended may sometimes be encountered. In dealing with children it is
+best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according
+to which _printed_ music is notated, in order to avoid those
+non-satisfying and often embarrassing explanations of differences which
+will otherwise be unavoidable.]
+
+[Footnote 2: An exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of
+unequal value stroked together, when the hook appears on the left side,
+thus [Illustration].]
+
+     In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with
+     a heavy pressure on the pen point, but in writing at the board
+     they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an
+     inch long, turned on its side.
+
+2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following
+_rules for turning stems_ apply: (1) If the note-head is _below_ the
+third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is _above_ the
+third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is _on_ the
+third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the
+symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The
+following examples will illustrate these points.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper
+part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that
+the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano
+and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by _one_
+performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices
+have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in
+common as in Fig. 3.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written
+in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by
+_one cross-stroke_. In such a case all the stems must of course be
+turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of
+the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus _stroked_ may be of
+the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to
+each note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.)
+
+5. _Rests_, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by
+using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. 1.) The
+double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third space
+unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff
+they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may
+be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on
+the spaces. The hook of the eighth rest is usually placed on the
+_third_ space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.
+
+6. The _G clef_ should be begun at the second line rather than below the
+staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it
+most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by
+dividing it into two parts, thus, [Illustration]. The descending stroke
+crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular
+part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces.
+
+7. The _F clef_ is made either thus, [bass clef symbol], or thus, [old
+bass clef symbol], the dots being placed one on either side of the
+fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef
+marks. The C _clef_ has also two forms, [C clef symbol] and [tenor clef
+symbol].
+
+8. The _sharp_ is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy
+slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right,
+[sharp]. The sharp should never be made thus, [Illustration].
+
+The _double sharp_ is made either thus [double-sharp symbol] or [old
+double-sharp symbol], the first form being at present the more common.
+
+9. The _flat_ is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the
+curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The _double flat_
+consists of two flats,[3] [flat][flat]. The _natural_ or _cancel_ is
+made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus [Illustration].
+
+[Footnote 3: It is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat
+suggested by Mattheson (who also suggested the St. Andrew's cross
+([symbol]) for the double-sharp) may some time be readopted. This figure
+was the Greek letter B, made thus, [Greek: b], and its use would make
+our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present.]
+
+10. The _tie_ usually connects the _heads_ of notes, thus [tie symbol].
+
+11. The _dot after a note_ always appears on a space, whether the
+note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot
+after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the space _above_
+that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below
+it if the following note is lower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+     _Note._--Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a
+     theory, and in order to form the habit of writing correctly,
+     _drill_ is necessary. This may perhaps be best secured by
+     asking students to write (at the board or on ruled paper) from
+     verbal dictation, thus: Teacher says,
+
+     "Key of B[flat], three-quarter measure: First measure, DO a
+     quarter note, RE a quarter, and MI a quarter. Second measure,
+     SOL a quarter, LA a quarter, and SOL a quarter. Third measure,
+     LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth measure,
+     high DO a dotted half." Pupils respond by writing the exercise
+     dictated, after which mistakes in the turning of stems, etc.,
+     are corrected. The _pitch names_ may be dictated instead of
+     the syllables if desired, and still further practice may be
+     provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other
+     keys.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED
+
+
+12. A _staff_ is a collection of parallel lines, together with the
+spaces belonging to them. The modern staff has five lines and six
+spaces, these being ordinarily referred to as first line, second line,
+third line, fourth line, and fifth line (beginning with the lowest); and
+space below (_i.e._, space below the first line), first space, second
+space, third space, fourth space, and space above.
+
+The definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of
+the portions of the "great staff," the latter term being often applied
+to the combination of treble and bass staffs (with one leger line
+between) so commonly used in piano music, etc.
+
+13. The _extent of the staff_ may be increased either above or below by
+the addition of short lines called _leger lines_,[4] and notes may be
+written on either these lines or on the spaces above and below them.
+
+[Footnote 4: The word _leger_ is derived from the French word _LEGER_,
+meaning light, and this use of the word refers to the fact that the
+leger lines, being added by hand, are lighter--_i.e._, less solid in
+color--than the printed lines of the staff itself.]
+
+14. The lines and spaces constituting the staff (including leger lines
+if any) are often referred to as _staff degrees_, _i.e._, each separate
+line and space is considered to be "a degree of the staff." The tones of
+a scale are also sometimes referred to as "degrees of the scale."
+
+15. A _clef_[5] is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches
+are to be represented by its lines and spaces. Thus, _e.g._, the G clef
+shows us not only that the second line of the staff represents G, but
+that the first line represents E, the first space F, etc. The F clef
+similarly shows us that the fifth line of the bass staff represents the
+first A below middle C, the fourth line the first F below middle C, etc.
+
+[Footnote 5: The word _clef_ is derived from _CLAVIS_--a key--the
+reference being to the fact that the clef unlocks or makes clear the
+meaning of the staff, as a key to a puzzle enables us to solve the
+puzzle.]
+
+The student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of
+the letters G and F, which (among others) were used to designate the
+pitches represented by certain lines when staff notation was first
+inaugurated. For a fuller discussion of this matter see Appendix A, p.
+101. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Appendix I" in original.]
+
+16. When the G clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the
+_treble staff_, and when the F clef is used, as the _bass staff_. Such
+expressions as "singing from the treble clef," or "singing in the treble
+clef," and "singing in the bass clef" are still frequently heard, but
+are preferably replaced by "singing from the treble staff," and "singing
+from the bass staff." Fig. 6 shows the permanent names of lines and
+spaces when the G and F clefs are used.[6]
+
+[Footnote 6: The Germans use the same pitch designations as we do with
+two exceptions, viz., our B is called by them H, and our B[flat] is
+called B. The scale of C therefore reads: C, D, E, F, G, A, H, C; the
+scale of F reads F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F. The signatures are in all cases
+written exactly as we write them.
+
+In France and Italy where the "fixed DO" system is in vogue, pitches are
+usually referred to by the syllable names; _e.g._, C is referred to as
+DO (or UT), D as RE, etc.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+17. _The movable C clef_ [C clef symbol] or [tenor clef symbol],
+formerly in very common use, is now utilized for only two purposes,
+viz., (1) in music written for certain orchestral instruments (cello,
+viola, etc.) of extended range, in order to avoid having to use too many
+leger lines; and (2) for indicating the tenor part in vocal music. This
+latter usage seems also to be disappearing however, and the tenor part
+is commonly written on the treble staff, it being understood that the
+tones are to be sung an octave lower than the notes would indicate.
+
+The C clef as used in its various positions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and
+9. It will be noted that in each case the line on which the clef is
+placed represents "middle C."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Soprano clef.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Alto clef.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Tenor clef.]
+
+18. A _sharp_ is a character which causes the degree of the staff with
+which it is associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it
+otherwise would.
+
+     Thus in Fig. 10 (_a_) the fifth line and first space represent
+     the pitch F, but in Fig. 10 (_b_) these same staff degrees
+     represent an entirely different tone--F[sharp]. The student
+     should note that the sharp does not then _raise_ anything; it
+     merely causes a staff degree to represent a higher tone than
+     it otherwise would. There is just as much difference between F
+     and F[sharp] as between B and C, and yet one would never think
+     of referring to C as "B raised"!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+19. A _flat_ is a character that causes the degree of the staff with
+which it is associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it
+otherwise would. (See note under Sec. 18 and apply the same discussion
+here.)
+
+20. A _double-sharp_ causes the staff degree on which it is placed to
+represent a pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp.
+Similarly, a double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed
+to represent a pitch one whole-step lower than it would without any
+flat.
+
+     Double-sharps and double-flats are generally used on staff
+     degrees that have already been sharped or flatted, therefore
+     their practical effect is to cause staff degrees to represent
+     pitches respectively a half-step higher and a half-step lower
+     than would be represented by those same degrees in their
+     diatonic condition. Thus in Fig. 10 (_b_) the first space in
+     its diatonic condition[7] represents F-sharp, and the
+     double-sharp on this degree would cause it to represent a
+     pitch one-half step higher than F-sharp, _i.e._,
+     F-double-sharp.
+
+[Footnote 7: The expression "diatonic condition" as here used refers to
+the staff after the signature has been placed upon it, in other words
+after the staff has been prepared to represent the pitches of the
+diatonic scale.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED (_Continued_)
+
+
+21. The _natural_[8] (sometimes called _cancel_) annuls the effect of
+previous sharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the
+measure in which it occurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the
+combination of a natural with a sharp, or a natural with a flat is often
+found: in this case only one sharp or flat is annulled. (Sometimes also
+the single sharp or flat will be found by itself, cancelling the
+double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used when a
+composition changes key, as in Fig. 11, where a change from E to G is
+shown.
+
+[Footnote 8: It has already been noted (p. 6, Note) that in the German
+scale our b-flat is called b, and our b is called H. From this
+difference in terminology has grown up the custom of using the H (now
+made [natural]) to show that _any_ staff-degree is in _natural_
+condition, _i.e._, not sharped or flatted.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+22. The group of sharps or flats (or absence of them) at the beginning
+of a staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is
+written. They are called collectively the _key-signature_.
+
+23. The same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys, the
+major key, or its relative minor, hence in order to determine in what
+key a melody is one must note whether the tones are grouped about the
+major tonic DO or the minor tonic LA. In a harmonized composition it is
+almost always possible to determine the key by referring to the last
+bass note; if the final chord is clearly the DO chord the composition is
+in the major key, but if this final chord is clearly the LA chord then
+it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the minor key.
+Thus if a final chord appears as that in Fig. 12 the composition is
+clearly in G major, while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is just as
+surely in E minor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps and double-flats, occurring
+in the course of the composition (_i.e._, after the key signature) are
+called _accidentals_, whether they actually cause a staff degree to
+represent a different pitch as in Fig. 14 or simply make clear a
+notation about which there might otherwise be some doubt as in Fig. 15,
+measure two. The effect of such accidentals terminates at the bar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+25. In the case of a _tie across a bar_ an accidental remains in force
+until the combined value of the tied notes expires. In Fig. 16 first
+measure, third beat, an accidental sharp makes the third space represent
+the pitch C sharp. By virtue of the tie across the bar the third space
+continues to represent C sharp thru the first beat of the second
+measure, but for the remainder of the measure the third space will
+represent C unless the sharp is repeated as in Fig. 17.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+26. The following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches
+different from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the
+beginner in the study of music notation. These rules are quoted from
+"The Worcester Musical Manual," by Charles I. Rice.
+
+     1. To sharp a natural degree, use a sharp. Fig. 18.
+     2. To sharp a sharped degree, use a double sharp. Fig. 19.
+     3. To sharp a flatted degree, use a natural. Fig. 20.
+     4. To flat a natural degree, use a flat. Fig. 21.
+     5. To flat a flatted degree, use a double flat. Fig. 22.
+     6. To flat a sharped degree, use a natural. Fig. 23.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+27. When two different notations represent the same pitch, the word
+_enharmonic_ is applied. Thus we may say that F sharp and G flat (on
+keyboard instruments at least) are enharmonically the same.
+
+This word _enharmonic_ is used in such expressions as enharmonic change,
+enharmonic keys, enharmonic interval, enharmonic modulation, enharmonic
+relation, etc., and in all such combinations it has the same meaning,
+viz.--a change in notation but no change in the pitch represented.
+
+28. A _note_ is a character expressing relative duration, which when
+placed on a staff indicates that a certain tone is to be sounded for a
+certain relative length of time. The pitch of the tone to be sounded is
+shown by the position of the note on the staff, while the length of time
+it is to be prolonged is shown by the shape of the note. Thus _e.g._, a
+half-note on the second line of the treble staff indicates that a
+specific pitch (g') is to be played or sung for a period of time twice
+as long as would be indicated by a quarter-note in the same composition.
+
+29. A _rest_ is a character which indicates a rhythmic silence of a
+certain relative length.
+
+30. The _notes and rests in common use_ are as follows:
+
+[symbol] Whole-note. An open note-head without stem.
+[symbol] Half-note. An open note-head with stem.
+[symbol] Quarter-note. A closed note-head with stem.
+[symbol] Eighth-note. A closed note-head with stem and one hook.
+[symbol] Sixteenth-note. A closed note-head with stem and two hooks.
+[symbol] Thirty-second-note. A closed note-head with stem and three hooks.
+[symbol] Whole-rest.
+[symbol] Half-rest.
+[symbol] Quarter-rest.
+[symbol] Eighth-rest.
+[symbol] Sixteenth-rest.
+[symbol] Thirty-second-rest.
+
+31. The _English names_ for these notes are:
+
+Whole-note--semi-breve.
+Half-note--minim.
+Quarter-note--crotchet.
+Eighth-note--quaver.
+Sixteenth-note--semi-quaver.
+Thirty-second-note--demi-semi-quaver.
+
+The corresponding rests are referred to by the same system of
+nomenclature: _e.g._, _semi-breve rest_, etc.
+
+32. _Sixty-fourth_ and _one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes_ are
+occasionally found, but are not in common use. The _double-whole-note_
+(_breve_), made [breve symbol] or [old breve symbol], is still used,
+especially in English music, which frequently employs the half-note as
+the beat-unit. Thus in four-half measure the breve would be necessary to
+indicate a tone having four beats.
+
+33. The _whole-rest_ has a peculiarity of usage not common to any of the
+other duration symbols, viz., that it is often employed as a
+_measure-rest_, filling an entire measure of beats, no matter what the
+measure-signature may be. Thus, not only in four-quarter-measure, but in
+two-quarter, three-quarter, six-eighth, and other varieties, the
+whole-rest fills the entire measure, having a value sometimes greater,
+sometimes less than the corresponding whole-note. Because of this
+peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed _Takt-pausa_
+(measure-rest) by the Germans.
+
+34. A _bar_ is a vertical line across the staff, dividing it into
+measures. The word _bar_ is often used synonymously with _measure_ by
+orchestral conductors and others; thus, "begin at the fourteenth bar
+after J." This use of the word, although popular, is incorrect.
+
+35. A _double-bar_ consists of two vertical lines across the staff, at
+least one of the two being a heavy line. The double bar marks the end of
+a division, movement, or entire composition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, ETC.
+
+
+36. A _double bar_ (or single heavy bar) with either two or four dots
+indicates that a section is to be repeated. If the repeat marks occur at
+only one point the entire preceding part is to be repeated, but if the
+marks occur twice (the first time at the right of the bar but the second
+time at the left), only the section thus enclosed by the marks is to be
+repeated.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+37. Sometimes a different cadence (or ending) is to be used for the
+repetition, and this is indicated as in Fig. 24.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+38. The Italian word _bis_ is occasionally used to indicate that a
+certain passage or section is to be repeated. This use is becoming
+obsolete.
+
+39. The words _da capo_ (_D.C._) mean literally "from the head," _i.e._,
+repeat from the beginning. The words _dal segno_ (_D.S._) indicate a
+repetition from the sign ([segno symbol] or [segno symbol]) instead of
+from the beginning.
+
+In the case of both _D.C._ and _D.S._ the word _fine_ (meaning literally
+_the end_) is ordinarily used to designate the point at which the
+repeated section is to terminate. The fermata ([fermata symbol]) was
+formerly in common use for this same purpose, but is seldom so employed
+at present.
+
+     _D.C._ (_sin_[9]) _al fine_ means--repeat from the beginning
+     to the word "fine."
+
+     [Footnote 9: The word _sin_ is a contraction of the Italian
+     word _sino_, meaning "as far as" or "until"; in the term given
+     above (Sec. 39) it is really superfluous as the word _al_
+     includes in itself both preposition and article, meaning "to
+     the."]
+
+     _D.C. al_ [fermata symbol] means--repeat to the fermata (or
+     hold).
+
+     _D.C. senza repetizione_, or _D.C. ma senza repetizione_,
+     [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "repetitione"] both
+     mean--repeat from the beginning, but without observing other
+     repeat marks during the repetition.
+
+     _D.C. e poi la coda_ means--repeat the first section only to
+     the mark [coda symbol], then skip to the coda. (See p. 74,
+     Sec. 157, for discussion of _coda_).
+
+40. In certain cases where the repetition of characteristic figures can
+be indicated without causing confusion, it is the practice of composers
+(especially in orchestral music) to make use of certain _signs of
+repetition_. Some of the commonest of these abbreviations are shown in
+the following examples.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+In Fig. 28 the repetition of an entire measure is called for.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+41. The word _simile_ [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "similie"]
+(sometimes _segue_) indicates that a certain effect previously begun is
+to be continued, as _e.g._, staccato playing, pedalling, style of bowing
+in violin music, etc. The word _segue_ is also occasionally used to show
+that an accompaniment figure (especially in orchestral music) is to be
+continued.
+
+42. _When some part is to rest for two or more measures_ several methods
+of notation are possible. A rest of two measures is usually indicated
+thus [Illustration]. Three measures thus [Illustration]. Four measures
+thus [Illustration]. Rests of more than four measures are usually
+indicated in one of the following ways: [Illustration]. Sometimes the
+number of measures is written directly on the staff, thus;
+[Illustration].
+
+43. The letters G.P. (general pause, or grosse pause), the words _lunga
+pausa_, or simply the word _lunga_, are sometimes written over a rest to
+show that there is to be a prolonged pause or rest in all parts. Such
+expressions are found only in ensemble music, _i.e._, music in which
+several performers are engaged at the same time.
+
+44. The _fermata_ or _hold_ [fermata symbol] over a note or chord
+indicates that the tone is to be prolonged, the duration of the
+prolongation depending upon the character of the music and the taste of
+the performer or conductor. It has already been noted that the hold over
+a bar was formerly used to designate the end of the composition, as the
+word _fine_ is employed at present, but this usage has practically
+disappeared and the hold over the bar now usually indicates a short rest
+between two sections of a composition.
+
+45. The sign _8va......_ (an abbreviation of _all'ottava_,
+[Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "al ottava" in original.] literally
+at the octave) above the staff, indicates that all tones are to be
+sounded an octave higher than the notes would indicate. When found below
+the staff the same sign serves to indicate that the tones are to be
+sounded an octave lower. The term _8va bassa_ has also this latter
+signification.
+
+46. Sometimes the word _loco_ (in place) is used to show that the part
+is no longer to be sounded an octave higher (or lower), but this is more
+often indicated by the termination of the dotted (or wavy) line.
+
+47. The sign _Col 8_ (_coll'ottava_--with the octave) shows that the
+tones an octave higher or lower are to be sounded _with_ the tones
+indicated by the printed notes. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error
+"col ottava" in original.]
+
+48. For the sake of definiteness in referring to pitches, a particular
+name is applied to each octave, and all pitches in the octave are
+referred to by means of a uniform nomenclature. The following figure
+will make this system clear:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+Thus _e.g._, "great G" (written simply G), is the G represented by the
+first line of the bass staff. Small A (written a), is represented by the
+fifth line of the bass staff. Two-lined G, (written [2-lined g symbol]),
+is represented by the space above the fifth line, treble staff.
+Three-lined C, (written [3-lined c symbol]), is represented by the
+second added line above the treble staff, etc. The _one-lined octave_
+may be described as the octave from _middle C_ to the B represented by
+the third line of the treble staff, and any tone within that octave is
+referred to as "one-lined." Thus--_one-lined_ D, _one-lined_ G, etc.
+
+     In scientific works on acoustics, etc., the pitches in the sub
+     octave (or sub-contra octave as it is often called) are
+     referred to as C_2, D_2, E_2, etc.; those in the contra octave
+     as C_1, D_1, etc.; in the great octave, as c^1, d^1, etc.; in
+     the small octave as c^2, d^2, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, ETC., (_Continued_)
+
+
+49. _A dot after a note_ shows that the value of the note is to be half
+again as great as it would be without the dot, _i.e._, the value is to
+be three-halves that of the original note.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+50. _When two dots follow the note_ the second dot adds half as much as
+the first dot has added, _i.e._, the entire value is seven-fourths that
+of the original note.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+51. _When three dots follow the note_ the third dot adds one-half the
+value added by the second, _i.e._, the entire value of the triple-dotted
+note is fifteen-eighths that of the original note.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+52. _A dot over or under a note_ is called the _staccato mark_ and
+indicates that the tone is to be sounded and then instantly released.
+[Illustration] In music for organ and for some other instruments the
+staccato note is sometimes interpreted differently, this depending on
+the character of the instrument.
+
+     On stringed instruments of the violin family the staccato
+     effect is usually secured by a long, rapid stroke of the bow
+     for each tone; in the case of harp and drum the hand is
+     quickly brought in contact with the vibrating body, thus
+     stopping the tone instantly. On the organ the tone is often
+     prolonged to one-half the value of the printed note before the
+     keys are released.
+
+53. _The wedge-shaped dash over the note_ (staccatissimo) was formerly
+employed to indicate a tone still more detached than that indicated by
+the dot, but this sign is really superfluous, and is seldom used at
+present. [Illustration]
+
+54. _A tie_ is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes that call
+for the same tone. It indicates that they are to be sounded as one tone
+having a duration equal to the combined value of both notes. _E.g._, a
+half-note tied to a quarter-note would indicate a tone equal in
+duration-length to that shown by a dotted half-note; two half-notes tied
+would indicate a tone equal in duration to that shown by a whole-note.
+(See examples under Sections 49, 50, and 51).
+
+Fig. 30 illustrates the more common variety of tie, while Fig. 31 shows
+an example of the _enharmonic[10] tie_.
+
+[Footnote 10: For definition of enharmonic see p. 10, Sec. 27.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+55. The _slur_ is used in so many different ways that it is impossible
+to give a general definition. It consists of a curved line, sometimes
+very short (in which case it looks like the tie), but sometimes very
+long, connecting ten, fifteen, or more notes. Some of the more common
+uses of the slur are:
+
+A. _To indicate legato_ (sustained or connected) _tones_, as contrasted
+with staccato (detached) ones.
+
+     In violin music this implies playing all tones thus slurred in
+     one bow; in music for the voice and for wind instruments it
+     implies singing or playing them in one breath.
+
+B. _As a phrase-mark_, in the interpretation of which the first tone of
+the phrase is often accented slightly, and the last one shortened in
+value.
+
+     This interpretation of the phrase is especially common when
+     the phrase is short (as in the two-note phrase), and when the
+     tones constituting the phrase are of short duration, _e.g._,
+     the phrase given in Fig. 32 would be played approximately as
+     written in Fig. 33.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+     But if the notes are of greater value, especially in slow
+     tempi, the slur merely indicates legato, _i.e._, sustained or
+     connected rendition. Fig. 34 illustrates such a case.
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+     This is a matter of such diverse usage that it is difficult to
+     generalize regarding it. The tendency seems at present to be
+     in the direction of using the slur (_in instrumental music_)
+     as a phrase-mark exclusively, it being understood that unless
+     there is some direction to the contrary, the tones are to be
+     performed in a connected manner.
+
+C. In vocal music, to show that two or more tones are to be sung to one
+syllable of text. See Fig. 35.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. MENDELSSOHN (_S. Paul_) re-mem-bers His
+chil-dren.]
+
+     In notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) this same
+     thing is often indicated by _stroking_ the stems together as
+     in Fig. 36. This can only be done in cases where the natural
+     grouping of notes in the measure will not be destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. ev-er and ev-er, for ev-er and]
+
+D. To mark special note-groups (triplets, etc.), in which case the slur
+is accompanied by a figure indicating the number of notes in the group.
+See Fig. 37 (_a_)
+
+     The most common of these irregular note-groups is the
+     _triplet_, which consists of three notes to be performed in
+     the time ordinarily given to two of the same value. Sometimes
+     the triplet consists of only two notes as in Fig. 37 (_b_). In
+     such a case the first two of the three notes composing the
+     triplet are considered to be tied.
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+     When the triplet form is perfectly obvious, the Fig. 3 (as
+     well as the slur) may be omitted.
+
+     Other examples of irregular note-groups, together with the
+     names commonly applied, follow.
+
+     [Illustration: Doublet. Quintuplet or Quintolet. Sextuplet or
+     Sextolet. Septolet or Septimole.]
+
+56. The _combination of slur or tie and dots_ over the notes indicates
+that the tones are to be somewhat detached, but not sharply so.
+[Illustration]
+
+     This effect is sometimes erroneously termed _portamento_ (lit.
+     _carrying_), but this term is more properly reserved for an
+     entirely different effect, _viz._, when a singer, or player on
+     a stringed instrument, passes from a high tone to a low one
+     (or vice versa) touching lightly on some or all of the
+     diatonic tones between the two melody tones.
+
+57. The horizontal _dash over a note_ [Illustration] indicates that the
+tone is to be slightly accented, and sustained. This mark is also
+sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the tones are no
+longer to be performed in detached fashion, but are to be sustained.
+This latter use is especially common in music for stringed instruments.
+
+58. The combination of _dash and dot over a note_ [Illustration]
+indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented and separated from
+its neighboring tones.
+
+59. _Accent marks_ are made in a variety of fashions. The most common
+forms follow. [horizontal accent symbol] [vertical accent symbol] _sf_
+_fz_. All indicate that a certain tone or chord is to be differentiated
+from its neighboring tones or chords by receiving a certain relative
+amount of stress.
+
+60. In music for keyboard instruments it is sometimes necessary to
+indicate that a certain part is to be played by a certain hand. The
+abbreviations r.h. (right hand), m.d. (mano destra, It.), and m.d. (main
+droite, Fr.), designate that a passage or tone is to be played with the
+right hand, while l.h. (left hand), m.s. (mano sinistra, It.), and m.g.
+(main gauche, Fr.), show that the left hand is to be employed.
+
+61. _The wavy line placed vertically beside a chord_ [Illustration]
+indicates that the tones are to be sounded consecutively instead of
+simultaneously, beginning with the lowest tone, all tones being
+sustained until the duration-value of the chord has expired. This is
+called _arpeggio playing_. When the wavy line extends through the entire
+chord (covering both staffs) as in Fig. 38, all the tones of the chord
+are to be played one after another, beginning with the lowest: but if
+there is a separate wavy line for each staff as at Fig. 39 then the
+lowest tone represented on the upper staff is to be played
+simultaneously with the lowest tone represented on the bass staff.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+     The word arpeggio (plural arpeggi) is a derivation of the
+     Italian word _arpa_ (meaning harp), and from this word _arpa_
+     and its corresponding verb _arpeggiare_ (to play on the harp)
+     are derived also a number of other terms commonly used in
+     instrumental music. Among these are--arpeggiamento,
+     arpeggiando, arpeggiato, etc., all of these terms referring to
+     a _harp style_ of performance, the tones being sounded one
+     after another in rapid succession instead of simultaneously as
+     on the piano.
+
+62. The sign [crescendo-decrescendo symbol] over a note indicates that
+the tone is to be begun softly, gradually increased in power, and as
+gradually decreased again, ending as softly as it began. In vocal music
+this effect is called _messa di voce_.
+
+63. In music for stringed instruments of the violin family, the sign
+[down-bow symbol] indicates down-bow and the sign [up-bow symbol]
+up-bow. In cello music the down-bow sign is sometimes written [cello
+down-bow symbol].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+EMBELLISHMENTS
+
+
+64. _Embellishments (or graces) (Fr. agrements_) are ornamental tones,
+either represented in full in the score or indicated by certain signs.
+The following are the embellishments most commonly found: Trill (or
+shake), mordent, inverted mordent (or prall trill), turn (gruppetto),
+inverted turn, appoggiatura and acciaccatura.
+
+Usage varies greatly in the interpretation of the signs representing
+these embellishments and it is impossible to give examples of all the
+different forms. The following definitions represent therefore only the
+most commonly found examples and the most generally accepted
+interpretations.
+
+65. The _trill (or shake_) consists of the rapid alternation of two
+tones to the full value of the printed note. The lower of these two
+tones is represented by the printed note, while the upper one is the
+next higher tone in the diatonic scale of the key in which the
+composition is written. The interval between the two tones may therefore
+be either a half-step or a whole-step.
+
+     Whether the trill is to begin with the principal tone
+     (represented by the printed note) or with the one above is a
+     matter of some dispute among theorists and performers, but it
+     may safely be said that the majority of modern writers on the
+     subject would have it begin on the principal tone rather than
+     on the tone above. Fig. 40.
+
+     When the principal note is preceded by a small note on the
+     degree above, it is of course understood that the trill begins
+     on the tone above. Fig. 41.
+
+The trill is indicated by the sign [trill symbol].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+The above examples would be termed _perfect trills_ because they close
+with a turn. By inference, an _imperfect trill_ is one closing without a
+turn.
+
+66. The _mordent_ [mordent symbol] consists of three tones; first the
+one represented by the printed note; second the one next below it in the
+diatonic scale; third the one represented by the printed note again.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+67. The _double (or long) mordent_ has five tones (sometimes seven)
+instead of three, the first two of the three tones of the regular
+mordent being repeated once or more. (See Fig. 43.)
+
+In the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as
+quickly as possible, the time taken by the embellishment being
+subtracted from the value of the principal note as printed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+68. The _inverted mordent_ [inverted mordent symbol] (note the absence
+of the vertical line) is like the mordent except that the tone below is
+replaced by the tone above in each case. This ornament is sometimes
+called a "transient shake" because it is really only a part of the more
+elaborate grace called "trill." (See Fig. 44.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+     The confusion at present attending the interpretation of the
+     last two embellishments described, might be largely obviated
+     if the suggestion of a recent writer[11] to call the one the
+     _upward mordent_, and the other the _downward mordent_ were to
+     be universally adopted.
+
+[Footnote 11: Elson--Dictionary of Music, article _mordent_.]
+
+69. The _turn_ consists of four tones; first, the diatonic scale-tone
+above the principal tone; second, the principal tone itself; third, the
+tone below the principal tone; and fourth, the principal tone again.
+
+When the sign ([turn symbol] or [fancy turn symbol]) occurs over a note
+of small value in rapid tempo (Fig. 45) the turn consists of four tones
+of equal value; but if it occurs over a note of greater value, or in a
+slow tempo, the tones are usually played quickly (like the mordent), and
+the fourth tone is then held until the time-value of the note has
+expired. (Fig. 46.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+70. _When the turn-sign is placed a little to the right of the note_ the
+principal tone is sounded first and held to almost its full time-value,
+then the turn is played just before the next tone of the melody. In this
+case the four tones are of equal length as in the first example. (See
+Fig. 47.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+     The student should note the difference between these two
+     effects; in the case of a turn _over_ the note the turn comes
+     at the beginning, but in the case of the sign _after_ the note
+     the turn comes at the very end. But in both cases the time
+     taken by the embellishment is taken from the time-value of
+     the principal note. For further details see Grove's Dictionary
+     of Music and Musicians, Vol. V, p. 184. Also Elson, op. cit.
+     p. 274.
+
+71. Sometimes an accidental occurs with the turn, and in this case when
+written above the sign it refers to the highest tone of the turn, but
+when written below, to the lowest (Fig. 48).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+72. In the _inverted turn_ the order of tones is reversed, the lowest
+one coming first, the principal tone next, the highest tone third, and
+the principal tone again, last.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+73. The _appoggiatura_ (lit. _leaning note_) consists of an ornamental
+tone introduced before a tone of a melody, thus delaying the melody tone
+until the ornamental tone has been heard. The time taken for this
+ornamental tone is taken from that of the melody tone.
+
+     The appoggiatura was formerly classified into _long
+     appoggiatura_ and _short appoggiatura_, but modern writers
+     seem to consider the term "short appoggiatura" to be
+     synonymous with acciaccatura[12], and to avoid confusion the
+     word _acciaccatura_ will be used in this sense, and defined
+     under its own heading.
+
+[Footnote 12: In organ music the acciaccatura is still taken to mean
+that the embellishing tone and the melody tone are to be sounded
+together, the former being then instantly released, while the latter is
+held to its full time-value.]
+
+74. Three rules for the interpretation of the appoggiatura are commonly
+cited, viz.:
+
+     (1) When it is possible to divide the principal tone into
+     halves, then the appoggiatura receives one-half the value of
+     the printed note. (Fig. 50.)
+
+     (2) When the principal note is dotted (division into halves
+     being therefore not possible), the appoggiatura receives
+     two-thirds of the value. (Fig. 51.)
+
+     (3) When the principal note is tied to a note of smaller
+     denomination the appoggiatura receives the value of the first
+     of the two notes. (Fig. 52.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
+
+75. The _acciaccatura_ (or short appoggiatura) is written like the
+appoggiatura except that it has a light stroke across its stem.
+[Illustration] It has no definite duration-value, but is sounded as
+quickly as possible, taking its time from that of the principal tone.
+The appoggiatura is always accented, but the acciaccatura never is, the
+stress always falling on the melody tone. (See Grove, op. cit. Vol. I,
+p. 96.)
+
+     The use of embellishments is on the wane, and the student of
+     to-day needs the above information only to aid him in the
+     interpretation of music written in previous centuries. In the
+     early days of instrumental music it was necessary to introduce
+     graces of all sorts because the instruments in use were not
+     capable of sustaining tone for any length of time; but with
+     the advent of the modern piano with its comparatively great
+     sustaining power, and also with the advent in vocal music of a
+     new style of singing (German Lieder singing as contrasted with
+     Italian coloratura singing), ornamental tones were used less
+     and less, and when found now are usually written out in full
+     in the score instead of being indicated by signs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+SCALES
+
+
+76. A _scale_ (from _scala_, a Latin word meaning _ladder_; Ger.
+_Ton-leiter_) is an ascending or descending series of tones, progressing
+according to some definite system, and all bearing (in the case of
+tonality scales at least) a very intimate relation to the first
+tone--the _key-tone_ or _tonic_. (See p. 28, Sec. 78; also note 1 at
+bottom of p. 38.)
+
+     Many different kinds of scales have existed in various musical
+     eras, the point of resemblance among them all being the fact
+     that they have all more or less recognized the _octave_ as the
+     natural limit of the series. The difference among the various
+     scales has been in the selection of intervals between the
+     scale-tones, and, consequently, in the number of tones within
+     the octave. Thus _e.g._, in our major scale the intervals
+     between the tones are all whole-steps except two (which are
+     half-steps), and the result is a scale of _eight_ tones
+     (including in this number both the key-tone and its octave):
+     but in the so-called _pentatonic_ scale of the Chinese and
+     other older civilizations we find larger intervals (_e.g._,
+     the step-and-a-half), and consequently a smaller number of
+     tones within the octave. Thus in the scale upon which many of
+     the older Scotch folk songs are based the intervals are
+     arranged as follows:
+
+     1  whole  2  whole  3  step-and-  4  whole  5  step-and-  6
+        step      step      a-half        step      a-half
+
+     The result is a scale of six tones, corresponding
+     approximately with C--D--E--G--A--C in our modern system.
+
+     The term _pentatonic_ is thus seen to be a misnomer since the
+     sixth tone is necessary for the completion of the series, just
+     as the eighth tone is essential in our diatonic scales.
+
+     The following Chinese tune (called "Jasmine") is based on the
+     pentatonic scale.
+
+     [Illustration]
+
+77. In studying the theory of the scale the student should bear in mind
+the fact that a scale is not an arbitrary series of tones which some one
+has invented, and which others are required to make use of. It is rather
+the result of accustoming the ear to certain melodic combinations (which
+were originally hit upon by accident), and finally analyzing and
+systematizing these combinations into a certain definite order or
+arrangement. The application of this idea may be verified when it is
+recalled that most primitive peoples have invented melodies of some
+sort, but that only in modern times, and particularly since the
+development of instrumental music, have these melodies been analyzed,
+and the scale upon which they have been based, discovered, the inventors
+of the melodies being themselves wholly ignorant of the existence of
+such scales.
+
+78. A _key_ is a number of tones grouping themselves naturally (both
+melodically and harmonically) about a central tone--the key tone. The
+word _tonality_ is often used synonymously with _key_ in this sense.
+
+     The difference between _key_ and _scale_ is therefore this,
+     that while both _key_ and _scale_ employ the same tone
+     material, by _key_ we mean the material in general, without
+     any particular order or arrangement in mind, while by _scale_
+     we mean the same tones, but now arranged into a regular
+     ascending or descending series. It should be noted in this
+     connection also that not all scales present an equally good
+     opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality
+     or key-feeling: neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale
+     possess the necessary characteristics for being used as
+     tonality scales in the same sense that our major and minor
+     scales are so used.
+
+79. There are _three general classes of scales_ extant at the present
+time, viz.: (1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.[13]
+
+[Footnote 13: If strictly logical terminology is to be insisted upon the
+whole-tone scale should be called the "whole-step" scale.]
+
+80. The word _diatonic_ means "through the tones" (_i.e._, through the
+tones of the key), and is applied to both major and minor scales of our
+modern tonality system. In general a diatonic scale may be defined as
+one which proceeds by half-steps and whole-steps. There is, however, one
+exception to this principle, viz., in the progression six to seven in
+the harmonic minor scale, which is of course a step-and-a-half. (See p.
+33, Sec. 86.)
+
+81. A _major diatonic scale_ is one in which the intervals between the
+tones are arranged as follows:
+
+1  whole  2  whole  3  half  4  whole  5  whole  6  whole  7  half  8
+   step      step      step     step      step      step      step
+
+In other words, a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals
+between three and four, and between seven and eight are half-steps, all
+the others being whole-steps. A composition based on this scale is said
+to be written in the major mode, or in a major key. The major diatonic
+scale may begin on any one of the twelve pitches C, C[sharp] or D[flat],
+D, D[sharp] or E[flat], E, F, F[sharp] or G[flat], G, G[sharp] or
+A[flat], A, A[sharp] or B[flat], B, but in each case it is the same
+scale because the intervals between its tones are the same. We have then
+one major scale only, but this scale may be written in many different
+positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of
+different pitches.
+
+82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two
+identical series of four tones each; _i.e._, the first four tones of the
+scale are separated from one another by exactly the same intervals and
+these intervals appear in exactly the same order as in the case of the
+last four tones of the scale. Fig. 53 will make this clear. The first
+four tones of any diatonic scale (major or minor) are often referred to
+as the _lower tetrachord_[14] and the upper four tones as the _upper
+tetrachord_.
+
+[Footnote 14: The word _tetrachord_ means literally "four strings" and
+refers to the primitive instrument, the four strings of which were so
+tuned that the lowest and the highest tones produced were a perfect
+fourth apart. With the Greeks the tetrachord was the unit of analysis as
+the octave is with us to-day, and all Greek scales are capable of
+division into two tetrachords, the arrangement of the intervals between
+the tones in each tetrachord differentiating one scale from another, but
+the tetrachords themselves always consisting of groups of four tones,
+the highest being a perfect fourth above the lowest.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
+
+It is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of any
+_sharp_ scale is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of
+the next major scale involving sharps, while the lower tetrachord of any
+_flat_ scale is used as the upper tetrachord of the next flat scale. See
+Figs. 54 and 55.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.]
+
+83. From the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written
+in fifteen different positions, as follows:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning
+on F[sharp] and G[flat] call for the same keys on the piano, _i.e._,
+while the notation is different, the actual tones of the scale are the
+same. The scales of C[sharp] and D[flat] likewise employ the same tones.
+When two scales thus employ the same tones but differ in notation they
+are said to be _enharmonic_, (cf. p. 38, Sec. 93.)
+
+     _Note_.--The student is advised to adopt some uniform method
+     of writing scales, preferably the one followed in those given
+     above, the necessary sharps and flats appearing before the
+     notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the end
+     as a signature. He is also advised to repeat these scales and
+     signatures over and over until absolute familiarity is
+     attained. _E.g._, E--F[sharp]--G[sharp]--A--B--C[sharp]--D[sharp]--E;
+     signature, four sharps, F, C, G, and D.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SCALES (_Continued_)
+
+
+84. The _minor diatonic scale_ is used in several slightly different
+forms, but the characteristic interval between the first and third tones
+(which differentiates it from the major scale) remains the same in every
+case. This interval between the first and third tones consists of four
+half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale
+and this difference in size has given rise to the designation _major_
+for the scale having the larger third, and _minor_ for the scale having
+the smaller one.
+
+85. _The original (or primitive) form_ of the minor scale has its tones
+arranged as follows.
+
+1  whole  2  half  3  whole  4  whole  5  half  6  whole  7  whole  8
+   step      step     step      step     step     step      step
+
+As its name implies, this is the oldest of the three forms (being
+derived from the old Greek Aeolian scale), but because of the absence of
+a "leading tone" it is suitable for the simplest one-part music only,
+and is therefore little used at present.
+
+86. _The harmonic minor scale_ is like the primitive form except that it
+substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the
+older (_i.e._, the primitive) form. This change was made because the
+development of writing music in several parts (particularly _harmonic_
+part-writing) made necessary a "leading tone," _i.e._, a tone with a
+strong tendency to move on up to the key-tone as a closing point. In
+order to secure a tone with such a strongly upward tendency the
+interval between _seven_ and _eight_ had to be reduced in size to a
+half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of
+the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and
+seventh tones of the scale.
+
+1  whole  2  half  3  whole  4  whole  5  half  6  step and  7  half 8
+   step      step     step      step      step      a half      step
+
+87. _The melodic minor scale_ substitutes a tone one half-step higher
+than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change
+is made in the ascending scale only, the descending scale being like the
+primitive form. The higher sixth (commonly referred to as the "raised
+sixth") was used to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a
+step-and-a-half[15] (augmented second), while the return to the
+primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too
+much like the tonic major scale.
+
+[Footnote 15: The step-and-a-half (augmented second) is "unmelodic"
+because it is the same size as a _minor third_ and the mind finds it
+difficult to take in as a _second_ (notes representing it being on
+adjacent staff-degrees) an interval of the same size as a third.]
+
+1  whole  2  half  3  whole  4  whole  5  whole  6  whole  7  half  8
+   step      step     step      step      step      step      step
+
+          7  whole  6  half  5  whole  4  whole  3  half  2  whole  1
+             step      step     step      step      step     step
+
+This form is used only to a very limited extent, and then principally in
+vocal music, the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of
+the augmented second.
+
+88. The minor scale in its various positions (up to five sharps and five
+flats) and in all three forms follows: a composition based on any one of
+these forms (or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to
+be _in the minor mode_. It will be noted that the first four tones are
+alike in all three forms; _i.e._, the lower tetrachord in the minor
+scale is invariable no matter, what may happen to the upper tetrachord.
+The sign + marks the step-and-a-half.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+     _Note._--The student is advised to recite the _harmonic form_
+     of the minor scale as was suggested in the case of the major
+     scale, noting that the "raised seventh" does not affect the
+     key-signature. _E.g._,--E--F[sharp]--G--A--B--C--D[sharp]--E;
+     signature, one sharp, F.
+
+89. A minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to
+be its _relative minor_. _E.g._,--e is the relative minor of G, c of
+E[flat], d of F, etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor
+key or scale, while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale
+unless accompanied by the word _minor_. Relative keys are therefore
+defined as those having the same signature. G and e are relative keys,
+as are also A and f[sharp], etc.
+
+90. A minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is
+referred to as its _tonic minor_. Thus, _e.g._, c with three flats in
+its signature is the tonic minor of C with all degrees in natural
+condition; e with one sharp is the tonic minor of E with four sharps,
+etc. Tonic keys are therefore those having the same key-tone.
+
+91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major and minor) are
+often referred to by specific names, as follows:
+
+     1. _Tonic_--the tone. (This refers to the fact that the tonic
+     is the principal tone, or generating tone of the key, _i.e._,
+     it is _the_ tone.)
+
+     2. _Super-tonic_--above the tone.
+
+     3. _Mediant_--midway between tonic and dominant.
+
+     4. _Sub-dominant_--the under dominant. (This name does not
+     refer to the position of the tone under the dominant but to
+     the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant
+     tone--the under dominant--just as the fifth above is the upper
+     dominant).
+
+     5. _Dominant_--the governing tone. (From the Latin word
+     _dominus_ meaning _master_.)
+
+     6. _Super-dominant_--above the dominant. Or
+     _Sub-mediant_--midway between tonic and sub-dominant.
+
+     7. _Leading tone_--the tone which demands resolution to the
+     tonic (one-half step above it).
+
+     8. _Octave_--the eighth tone.
+
+92. The syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales
+in teaching sight-singing are as follows:[16]
+
+[Footnote 16: These syllables are said to have been derived originally
+from the initial syllables of the "Hymn to Saint John," the music of
+which was a typical Gregorian chant. The application of these syllables
+to the scale tones will be made clear by reference to this hymn as given
+below. It will be observed that this hymn provided syllables only for
+the six tones of the _hexachord_ then recognized; when the octave scale
+was adopted (early in the sixteenth century) the initial letters of the
+last line (s and i) were combined into a syllable for the seventh tone.
+
+[Illustration: _Ut_ que-ant lax-is _Re_-so-na-re fi-bris _Mi_-ra
+ges-to-rum _Fa_-mu-li tu-o-rum _Sol_-ve pol-lu-ti _La_-bi-i re-a-tum
+Sanc-te Jo-han-nes.]]
+
+Major--DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI, DO.
+
+Minor[17]--original--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA.
+           harmonic--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SI, LA.
+           melodic--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI, SI, LA,
+             SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA.
+
+[Footnote 17: A considerable number of teachers (particularly those who
+did not learn to sing by syllable in childhood) object to calling the
+tonic of the minor scale _la_, insisting that both major and minor tonic
+should be called _do_. According to this plan the syllables used in
+singing the harmonic minor scale would be: DO, RE, ME, FA, SOL, LE, TI,
+DO.
+
+There is no particular basis for this theory, for although all scales
+must of course begin with the key-tone or tonic, this tonic may be
+referred to by any syllable which will serve as a basis for an
+association process enabling one to feel the force of the tone as a
+closing point--a _home tone_. Thus in the Dorian mode the tonic would be
+RE, in the Phrygian, MI, etc.]
+
+     It is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and
+     pronunciation that have occurred (and are still occurring) in
+     these syllables. The first one (ut) was changed to _DO_ as
+     early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of
+     producing a good singing tone on _ut_. For the same reason and
+     also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the
+     same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fa system (invented in
+     England about 1812 and systematized about 1850) changed SI to
+     TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by
+     teachers of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate
+     tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables (DOH, LAH,
+     etc.), has not, however, been favorably received in this
+     country and the tendency seems to be toward still further
+     simplification rather than toward elaboration. It is probable
+     that further changes in both spelling and pronunciation will
+     be made in the near future, one such change that seems
+     especially desirable being some other syllable than RE for the
+     second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable
+     may be reserved for "flat-two," thus providing a uniform
+     vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending
+     chromatic scale, as is already the case in the ascending form.
+
+93. The _chromatic scale_[18] is one which proceeds always by
+half-steps. Its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what
+tone it begins. Since, however, we have (from the standpoint of the
+piano keyboard) five pairs of tones[19] which are enharmonically the
+same, it may readily be seen that the chromatic scale might be notated
+in all sorts of fashions, and this is in fact the real status of the
+matter, there being no one method uniformly agreed upon by composers.
+
+[Footnote 18: The student should differentiate between the so-called
+"tonality" scales like the major and minor, the tones of which are
+actually used as a basis for "key-feeling" with the familiar experience
+of coming home to the tonic after a melodic or harmonic excursion, and
+on the other hand the purely artificial and mechanical construction of
+the chromatic scale.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Many other enharmonic notations are possible, altho the
+"five pairs of tones" above referred to are the most common. Thus
+E[sharp] and F are enharmonically the same, as are also C[flat] and B,
+C[sharp] and B[double-sharp], etc.]
+
+     Parry (Grove's Dictionary, article _chromatic_) recommends
+     writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in
+     chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage
+     occurs. Thus, taking C as a type, "the first accidental will
+     be D[flat], as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic;
+     the next will be E[flat], the minor third of the key; the next
+     F[sharp], the major third of the super-tonic--all of which can
+     occur without causing modulation--and the remaining two will
+     be A[flat] and B[flat], the minor sixth and seventh of the
+     key." According to this plan the chromatic scale beginning
+     with C would be spelled--C, D[flat], D, E[flat], E, F,
+     F[sharp], G, A[flat], A, B[flat], B, C--the form being the
+     same both ascending and descending. This is of course written
+     exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of
+     such a form is its definiteness.
+
+94. For _sight-singing purposes_ the chromatic scale[20] is usually
+written by representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps,
+(in some cases naturals and double-sharps), and the intermediate tones
+in descending by flats (sometimes naturals and double-flats). The
+chromatic scale in nine different positions, written from this
+standpoint, follows, and the syllables most commonly applied in
+sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales the student
+of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common practice of
+modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys, the intermediate tones
+[sharp]4 and [flat]7 are quite universally used in both ascending and
+descending melody passages. In other words the scales that follow would
+more nearly represent actual usage if in each case [sharp]4 (FI) were
+substituted for [flat]5 (SE) in the descending scale; and if [flat]7
+(TE) were substituted for [sharp]6 (LI) in the ascending form.
+
+[Footnote 20: The word _chromatic_ means literally _colored_ and was
+first applied to the intermediate tones because by using them the singer
+could get smoother and more diversely-shaded progressions, _i.e._, could
+get more _color_ than by using only the diatonic tones. Composers were
+not long discovering the peculiar value of these additional tones and
+soon found that these same tones were exceedingly valuable also in
+modulating, hence the two uses of intermediate tones at the present
+time--first, to embellish a melody; second, to modulate to another key.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+     _Note._--In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing
+     standpoint the student is urged to adopt a three-step process;
+     first, writing the major diatonic scale both ascending and
+     descending; second, marking the half-steps; third, inserting
+     accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the
+     above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been
+     represented by black note-heads so as to differentiate them
+     from the notes representing diatonic scale tones.
+
+95. The _whole-step scale_ (the third type mentioned in Sec. 79) is, as
+its name implies, a scale in which the intervals between the tones
+consist in every instance of whole-steps. This reduces the number of
+tones in the scale to seven. Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D, E,
+F[sharp] or G[flat], A[flat], B[flat], C. This scale has been used
+somewhat extensively by the ultramodern French school of composition
+represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any
+progress toward universal adoption. The remarks of a recent English
+writer[21] on this subject may be interesting to the student who is
+puzzled by the apparent present-day tendencies of French music. He says:
+
+     "The student of some interesting modern developments will also
+     speedily discover that the adoption of the so-called
+     whole-tone scale as a basis of music is, except upon a keyed
+     instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament,
+     unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument
+     can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave
+     which is in tune with the starting note, unless he
+     deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters
+     it while playing it. The obvious result of the application of
+     the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would
+     be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the
+     pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of
+     tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the
+     pure scale would be distorted and destroyed, unless string
+     players were to face the practically impossible drudgery of
+     studying both the equal temperament and the pure scale from
+     the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's
+     notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the
+     scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads
+     founded upon ignorance of it. It is a curious commentary upon
+     this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third act of
+     _Tristan_ (bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone
+     scale and drew his pen through it, as was to be expected from
+     a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the
+     pure scale inbred in him."
+
+[Footnote 21: Stanford--Musical Composition (1911) p. 17.]
+
+There may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether
+Mr. Stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the
+difference between "tempered" and "pure" scales,[22] but even so, there
+is a far more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never
+become popular as the major and minor scales now are, viz., the fact
+that it offers no possibility of _inculcating tonality feeling_, which
+has always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music. Tonality
+scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of contraction and
+relaxation--an active tone (or chord) followed by a passive one, but no
+such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it seems suitable
+therefore only for that class of music whose outlines are _purposely
+intended to be_ vague and indefinite--the impressionistic style of music
+writing.
+
+[Footnote 22: Recent tests in Germany seem to prove conclusively that
+the _tempered_ scale is the scale ordinarily employed by both vocalists
+and players on stringed instruments, and that the ideal of and agitation
+for a _pure_ (_i.e._, _untempered_) scale in vocal and in string music
+is somewhat of a myth.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+AUXILIARY WORDS AND ENDINGS
+
+
+96. Being a list of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and
+endings, often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical
+effects.
+
+_A_--preposition--variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards.
+  _A cappella_--in church style.
+  _A capriccio_--at the fancy of the performer.
+  _A deux mains_--for two hands.
+  _A mezza voce_--with half voice.
+
+_A la_, or _alla_--in the manner of. _Alla marcia_--in the style of a
+march.
+
+_Assai_--very, or very much. _Allegro assai_--very fast.
+
+_Ben_--well. _Ben marcato_--well marked.
+
+_Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collo_--with, or with the.
+  _Con amore_--with tenderness.
+  _Colla voce_--with the voice.
+
+_Come_--as, like. _Come primo_--as at first.
+
+_Contra_--against. In compound words means "an octave below."
+
+_Da_--from. _Da Capo_--from the head.
+
+_Di_--by, with, of, for. _Di bravura_--with daring.
+
+_Di molto_--exceedingly--very much. _Allegro di molto_--exceedingly
+rapid.
+
+_Doppio_--double. _Doppio movimento_--double movement.
+
+_E, ed, et_--and. _Cresc. et accel._--louder and faster.
+
+_Ensemble_--together, the opposite of solo.
+
+_Il, La, l', le_--the. _Il basso_--the bass. _L'istesso tempo_--the same
+speed.
+
+_Il piu_--the most. _Il piu forte possible_--as loudly as possible.
+
+_Issimo_--Italian superlative ending. _Forte_--_fortissimo_.
+
+_Ino, etto_--Italian diminutive endings. _Andante_--_andantino_.
+_Poco_--_pochetto_.
+
+_Meno_--less. _Meno forte_--less loud.
+
+_Mente_--the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb.
+_Largo largamente_.
+
+_Mezzo_ or _mezza_--half, or medium. _Mezzo forte_--medium loud.
+
+_Molto_--much, or very much. _Molto cresc._--very much louder.
+
+_Nel, nella, etc._--in the, or at the. _Nel battere_--at the down beat.
+
+_Non_--not. _Non tanto_--not too much.
+
+_Ossia_--or else. _Ossia piu facile_--or else more easily.
+
+_Per_--for. _Per il violino_--for the violin.
+
+_Peu_--little. _Un peu cresc._--a little increase in tone.
+
+_Piu_--more. _Piu forte_--more loudly.
+
+_Poco_--little. _Poco a poco_--little by little.
+
+_Poi_--then. _E poi la coda_--and then the coda.
+
+_Possibile_--possible. _Forte possibile_--as loudly as possible.
+[Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "possible" for Italian
+"possibile".]
+
+_Quasi_--in the manner of. _Allegro quasi andante_--a fairly rapid
+movement, yet in the style of an andante; almost as slow as an andante.
+
+_Sans_--without. _Sans pedales_--without pedals.
+
+_Sempre_--always, or continually. _Sempre forte_--a long passage to be
+played forte throughout its entirety.
+
+_Senza_--without. _Senza accompagnamento_--without accompaniment.
+
+_Sino, sin_--as far as. See p. 14, note.
+
+_Solo_--alone. Opposite of ensemble.
+
+_Sub_--under or lower. _Sub-dominant_--the under dominant.
+
+_Tanto_--same as _troppo_, q.v.
+
+_Tre_--three. _Tre corde_--three strings.
+
+_Tres_--very. _Tres vivement_--very lively.
+
+_Troppo_--too much. _Non tanto allegro_, or _non troppo allegro_--not
+too fast.
+
+_Una, un, uno_--one, or a. _Una corda_--one string. _Un peu_--a little.
+
+A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student
+greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping
+to look up each individual one.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MEASURE
+
+
+97. From the standpoint of the eye, a _measure_ is that portion of the
+staff found between two bars, (in certain cases this space may be less
+than a measure, as _e.g._, at the beginning and end of a movement); but
+from the standpoint of the ear a single, isolated measure is not
+possible, and the term must therefore be defined in the plural form.
+
+_Measures_ are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each
+group having at least one accented and one non-accented beat. The
+strongest accent falls normally on the first beat in the measure.
+
+Two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical
+measure:
+
+(1) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always
+actually sounded, one or more of these beats being stronger than the
+rest;
+
+(2) Certain rhythmic figures ([Illustration], etc.) which form the
+actual musical content of these groups.
+
+     The student will note the essential difference between rhythm
+     and measure. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a
+     series of beats (or pulses), while measure is the grouping of
+     these beats according to some specified system. In listening
+     to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel the _rhythm_
+     equally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats
+     into--_one_, two | _one_, two |--etc., while B feels the
+     groups as--_one_, two, _three_, four | _one_, two, _three_,
+     four |--etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing,
+     inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain
+     extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have
+     adopted for practical purposes.
+
+98. In _syncopation_ the normal system of accenting is temporarily
+suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part
+of the measure. Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary
+interruption of a normal series of accents, _i.e._, accenting a beat
+that is usually not accented. Thus _e.g._, in Fig. 56, measure _one_ has
+the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure,
+(strong accent on one, secondary accent on three); but measure _three_
+has only one accent, and it falls on the second beat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
+
+99. Measures are usually classified as _simple_ and _compound_. A
+_simple measure_ is one which has but a single accent, _i.e._, the
+measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups. There are two
+main classes of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat
+measure. A _compound measure_ is (as its name implies) one made up by
+combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single
+measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups. The principal
+compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as
+compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and
+twelve-beat measures are also classified as compound measures.
+
+     An English writer[23] classifies measures as duple, triple, or
+     quadruple, specifying that a simple measure is one in which
+     each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided
+     into halves ([Illustration] etc.) and that a compound measure
+     is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note,
+     whose value can be divided into three parts, ([Illustration]).
+     There is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as
+     to the meaning of the words _simple_ and _compound_ when
+     applied in this connection, the principal question at issue
+     being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety, or
+     whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures,
+     either by placing two of these in a group or by the
+     elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats,
+     as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way
+     out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true--but
+     in different compositions. That is, it is frequently
+     impossible to tell whether a composition that is being
+     listened to is in two-beat, or in four-beat measure; and yet
+     it _is_ sometimes possible so to discriminate. Since, however,
+     one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between
+     two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to
+     leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat
+     measure as a compound variety.
+
+[Footnote 23: Pearse--Rudiments of Musical Knowledge, p. 37.]
+
+100. The _commonest varieties of measure_ are:
+
+     1. _Duple_ (sometimes called even measure, or even time), in
+     which there are two beats, the first one being accented.
+     Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,[24]
+     two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively.
+
+     [Footnote 24: For explanation of terminology, see p. 48, Sec.
+     106.]
+
+     2. _Triple_, (the old perfect measure), in which there are
+     three beats, the first one being accented, the second and
+     third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2, three-eighth,
+     three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively.
+
+     3. _Quadruple_, in which there are four beats, the first and
+     third being accented (primary accent on _one_, secondary
+     accent on _three_), the second and fourth unaccented. (See
+     note above, under Sec. 99.)
+
+     4. _Sextuple_, in which there are six beats, the first and
+     fourth being accented, the others not. In rapid tempi this is
+     always taken as compound duple measure, a dotted quarter note
+     having a beat. It will be noted that the two measures
+     [Illustration] are identical in effect with [Illustration].
+
+101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but
+these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures
+respectively, being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is
+thought of as a triplet. [Illustration] is identical in effect with
+[Illustration].
+
+102. _Quintuple_ (five-beat) and _septuple_ (seven-beat) measures are
+occasionally met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic.
+The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of
+two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition),
+while the seven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three, or
+of three and four.
+
+103. The sign [common-time symbol] is usually understood to mean
+four-quarter measure, and the sign [cut-time symbol], two-half measure,
+but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes used to
+indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the sign
+[cut-time symbol] always indicates that a half-note has a beat. [Double
+cut-time symbol] may occasionally be found indicating four-half measure
+but this is rare.
+
+     The student will note that the sign [common-time symbol] is
+     not a _letter_ C, but an incomplete circle, differentiating
+     two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect)
+     measure. See Appendix A, p. 106. [Transcriber's Note: page
+     number missing in original.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+TEMPO
+
+
+104. The word _time_ in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused,
+having been used to indicate:
+
+     (1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong."
+
+     (2) Variety of measure-signature; as "two-four time."
+
+     (3) Rate of speed; as "the time was too slow."
+
+To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and
+inexact use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certain
+_changes in terminology_ as noted in Sections 105, 106, and 107. Such
+changes may cause some confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if
+our musical terminology is to be at all exact.
+
+105. The _first of the changes_ mentioned in the above paragraph is to
+substitute the word _rhythm_ for the word _time_ when correcting
+mistakes involving misplaced accent, etc. _E.g._, "Your _rhythm_ in the
+third measure of the lower score was wrong," instead of "Your
+_time_--was wrong."
+
+106. The _second change_ mentioned would eliminate such blind and
+misleading expressions as "two-four time," "three-four time," "four-four
+time," "six-eight time," etc., and substitute therefor such
+self-explanatory designations as "two-quarter measure," "three-quarter
+measure," "four-quarter measure," "six-eighth measure," etc. _E.g._,
+"The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is in
+_four-quarter measure_."
+
+107. The _third change_ referred to above would substitute the word
+_tempo_ (plural--_tempi_) for the word _time_ in all allusions to rate
+of speed. _E.g._, "The scherzo was played in very rapid _tempo_."
+
+     The word _tempo_ has been used in this connection so long by
+     professional musicians that there can be no possible objection
+     to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there
+     is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in
+     all countries where modern music (_i.e._, civilized music) is
+     performed, and just here is found the principal reason for the
+     popularity of the Italian language in musical terminology.
+     Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried
+     to break down this popularity by using their own respective
+     vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications, but in
+     spite of these attempts the Italian language is still quite
+     universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so, for if
+     we are to have a _music notation_ that is universal, so that
+     an American is able to play music written by a Frenchman or a
+     German, or a Russian, then we ought also to have a certain
+     number of expressions referring to tempo, etc., which will be
+     understood by all, _i.e._, a music terminology that is
+     universal. The Italian language was the first in the field, is
+     the most universally known in this particular at the present
+     time, and is entirely adequate. It should therefore be
+     retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto.
+
+108. There are several _ways of finding the correct tempo_ of a
+composition:
+
+     1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of
+     many compositions. Thus _e.g._, the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's
+     Metronome 92) means that if the metronome (either Maelzel's or
+     some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at
+     the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they
+     will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at
+     which the beats (or pulses) should follow one another. This is
+     undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in
+     spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes[25] and of the
+     mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving
+     metronomic indications.
+
+     [Footnote 25: To test the accuracy of a metronome, set the
+     weight at 60 and see if it beats seconds. If it gives more
+     than 62 or 63 or less than 57 or 58 clicks per minute it will
+     not be of much service in giving correct tempi and should be
+     taken to a jeweller to be regulated.]
+
+     2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is
+     to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that
+     "feels right" for that particular piece of music. This is
+     perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is
+     open only to the musician of long experience, sure judgment,
+     and sound scholarship.
+
+     3. A third method of finding tempi is through the
+     interpretation of certain words used quite universally by
+     composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the
+     general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method
+     is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same
+     word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of
+     speed can be indicated, and in the last analysis the conductor
+     or performer must fall back on the second method cited
+     above--_i.e._, individual judgment.
+
+109. In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions
+relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful
+in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer's mind as he
+conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of
+the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is
+absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in
+groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:
+
+     1. _Grave_ (lit. weighty, serious), _larghissimo_,
+     _adagissimo_, and _lentissimo_--indicating the very slowest
+     tempo used in rendering music.
+
+     2. _Largo_,[26] _adagio_,[27] and _lento_--indicating quite a
+     slow tempo.
+
+     [Footnote 26: Largo, larghetto, etc., are derivatives of the
+     Latin word _largus_, meaning large, broad.]
+
+     [Footnote 27: Adagio means literally at ease.]
+
+     3. _Larghetto_ (_i.e._, _a little largo_) and _adagietto_ (_a
+     little adagio_)--a slow tempo, but not quite so slow as
+     _largo_, etc.
+
+     4. _Andante_ (going, or walking, as contrasted with running)
+     and _andantino_--indicating a moderately slow tempo.
+
+     _Andantino_ is now quite universally taken slightly faster
+     than _andante_, in spite of the fact that if _andante_ means
+     "going," and if "_ino_" is the diminutive ending, then
+     _andantino_ means "going less," _i.e._, more slowly!
+
+     5. _Moderato_--a moderate tempo.
+
+     6. _Allegro_ and _allegretto_[28]--a moderately quick tempo,
+     _allegretto_ being usually interpreted as meaning a tempo
+     somewhat slower than _allegro_.
+
+     [Footnote 28: There has been some difference of opinion as to
+     which of these two terms indicates the more rapid tempo: an
+     analysis tells us that if _allegro_ means quick, and if _etto_
+     is the diminutive ending, then _allegretto_ means a little
+     quick--_i.e._, slower than _allegro_. These two terms are,
+     however, so closely allied in meaning that a dispute over the
+     matter is a mere waste of breath.]
+
+     The word _allegro_ means literally happy, joyous, and this
+     literal meaning is still _sometimes_ applicable, but in the
+     majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed.
+
+     7. _Vivo_, _vivace_, (lit. lively)--a tempo between _allegro_
+     and _presto_.
+
+     8. _Presto_, _prestissimo_, _vivacissimo_, and _prestissimo
+     possibile_--the most rapid tempo possible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+TEMPO (_Continued_)
+
+
+110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined in Sec. 109 with one
+another and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with
+their approximate meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression
+not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms
+defined in paragraph 109 and recalling the use of certain auxiliary
+terms quoted in Chapter IX.
+
+     _Largo assai_--very slow.
+
+     _Largo di molto_--very slow.
+
+     _Largo ma non troppo_--slow, but not too slow.
+
+     _Largo un poco_--slow, but not so slow as _largo_. (_Cf.
+     larghetto_.)
+
+     _Lentemente_--slowly.
+
+     _Lentando_--with increasing slowness.
+
+     _Tres lentement_--very slowly.
+
+     _Lentissamente_--very slowly.
+
+     _Lentissamamente_--very slowly.
+
+     _Lento assai_--very slowly.
+
+     _Lento a capriccio_--slowly but capriciously.
+
+     _Lento di molto_--very slowly.
+
+     _Andante affettuoso_--moderately slow, and with tenderness and
+     pathos. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "affetuoso" in
+     original.]
+
+     _Andante amabile_--moderately slow, and lovingly.
+
+     _Andante cantabile_--moderately slow, and in singing style.
+
+     _Andante grazioso_--moderately slow, and gracefully.
+
+     _Andante maestoso_--moderately slow, and majestically.
+
+     _Andante con moto_--slightly faster than _andante_.
+
+     _Andante (ma) non troppo_--not too slowly.
+
+     _Andante pastorale_--moderately slow, and in simple and
+     unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral).
+
+     _Andante quasi allegro_--almost as rapid in tempo as
+     _allegro_; (lit. an _andante_ in the style of _allegro_).
+
+     _Andante sostenuto_--moderately slow and sustained.
+
+     _Allegrissimo_--much faster than _allegro_. (The superlative
+     degree of _allegro_.)
+
+     _Allegro agitato_--a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated
+     style.
+
+     _Allegro appassionata_--a moderately rapid tempo, and in
+     passionate style.
+
+     _Allegro assai_ (very _allegro_)--faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro commodo_--a conveniently rapid tempo.
+
+     _Allegro con brio_--an _allegro_ played in brilliant style.
+     Faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro con fuoco_--an _allegro_ played with fire, _i.e._,
+     with extreme animation. Faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro con spirito_--an _allegro_ performed with spirit.
+
+     _Allegro con moto_--faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro di bravura_--an _allegro_ performed in brilliant
+     style, _i.e._, demanding great skill in execution.
+
+     _Allegro furioso_ (furiously)--quicker than _allegro_; very
+     brilliant.
+
+     _Allegro giusto_--an _allegro_ movement, but in exact rhythm.
+
+     _Allegro ma grazioso_--an _allegro_ played in graceful style.
+
+     _Allegro (ma) non tanto_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too
+     rapid.
+
+     _Allegro (ma) non troppo_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too
+     rapid.
+
+     _Allegro (ma) non presto_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too
+     rapid.
+
+     _Allegro moderato_--slower than _allegro_.
+
+     _Allegro vivace_--faster than _allegro_.
+
+     _Presto assai_--as rapidly as possible.
+
+     _Presto (ma) non troppo_--a _presto_ movement, but not too
+     rapid.
+
+111. There are certain _terms which indicate a modification of the
+normal tempo_ of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a)
+those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those
+which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions
+of these two classes are shown below.
+
+(_a_) Terms indicating a slower tempo.
+
+     1. Terms indicating a _gradual_ retard.
+
+     _Ritenente_, (_rit._), _ritenuto_ (_rit._), _ritardando_
+     (_rit._), _rallentando_ (_rall._), _slentando_.
+
+     2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely
+     slower _at once_.
+
+     _Piu lento_ (lit. more slowly), _meno mosso_ (lit. less
+     movement).
+
+     3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase
+     in power.
+
+     _Largando_, _allargando._ These words are both derived from
+     _largo_, meaning large, broad.
+
+(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see page 59,
+Sec. 127.)
+
+     The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2
+     as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each
+     measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little
+     slower than the preceding one, while such terms as _piu lento_
+     and _meno mosso_ indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly
+     slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some
+     composers (_e.g._, Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had
+     this same distinction in mind between _rallentando_ and
+     _ritardando_ on the one hand, and _ritenuto_ and _ritenente_
+     on the other, considering the former (_rall._ and _rit._) to
+     indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter
+     (_ritenuto_ and _ritenente_) to indicate a definitely slower
+     rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate
+     between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be
+     worth while for the student to try to remember the
+     distinction.
+
+(_b_) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.
+
+     1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.
+
+     _Accelerando_, _affrettando_ [Transcriber's Note: Corrected
+     misspelling "affretando" in original] (this term implies some
+     degree of excitement also), _stringendo_, _poco a poco
+     animato_.
+
+     2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely
+     faster at once.
+
+     _Piu allegro_, _piu tosto_, _piu mosso_, _stretto_, _un poco
+     animato_.
+
+112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been
+suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some
+such expression as _a tempo_ (lit. in time), _a tempo primo_ (lit. in
+the first time), _tempo primo_, or _tempo_.
+
+113. _Tempo rubato_ (or _a tempo rubato_) means literally _in robbed
+time_, _i.e._, duration taken from one measure or beat and given to
+another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to
+any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the
+score.
+
+The terms _ad libitum_, (_ad lib._), _a piacere_, and _a capriccio_,
+also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer.
+_Ad libitum_ means at liberty; _a piacere_, at pleasure; and _a
+capriccio_, at the caprice (of the performer).
+
+114. The term _tempo giusto_ is the opposite of _tempo rubato_ (and of
+the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally _in exact
+time_. (_Tempo giusto_ is sometimes translated _quite rapidly_,[29] but
+this is very unusual.)
+
+[Footnote 29: Bussler--Elements of Notation and Harmony, p. 76.]
+
+115. _L'istesso tempo_ means--at the same rate of speed. _E.g._, when a
+measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note
+from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried
+through the entire movement.
+
+116. _Tenuto_ (_ten._) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to
+its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to
+show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used
+merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone--_i.e._, to give it its
+full value.
+
+117. _Veloce_ means--swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages
+(_e.g._, cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without
+much regard for measure rhythm. The words _rapidamente_, _brillante_ and
+_volante_ (flying) have the same meaning as _veloce_.
+
+118. The following _expressions referring to tempo_ are also in common
+use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already
+defined.
+
+     _Con moto_--with motion; _i.e._, not too slow.
+
+     _Pesante_--slowly, heavily.
+
+     _Doppio movimento_--twice as rapid as before.
+
+     _Tempo ordinario_--in ordinary tempo.
+
+     _Tempo commodo_--in convenient tempo.
+
+     _Sempre lento malinconico assai_--always slowly and in a very
+     melancholy style.
+
+     _Animando_, _animato_, _con anima_--with animation.
+
+     _Agitato_--agitated.
+
+119. _Tempo di marcia_ is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783)
+as equivalent to _andante_, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives _tempo di
+menuetto_ as equivalent to _allegretto_, and _tempo di valso_ as
+equivalent to _allegro moderato_ (which he regards as indicating a more
+rapid tempo than _allegretto_).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+DYNAMICS
+
+
+120. The word _dynamics_ (cf. dynamic--the opposite of static) as used
+in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power
+(_i.e._, the comparative loudness and softness) of tones.
+
+As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to
+_dynamics_ are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to
+indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not
+possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be.
+Thus _dynamics_, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on
+the taste of the performer or conductor.
+
+The following _words referring to dynamics_ are in common use:
+
+     _Pianisissimo_ (_ppp_)--as softly as possible. (It will be
+     noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative of _piano_.)
+
+     _Pianissimo_ (_pp_)--very softly. (The superlative of
+     _piano_.)
+
+     _Piano_ (_p_)--softly.
+
+     _Mezzo piano_ (_mp_)--medium softly.
+
+     _Mezzo forte_ (_mf_)--medium loudly.
+
+     _Forte_ (_f_)--loudly (lit. strong).
+
+     _Fortissimo_ (_ff_)--very loudly. (The superlative of
+     _forte_.)
+
+     _Fortisissimo_ (_fff_)--as loudly as possible.
+
+     The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both
+     _piano_ and _forte_ seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative
+     degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even
+     five _p_'s or _f_'s is not desirable.
+
+121. The terms defined in Sec. 120 are often combined with others, as
+_e.g._,
+
+     _Pianissimo possibile_--as softly as possible.
+
+     _Piano assai_--very softly.
+
+     _Fortissimo possibile_--as loudly as possible.
+
+     _Forte piano_ (_fp_)--loud, followed at once by soft.
+
+As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other
+expressions relating to _dynamics_ may easily be arrived at by recalling
+the list of auxiliary terms quoted under Sec. 96.
+
+122. The terms _sforzando_, _forzando_, _sforzato_ and _forzato_ all
+indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are
+abbreviated as follows:--_sf_,_fz_, and _sfz_, the abbreviation being
+placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The
+signs [vertical accent symbol] and [horizontal accent symbol] are also
+commonly used to indicate such an accent.
+
+     In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in
+     mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an
+     absolute meaning: the mark _sf_ occurring in the midst of a
+     _piano_ passage will indicate a much milder form of accent
+     than would the same mark occurring in the midst of a _forte_
+     passage.
+
+123. The words _rinforzando_ and _rinforzato_ (abb.--_rinf._ and _rfz._)
+mean literally _reinforced_, and are used to indicate a sudden increase
+in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of
+applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of _sforzando_,
+etc.
+
+124. _Crescendo_ (abb.--_cresc._ or [crescendo symbol]) means a gradual
+increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not mean _loud_,
+nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some
+auxiliary term such as _subito_, or _molto_.
+
+Broadly speaking there are _two varieties of crescendo_: (1) that in
+which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that
+in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the
+preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving
+forth a tone which can be varied _after it begins_. Thus _e.g._, the
+human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain
+wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and
+gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has
+been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box,
+kettle drum, etc., the power of the tone cannot be varied after the
+tone has once been sounded, and a _crescendo_ effect is therefore
+possible only in a _passage_, in rendering which each succeeding tone is
+struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety
+of _crescendo_ offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed
+most strikingly, as _e.g._, when a long passage begins very softly and
+increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the
+instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an
+effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements
+of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony.
+
+     The difference between _sforzando_, _rinforzando_, and
+     _crescendo_ should now be noted: _sforzando_ indicates that a
+     single tone or chord is to be louder; _rinforzando_, that an
+     entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone;
+     but _crescendo_ indicates that there is to be a gradual
+     increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during
+     the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage.
+
+125. Certain _combinations of the word crescendo_ with other words are
+so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are:
+
+     _Crescendo al fortissimo_--keep on gradually increasing in
+     power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been
+     reached.
+
+     _Crescendo subito_--increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).
+
+     _Crescendo poco a poco_--increase in power very, very
+     gradually.
+
+     _Crescendo poi diminuendo_--first increase, then diminish the
+     tone.
+
+     _Crescendo e diminuendo_--same as _cresc. poi dim._
+
+     _Crescendo molto_--increase in power very greatly.
+
+     _Crescendo ed animando poco a poco_--growing gradually louder
+     in tone and quicker in _tempo_.
+
+     _Crescendo ed affrettando_--gradually louder and faster.
+     [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "affretando" in
+     original.]
+
+     _Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine_--crescendo gradually even
+     up to the very end.
+
+126. _Decrescendo_ (_decresc._ or [decrescendo symbol]) means a gradual
+diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite of _crescendo_. The word
+_diminuendo_ is synonymous with _decrescendo_.
+
+_Decrescendo_ (or _diminuendo_) _al pianissimo_ means--decrease
+gradually in power until the _pianissimo_ (or very soft) point is
+reached.
+
+127. A number of _terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo_
+are in use. The most common of these are:--_mancando_, _moriente_,[30]
+_morendo_, _perdendo_ (from _perdere_--to lose), _perdendosi_,
+_calando_, and _smorzando_.[31] Such expressions are usually
+translated--"gradually dying away."
+
+[Footnote 30: Both _moriente_ and _morendo_ mean literally--_dying_.]
+
+[Footnote 31: From _smorzare_ (It.)--to extinguish.]
+
+128. In piano music the abbreviation _Ped._ indicates that the damper
+pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the sign [damper
+release symbol] shows that it is to be released. In many modern editions
+this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately
+indicated by the sign [damper symbol].
+
+     The term _senza sordini_ is also occasionally found in old
+     editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed,
+     while _con sordini_ shows that it is to be released. These
+     expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed
+     instruments, in which the term _con sordini_ means that the
+     mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be
+     affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both
+     power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does
+     not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed
+     instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes
+     occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even
+     though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier
+     sonatas.
+
+129. The words _una corda_ (lit.--one string) indicate that the "soft
+pedal" (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the words _tre
+corde_ (lit. three strings) or _tutte le corde_ (all the strings) show
+that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the
+fact that on grand pianos the "soft pedal" when depressed moves the
+hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they
+strike only two (in the older pianos only one, hence _una corda_), all
+three strings (_tre corde_) being struck again after the release of the
+pedal.
+
+130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject
+of dynamics are:
+
+     _Con alcuna licenza_--with some degree of license.
+
+     _Con amore_--with tenderness.
+
+     _Con bravura_--with boldness.
+
+     _Con celerita_--with rapidity.
+
+     _Con delicato_--with delicacy.
+
+     _Con energico_--with energy.
+
+     _Con espressione_--with expression.
+
+     _Con forza_--with force.
+
+     _Con fuoco_--with fire and passion.
+
+     _Con grand' espressione_--with great expression.
+
+     _Con grazia_--with grace.
+
+     _Con melinconia_--with melancholy. [Transcriber's Note:
+     archaic form of "malinconia".]
+
+     _Con passione_--with passion.
+
+     _Con spirito_--with spirit.
+
+     _Con tenerezza_--with tenderness.
+
+     _Delicato_--delicately.
+
+     _Dolce_--sweetly, gently.
+
+     _Dolcissimo_--most sweetly.
+
+     _Dolce e cantabile_--gently and with singing tone.
+
+     _Dolente_  }
+     _Doloroso_ } plaintively or sorrowfully.
+
+     _Espressivo_--expressively.
+
+     _Grandioso_--grandly, pompously.
+
+     _Grazioso_--gracefully.
+
+     _Giocoso_--humorously, (cf. jocose).
+
+     _Giojoso_--joyfully, (cf. joyous).
+
+     _Lacrimando_, _lacrimoso_--sorrowfully.
+
+     _Legato_--smoothly.
+
+     _Leggiero_--lightly.
+
+     _Leggierissimo_--most lightly; almost a staccato.
+
+     _Lusingando_--caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly.
+
+     _Maesta_, _maestoso_--majestically.
+
+     _Martellando_, _martellato_--strongly accented,
+     (lit.--hammered).
+
+     _Marziale_--martial--war-like.
+
+     _Mesto_--pensively.
+
+     _Mezzo voce_--with half voice.
+
+     _Misterioso_--mysteriously.
+
+     _Parlando_--well accented or enunciated; applied to melody
+     playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.)
+
+     _Pastorale_--in simple and unaffected style, (lit.--pastoral,
+     rural).
+
+     _Pomposo_--pompously.
+
+     _Precipitoso_--precipitously.
+
+     _Recitativo_--well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in
+     instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the
+     accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, see p.
+     78.)
+
+     _Risoluto_--firmly, resolutely.
+
+     _Scherzando_, _scherzoso_, etc.--jokingly. These terms are
+     derived from the word _scherzo_ meaning _a musical joke_.
+
+     _Semplice_--simply.
+
+     _Sempre marcatissimo_--always well marked, _i.e._, strongly
+     accented.
+
+     _Sentimento_--with sentiment.
+
+     _Solenne_--solemn.
+
+     _Sotto voce_--in subdued voice.
+
+     _Spiritoso_--with spirit.
+
+     _Strepitoso_--precipitously.
+
+     _Tranquillo_--tranquilly.
+
+     _Tristamente_--sadly.
+
+131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem
+to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thus
+_e.g._, _crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando_,
+is seen to mean merely--"increase gradually to _forte_ and accelerate a
+very little bit." A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly
+in the interpretation of such expressions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES
+
+
+132. A _form_ in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of
+a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is
+easily recognized by the ear. Thus _e.g._, although every fugue is
+different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement
+of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the
+_fugue form_ has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is
+hearing whenever a fugue is played. The word _form_ is therefore seen to
+be somewhat synonymous with the word _plan_ as used in architecture; it
+is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the
+canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc.
+
+     Speaking broadly we may say that _form_ in any art consists in
+     the placing together of certain parts in such relations of
+     proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music
+     this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect,
+     as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the
+     work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one
+     whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer.
+
+133. The primal _basis of form_ is the repetition of some characteristic
+effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these
+repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the
+same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is
+accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by
+introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key.
+
+134. The student should note at the outset of this topic the _difference
+in meaning between_ the terms _form_ and _style_: A _form_ is a plan
+for building a certain definite kind of composition, but a _style_ is
+merely a manner of writing. Thus _e.g._, the _fugue_ is a
+_form_--_i.e._, it is a plan, which although capable of variation in
+details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; but
+_counterpoint_ is merely a _style_ or manner of writing (just as Gothic
+architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of
+several _forms_.
+
+135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to
+explain in simple language certain terms relating to _forms_ and
+_styles_ which are in common use; in many cases the definition is too
+meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that
+the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually
+be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The
+article "Form" and the separate articles under each term here defined,
+as found in Grove's Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples
+of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette--"The
+Appreciation of Music," Supplementary Volume.)
+
+136. In a very general way there may be said to be _two styles of
+musical composition_, the monophonic (or homophonic)--the
+one-voiced--and the polyphonic--the many voiced. The polyphonic[32]
+style antedates the monophonic historically.
+
+[Footnote 32: Polyphonic music flourished from 1000 A.D. to about 1750
+A.D., the culmination of the polyphonic period being reached in the
+music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven,
+and the later writers have used the monophonic style more than the
+polyphonic, although a combination of the two is often found, as _e.g._,
+in the later works of Beethoven.]
+
+137. In _monophonic music_ there is one voice which has a pronounced
+melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a
+harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the
+ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three
+other voices forming a "four-part harmony." The sonata, symphony, opera,
+modern piano piece, etc., are also largely _monophonic_, though
+polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found.
+
+138. In _polyphonic music_ each voice is to a certain extent melodically
+interesting, and the "harmony" is the result of combining several
+melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating
+a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint,
+canon, round, fugue, etc., are all _polyphonic_ in style. The word
+_contrapuntal_ is often used synonymously with _polyphonic_.
+
+     (Sections 139 to 143 relate especially to terms describing
+     polyphonic music.)
+
+139. _Counterpoint_ is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies
+to a given melody, the latter being known as the "cantus firmus," or
+subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as "the art of combining
+melodies."
+
+     The word _counterpoint_ comes from the three words "_punctus
+     contra punctum_," meaning "point against point." The word
+     point as here used refers to the _punctus_--one of the neumae
+     of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate
+     predecessors of modern notes.
+
+     Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in
+     contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part
+     "inventions" by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental
+     counterpoint, while such choruses as those in "The Messiah" by
+     Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint.
+
+140. _Imitation_ is the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme
+previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the
+term _strict imitation_ is applied, but if only approximate, then the
+term _free imitation_ is used in referring to it. The repetition need
+not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be _strict_; on
+the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a
+fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in
+which the _third_ part comes in an octave _lower_ than the first part.
+
+141. A _canon_ is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict
+imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another
+part has played or sung. The term "canonic style" is sometimes applied
+to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part
+canon is given in Fig. 57.
+
+[Illustration: CANON IN THREE VOICES, IN THE UNISON AND OCTAVE
+
+Fig. 57. MOZART]
+
+     The word _canon_ means _law_, and was applied to this
+     particular form of composition because the rules relating to
+     its composition were invariable. It is because of this
+     non-flexibility that the _canon_ is so little used as a form
+     at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of
+     writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as
+     to give him room for the exercise of his own particular
+     individuality of conception, and this the _canon_ does not do.
+     For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have
+     successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the
+     present time composers have as it were created their own
+     forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that
+     no one but the composer himself could recognize the form _as_
+     a form because it had not been adopted to a great enough
+     extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal.
+     The result is that in much present-day music it is very
+     difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar
+     design, and the impression made by such music is in
+     consequence much less definite than that made by music of the
+     classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state
+     of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is
+     necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of
+     structure to make the art work capable of standing as a
+     universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression
+     of some particular composer or of some period of composition.
+
+142. The common _school round_ is an example of canon, each voice
+repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice
+is going on with its melody. The _round_ is therefore defined as a
+variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the
+subject.
+
+143. The _fugue_ (Latin, _fuga_ = flight) is a form of contrapuntal
+composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key,
+_i.e._, a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called "the
+answer") may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called
+"the question"), but is usually not so.
+
+     The _fugue_ differs from the canon also in that the subject is
+     given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the
+     canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going
+     on. The _fugue_ is not nearly so strict in form as the canon
+     and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing
+     musical ideas. A canon may be perfect in _form_ and yet be
+     very poor music; this same statement might of course be made
+     about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES (_Continued_)
+
+
+     (Sections 144 to 160 relate particularly to terms used in
+     descriptions of _monophonic_ music[33].)
+
+[Footnote 33: There is a very pronounced disagreement among theorists as
+to what terms are to be used in referring to certain forms and parts of
+forms and it seems impossible to make a compromise that will satisfy
+even a reasonable number. In order to make the material in this chapter
+consistent with itself therefore it has been thought best by the author
+to follow the terminology of some single recognized work on form, and
+the general plan of monophonic form here given is therefore that of the
+volume called _Musical Form_, by Bussler-Cornell.]
+
+144. A _phrase_ is a short musical thought (at least two measures in
+length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The
+typical _phrase_ is four measures long. The two-measure _phrase_ is
+often called _section_. The word _phrase_ as used in music terminology
+corresponds with the same word as used in language study.
+
+145. A _period_ is a little piece of music typically eight measures
+long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined
+divisions of a larger form. The _period_ (when complete in itself) is
+the smallest monophonic form.
+
+The essential characteristic of the _regular period_ is the fact that it
+usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called _antecedent_ and
+_consequent_ or _thesis_ and _antithesis_), the first phrase giving rise
+to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key,
+deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of
+completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.
+
+     The second half of the period is sometimes a literal
+     repetition of the first half, in all respects except the
+     cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one
+     of the elements--rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs.
+     58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost
+     invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes)
+     the more obvious the form of the period, while the more
+     complex the music, the less regular the period.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. MOZART]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. SCHUBERT]
+
+146. The _primary forms_ are built up by combining two or more periods.
+
+The _small two-part primary form_ (often called _song-form_ or
+_Lied-form_) consists of two periods so placed that the second
+constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of
+this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the
+first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity.
+The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven)
+quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are
+"Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes," and "The Last Rose of Summer."
+
+[Illustration: BEETHOVEN]
+
+The _small three-part primary form_ is like the two-part primary form
+except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated
+between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure
+phrase.
+
+The _large two- and three-part primary forms_ usually have
+sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise
+similar in construction.
+
+     These various _primary forms_ are used in constructing many
+     varieties of compositions, among them the _theme and
+     variations_, the _polka_, the _waltz_, the _march_, etc., as
+     well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets,
+     etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be
+     regular here because the form of vocal music is largely
+     dependent upon the structure of the text.
+
+147. A _theme_ is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue,
+as the basis of the development section in "sonata form," etc. Sometimes
+it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are
+made, as _e.g._, in the familiar _theme and variations_.
+
+148. _Thematic development_ consists in taking a short theme (or several
+short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and
+contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality
+changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a
+composition. Fig. 60 _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, and _f_ show how the theme
+given in Fig. 60 (_a_) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are
+hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied
+without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic
+development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, No. 3, as
+analyzed in Appendix E. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Sec. 3" in
+original.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
+
+     For further illustrations of development in the case of this
+     same theme, see--Christiani--The Principles of Expression in
+     Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing
+     themes have been adapted.
+
+149. A _rondo_ is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in
+which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same
+form (_i.e._, not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme
+being separated by contrasting material.
+
+The _rondo_ is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been
+used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic
+construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in
+dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first
+subject again; (6) second subject, in _tonic key_; (7) coda (or ending).
+
+The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and
+contrast (mentioned in Sec. 134) as here worked out, as the rondo was
+the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily
+solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is
+readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of
+all--the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of
+sonatas or sonatinas.
+
+150. A _suite_ is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in
+nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an
+introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to
+secure contrast of movement--a quick dance being usually followed by a
+slower one.
+
+     The suite is interesting to students of the development of
+     music as being the first form _in several movements_ to be
+     generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity
+     from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the
+     eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata,
+     whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.
+
+The _suite_ was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord,
+clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvo[vr]ak, Lachner,
+Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.
+
+151. Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:
+
+     _Allemande_--duple or quadruple measure.
+
+     _Bolero_--triple measure.
+
+     _Bouree_--duple or quadruple measure.
+
+     _Chaconne_--triple measure.
+
+     _Courante_--a very old dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Csardas_--Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.
+
+     _Gavotte_--quadruple measure.
+
+     _Gigue_ (or _jig_)--duple measure.
+
+     _Habanera_--Spanish dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Minuet_--slow dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Mazurka_--Polish dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Polonaise_--Polish dance in triple measure.
+
+     _Rigaudon_--lively dance in duple or triple measure.
+
+     _Sarabande_--triple measure.
+
+     _Tarantella_--swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.
+
+The _allemande_ is especially interesting to students of music form
+because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the
+sonata-allegro (_i.e._, the first movement of the sonata). The
+_sarabande_ and _courante_ are likewise interesting as the prototypes of
+the second movement, and the _bouree_, _minuet_, etc., for their
+connection with the third movement.
+
+152. The _scherzo_ (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental
+composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the
+sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an
+independent piece.
+
+153. A _sonata_ is an instrumental composition of three or more
+movements (usually four), the first and last of which are almost always
+in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity
+of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a
+broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its
+name from the fact that its first movement is cast in _sonata-form_.
+(See Sec. 157 for description of sonata-form.)
+
+When the _sonata_ has four movements, these are usually arranged as
+follows:
+
+     1. A quick movement (_allegro_, _presto_, etc.), often
+     preceded by a slower introduction.
+
+     2. A slow movement (_largo_, _andante_, _adagio_, etc.).
+
+     3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case
+     the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is
+     played.
+
+     4. A quick movement--the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes
+     another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.
+
+These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of
+contrasting rhythms.
+
+154. A _trio_ is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin,
+and cello), while a _quartet_ is a sonata for four instruments, the most
+common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins,
+viola, and violoncello.
+
+The term _chamber music_ is often applied to instrumental music for
+trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are
+suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.
+
+     The words _trio_ and _quartet_ are also applied to vocal works
+     for three and four voices respectively, these having no
+     relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The word
+     _trio_ is also applied to the middle section of minuets,
+     scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage
+     of writing this part for three instruments only.
+
+155. A _concerto_ is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral
+accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt
+it to a composition in which there must necessarily be opportunity for
+a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements
+in the _concerto_.
+
+     The great majority of _concertos_ are for piano and orchestra,
+     but examples of concertos for violin, cello, flute, oboe, and
+     other solo instruments (all with orchestral accompaniment)
+     have also been written. A few modern composers have applied
+     the term _concerto_ to certain large organ works (with no
+     orchestral accompaniment, the composition being written for
+     just the one instrument), but this use of the word is so
+     contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly
+     justifiable.
+
+     When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra),
+     this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that
+     there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should
+     be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been
+     arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ).
+
+156. A _symphony_ is a sonata for full orchestra. In general its
+construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of
+much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal
+and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the
+highest type of instrumental music ever evolved.
+
+     The _symphony_ was accepted as a standard form in the time of
+     Haydn (1732-1809) and was developed enormously by Haydn
+     himself, Mozart (1756-1791), and Beethoven (1770-1827),
+     reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous "Nine
+     Symphonies" of the last-named composer. Later symphony writers
+     whose works are at present being performed include Schumann,
+     Tschaikowsky, and Dvo[vr]ak.
+
+The word _symphony_ was formerly used synonymously with _ritornelle_,
+both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of
+vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared.
+
+157. _Sonata-form_ (sometimes called _sonata-allegro_) is a plan for the
+construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies,
+etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third
+division being a more or less literal repetition of the first.
+
+     These _three parts of sonata-form_ with their usual
+     subdivisions are:
+
+     I. EXPOSITION
+
+        (1) Principal theme (or first subject).
+
+        (2) Link-episode (or modulation group).
+
+        (3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly
+            related key.
+
+        (4) Closing group.
+
+        (5) Coda.
+
+     II. DEVELOPMENT SECTION
+
+     Treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost
+     infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of
+     thematic development. (See Sec. 148).
+
+     III. RECAPITULATION (OR REPRISE)
+
+     Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in the
+     _exposition_, but differing from this first section in one
+     essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary
+     theme in a _related_ key, the entire recapitulation is in the
+     _principal_ key. This third section is always followed by a
+     coda (which may either be very short or quite extended),
+     bringing the whole movement to a more definite close.
+
+     The second part of _sonata-form_ (the development section) is
+     sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three
+     divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an
+     opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and
+     inventive skill. It is principally because of this development
+     section that the sonata is so far superior as a _form_ to its
+     predecessors. For an analyzed example of _sonata-form_, see
+     Appendix E. The student is advised to take other sonatas and
+     go through the first movements with a view to finding at least
+     the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the
+     form will of course be so irregular that all the parts
+     indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of
+     the scheme will always be present.
+
+158. A _sonatina_, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs
+from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development,
+the second section being of slight importance as compared with the
+corresponding section of a sonata.
+
+A _grand sonata_ is like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually
+large dimensions.
+
+159. _Program music_ is instrumental music which is supposed to convey
+to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in
+him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the
+composer's mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general
+idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a
+poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer,
+but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except
+the title of the composition.
+
+     _Program music_ represents a mean between _pure music_ (cf.
+     the piano sonata or the string quartet) on the one hand, and
+     _descriptive music_ (in which actual imitations of bird-calls,
+     whistles, the blowing of the wind, the galloping of horses,
+     the rolling of thunder, etc., occur), on the other. Most
+     program music is written for the orchestra, examples being
+     Liszt's "The Preludes," Strauss' "Till Eulenspiegel," etc.
+
+160. A _symphonic poem_ (or _tone poem_) is an orchestral composition of
+large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying
+the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often
+characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also
+examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the
+entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it
+occurs to the particular moods expressed by the _program_ at those
+points.
+
+     The _symphonic poem_ was invented by Liszt (1811-1886) and has
+     since been used extensively by Strauss, Saint-Saens and
+     others. It came into existence as a part of the general
+     movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata
+     successively to go out of fashion, viz., the tendency to
+     invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way,
+     but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in
+     his own individual way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+TERMS RELATING TO VOCAL MUSIC
+
+
+161. An _anthem_ is a sacred choral composition, usually based on
+Biblical or liturgical[34] words. It may or may not have an instrumental
+accompaniment, and is usually written in four parts, but may have five,
+six, eight, or more.
+
+[Footnote 34: A _liturgy_ is a prescribed form or method of conducting a
+religious service, and the parts sung in such a service (as _e.g._, the
+holy communion, baptism, etc.), are referred to as the _musical_
+liturgy.]
+
+     The word _anthem_ is derived from _antifona_ (or _antiphona_),
+     meaning a psalm or hymn sung responsively, _i.e._,
+     _antiphonally_, by two choirs, or by choir and congregation.
+
+A _full anthem_ is one containing no solo parts; a _solo anthem_ is one
+in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus, while a _verse
+anthem_ is one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for
+concerted solo voices (_i.e._, trios, quartets, etc.).
+
+162. _A capella_ (sometimes spelled _cappella_) or _alla capella music_
+is part-singing (either sacred or secular) without accompaniment.
+
+     This term means literally "in chapel style," and refers to the
+     fact that in the early days of the church all singing was
+     unaccompanied.
+
+163. _A motet_ is a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style. It
+has no solo parts, thus corresponding to the madrigal (q.v.) in secular
+music. The motet is intended for _a capella_ performance, but is often
+given with organ accompaniment.
+
+164. A _choral_ is a hymn-tune of the German Protestant Church. It is
+usually harmonized in four voices. The _choral_ (sometimes spelled
+_chorale_) is described as having "a plain melody, a strong harmony, and
+a stately rhythm." It differs from the ordinary English and American
+hymn-tune in being usually sung at a much slower tempo, and in having a
+pause at the end of each line of text.
+
+165. The _mass_ is the liturgy for the celebration of the Lord's Supper
+in the service of the Roman Catholic Church. As used in the terminology
+of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when
+a composer writes a musical _mass_, and which form the basis of the
+celebration of the Communion.[35] These six hymns are as follows:
+
+[Footnote 35: It should be understood that this statement refers to the
+service called "the high mass" only, there being no music at all in
+connection with the so-called "low mass."]
+
+     _Kyrie._
+
+     _Gloria_ (including the _Gratias agimus_, _Qui tollis_,
+     _Quoniam_, _Cum Sancto Spirito_).
+
+     _Credo_ (including the _Et Incarnatus_, _Crucifixus_, and _Et
+     Resurrexit_).
+
+     _Sanctus_ (including the _Hosanna_).
+
+     _Benedictus._
+
+     _Agnus Dei_ (including the _Dona nobis_).
+
+     The _requiem mass_ is the "mass for the dead" and differs
+     considerably from the ordinary mass. Both regular and requiem
+     _masses_ have been written by many of the great composers
+     (Bach, Beethoven, Verdi, Gounod), and in many cases these
+     _masses_ are so complex that they are not practicable for the
+     actual service of the Church, and are therefore performed only
+     by large choral societies, as concert works.
+
+166. A _cantata_ is a vocal composition for chorus and soloists, the
+text being either sacred or secular. The accompaniment may be written
+for piano, organ, or orchestra.
+
+     When sacred in character the _cantata_ differs from the
+     oratorio in being shorter and less dramatic, in not usually
+     having definite characters, and in being written for church
+     use, while the oratorio is intended for concert performance.
+
+     When secular in subject the _cantata_ differs from the opera
+     in not usually having definite characters, and in being always
+     rendered without scenery or action.
+
+     Examples of the _sacred cantata_ are: Stainer's "The
+     Crucifixion," Clough-Leighter's "The Righteous Branch," and
+     Gaul's "The Holy City." Examples of the _secular cantata_ are:
+     Bruch's "Armenius," Coleridge-Taylor's "Hiawatha."
+
+167. An _oratorio_ is a composition on a large scale for chorus,
+soloists, and orchestra, the text usually dealing with some religious
+subject. The _oratorio_, as noted above, is not intended for the church
+service, but is written for concert performance.
+
+168. An _opera_ is a composition for vocal soloists, chorus, and
+orchestra, with characters, action, scenery, and dramatic movement. It
+is a drama set to music.
+
+     _Grand opera_ is opera with a serious plot, in which
+     everything is sung, there being no spoken dialog at all.
+
+     _Opera comique_ is a species of opera in which part of the
+     dialog is spoken and part sung. _Opera comique_ is not
+     synonymous with _comic opera_, for the plot of opera comique
+     is as often serious as not. In fact the entire distinction
+     between the terms _grand opera_ and _opera comique_ is being
+     broken down, the latter term referring merely to operas first
+     given at the Opera Comique in Paris, and the former term to
+     those given at the Grand Opera House in the same city.
+
+     A _comic opera_ is a humorous opera, the plot providing many
+     amusing situations and the whole ending happily. It
+     corresponds with the _comedy_ in literature.
+
+     A _light opera_ is one with an exceedingly trivial plot, in
+     which songs, dances, and pretty scenery contribute to the
+     amusement of the audience. The music is lively, but usually as
+     trivial as the plot.
+
+     The term _music drama_ was used by Wagner in referring to his
+     own _operas_, and is also sometimes applied to other modern
+     _operas_ in which the dramatic element is supposed to
+     predominate over the musical.
+
+169. A _libretto_ (lit.--little book) is the word-text of an opera,
+oratorio, cantata, or some other similar work.
+
+170. _Recitative_ is a style of vocal solo common to operas, oratorios,
+and cantatas, especially those written some time ago. Its main
+characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance, both
+rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by
+musical considerations.
+
+     _Recitative_ undoubtedly originated in the intoning of the
+     priest in the ritualistic service of the Church, but when
+     applied to the opera it became an important means of securing
+     dramatic effects, especially in situations in which the action
+     of the play moved along rapidly. _Recitative_ is thus seen to
+     be a species of musical declamation.
+
+     In the early examples of _recitative_ there was scarcely any
+     accompaniment, often only one instrument (like the cello)
+     being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody: when full
+     chords were played they were not written out in the score, but
+     were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain
+     signs and figures. (See "thorough-bass," p. 85, Sec. 200.)
+
+     But about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly
+     different style of _recitative_ was invented, and in this type
+     the orchestra was employed much more freely in the
+     accompaniment, especially in the parts between the phrases of
+     the text, but to some extent also to support the voice while
+     singing. This new style was called _recitativo stromento_
+     (_i.e._, accompanied recitative), while the original type was
+     called _recitativo secco_ (_i.e._, dry recitative).
+
+     During the last century the style of _recitative_ has been
+     still further developed by Gluck and Wagner, both of whom used
+     the orchestra as an independent entity, with interesting
+     melodies, harmonies and rhythms all its own, while the vocal
+     part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment. But even in
+     this latest phase of _recitative_, it is the word-text that
+     decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part.
+     Fig. 61 shows an example of _dry recitative_, taken from "The
+     Messiah."
+
+     [Illustration: ALTO VOICE. Be-hold! a vir-gin shall con-ceive,
+     and bear a son, and shall call his name Em-man-u-el; God with
+     us.]
+
+171. _Aria_ is likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas, etc., but
+its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the
+recitative. In the _aria_ the word-text is usually entirely subordinate
+to the melody, and the latter is often very ornate, containing trills,
+runs, etc.
+
+The rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as
+"coloratura singing," but it should be noted that not all _arias_ are
+coloratura in style.
+
+     The familiar solos from The Messiah--"Rejoice Greatly," and
+     "The trumpet shall sound" are good examples of the aria style.
+
+172. A _lied_ (Ger. = song) is a vocal solo in which the text, the
+melody, and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the
+effect of the whole.
+
+     Strictly speaking the word _lied_ means "a poem to be sung,"
+     and this meaning will explain at once the difference between
+     the _lied_ on the one hand, and the Italian recitative and
+     aria on the other, for in the _lied_ the text is of great
+     importance, but the music is also interesting, while in the
+     recitative the text was important but the music very slight,
+     and in the aria the text was usually inconsequential while the
+     music held the center of interest.
+
+The most pronounced characteristic of the _lied_ is the fact that it
+usually portrays a single mood, sentiment, or picture, thus differing
+from the ballad, which is narrative in style. It will be noted that this
+"single mood, or sentiment, or picture" was originally conceived by the
+poet who wrote the word-text, and that the composer in writing music to
+this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet, and has
+then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more
+vivid that thought. This intensification of the poet's thought comes as
+often through the rhythm, harmony, and dynamics of the accompaniment as
+through the expressiveness of the voice part.
+
+     The style of song-writing in which each verse is sung to the
+     same tune is called the "strophe form," while that in which
+     each verse has a different melody is often referred to as the
+     "continuous" or "through-composed" form (Ger.
+     durch-componiert).
+
+173. A _ballad_ was originally a short, simple song, the words being in
+narrative style, _i.e._, the word-text telling a story. In the earlier
+_ballads_ each verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune
+(strophe form), but in the _art-ballad_ as developed by Loewe and others
+the continuous style of composition is employed, this giving the
+composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the
+events described by the poem. These later _ballads_ are in consequence
+neither "short" nor "simple" but compare in structure with the lied
+itself.
+
+174. A _folk-song_ is a short song sung by and usually originating among
+the common people. Its dominant characteristic is usually _simplicity_,
+this applying to word-text, melody, and accompaniment (if there is one).
+The text of the _folk-song_ is usually based on some event connected
+with ordinary life, but there are also many examples in which historical
+and legendary happenings are dealt with. Auld Lang Syne, and Comin' thru
+the Rye, are examples of _folk-songs_.
+
+     There has been some difference of opinion as to whether a
+     song, the composer of which is known, can ever constitute a
+     real _folk-song_: recent writers seem to be taking the
+     sensible view of the matter, viz.: that if a song has the
+     characteristics of a folk- rather than an art-song, and if it
+     remains popular for some time among the common people, then it
+     is just as much a _folk-song_ whether the composer happens to
+     be known or not.
+
+175. A _madrigal_ is a secular vocal composition having from three to
+eight parts. It is in contrapuntal style, like the motet, and is usually
+sung a capella.
+
+176. A _glee_ is a vocal composition in three or more parts, being
+usually more simple in style than the madrigal, and sometimes having
+more than one movement. The _glee_ may be either gay or sad in mood, and
+seems to be a composition peculiar to the English people.
+
+177. A _part-song_ is a composition for two or more voices, (usually
+four) to be sung a capella. It is written in monophonic rather than in
+polyphonic style, thus differing from the madrigal and glee. Morley's
+"Now is the Month of Maying" is an example of the _part-song_, as is
+also Sullivan's "O Hush Thee, My Baby." The term _part-song_ is often
+loosely applied to glees, madrigals, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+RHYTHM, MELODY, HARMONY AND INTERVALS
+
+
+178. The _four elements_ commonly attributed to music (in the order of
+their development) are: Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, and Timbre (or
+tone-color).
+
+179. _Rhythm_ is the regular recurrence of accent. In music it is more
+specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and
+non-accented beats (or pulses)--according to some specified
+measure-system. Since rhythm implies continuity, there must usually be
+at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm
+possible. (See p. 44, Sec. 97.)
+
+180. A _melody_ is a succession of single tones of various pitches so
+arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified, coherent, and
+pleasing to the ear.
+
+     The soprano part of hymn-tunes and other simple harmonized
+     compositions is often referred to as "the melody."
+
+181. _Harmony_ is the science of chord construction and combination.
+
+     The term _harmony_ refers to tones sounding simultaneously,
+     _i.e._, to _chords_, as differentiated from tones sounding
+     consecutively, as in melody. The word _harmony_ may therefore
+     be applied to any group of tones of different pitches sounded
+     as a chord, although specifically we usually refer to a
+     _succession_ of such chords when we speak of "harmony." It is
+     possible to use the same combination of tones in either melody
+     or harmony; in fact these two elements as applied to modern
+     music have developed together and the style of present-day
+     melody is directly based upon the development that has
+     recently taken place in harmonic construction.
+
+     _Harmony_ (as contrasted with _counterpoint_) first began to
+     be an important factor in music about 1600 A.D., _i.e._, at
+     the time when opera and oratorio came into existence, when
+     form was established, and when our modern major and minor
+     scales were adopted. Before this practically all music was
+     composed on a contrapuntal basis.
+
+182. _Timbre_ is that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to
+distinguish a tone produced by one instrument (or voice) from a tone
+produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument.
+
+     The word _timbre_ is synonymous with the terms _quality of
+     tone_, and _tone quality_ (Ger.--Klang-farbe), the excuse for
+     using it being that it expresses adequately in one word an
+     idea that in our language takes at least two: this excuse
+     would disappear (and incidentally a much-mispronounced word
+     would be eliminated) if the single word _quality_ were to be
+     adopted as the equivalent of _timbre_. Thus, _e.g._, the
+     soprano voice singing c' has a _quality_ different from the
+     contralto voice singing the same tone.
+
+     (The remainder of this chapter and all of Chapter XVIII deal
+     with terms commonly encountered in the study of _harmony_.
+     Courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales,
+     but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively
+     treated, this chapter will omit it, and will begin with the
+     next topic in harmony study, viz.--the interval.)
+
+183. An _interval_ is the relation of two tones with regard to pitch. If
+the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is an _harmonic
+interval_, but if sounded consecutively the result is a _melodic
+interval_. Fig. 62 represents the pitches f' and a' as a harmonic
+interval, while Fig. 63 represents the same pitches arranged as a
+melodic interval.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+184. In classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in
+mind:
+
+     (1) The _number name_ of the interval (third, fifth, sixth,
+     etc.), is derived from the order of letters as found in the
+     diatonic scale. Thus the interval C--E is a _third_ because E
+     is the third tone from C (counting C as one) in the diatonic
+     scale. C--G is a _fifth_ because G is the fifth tone above C
+     in the diatonic scale.
+
+     It should be noted however that the same _number-names_ apply
+     even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified
+     by sharps, flats, etc. Thus _e.g._, C--G[sharp] is still a
+     _fifth_, as are also C[sharp]--G[flat] and C[flat]--G[sharp].
+
+     (2) In determining the _specific_ name of any interval
+     (_perfect_ fifth, _major_ third, etc.), the half-step and
+     whole-step (often referred to respectively as _minor second_,
+     and _major second_) are used as units of measurement.
+
+     The _half-step_ is usually defined as "the smallest usable
+     interval between two tones." Thus, C--C[sharp] is a
+     _half-step_, as are also B--C, F--G[flat], etc.
+
+     A _whole-step_ consists of two half-steps. C--D is a
+     _whole-step_, as are also B[flat]--C, E--F[sharp],
+     F[sharp]--G[sharp], G[flat]--A[flat], etc.
+
+     The expressions _half-step_ and _whole-step_ are much to be
+     preferred to _half-tone_ and _whole-tone_, as being more clear
+     and definite. Thus _e.g._, the sentence "The two tones are a
+     _half-step_ apart" is much better than "The two tones are a
+     _half-tone_ apart."
+
+185. A _prime_ is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
+properly represented by the same degree of the staff.
+
+     A _perfect prime_ is one whose tones have the same pitch.
+     Middle C sounded by piano and violin at the same time would
+     offer an example.
+
+     An _augmented prime_ is one whose second tone is one half-step
+     higher than the first. Ex. C--C[sharp].
+
+186. A _second_ is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
+properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff. (The first line
+and first space are adjacent degrees, as are also the third line and
+fourth space.)
+
+     A _minor second_ is one comprising one half-step. Ex. B--C.
+
+     A _major second_ is one comprising two half-steps. Ex.
+     B--C[sharp].
+
+     An _augmented second_ is one comprising three half-steps. Ex.
+     F--G[sharp].
+
+187. A _third_ is an interval comprising two seconds.
+
+     A _diminished third_ has two minor seconds (_i.e._, two
+     half-steps). C--E[double-flat].
+
+     A _minor third_ has one minor and one major second (_i.e._,
+     three half-steps). C--E[flat].
+
+     A _major third_ has two major seconds (_i.e._, four
+     half-steps). C--E.
+
+188. _A fourth_ is an interval comprising three seconds.
+
+     A _diminished fourth_ has two minor and one major second.
+     C[sharp]--F.
+
+     A _perfect fourth_ has one minor and two major seconds. C--F.
+
+     An _augmented fourth_ (tritone) has three major seconds.
+     C--F[sharp].
+
+189. A _fifth_ is an interval comprising four seconds.
+
+     A _diminished fifth_ has two minor and two major seconds.
+     C--G[flat].
+
+     A _perfect fifth_ has one minor and three major seconds. C--G.
+
+     An _augmented fifth_ has four major seconds. C--G[sharp].
+
+190. A _sixth_ is an interval comprising five seconds.
+
+     A _minor sixth_ has two minor and three major seconds.
+     C--A[flat].
+
+     A _major sixth_ has one minor and four major seconds. C--A.
+
+     An _augmented sixth_ has five major seconds. C--A[sharp].
+
+191. A _seventh_ is an interval comprising six seconds.
+
+     A _diminished seventh_ has three minor and three major
+     seconds. C--B[double-flat].
+
+     A _minor seventh_ has two minor and four major seconds.
+     C--B[flat].
+
+     A _major seventh_ has one minor and five major seconds. C--B.
+
+192. An _octave_ is an interval comprising seven seconds.
+
+     A _diminished octave_ has three minor and four major seconds.
+     C--C[flat].
+
+     _A perfect octave_ has two minor and five major seconds. C--C.
+
+     An _augmented octave_ has one minor and six major seconds.
+     C--C[sharp].
+
+193. A _ninth_ is usually treated as a second, a _tenth_ as a third,
+etc. The interval of two octaves is often referred to as a _fifteenth_.
+
+194. If the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between
+each tone and the key-tone noted, it will be observed that the intervals
+are all either major or perfect. See Fig. 64.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.]
+
+In this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller
+than _major_ is always _minor_, while that next smaller than _perfect_
+or _minor_ is always _diminished_: but that the interval next larger
+than both _major_ and _perfect_ is _augmented_.
+
+195. An interval is said to be _inverted_ when the tone originally the
+upper becomes the lower. Thus C--E, a major third, inverted becomes
+E--C, a minor sixth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+CHORDS, CADENCES, ETC.
+
+
+196. A _chord_ is a combination of several tones sounding together and
+bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is the
+_triad_, which consists of a fundamental tone called the _root_, with
+the third and fifth above it. C--E--G is a triad, as are also D--F--A,
+F--A--C, and G--B--D.
+
+197. Triads are classified as _major_, _minor_, _diminished_, or
+_augmented_.
+
+     A _major triad_ has a major third and a perfect fifth, _i.e._,
+     it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex.
+     C--E--G.
+
+     A _minor triad_ has a minor third and a perfect fifth, _i.e._,
+     it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex.
+     C--E[flat]--G.
+
+     A _diminished triad_ has a minor third and a diminished fifth,
+     _i.e._, it is a minor third with another minor third on top of
+     it. Ex. C--E[flat]--G[flat].
+
+     An _augmented triad_ has a major third and an augmented fifth,
+     _i.e._, it is a major third with another major third on top of
+     it. Ex. C--E--G[sharp].
+
+198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V,
+are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the
+_common chords_. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to
+show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral
+(with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of
+the scale. Thus _e.g._, the large I shows that the triad on the first
+tone (in major) is a _major triad_, the small II shows that the triad
+on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this
+clear.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
+
+The triads in the minor scale are as follows:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+199. A triad is said to be _in fundamental position_ when its root is
+the lowest tone. It is said to be in the _first inversion_ when the
+_third_ is the lowest tone, and in the _second inversion_ when the fifth
+is the lowest tone. Thus _e.g._, in Fig. 66 the same chord (C--E--G) is
+arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position,
+at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
+
+200. When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to
+show what chord is to be played or written. Thus, _e.g._, the figure 6
+over a bass note means that the note given is the _third_ of a chord,
+the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note: _i.e._, the
+chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the
+figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is the _fifth_ of the chord,
+the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the
+note given; _i.e._, the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion.
+
+The use of these and other similar figures and signs is called _figured
+bass_ (or _thorough bass_) _notation_. An example of a _figured bass_ is
+given in Fig. 67.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
+
+     _Thorough bass notation_ was formerly used extensively in
+     writing accompaniments to vocal works, the accompanist having
+     to interpret the notes and signs given, and then to make up an
+     interesting accompaniment as he went along. Much of Handel's
+     music was written in this way, but in modern editions of these
+     works the chords have been printed in full and the signs
+     omitted.
+
+201. A _seventh chord_ consists of a fundamental tone with its third,
+fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. A _ninth chord_
+consists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth.
+
+202. A _cadence_ is the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers
+to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords.
+
+     The word _cadence_ is derived from _cadere_, a Latin word
+     meaning to _fall_, the reference being to the falling of the
+     voice (_i.e._, the dropping to the normal pitch) at the close
+     of a sentence.
+
+203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on
+I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V--I
+is called the _authentic cadence_.
+
+204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is
+that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is the
+_root_ of that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the
+cadence is called _perfect_[36] _authentic_, and when the third or
+fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is called
+_imperfect authentic_. Fig. 68 shows the chord G--B--D cadencing to
+C--E--G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called a _perfect
+authentic cadence_, but the last two (c) and (d) are _imperfect
+authentic_.
+
+[Footnote 36: Many theorists (including Durand in his monumental
+"Treatise on Harmony") consider the V--I cadence to be the only one
+which may legitimately be called _perfect_, but the majority of writers
+seem to take the view that either authentic or plagal cadence may be
+either perfect or imperfect, depending upon the soprano tone, as noted
+above.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
+
+205. A _plagal cadence_ is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by
+the sub-dominant chord (IV--I). The _plagal cadence_ (sometimes called
+the _church cadence_, or _amen cadence_), like the authentic, is
+described as being _perfect_ when the soprano of the tonic chord is the
+root of that chord, and _imperfect_ when the soprano of the final chord
+is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F--A--C
+cadencing to C--E--G in three ways. The first one (a) is called a
+_perfect plagal cadence_, the last two are _imperfect plagal_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
+
+206. A _half-cadence_ occurs when the dominant chord is used as the
+final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord.
+This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is
+not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in
+the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of the _half-cadence_ at the close
+of such a phrase.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. BACH]
+
+207. A _deceptive cadence_ is the progression of the dominant chord to
+some other chord than the tonic, the word _deceptive_ implying that the
+ear expects to hear V resolve to I and is deceived when it does not do
+so. The most common form of _deceptive cadence_ is that in which V (or
+V^7) resolves to VI. It is used to give variety, but as in the case of
+the half-cadence, is not available at the end of a composition. Fig. 71
+gives an example.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. WM. MATHER]
+
+208. A _sequence_ is a succession of similar harmonic progressions,
+these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part.
+See Fig. 72.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
+
+The word _sequence_ is also applied to a succession of similar melodic
+progressions, as in Fig. 73.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
+
+209. _Modulation_ is a change of key without any break in the continuity
+of chords or melody tones. _Harmonic modulations_ are usually effected
+through the medium of a chord, some or all of whose tones are common to
+both keys. Examples of both _harmonic_ and _melodic modulations_ are
+shown in Figs. 74 and 75.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
+
+The chord most frequently used in modulating is the _dominant seventh_,
+_i.e._, a seventh chord (see Sec. 201) on the dominant tone of the key.
+In the key of C this chord is G--B--D--F; in the key of D it is
+A--C[sharp]--E--G; in the key of A[flat] it is E[flat]--G--B[flat]--D[flat],
+etc.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.]
+
+210. A _suspension_ is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
+higher than the regular chord-tone, this temporary tone being later
+replaced by the regular chord-tone. See Fig. 76 (_a_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
+
+211. A _retardation_ is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
+lower than the regular tone, this tone (as in the case of the
+suspension) being later replaced by the regular chord tone. See Fig. 77
+(_a_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
+
+The "regular chord tone" to which both suspension and retardation
+resolve is called the _tone of resolution_.
+
+212. The _anticipation_ is a chord-tone introduced just before the rest
+of the chord to which it belongs is sounded. See Fig. 78 (_a_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.]
+
+213. A _pedal point_ (or _organ point_) is a tone sustained through a
+succession of harmonic progressions, to the chords of some of which it
+usually belongs. The term _pedal point_ originated in organ playing,
+(where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are
+playing a succession of harmonies), but as now used it may be applied to
+any kind of music. The dominant and tonic are the tones most often used
+in this way. See Fig. 79.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. SCHUMANN]
+
+214. When the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written
+close together (the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an
+octave apart), the term _close position_ is applied. But when the upper
+voices are not written close together, the term _open position_ is
+applied.
+
+215. By _transposition_ is meant playing, singing, or writing a piece of
+music in some other key than the original. Thus _e.g._, if a song
+written in the key of G is too high in range for a soloist, the
+accompanist sometimes _transposes_ it to a lower key (as F or E), thus
+causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when
+the same song was played in the original key.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+MISCELLANEOUS TERMS
+
+
+_A battuta_--with the beat; in strict rhythm. [Transcriber's Note:
+Corrected error "battua" in original.]
+
+_A quatre mains_--for four hands.
+
+_Accompagnamento_--the accompaniment.
+
+_All'unisono_--in unison.
+
+_Alla breve_--2/2 measure.
+
+     The term _alla breve_ is also sometimes used as a tempo
+     indication, to show a rate of speed so great that a half-note
+     has a beat, _i.e._, only two beats in a measure--hence twice as
+     fast as before.
+
+_Alla capella_--usually the same as a capella (see p. 76, Sec. 162) but
+sometimes _used_ in the same sense as _alla breve_.
+
+_Alla marcia_--in march style.
+
+_Alla zingara_--in gypsy style.
+
+_Alt_--see _in alt_.
+
+_Alto_--the lowest female voice. Range approximately g-e''.
+
+     The word _alto_ is derived from the Latin word _altus_, meaning
+     _high_, the term being formerly applied to the highest male
+     voice, which originally sang (and still does so in many male
+     choirs) the alto part.
+
+_Animato come sopra_--in animated style as above.
+
+_Antiphony_ (_antiphonal_)--the responsive singing of two choirs,
+usually one at either end of the church, or at either side of the
+chancel.
+
+_Arabesque_--an instrumental composition in light, somewhat fantastic
+style.
+
+     The term _arabesque_ is derived from the word _Arabian_, and
+     was originally applied to a style of decoration.
+
+_Arioso_--in the style of an air or song, _i.e._, a flowing, vocal
+style.
+
+_Attacca_--attack the next division without any pause.
+
+_Attacca subito_--same as _attacca_.
+
+_Attacca subito il seguente_--attack at once that which follows.
+[Transcriber's Note: In last 3 entries, corrected misspelling "attaca"
+in original.]
+
+_Attack_--the promptness or firmness with which a phrase is begun.
+
+_Bagpipe_--A Scotch instrument on which the tone is produced by a
+combination of bellows and reeds. Its characteristic effect is the
+continuous sounding of a low tone (sometimes several tones) while the
+melody is being played on the higher reeds.
+
+_Barcarole_ (or _barcarolle_)--a boat song. Also applied to a vocal or
+instrumental composition in the style of the gondolier's boat song.
+
+_Baritone_ (or _barytone_)--the male voice having a range between that
+of the tenor and that of the bass. Approximate range G-g'.
+
+_Bass_--the lowest male voice. Approximate range E-e'.
+
+_Basso_--same as _bass_.
+
+_Berceuse_--a cradle song.
+
+_Binary form_--a form in two parts.
+
+_Binary measure_--a measure having two beats.
+
+_Bis_--twice. Used to indicate a repetition. (Rare.)
+
+_Brace_--the sign used to join several staffs, showing that all tones
+represented on these staffs are to be performed together. The term is
+often used also in referring to the music written on staffs so joined;
+as--"Begin with the upper _brace_."
+
+_Broken chord_--a chord whose tones are not all sounded simultaneously,
+as _e.g._, in an accompaniment group.
+
+_Broken octave_--an octave whose tones are sounded one at a time instead
+of simultaneously.
+
+_Cacophony_--harsh, discordant, unpleasant, especially _incorrect_
+combinations of tones. The opposite of _euphony_.
+
+_Cadenza_--A brilliant passage, usually in an instrumental composition,
+introduced just before the close of a movement. The _cadenza_ was
+formerly improvised by the performer, (thus giving an opportunity of
+displaying his technical skill), but since Beethoven, composers have
+usually written their own _cadenzas_.
+
+_Cantabile_--in a singing style.
+
+_Cantando_--same as _cantabile_.
+
+_Canto_--the highest voice part; _i.e._, the soprano part.
+
+     Note the derivation of _canto_, _cantabile_, etc., from the
+     Latin word _cantus_, meaning a _song_.
+
+_Carol_--a hymn of joyful praise, usually sung in connection with Easter
+or Christmas festivities. The word _carol_ meant originally _a dance_,
+hence the _happy_ character of songs of this type.
+
+_Catch_--a round set to humorous words.
+
+_Chromatic_ (noun)--a term somewhat loosely applied to any tone not
+belonging to the key as indicated by the signature. Many teachers are
+replacing the word _chromatic_ in this sense with the term _intermediate
+tone_, this term being applicable whether the foreign tone is actually
+used for ornamental purposes as a _chromatic_, or to effect a
+modulation. Thus _e.g._, "F[sharp] is the _intermediate tone_ between F
+and G in the key of C."
+
+_Clavichord_--an instrument with keys, resembling the square piano in
+appearance. The tone was produced by forcing wedge-shaped pieces of
+metal against the strings, thus setting them in vibration. The
+_clavichord_ was one of the immediate predecessors of the piano, much of
+the music written by Bach being composed for it, although this music is
+now played on the modern piano.
+
+_Colla voce_--with the voice: _i.e._, play the accompaniment according
+to the soloist's performance rather than strictly according to the
+rhythm indicated in the score.
+
+_Colla parte_--same as _colla voce_.
+
+_Coloratura_--florid passages in singing. Also applied to the style of
+singing employed in rendering such passages. (See p. 76, Sec. 171.)
+
+_Consonance_--A combination of tones agreeable to the ear and requiring
+no resolution to other tone-combinations in order to give the effect of
+finality. The major triad C--E--G is an example of a consonant chord.
+
+_Contralto_--same as _alto_.
+
+_Con variazioni_--with variations.
+
+_Direct_--a sign ([direct symbol]) placed at the end of the last staff
+on a page, to indicate what the first note on the next page is going to
+be. This sign is now practically obsolete.
+
+_Dirge_--a funeral chant. The dirge is named from the first word of a
+chant used in the "office for the dead," which begins--_Dirige Domine,
+Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam_ (Direct, O Lord, My God, my way
+in Thy sight).
+
+_Discord_--an ugly, unharmonious combination of tones.
+
+_Dissonance_--a harmonic combination of tones giving rise to the feeling
+of incompleteness or unrest, and therefore requiring resolution to some
+other combination which has an agreeable or final feeling. (cf.
+consonance.) The diminished triad C--E[flat]--G[flat] is an example of a
+dissonant chord.
+
+_Divisi_--divided. An indication showing that the first violins, or the
+sopranos, or any other body of performers ordinarily sounding in unison
+are now to divide into two or more parts.
+
+_Duet_--a composition for two performers. (From the It. word
+_due_--two.)
+
+_Ecole_--a school or style of composition or performance.
+
+_Etude_--a study. Also an instrumental composition in the style of a
+study, but intended for artistic performance.
+
+_Euphony_--agreeable tone combinations; the opposite of cacophony. (From
+the Greek word meaning _well-sounding_.)
+
+_Facile_--easy.
+
+_Fanfare_--a trumpet call.
+
+_Fantasia_--An instrumental composition not based on any regular form.
+
+_Fiasco_--a complete failure or breakdown.
+
+     This use of the word _fiasco_ (which means in Italian a flask,
+     or bottle) is said to have reference to the bursting of a
+     bottle, the complete ruin of the bottle being compared with
+     the complete failure of a performance.
+
+_Gamut_--all the tones of a scale.
+
+_Glissando_--playing a scale on the keyboard by drawing the finger along
+over the keys, thus depressing them in very rapid succession. The word
+is derived from the French word _glisser_--to glide.
+
+_Harpsichord_--one of the immediate predecessors of the piano.
+
+_Humoresque_--a capricious, fantastic composition. (Cf. _fantasia_.)
+
+_Idyl_--a short, romantic piece of music in simple and unaffected style.
+
+_In alt_--pitches in the first octave above the treble staff. Thus
+_e.g._, "C in alt" is the C represented by the second added line above
+the treble staff.
+
+_In altissimo_--pitches in the octave above the _alt_ octave.
+
+_Instrumentation_--see _orchestration_.
+
+_Interlude_--a short movement between two larger movements.
+
+_Loco_--place; _i.e._, play as written. (See p. 15, Sec. 46.)
+
+_Lunga trillo_--a long trill.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+MISCELLANEOUS TERMS (_Continued_)
+
+
+_Lyric_--a short, song-like poem of simple character. Also applied to
+instrumental pieces of like character.
+
+_Maggiore_--major.
+
+_Marcato il canto_--the melody well marked; _i.e._, subdue the
+accompaniment so that the melody may stand out strongly.
+
+_Melos_--melody. This word _melos_ is also applied to the peculiar style
+of vocal solo found in Wagner's music dramas. See _recitative_ (p. 75,
+Sec. 170).
+
+_Mellifluous_--pleasing; pleasant sounding.
+
+_Menuetto, menuet_--same as _minuet_. (See p. 68, Sec. 151.)
+
+_Mezzo soprano_--a woman's voice of soprano quality, but of somewhat
+lower compass than the soprano voice. Range approximately b to g''.
+
+_Minore_--minor.
+
+_Nocturne_ (sometimes spelled _nocturn_, _notturna_, _nokturne_,
+etc.)--a night piece; a quiet, melodious, somewhat sentimental
+composition, usually for piano solo.
+
+_Nuance_--delicate shading; subtle variations in tempo and dynamics
+which make the rendition of music more expressive.
+
+_Obbligato_ (sometimes incorrectly spelled _obligato_)--an accessory
+melody accompanying harmonized music, (usually vocal music).
+
+     The word _obbligato_ (It. _bound_, or _obliged_) refers to the
+     fact that this is usually a melody of independent value, so
+     important that it cannot be omitted in a complete performance.
+
+_Offertory_ (sometimes spelled _offertoire_, or _offertorium_)--a piece
+of music played or sung during the taking up of the offering in the
+church service. The word is often applied by composers to any short,
+simple piece of music (usually for organ) that is suitable for the above
+purpose.
+
+_Opus_--work; used by composers to designate the order in which their
+compositions were written, as _e.g._, Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 1.
+
+_Orchestration_--the art of writing for the orchestra, this implying an
+intimate knowledge of the range, quality, and possibilities of all the
+orchestral instruments.
+
+_Ossia_--or else; used most often to call the attention of the performer
+to a simpler passage that may be substituted for the original one by a
+player whose skill is not equal to the task he is attempting to perform.
+
+_Overture_--(from _overt_--open)--an instrumental prelude to an opera or
+oratorio. The older _overtures_ were independent compositions and bore
+no particular relation to the work which was to follow, but in modern
+music (cf. Wagner, Strauss, etc.), the _overture_ introduces the
+principal themes that are to occur in the work itself, and the
+introduction thus becomes an integral part of the work as a whole. The
+word _overture_ is sometimes applied to independent orchestral
+compositions that have no connection with vocal works, as the _Hebrides
+Overture_ by Mendelssohn.
+
+_Pizzicato_--plucked. A term found in music for stringed instruments,
+and indicating that for the moment the bow is not to be used, the tone
+being secured by _plucking_ the string.
+
+_Polacca_--a Polish dance in three-quarter measure.
+
+_Polonaise_--same as _polacca_.
+
+_Postlude_--(lit. after-play)--an organ composition to be played at the
+close of a church service.
+
+_Prelude_--(lit. before-play)--an instrumental composition to be played
+at the beginning of a church service, or before some larger work (opera,
+etc.). The term is also applied to independent piano compositions of
+somewhat indefinite form. (Cf. _preludes_ by Chopin, Rachmaninoff, etc.)
+
+_Priere_--a prayer; a term often applied (especially by French
+composers) to a quiet, devotional composition for organ.
+
+_Quintole, quintuplet_--a group of five notes to be performed in the
+time ordinarily given to four notes of the same value. There is only one
+accent in the group, this occurring of course on the first of the five
+tones.
+
+_Religioso, religiosamente_--in a devotional style.
+
+_Requiem_--the mass for the dead in the Roman Catholic service. It is so
+called from its first word _requiem_ which means _rest_. (See p. 77,
+Sec. 165.)
+
+_Rhapsody_--an irregular instrumental composition of the nature of an
+improvisation. A term first applied by Liszt to a series of piano pieces
+based on gypsy themes.
+
+_Ribattuta_--a device in instrumental music whereby a two-note phrase is
+gradually accelerated, even to the extent of becoming a trill. (See
+Appendix E, p. 150, for an example.) [Transcriber's Note: Corrected
+misspelling "Ribbatua" in original.]
+
+_Ritornello, ritornelle_--a short instrumental prelude, interlude, or
+postlude, in a vocal composition, as _e.g._, in an operatic aria or
+chorus.
+
+_Schottische_--a dance in two-quarter measure, something like the
+_polka_.
+
+_Sec, secco_--dry, unornamented: applied to a style of opera recitative
+(see p. 75, Sec. 170), and also to some particular chord in an
+instrumental composition which is to be sounded and almost instantly
+dropped.
+
+_Score_--a term used in two senses:
+
+     1. To designate some particular point to which teacher or
+     conductor wishes to call attention; as _e.g._, "Begin with the
+     _lower score_, third measure." The word _brace_ is also
+     frequently used in this sense.
+
+     2. To refer to all the parts of a composition that are to be
+     performed simultaneously, when they have been assembled on a
+     single page for use by a chorus or orchestral conductor. The
+     term _vocal score_ usually means all chorus parts together
+     with an accompaniment arranged for piano or organ, while the
+     terms _full score_ and _orchestral score_ refer to a complete
+     assemblage of _all parts_, each being printed on a separate
+     staff, but all staffs being braced and barred together.
+
+_Senza replica, senza repetizione_--without repetition; a term used in
+connection with such indications as _D.C._, _D.S._, etc., which often
+call for the repetition of some large division of a composition, the
+term _senza replica_ indicating that the smaller repeats included within
+the larger division are not to be observed the second time.
+[Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "senza repetitione" in
+original.]
+
+_Serenade, serenata_--an evening song.
+
+_Sextet_--a composition for six voices or instruments.
+
+_Sextuplet_--a group of six notes to be performed in the time ordinarily
+given to four of the same value. The sextuplet differs from a pair of
+_triplets_ in having but one accent.
+
+_Simile, similiter_--the same; indicating that the same general effect
+is to be continued.
+
+_Solfeggio, solfege_--a vocal exercise sung either on simple vowels or
+on arbitrary syllables containing these simple vowel sounds. Its purpose
+is to develop tone quality and flexibility. These terms are also often
+applied to classes in sight-singing which use the sol-fa syllables.
+
+_Sopra_--above.
+
+_Soprano_--the highest female voice. Range approximately b--c'''.
+
+_Sostenuto_--sustained or connected; the opposite of _staccato_.
+
+_Sotto_--under. _E.g._, _sotto voce_--under the voice, _i.e._, with
+subdued tone.
+
+_Solmization_--sight-singing by syllable.
+
+_Staccato_--detached; the opposite of _legato_.
+
+_Subito_--suddenly.
+
+_Tenor_--the highest male voice. Range approximately d--c''.
+
+_Tenuto_--(from _teneo_, to hold)--a direction signifying that the tones
+are to be prolonged to the full value indicated by the notes.
+
+_Toccata_--a brilliant composition for piano or organ, usually
+characterized by much rapid staccato playing.
+
+_Triplet_--a group of three tones, to be performed in the time
+ordinarily given to two of the same value. The first tone of the triplet
+is always slightly accented.
+
+_Tutti_--(derived from _totus_, _toti_, Latin--all)--a direction
+signifying that all performers are to take part. Also used occasionally
+to refer to a passage where all performers do take part.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+THE HISTORY OF MUSIC NOTATION
+
+
+Many conflicting statements have been made regarding the history and
+development of music writing, and the student who is seeking light on
+this subject is often at a loss to determine what actually did happen in
+the rise of our modern system of writing music. We have one writer for
+example asserting that staff notation was begun by drawing a single red
+line across the page, this line representing the pitch _f_ (fourth line,
+bass staff), the _neumae_ (the predecessors of our modern _notes_)
+standing either for this pitch _f_, or for a higher or lower pitch,
+according to their position _on_ the line, or _above_ or _below_ it.
+"Another line," continues this writer, "this time of yellow color, was
+soon added above the red one, and this line was to represent c' (middle
+C). Soon the colors of these lines were omitted and the _letters_ F and
+C were placed at the beginning of each of them. From this arose our F
+and C clefs, which preceded the G clef by some centuries."[37]
+
+[Footnote 37: Elson--Music Dictionary, article, "Notation."]
+
+Another writer[38] gives a somewhat different explanation, stating that
+the staff system with the use of clefs came about through writing a
+letter (C or F) in the margin of the manuscript and drawing a line from
+this letter to the neume which was to represent the tone for which this
+particular letter stood.
+
+[Footnote 38: Goddard--The Rise of Music, p. 177.]
+
+A third writer[39] asserts that because the alphabetical notation was
+not suitable for recording melodies because of its inconvenience in
+sight-singing "points were placed at definite distances above the words
+and above and below one another." "In this system ... everything
+depended on the accuracy with which the points were interspersed, and
+the scribes, as a guide to the eye, began to scratch a straight line
+across the page to indicate the position of one particular scale degree
+from which all the others could be shown by the relative distances of
+their points. But this was not found sufficiently definite and the
+scratched line was therefore colored red and a second line was added,
+colored yellow, indicating the interval of a fifth above the first."
+
+[Footnote 39: Williams in Grove's Dictionary, article, "Notation."]
+
+It will be noted that all three writers agree that a certain thing
+happened, but as in the case of the four Gospels in the New Testament,
+not all the writers agree on details and it is difficult to determine
+which account is most nearly accurate in detail as well as in general
+statement. Communication was much slower a thousand years ago than now
+and ideas about new methods of doing things did not spread rapidly,
+consequently it is entirely possible that various men or groups of men
+in various places worked out a system of notation differing somewhat in
+details of origin and development but alike in final result. The point
+is that the development of musical knowledge (rise of part-writing,
+increased interest in instrumental music, etc.), demanded a more exact
+system of notation than had previously existed, just as the development
+of science in the nineteenth century necessitated a more accurate
+scientific nomenclature, and in both cases the need gave rise to the
+result as we have it to-day.
+
+Out of the chaos of conflicting statements regarding the development of
+music notation, the student may glean an outline-knowledge of three
+fairly distinct periods or stages, each of these stages being intimately
+bound up with the development of _music_ itself in that period. These
+three stages are:
+
+     (1) The Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet
+     for representing fixed pitches.
+
+     (2) The period of the neumae.
+
+     (3) The period of staff notation.
+
+Of the Greek system little is known beyond the fact that the letters of
+the alphabet were used to represent pitches. This method was probably
+accurate enough, but it was cumbersome, and did not afford any means of
+writing "measured music" nor did it give the eye any opportunity of
+grasping the general outline of the melody in its progression upward and
+downward, as staff notation does. The Greek system seems to have been
+abandoned at some time preceding the fifth century. At any rate it was
+about this time that certain _accent marks_ began to be written above
+the text of the Latin hymns of the church, these marks serving to
+indicate in a general way the progress of the melody. E.g., an upward
+stroke of the pen indicated a rise of the melody, a downward stroke a
+fall, etc. In the course of two or three centuries these marks were
+added to and modified quite considerably, and the system of notation
+which thus grew up was called "neume notation," the word _neume_
+(sometimes spelled _neuma_, or _pneuma_) being of Greek origin and
+meaning a _nod_ or _sign_.
+
+This system of neumes was in some ways a retrogression from the Greek
+letter system, for the neumes indicated neither definite pitches nor
+definite tone-lengths. But it had this advantage over the Greek system,
+that the position of the signs on the page indicated graphically to the
+eye the general direction of the melody, as well as giving at least a
+hint concerning the relative highness or lowness of each individual tone
+(the so-called _diastematic system_), and this was a great aid to the
+eye in singing, just as the relative highness and lowness of notes on
+the modern staff is of great value in reading music at the present time.
+Thus although the neumae did not enable one to sing a new melody at
+sight as our modern staff notation does, yet they served very well to
+recall to the eye the general outline of a melody previously learned by
+ear and therefore enabled the singer (the system was used for vocal
+music only) to differentiate between that particular melody and the
+dozens of others which he probably knew. Neume notation was used mostly
+in connection with the "plain-song melodies" of the Church, and since
+the words of these chants were sung as they would be pronounced in
+reading, the deficiency of the neume system in not expressing definite
+duration values was not felt. But later on with the rise of so-called
+"measured music" (cf. invention of opera, development of independent
+instrumental music, etc.), this lack was seen to be one of the chief
+disadvantages of the system.
+
+The elements of neume-writing as given by Riemann in his Dictionary of
+Music are:
+
+"(1) The signs for a single note: Virga (Virgula) and Punctus (Punctum).
+(2) The sign for a rising interval: Pes (Podatus). (3) The sign for a
+falling interval: Clinis (Flexa). (4) Some signs for special manners of
+performance: Tremula (Bebung), Quilisma (shake), Plica (turn), etc. The
+others were either synonyms of the above-named or combinations of
+them...."
+
+Since music in the middle ages was always copied by hand, it will
+readily be understood that these neumae were not uniform either in shape
+or size, and that each writer made use of certain peculiarities of
+writing, which, although perfectly intelligible to himself, could not
+readily be interpreted by others (cf. writing shorthand). Here then we
+observe the greatest weakness of the neume system--its lack of
+uniformity and its consequent inability accurately to express musical
+ideas for universal interpretation.
+
+     Examples of several neumes are given merely in order to give
+     the beginner a general idea of their appearance.
+
+     Virga [virga symbol] or [virga symbol]. Punctus [punctus
+     symbol] or [punctus symbol]. Pes [pes symbol] or [pes symbol].
+     Clinis [clinis symbol] or [clinis symbol].
+
+As music grew more and more complex, and especially as writing in
+several parts came into use (cf. rise of organum, descant, and
+counterpoint), it became increasingly difficult to express musical ideas
+on the basis of the old notation, and numerous attempts were made to
+invent a more accurate and usable system. Among these one of the most
+interesting was that in which the words of the text were written in the
+spaces between long, parallel lines, placing the initial letters of the
+words _tone_ and _semi-tone_ at the beginning of the line to indicate
+the scale interval. An example will make this clear.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This indicated the precise melodic interval but did not give any idea of
+the rhythm, and the natural accents of the text were the only guide the
+singer had in this direction, as was the case in neume-notation and in
+early staff-notation also. Various other attempts to invent a more
+definite notation were made, but all were sporadic, and it was not until
+the idea of using the lines (later lines and spaces) to represent
+definite pitches, and writing notes of various shapes (derived from the
+neumae) to indicate relative duration-values--it was only when this
+combination of two elements was devised that any one system began to be
+universally used.
+
+Just how the transition from _neume_ to _staff_ notation was made no one
+knows: it was not done in a day nor in a year but was the result of a
+gradual process of evolution and improvement. Nor is it probable that
+any one man deserves the entire credit for the invention of staff
+notation, although this feat is commonly attributed to an Italian monk
+named Guido d'Arezzo (approximate dates 995-1050). To this same monk we
+are indebted, however, for the invention of the syllables (UT, RE, MI,
+etc.) which (in a somewhat modified form) are so widely used for
+sight-singing purposes. (For a more detailed account of the transition
+to staff notation, see Grove, op. cit. article _notation_.) It will now
+be readily seen that our modern notation is the result of a combination
+of two preceding methods (the Greek letters, and the neumes) together
+with a new element--the staff, emphasizing the idea that _higher tones_
+are written _higher_ on the staff than lower ones. The development of
+the neumes into notes of various shapes indicating relative time values
+and the division of the staff into measures with a definite measure
+signature at the beginning are natural developments of the earlier
+primitive idea. In the system of "musica mensurabilis" or _measured
+music_ which was inaugurated a little later, the _virga_ (which had
+meanwhile developed into a square-headed neume) was adopted as the
+_longa_ or long note, and the punctus in two of its forms as _breve_ and
+_semi-breve_ (short and half-short). The longa is now extinct, but the
+modern form of the breve is still used as the double-whole-note, and the
+semi-breve is our modern whole-note.
+
+Red-colored notes were sometimes used to indicate changes in value and
+before long outline notes (called _empty notes_) came into use, these
+being easier to make than the solid ones. The transition from square-
+and diamond-shaped notes to round and oval ones also came about because
+of the greater facility with which the latter could be written, and for
+the same reason notes of small denomination were later "tied together"
+or _stroked_. This latter usage began about 1700 A.D.
+
+It is interesting to find that when "measured music" was finally
+inaugurated there were at first but two measure-signatures, viz.--the
+circle, standing for three-beat measure (the so-called _perfect
+measure_) and the semi-circle (or broken circle) which indicated
+two-beat measure. Occasionally three-beat measure was indicated by three
+vertical strokes at the beginning of the melody, while two-beat measure
+was shown by two such strokes. Upon the basis of these two varieties of
+measure, primitive in conception though they may have been, has been
+built nevertheless the whole system now employed, and in the last
+analysis all forms of measure now in use will be found to be of either
+the two-beat or the three-beat variety. The circle has disappeared
+entirely as a measure-sign, but the broken circle still survives, and
+from it are derived the familiar signs [common-time symbol] and
+[cut-time symbol], which are sometimes erroneously referred to as being
+the initial letter of our word _common_ (as used in the expression
+"common time"). The transition from the older style of measure-signature
+to the present one seems to have occurred during the century following
+the invention of opera, _i.e._, from about 1600 to about 1700 A.D.
+
+The rest came into use very soon after "measured music" began to be
+composed and we soon find rests corresponding with the various
+denominations of notes in use, viz.:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The terms applied to these rests vary in different authorities, but it
+will be noted that the _pausa_, _semi-pausa_, and _suspirum_ correspond
+respectively to the double-whole-rest, whole-rest, and half-rest in use
+at present.
+
+The bar and double bar may be developments of the _maxima rest_ (as some
+writers suggest) but are probably also derived from the practice of
+drawing a line vertically through the various parts of a score to show
+which notes belonged together, thus facilitating score reading. The bar
+may occasionally be found as early as 1500, but was not employed
+universally until 1650 or later.
+
+The number of lines used in the staff has varied greatly since the time
+of Guido, there having been all the way from four to fifteen at various
+times and in various places, (_four_ being the standard number for a
+long time). These lines (when there were quite a number in the staff)
+were often divided into _groups of four_ by _red_ lines, which were not
+themselves used for notes. These red lines were gradually omitted and
+the staff divided into sections by a space, as in modern usage. The
+number of lines in each section was changed to five (in some cases six)
+for the sake of having a larger available range in each section.
+
+The clefs at the beginning of the staffs are of course simply altered
+forms of the letters F, C, and G, which were written at first by Guido
+and others to make the old neume notation more definite.
+
+The staccato sign seems not to have appeared until about the time of
+Bach, the legato sign being also invented at about the same time. The
+fermata was first used in imitative part-writing to show where each part
+was to stop, but with the development of harmonic writing the present
+practice was inaugurated. Leger lines came into use in the seventeenth
+century.
+
+Sharps and flats were invented because composers found it necessary to
+use other tones than those that could be represented by the staff
+degrees in their natural condition. The history of their origin and
+development is somewhat complicated and cannot be given here, but it
+should be noted once more that it was the need of expressing more than
+could be expressed by the older symbols that called forth the newer and
+more comprehensive method. The use of sharps and flats in key signatures
+grew up early in the seventeenth century. In the earlier signatures it
+was customary to duplicate sharps or flats on staff degrees having the
+same pitch-name, thus: [Illustration] [Illustration]. (The use of the G
+clef as here shown did not of course exist at that time.)
+
+The double-sharp and double-flat became necessary when "equal
+temperament" (making possible the use of the complete cycle of keys) was
+adopted. This was in the time of Bach (1685-1750).
+
+Signs of expression (relating to tempo and dynamics) date back at least
+as far as the year 1000 A.D., but the modern terms used for this purpose
+did not appear until some years after the invention of opera, the date
+given by C.F.A. Williams in Grove's Dictionary being 1638. These words
+and signs of expression were at first used only in connection with
+instrumental music, but were gradually applied to vocal music also.
+
+Other systems of notation have been invented from time to time in the
+course of the last two or three centuries, but in most cases they have
+died with their inventors, and in no case has any such system been
+accepted with anything even approaching unanimity. The tonic-sol-fa
+system[40] is used quite extensively in England for vocal music, but
+has gained little ground anywhere else and the chances are that the
+present system of notation, with possibly slight additions and
+modifications, will remain the standard notation for some time to come
+in spite of the attacks that are periodically made upon it on the ground
+of cumbersomeness, difficulty in teaching children, etc. The main
+characteristics of staff notation may be summed up as follows:
+
+[Footnote 40: The _tonic-sol-fa system_ represents an attempt to invent
+a simpler notation to be used by beginners, (especially in the lower
+grades of the public schools) and by singers in choral societies who
+have never learned to interpret staff notation and who therefore find
+some simpler scheme of notation necessary if they are to read music at
+all.
+
+In this system the syllables _do_, _re_, _mi_, etc., (in phonetic
+spelling) are used, the tone being arrived at in each case, first by
+means of a firmly established sense of tonality, and second by
+associating each diatonic tone with some universally felt emotional
+feeling: thus _do_ is referred to as the _strong_ tone, _mi_ as the
+_calm_ one, and _la_ as the _sad_ tone, great emphasis being placed upon
+_do_ as the center of the major tonality, and upon _la_ as the center of
+the minor. The system is thus seen to have one advantage over staff
+notation, viz.: that in presenting it _the teacher is compelled to begin
+with a presentation of actual tones_, while in many cases the teacher of
+staff notation begins by presenting facts regarding the staff and other
+symbols before the pupil knows anything about tone and rhythm as such.
+
+The symbol for each diatonic tone is the initial letter of the syllable
+(_i.e._, d for _do_, r for _re_, etc.), the key being indicated by a
+letter at the beginning of the composition. The duration-value of tones
+is indicated by a system of bars, dots, and spaces, the bar being used
+to indicate the strongest pulse of each measure (as in staff notation)
+the beats being shown by the mark: a dash indicating the continuation of
+the same tone through another beat. If a beat has two tones this is
+indicated by writing the two initial letters representing them with a .
+between them. A modulation is indicated by giving the new key letter and
+by printing the syllable-initials from the standpoint of both the old
+and the new _do_-position. The figure ' above and to the right of the
+letter indicates the tone in the octave above, while the same figure
+below and to the right indicates the octave below. A blank space
+indicates a rest. The tune of My Country, 'Tis of Thee, as printed in
+tonic sol-fa notation below will make these points clear.
+
+Key F
+
+|d  :d :r |t_1 :-.d :r  |m :m :f |m :-.r :d |r :d   :t_1 |d :--  :-- |
+|s  :s :s |s   :-.f :m  |f :f :f |f :-.m :r |m :f.m :r.d |m :-.f :s  |
+|l.f:m :r |d   :--  :-- |
+
+The advantages of the system are (1) the strong sense of key-feeling
+aroused and the ease with which modulations are felt; and (2) the fact
+that it is necessary to learn to sing in but one key, thus making
+sight-singing a much simpler matter, and transposition the easiest
+process imaginable. But these are advantages from the standpoint of the
+vocalist (producing but one tone at a time) only, and do not apply to
+instrumental music. The scheme will therefore probably be always
+restricted to vocal music and will hardly come into very extensive use
+even in this field, for the teacher of music is finding it perfectly
+possible to improve methods of presentation to such an extent that
+learning to sing from the staff becomes a very simple matter even to the
+young child. And even though this were not true, the tonic-sol-fa will
+always be hampered by the fact that since all letters are printed in a
+straight horizontal line the ear does not have the assistance of the eye
+in appreciating the rise and fall of melody, as is the case in staff
+notation.]
+
+     1. Pitches represented by lines and spaces of a staff, the
+     higher the line, the higher the pitch represented, signs
+     called clefs at the beginning of each staff making clear the
+     pitch names of the lines and spaces.
+
+     2. Duration values shown by _shapes_ of notes.
+
+     3. Accents shown by position of notes on the staff with regard
+     to bars, _i.e._, the strongest accent always falls just after
+     the bar, and the beat relatively least accented is found just
+     before the bar.
+
+     4. Extent and description of beat-groups shown by
+     measure-signs.
+
+     5. Key shown by key signature placed at the beginning of each
+     staff.
+
+     6. Rate of speed, dynamic changes, etc., shown by certain
+     Italian words (_allegro_, _andante_, etc.), whose meaning is
+     as universally understood as staff notation itself.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
+
+
+1. Broadly speaking, musical instruments may be divided into two
+classes, viz.: (1) those that have a keyboard and are therefore capable
+of sounding several tones simultaneously; (2) those that (as a rule)
+sound only one tone at a time, as the violin and trumpet. The piano is
+of course the most familiar example of the first class, and a brief
+description is therefore given.
+
+     The _piano_ was invented about two hundred years ago by
+     Cristofori (1651-1731), an Italian. It was an enormous
+     improvement over the types of keyboard instrument that were in
+     use at that time (clavichord, harpsichord, spinet, virginal)
+     and has resulted in an entirely different style of
+     composition. See note on embellishments, p. 26.
+
+2. The most characteristic things about the _piano_ as contrasted with
+its immediate predecessors are: (1) that on it the loudness and softness
+of the tone can be regulated by the force with which the keys are struck
+(hence the name _pianoforte_ meaning literally the _soft-loud_); (2) the
+fact that the piano is capable of sustaining tone to a much greater
+extent than its predecessors. In other words the tone continues sounding
+for some little time after the key is struck, while on the earlier
+instruments it stopped almost instantly after being sounded.
+
+The essentials of the piano mechanism are:
+
+     1. Felt hammers controlled by keys, each hammer striking two
+     or three strings (which are tuned in unison) and immediately
+     rebounding from these strings, allowing them to vibrate as
+     long as the key is held down. The mechanism that allows the
+     hammers to rebound from the strings and fall into position for
+     another blow is called the _escapement_.
+
+     2. A damper (made of softer felt) pressing against each string
+     and preventing it from vibrating until it is wanted.
+
+     3. A keyboard action that controls both hammers and dampers,
+     causing the damper to leave the string at the same instant
+     that the hammer strikes it.
+
+     4. A pedal (damper pedal) controlling all of the dampers, so
+     that at any moment all the strings may be released so as to be
+     free to vibrate.
+
+Other interesting details are:
+
+     1. The strings are stretched over a thin sheet of wood called
+     the sound-board. This aids greatly in intensifying the tone.
+
+     2. The soft pedal (the one at the left) in an _upright piano_
+     causes the hammers to move up nearer the strings, and the
+     shorter swing thus afforded causes a less violent blow and
+     consequently a softer tone. In the _grand piano_ this same
+     pedal shifts the mechanism to one side so that the hammers
+     strike only one or two of the strings, this resulting in a
+     softer tone of somewhat modified quality.
+
+These details regarding the mechanism of the piano can easily be
+verified by removing the front of any ordinary upright piano and
+observing what takes place when the keys are struck or the pedals
+depressed.
+
+3. There are two familiar types of _organ_ in use at the present time,
+(1) the reed organ, (2) the pipe-organ.
+
+The _reed organ_ is very simple in construction, the tone being produced
+by the vibration of metal reeds (fixed in little cells), through which
+air is forced (or sucked) from the bellows, the latter being usually
+worked by the feet of the player. More power may be secured either by
+drawing additional stops, thus throwing on more sets of reeds, or by
+opening the knee swells which either throw on more reeds (sometimes
+octave couplers) or else open a _swell box_ in which some of the reeds
+are enclosed, the tone being louder when the box is open than when
+closed. More tone may also be secured by pumping harder.
+
+4. The essential characteristic of the _pipe-organ_ is a number of sets
+or registers of pipes called _stops_, each set being capable (usually)
+of sounding the entire chromatic scale through a range of five or six
+octaves. Thus for example when the stop _melodia_ is drawn (by pulling
+out a stop-knob or tilting a tablet), one set of pipes only, sounds when
+the keyboard is played on: but if the stop _flute_ is drawn with
+_melodia_, two pipes speak every time a key is depressed. Thus if an
+organ has forty _speaking stops_, all running through the entire
+keyboard, then each time one key is depressed forty pipes will speak,
+and if a chord of five tones is played, two hundred pipes will speak.
+The object of having so many pipes is not merely to make possible a very
+powerful tone, but, rather, to give greater variety of tone-color.
+
+The pipe-organ usually has a pedal keyboard on which the feet of the
+performer play a bass part, this part often sounding an octave (or more)
+lower than the notes indicate.
+
+An _eight-foot stop_ on the organ produces tones of the same pitches as
+the piano when corresponding keys are struck: A _four-foot stop_ sounds
+tones an octave higher and a _two-foot stop_ tones two octaves higher. A
+_sixteen-foot stop_ sounds tones an octave lower than the piano, and a
+_thirty-two foot_ stop, tones two octaves lower, while some organs have
+also a _sixty-four foot_ stop which sounds three octaves lower. This
+gives the organ an exceedingly wide range, its compass being greater
+than that of any other single instrument, and comparable in both range
+of pitches and variety of color only with the modern orchestra.
+
+Modern pipe-organs always have a number of _combination pedals_ or
+_pistons_ (usually both), by means of which the organist is enabled to
+throw on a number of stops with one movement. The selection and use of
+suitable stops, couplers, combinations, etc., is called _registration_.
+
+5. The instruments mentioned at the beginning of this appendix as
+belonging to the second class are more familiar in connection with
+ensemble playing, being commonly associated with either band or
+orchestra.
+
+6. A _band_ is a company of musicians all of whom play upon either wind
+or percussion instruments, the main body of tone being produced by the
+brass and wood-wind divisions.
+
+     Sousa's band is usually made up in somewhat the following
+     manner: 4 flutes and piccolos, 12 B[flat] clarinets, 1 E[flat]
+     clarinet, 1 alto clarinet, 1 bass clarinet, 2 oboes, 2
+     bassoons, 2 sarrusophones, 4 saxophones, 4 cornets, 2
+     trumpets, 1 soprano saxhorn (fluegelhorn), 4 French horns, 4
+     trombones, 2 contra-bass tubas, 4 tubas, 1 snare drum, 1 bass
+     drum, 2 kettle drums, cymbals, triangle, bells, castanets,
+     xylophone, etc.
+
+7. An _orchestra_ is a company of musicians performing upon stringed
+instruments as well as upon wind and percussion. It is differentiated
+from the band by the fact that the main body of tone is produced by the
+strings.
+
+There are _four classes of instruments_ in the orchestra, viz.,
+_strings_, _wood-wind_, _brass_ (_wind_) and _percussion_. In addition
+to these four classes, there is the _harp_, which although a stringed
+instrument, does not belong in the same group as the other strings
+because the manner of producing the tone is altogether different.
+
+8. In the first group (the _strings_) are found the first and second
+violins, viola, violoncello (usually spelled _cello_), and double-bass.
+The first and second violins are identical in every way (but play
+different parts), while the other members of the family merely represent
+larger examples of the same type of instrument.
+
+9. In the second group (the _wood-wind_) are found the flute, piccolo,
+oboe, bassoon, English horn, double-bassoon, clarinet, and bass
+clarinet. The English horn, double-bassoon, bass clarinet, and piccolo
+are not called for in the older compositions, hence are not always
+present in the orchestra.
+
+10. In the third group (the _brass choir_) are found the French horn,
+(usually referred to as _the horn_), trumpet (sometimes replaced by the
+cornet) trombone, and tuba.
+
+11. The fourth group (_percussion_) consists of kettle drums, bass drum,
+cymbals, snare drum, triangle, bells, etc.
+
+12. In an orchestra of about 100 players the proportion of instruments
+is as about as follows, although it varies somewhat according to the
+taste of the conductor, the style of composition to be performed, etc.:
+
+18 first violins, 16 second violins, 14 violas, 12 cellos, 10 basses, 1
+harp, 3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 3 oboes, 1 English horn, 3 clarinets, 1 bass
+clarinet, 3 bassoons, 1 contra (or double) bassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets,
+3 trombones, 1 tuba, 3 kettle drums, 1 bass drum, 1 snare drum, 1 each
+of triangle, cymbals, bells, and other instruments of percussion,
+several of which are often manipulated by one performer.
+
+13. The cuts and brief descriptions here added will give at least a
+rudimentary idea of the appearance and possibilities of the instruments
+most commonly used in bands and orchestras. For fuller descriptions and
+particulars regarding range, quality, etc., the student is referred to
+Mason's "The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do," Lavignac's "Music
+and Musicians," and to the various articles which describe each
+instrument under its own name in Grove's Dictionary or in any good
+encyclopaedia. For still fuller details some work on orchestration will
+have to be consulted.
+
+14. The _violin_ has four strings, tuned thus [Illustration: g d' a'
+e''], these making available a range of about three and one-half octaves
+(g--c''''). This range[41] may be extended upward somewhat further by
+means of _harmonics_, these being produced by lightly touching the
+string at certain points (while the bow is moving across it) instead of
+holding it down against the finger-board. The highest string of the
+_violin_ (viola and cello also) is often called the _chanterelle_
+because it is most often used for playing the melody. The _violin_
+ordinarily produces but one tone at a time, but by _stopping_ two
+strings simultaneously and so drawing the bow as to set both in
+vibration, two tones may be produced at the same time, while three and
+four tones can be sounded _almost_ simultaneously.
+
+[Footnote 41: The ranges noted in connection with these descriptions of
+instruments are ordinarily the _practical orchestral or band_ ranges
+rather than those which are possible in solo performance.]
+
+[Illustration: VIOLIN. Length, 23-1/2 inches. Length of bow, 29-1/2
+inches.]
+
+The _mute_ (or _sordino_) is a small clamp made of metal, wood, or
+ivory, which when clipped to the top of the bridge causes the vibrations
+to be transmitted less freely to the body of the violin, giving rise to
+a tone modified in quality, and decreased in power.
+
+For certain special effects the player is directed to pluck the string
+(_pizzicato_), this method of playing giving rise to a dry, detached
+tone instead of the smooth, flowing one that is so characteristic of the
+_violin_ as commonly played.
+
+_Violins_ in the orchestra are divided into firsts and seconds, the
+_first violins_ being always seated at the left of the audience and the
+_seconds_ at the right.
+
+[Illustration: VIOLA. Length, 26 in. Length of bow, 28.]
+
+15. The _viola_ has four strings, also tuned in fifths, thus
+[Illustration: c g d' a']. The _viola_ looks exactly like the violin at
+a little distance, and is really only a larger sized violin, having a
+range a fifth lower. Its tone is not so incisive as that of the violin,
+being rather heavier--"more gloomy," as it is often described. The
+_viola_ is not so useful as the violin as a solo instrument because it
+is not capable of producing so many varieties of color, nevertheless it
+is invaluable for certain effects. In orchestral music it is of course
+one of the most valuable instruments for filling in the harmony. The
+_viola_ players are usually seated behind the second violin players in
+the orchestra.
+
+[Illustration: VIOLONCELLO. Length, 3 ft. 10 in. Length of bow, 28 in.]
+
+16. The _violoncello_ or _cello_ (sometimes called _bass viol_) has four
+strings, tuned thus: [Illustration: C G d a]. Its range is about three
+and one-half octaves (from C to e'' or f''), but in solo work this range
+is sometimes extended much higher. The _cello_ is much more universally
+used as a solo instrument than the viola and its tone is capable of a
+much greater degree of variation. In the orchestra it plays the bass of
+the string quartet (reinforced by the double-bass), but is also often
+used for solo passages. _Con sordino_ and _pizzicato_ passages occur as
+often for the _cello_ as for the violin.
+
+17. The _double bass_ differs from the other members of the string
+family in that it is tuned in _fourths_ instead of in _fifths_. Its four
+strings are tuned as follows [Illustration: EE AA D G] the entire range
+of the instrument being from EE to a. In music written for double-bass
+the notes are always printed an octave higher than the tones are to
+sound: that is, when the bass-player sees the note [Illustration: c] he
+plays [Illustration: C] this being done to avoid leger lines. The tone
+of the _bass_ is much heavier and the instrument itself is much more
+clumsy to handle than the other members of the group, hence it is almost
+never used as a solo instrument but it is invaluable for reinforcing the
+bass part in orchestral music. The mute is rarely used on the
+_double-bass_, but the _pizzicato_ effect is very common and the bass
+pizzicato tone is much fuller and richer than that of any other stringed
+instrument.
+
+[Illustration: DOUBLE-BASS. Length, 6 ft. 6 in. Length of bow, 23-1/2
+in.]
+
+18. The _flute_ has a range of three octaves. [Illustration: c' c'''']
+It is used in both solo and orchestral playing as well as in bands. The
+flute was formerly always made of wood, but is at present often made of
+metal.
+
+19. The _piccolo_ is a flute playing an octave higher than the one
+described above. The notes are printed as for the flute, but the player
+understands that the tone is to sound an octave higher. The _piccolo_ is
+used widely in band music and quite often in orchestral music also, but
+since the tone is so brilliant and penetrating and is incapable of any
+great variation, it is not suitable for solo performance.
+
+[Illustration: OBOE. (hautboy.) Length, 24-1/2 in. Range b e'''.
+
+CONTRA BASSOON. (Double bassoon.) Length 6 ft. Range about an octave
+lower than bassoon, but not all tones in this range are practicable.
+
+ENGLISH HORN. (Cor. Anglais.) Length, 2 ft. 11-1/2 in. Range e a''.
+
+PICCOLO. Length, 13 in. (Note that this is approximately half the length
+of the flute.)
+
+FLUTE. Length, 26-1/2 in.
+
+BASSOON. (fagotto.) Length, 4 ft. 3-1/2 in. Range BB-flat b-flat'.]
+
+20. The next four instruments to be described (_oboe_, _bassoon_,
+_English horn_, and _contra bassoon_) are often referred to as the _oboe
+family_ since the principle of tone production and general manipulation
+is the same in all four. The tone in these instruments is produced by
+the vibration of two very thin pieces of cane, which are called together
+a _double-reed_.
+
+The _oboe_ is especially valuable in the orchestra as a solo instrument,
+and its thin, nasal tones are suggestive of rustic, pastoral simplicity,
+both _oboe_ and _English horn_ being often used by orchestral composers
+in passages intended to express the idea of rural out-of-door life. The
+_English horn_ is also often used in passages where the idea of
+melancholy and suffering is to be conveyed to the audience. In a
+military band the oboe corresponds to the first violin of the orchestra.
+
+The _bassoon_ and _contra-bassoon_ are used mostly to provide a bass
+part for the harmony of the wood-wind group, but they are also sometimes
+employed (especially the _bassoon_) to depict comic or grotesque
+effects.
+
+[Illustration: BASS CLARINET. Length, 3 ft. 3 in. Range D to b-flat']
+
+[Illustration: CLARINET. Length 28 in.]
+
+21. The next two types of instruments to be described (_clarinet_ and
+_saxophone_) are alike in that the tone is produced by the vibration of
+a _single_ strip of cane (called _single reed_) which is held against
+the lower lip of the player. The _clarinet_ and _bass clarinet_ are made
+of wood and are used in both bands and orchestras, but the _saxophone_
+is usually made of metal, and, the tone being more strident and
+penetrating, the instrument is ordinarily used only in combination with
+other wind instruments, _i.e._, in bands.
+
+Since the fingering of the _clarinet_ is excessively difficult the
+performer can play in only certain keys on the same instrument, hence to
+play in different keys _clarinets_ in several keys must be provided,
+there being usually three in all. The music is written as though it were
+to be played in the key of C, but the tones produced are actually in
+other keys. For this reason the _clarinet_ is called a _transposing
+instrument_. The range of the _clarinet_ is the greatest possessed by
+any of the wind instruments, that of the clarinet in C being from
+[Illustration: e] to [Illustration: g'''].
+
+[Illustration: SAXOPHONES.
+
+SOPRANO. ALTO. Length, 15-3/4 in.
+
+TENOR. Length, 2 ft. 7-1/2 in.
+
+BASS. Length, 3 ft. 9 in.
+
+Combined range AA to g-flat''']
+
+[Illustration: SARRUSOPHONE.]
+
+The _sarrusophone_ is an instrument with a double-reed. It is made of
+brass and exists in several sizes, the only one ever used in the
+orchestra being the double-bass _sarrusophone_, which has approximately
+the same range as the double-bassoon and is sometimes (but rarely) made
+use of in the orchestra instead of the latter instrument. The tone of
+the _sarrusophone_ is something like that of the bassoon.
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH HORN. Length, 22-3/4 in.]
+
+22. The _French horn_ (often called _valve horn_ or simply _horn_)
+really consists of a long tube (about 16 feet) which is bent into
+circular form for convenience in handling. Its range is from
+[Illustration: BB] to [Illustration: f'']. In the orchestra _French
+horns_ are used in pairs, two of the players taking the higher tones,
+and two the lower. The tone is intensely mellow but incapable of any
+extensive variation, but in spite of this lack of variety the tone
+itself is so wonderfully beautiful that the instrument is one of the
+most useful in the orchestra both in solo passages and to fill in the
+harmony. The _horn_ (as well as the trumpet and trombone) differs from
+most of the wood-wind instruments in that its mouthpiece contains no
+reed, the lips of the player constituting the vibrating body as they are
+stretched across the mouthpiece and air is forced against them. The
+_horn_ is used in bands as well as in orchestras.
+
+[Illustration: TRUMPET. Length, 22-1/2 in.]
+
+23. The range of the _trumpet_ is [Illustration: g b''], the typical
+tone being brilliant and ringing. It is used in both band and orchestra,
+playing the highest parts assigned to the brass choir. The _trumpet_ is
+often replaced in both band and orchestra by its less refined cousin the
+_cornet_ because of the ease with which the latter can be played as
+compared with the trumpet, and the larger number of players that are
+available in consequence of this ease of execution.
+
+24. The _cornet_ looks something like the trumpet, but is not so slim
+and graceful in appearance. Its tube is only four and one-half feet
+long, as compared with a length of about eight feet in the trumpet, and
+sixteen feet in the French horn.
+
+The range of the _cornet_ in B[flat] is from [Illustration: e] to
+[Illustration: b-flat'']. The tone is somewhat commonplace as compared
+with the trumpet, but because of its great agility in the rendition of
+trills, repeated tones, etc., it is universally used in all sorts of
+combinations, even (as noted above) taking the place of the trumpet in
+many small orchestras.
+
+[Illustration: CORNET. Length, 13-3/4 in.]
+
+[Illustration: SLIDE TROMBONE. Length, 3 ft. 9 in. Range of tenor
+trombone (the size ordinarily used) E to b-flat']
+
+25. The pitch sounded by the _trombone_ is altered by lengthening or
+shortening the tube of which the instrument is constructed, this being
+possible because the lower part slides into the upper and can be pulled
+out to increase the total length of the tube through which the air
+passes. There are usually three _trombones_ in the orchestra, each
+playing a separate part, and the combination of this trio (with the
+_tuba_ reinforcing the bass part) is majestic and thrilling, being
+powerful enough to dominate the entire orchestra in _Fortissimo_
+passages. But the _trombones_ are useful in soft passages also, and
+their tone when playing pianissimo is rich, serene, and sonorous.
+
+26. The _bass tuba_ is a member of the saxhorn family[42] and supplies
+the lowest part of the brass choir, as the double-bass does in the
+string choir. It is used in both orchestra and band, being often
+supported in the larger bands by a still lower-toned member of the same
+family--the _contra-bass tuba_. The range of the _tuba_ is from
+[Illustration: GG] to [Illustration: g'].
+
+[Footnote 42: The _saxhorn_ was invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a
+Frenchman. The _saxophone_ is the invention of the same man.]
+
+[Illustration: BASS TUBA. Length, 3 ft. 3 in.]
+
+[Illustration: BASS DRUM. Diameter about 2-1/2 ft.]
+
+[Illustration: CYMBALS. Diameter, 13-1/4 in.]
+
+27. The _kettle-drum_ is the most important member of the percussion
+family and is always used either in pairs or in threes. The size of
+these instruments varies somewhat with the make, but when two drums are
+used the diameter is approximately that given under the illustration.
+The range of a pair of _drums_ is _one octave_ [Illustration: F f] and
+when but two drums are used the larger one takes the tones from F to
+about C of this range, and the smaller takes those from about B[flat]
+to F. The most common usage is to tune one drum to the _tonic_, and the
+other to _the dominant_ of the key in which the composition is written.
+The pitch of the _kettle-drum_ can be varied by increasing or lessening
+the tension of the head by means of thumb-screws which act on a metal
+ring.
+
+[Illustration: KETTLE-DRUMS. Diameter of Head, 24-1/2 in. and 27-1/2
+in.]
+
+The other important members of the percussion family are shown on this
+and the following page, their use being so obvious as to require no
+detailed explanation.
+
+[Illustration: TAMBOURINE. Diameter, 10 to 12 in.]
+
+[Illustration: BELLS. (Fr. carillon; Ger. Glockenspiel.)]
+
+[Illustration: SIDE DRUM. Diameter, about 15-1/2 in.]
+
+[Illustration: TRIANGLE. Height, about 8 in.]
+
+28. The _harp_ is one of the oldest of instruments (dating back over
+6000 years), but it is only in comparatively recent years that it has
+been used in the symphony orchestra. Its range is from [Illustration:
+CC-flat] to [Illustration: f-flat'''].
+
+[Illustration: HARP. Height, 5 ft. 8 in.]
+
+The modern _double-action harp_ has forty-six strings, which are tuned
+in half-steps and whole-steps so as to sound the scale of C[flat] major.
+It has a series of seven pedals around its base, each pedal having two
+_notches_ below it, into either of which the pedal may be lowered and
+held fast. The first pedal shortens the F[flat] string so that it now
+sounds F, (giving the key of G[flat]); the second one shortens the
+C[flat] string so that it sounds C (giving the key of D[flat]); the
+third pedal shortens the G[flat] string so that it sounds G (giving the
+key of A[flat]); the fourth changes D[flat] to D (giving the key of
+E[flat]), and so on until, when all the pedals are fixed in their first
+notches, the scale of C is sounded instead of C[flat] as was the case
+before any of the pedals were depressed. But if the first pedal is now
+pushed down into the second notch the original F[flat] string is still
+further shortened and now sounds the pitch F[sharp] (giving us the key
+of G), and if all the other pedals are likewise successively lowered to
+the second notch we get in turn all the _sharp keys_--D, A, E, B,
+F[sharp] and C[sharp], the last-named key being obtained as the result
+of having all the pedals fixed in their second notches, thus making all
+the tones of the original C[flat] scale a whole-step higher so that they
+now sound the C[sharp] scale.
+
+Chords of not more than four tones for each hand may be played
+simultaneously on the harp, but arpeggio and scale passages are the
+rule, and are more successful than simultaneous chords. The notation of
+harp music is essentially like that of piano music.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C
+
+ACOUSTICS
+
+
+     NOTE:--It is usually taken for granted that the student of
+     music is familiar with the significance of such terms as
+     _over-tone_, _equal temperament_, etc., and with principles
+     such as that relating to the relation between vibration rates
+     and pitches: the writer has in his own experience found,
+     however, that most students are not at all familiar with such
+     data, and this appendix is therefore added in the hope that a
+     few facts at least regarding the laws of sound may be brought
+     to the attention of some who would otherwise remain in entire
+     ignorance of the subject.
+
+1. _Acoustics_ is the science which deals with sound and the laws of its
+production and transmission. Since all sound is caused by vibration,
+_acoustics_ may be defined as the science which treats of the phenomena
+of sound-producing vibration.
+
+2. All sound (as stated above) is produced by vibration of some sort:
+strike a tuning-fork against the top of a table and _see_ the vibrations
+which cause the tone, or, if the fork is a small one and the vibrations
+cannot be seen, hold it against the edge of a sheet of paper and hear
+the blows it strikes; or, watch one of the lowest strings of the piano
+after striking the key a sharp blow; or, look closely at the heavier
+strings of the violin (or better still, the cello) and watch them
+oscillate rapidly to and fro as the bow moves across them.
+
+The vibrating body may be a string, a thin piece of wood, a piece of
+metal, a membrane (cf. drum), the lips (cf. playing the cornet), the
+vocal cords, etc. Often it is a column of air whose vibrations give rise
+to the tone, the reed or other medium merely serving to set the air in
+vibration.
+
+3. Sound is _transmitted_ through the air in somewhat this fashion: the
+vibrating body (a string for example) strikes the air-particles in its
+immediate vicinity, and they, being in contact with other such
+air-particles, strike these others, the latter in turn striking yet
+others, and so on, both a forward and backward movement being set up
+(oscillation). These particles lie so close together that no movement at
+all can be detected, and it is only when the disturbance finally reaches
+the air-particles that are in contact with the ear-drum that any effect
+is evident.
+
+This phenomenon of sound-transmission may perhaps be made more clear by
+the old illustration of a series of eight billiard balls in a row on a
+table: if the first ball is tapped lightly, striking gently against ball
+number 2, the latter (as well as numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) will not
+apparently move at all, but ball number 8 at the other end will roll
+away. The air-particles act upon each other in much this same fashion,
+the difference being that when they are set in motion by a vibrating
+body a complete vibration backward and forward causes a similar
+_backward and forward_ movement of the particles (oscillation) instead
+of simply a _forward jerk_ as in the case of the billiard balls.
+
+Another way of describing the same process is this: the vibration of
+some body produces waves in the air (cf. waves in the ocean, which carry
+water forward but do not themselves move on continuously), these waves
+spread out spherically (i.e. in all directions) and finally reach the
+ear, where they set the ear-drum in vibration, thus sending certain
+sound-stimuli to the nerves of hearing in the inner ear, and thus to the
+brain.
+
+An important thing to be noted in connection with sound-transmission is
+that sound will not travel in a vacuum: some kind of a medium is
+essential for its transmission. This medium may be air, water, a bar of
+iron or steel, the earth, etc.
+
+4. The _rate_ at which sound travels through the air is about 1100 feet
+per second, the rapidity varying somewhat with fluctuations in
+temperature and humidity. In water the rate is much higher than in air
+(about four times as great) while the velocity of sound through other
+mediums (as _e.g._, steel) is sometimes as much as sixteen times as
+great as through air.
+
+5. Sound, like light, may be _intensified_ by a suitable reflecting
+surface directly back of the vibrating body (cf. sounding board); it may
+also be reflected by some surface at a distance from its source in such
+a way that at a certain point (the focus) the sound may be very clearly
+heard, but at other places, even those _nearer_ the source of sound, it
+can scarcely be heard at all. If there is such a surface in an
+auditorium (as often occurs) there will be a certain point where
+everything can be heard very easily, but in the rest of the room it may
+be very difficult to understand what is being said or sung.
+
+_Echoes_ are caused by sound-reflection, the distance of the reflecting
+surface from the vibrating body determining the number of syllables that
+will be echoed.
+
+The _acoustics_ of an auditorium (_i.e._, its hearing properties) depend
+upon the position and nature of the reflecting surfaces and also upon
+the length of time a sound persists after the vibrating body has
+stopped. If it persists longer than 2-1/4 or 2-1/3 seconds the room will
+not be suitable for musical performances because of the mixture of
+persisting tones with following ones, this causing a blurred effect
+somewhat like that obtained by playing a series of unrelated chords on
+the piano while the damper-pedal is held down. The duration of the
+reverberation depends upon the size and height of the room, material of
+floor and walls, furniture, size of audience, etc.
+
+6. Sound may be classified roughly into _tones_ and _noises_ although
+the line of cleavage is not always sharply drawn. If I throw stones at
+the side of a barn, sounds are produced, but they are caused by
+irregular vibrations of an irregularly constructed surface and are
+referred to as _noise_. But if I tap the head of a kettle-drum, a
+regular series of vibrations is set up and the resulting sound is
+referred to as _tone_. In general the material of music consists of
+tones, but for special effects certain noises are also utilized (cf.
+castanets, etc.).
+
+7. Musical tones have three properties, viz.:
+
+     1. Pitch.
+
+     2. Intensity.
+
+     3. Quality (timbre).
+
+By _pitch_ is meant the highness or lowness of tone. It depends upon
+rate of vibration. If a body vibrates only 8 or 10 times per second no
+tone is heard at all: but if it vibrates regularly at the rate of 16 or
+18 per second a tone of very low pitch is heard. If it vibrates at the
+rate of 24 the pitch is higher, at 30 higher still, at 200 yet higher,
+and when a rate of about 38,000 per second has been reached the pitch is
+so high that most ears cannot perceive it at all. The highest tone that
+can ordinarily be heard is the E[flat] four octaves higher than the
+highest E[flat] of the piano. The entire range of sound humanly audible
+is therefore about eleven octaves (rates 16-38,000), but only about
+_eight_ of these octaves are utilized for musical purposes. The tones of
+the piano (with a range of 7-1/3 octaves) are produced by vibration
+rates approximately between 27 and 4224. In the orchestra the range is
+slightly more extended, the rates being from 33 to 4752.
+
+Certain interesting facts regarding the relation between vibration-rates
+and pitches have been worked out: it has been discovered for instance
+that if the number of vibrations is doubled, the pitch of the resulting
+tone is an octave higher; _i.e._, if a string vibrating at the rate of
+261 per second gives rise to the pitch c', then a string one-half as
+long and vibrating twice as rapidly (522) will give rise to the pitch
+c'', _i.e._, an octave higher than c'. In the same way it has been found
+that if the rate is multiplied by 5/4 the pitch of the tone will be a
+_major third_ higher; if multiplied by 3/2, a _perfect fifth_ higher,
+etc. These laws are often stated thus: the ratio of the octave to the
+fundamental is as two is to one; that of the major third as five is to
+four; that of the perfect fifth as three is to two, and so on through
+the entire series of pitches embraced within the octave, the _ratio_
+being of course the same for all octaves.
+
+9. The _intensity_ (loudness or softness) of tones depends upon the
+amplitude (width) of the vibrations, a louder tone being the result of
+vibrations of greater amplitude, and vice versa. This may be verified by
+plucking a long string (on cello or double-bass) and noting that when
+plucked gently vibrations of small amplitude are set up, while a
+vigorous pluck results in much wider vibrations, and, consequently, in a
+louder tone. It should be noted that the _pitch_ of the tone is not
+affected by the change in amplitude of vibration.
+
+The intensity of tones varies with the medium conveying them, being
+usually louder at night because the air is then more elastic. Tone
+intensity is also affected by _sympathetic vibrations_ set up in other
+bodies. If two strings of the same length are stretched side by side and
+one set in vibration so as to produce tone the other will soon begin to
+vibrate also and the combined tone will be louder than if only one
+string produced it. This phenomenon is the basis of what is known as
+resonance (cf. body of violin, resonance cavities of nose and mouth,
+sounding board of piano, etc.).
+
+10. _Quality_ depends upon the shape (or form) of the vibrations which
+give rise to the tone. A series of simple vibrations will cause a simple
+(or colorless) tone, while complex vibrations (giving rise to overtones
+of various kinds and in a variety of proportions) cause more
+individualistic peculiarities of quality. Quality is affected also by
+the shape and size of the resonance body. (Cf. last part of sec. 9
+above.)
+
+11. Practically every musical tone really consists of a combination of
+several tones sounding simultaneously, the combined effect upon the ear
+giving the impression of a single tone. The most important tone of the
+series is the _fundamental_, which dominates the combination and gives
+the pitch, but this fundamental is practically always combined with a
+greater or less number of faint and elusive attending tones called
+_overtones_ or _harmonics_. The first of these overtones is the octave
+above the fundamental; the second is the fifth above this octave; the
+third, two octaves above the fundamental, and so on through the series
+as shown in the figure below. The presence of these _overtones_ is
+accounted for by the fact that the string (or other vibrating body) does
+not merely vibrate in its entirety but has in addition to the principal
+oscillation a number of sectional movements also. Thus it is easily
+proved that a string vibrates in halves, thirds, etc., in addition to
+the principal vibration of the entire string, and it is the vibration of
+these halves, thirds, etc., which gives rise to the _harmonics_, or
+_upper partials_ as they are often called. The figure shows _Great C_
+and its first eight overtones. A similar series might be worked out from
+any other fundamental.
+
+[Illustration: (NOTE:--The B[flat] in this series is approximate only.)]
+
+It will be recalled that in the section (10) dealing with _quality_ the
+statement was made that _quality_ depends upon the shape of the
+vibrations; it should now be noted that it is the form of these
+vibrations that determines the nature and proportion of the overtones
+and hence the quality. Thus _e.g._, a tone that has too large a
+proportion of the fourth upper partial (_i.e._, the _third_ of the
+chord) will be _reedy_ and somewhat unpleasant. This is the case with
+many voices that are referred to as _nasal_. Too great a proportion of
+overtones is what causes certain pianos to sound "tin-panny." The tone
+produced by a good tuning-fork is almost entirely free from overtones:
+it has therefore no distinctive quality and is said to be a _simple_
+tone. The characteristic tone of the oboe on the other hand has many
+overtones and is therefore highly individualistic: this enables us to
+recognize the tone of the instrument even though we cannot see the
+player. Such a tone is said to be _complex_.
+
+12. The mathematical ratio referred to on page 134, if strictly carried
+out in tuning a keyboard instrument would cause the half-steps to vary
+slightly in size, and playing in certain keys (especially those having a
+number of sharps or flats in the signature) would therefore sound out of
+tune. There would be many other disadvantages in such a system, notably
+the inability to modulate freely to other keys, and since modulation is
+one of the predominant and most striking characteristics of modern
+music, this would constitute a serious barrier to advances in
+composition. To obviate these disadvantages a system of _equal
+temperament_ was invented and has been in universal use since the time
+of Bach (1685-1750) who was the first prominent composer to use it
+extensively. _Equal temperament_ means simply dividing the octave into
+twelve equal parts, thus causing all scales (as played on keyboard
+instruments at least) to sound exactly alike.
+
+     To show the practicability of equal temperament Bach wrote a
+     series of 48 _preludes and fugues_, two in each major and two
+     in each minor key. He called the collection "The Well-tempered
+     Clavichord."
+
+13. Various _standards of pitch_ have existed at different times in the
+last two centuries, and even now there is no absolute uniformity
+although conditions are much better than they were even twenty-five
+years ago. Scientists use what is known as the "scientific standard"
+(sometimes called the "philosophic standard"), viz., 256 double
+vibrations for "middle C." This pitch is not in actual use for musical
+purposes, but is retained for theoretical purposes because of its
+convenience of computation (being a power of 2). In 1885 a conference of
+musicians at Vienna ratified the pitch giving Middle C 261 vibrations,
+this having been adopted by the French as their official pitch some 26
+years before. In 1891 a convention of piano manufacturers at
+Philadelphia adopted this same pitch for the United States, and it has
+been in practically universal use ever since. This pitch (giving Middle
+C 261 vibrations) is known as "International Pitch."
+
+_Concert pitch_ is slightly higher than _International_, the difference
+between the two varying somewhat, but being almost always less than
+one-half step. This higher pitch is still often used by bands and
+sometimes by orchestras to give greater brilliancy to the wind
+instruments.
+
+     REFERENCES
+
+     Lavignac--Music and Musicians, pp. 1-66.
+
+     Broadhouse--The Student's Helmholz.
+
+     Helmholtz--Sensations of Tone.
+
+     Hamilton--Sound and its Relation to Music.
+
+     NOTE:--For a simple and illuminating treatment of the subject
+     from the standpoint of the music student, the books by
+     Lavignac and Hamilton are especially recommended.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX D
+
+TERMINOLOGY REFORM
+
+
+A recent writer[43] on _vocal terminology_ makes the following statement
+as an introduction to certain remarks advocating a more definite use of
+terms relating to tone production by the human voice:--"The correct use
+of words is the most potent factor in the development of the thinker."
+If this statement has any basis of fact whatsoever to support it then it
+must be evident to the merest novice in musical work that the popular
+use of many common terms by musicians is keeping a good many people from
+clear and logical thought in a field that needs accurate thinkers very
+badly! However this may be, it must be patent to all that our present
+terminology is in many respects neither correct nor logical, and the
+movement inaugurated by the Music Section of the National Education
+Association some years ago to secure greater uniformity in the use and
+definition of certain expressions should therefore not only command the
+respect and commendation, but the active support of all progressive
+teachers of music.
+
+[Footnote 43: Floyd S. Muckey--"Vocal Terminology," _The Musician_, May,
+1912, p. 337.]
+
+Let it be noted at the outset that such reforms as are advocated by the
+committee will never come into general use while the rank and file of
+teachers throughout the country merely _approve_ the reports so
+carefully compiled and submitted each year: these reforms will become
+effective only as individual teachers make up their minds that the end
+to be attained is worth the trouble of being careful to use only
+correct terminology every day for a month, or three months, or a
+year--whatever length of time may be necessary in order to get the new
+habits fixed in mind and muscle.
+
+The Terminology Committee was appointed by the Department of Music of
+the N.E.A. in 1906 and made its first report at Los Angeles in 1907.
+Since then the indefatigable chairman of the committee (Mr. Chas. I.
+Rice, of Worcester, Mass.) has contributed generously of both time and
+strength, and has by his annual reports to the Department set many of us
+to thinking along certain new lines, and has caused some of us at any
+rate to adopt in our own teaching certain changes of terminology which
+have enabled us to make our work more effective.
+
+In his first report Mr. Rice says:
+
+"Any one who has observed the teaching of school music in any
+considerable number of places in this country cannot fail to have
+remarked the great diversity of statement employed by different teachers
+regarding the facts which we are engaged in teaching, and the equal
+diversity of terminology used in teaching the symbols by which musicians
+seek to record these facts. To the teacher of exact sciences our
+picturesque use of the same term to describe two or more entirely
+different things never ceases to be a marvel.... Thoughtful men and
+women will become impressed with the untruthfulness of certain
+statements and little by little change their practice. Others will
+follow, influenced by example. The revolutionists will deride us for not
+moving faster while the conservatives will be suspicious of any change."
+
+At this meeting in Los Angeles a list of thirteen points was recommended
+by the committee and adopted by the Music Department. These points are
+given in the N.E.A. Volume of Proceedings for 1907, p. 875.
+
+Since 1907 the committee (consisting of Chas. I. Rice, P.C. Hayden, W.B.
+Kinnear, Leo R. Lewis, and Constance Barlow-Smith) have each year
+selected a number of topics for discussion, and have submitted valuable
+reports recommending the adoption of certain reforms. Some of the points
+recommended have usually been rejected by the Department, but many of
+them have been adopted and the reports of the committee have set many
+teachers thinking and have made us all more careful in the use and
+definition of common terms. A complete list of all points adopted by the
+Department since 1907 has been made by Mr. Rice for _School Music_, and
+this list is here reprinted from the January, 1913, number of that
+magazine.
+
+     TERMINOLOGY ADOPTIONS, 1907-1910
+
+     1. _Tone:_ Specific name for a musical sound of definite
+     pitch. Use neither _sound_, a general term, nor _note_, a term
+     of notation.
+
+     2. _Interval:_ The pitch relation between _two_ tones. Not
+     properly applicable to a single tone or scale degree. Example:
+     "Sing the fifth tone of the scale." Not "sing the fifth
+     interval of the scale."
+
+     3. _Key:_ Tones in relation to a tonic. Example: In the key of
+     G. _Not_ in the scale of G. Scales, major and minor are
+     composed of a definite selection from the many tones of the
+     key, and all scales extend through at least one octave of
+     pitch. The chromatic scale utilizes all the tones of a key
+     within the octave.
+
+     4. _Natural:_ Not a suitable compound to use in naming
+     pitches. Pitch names are either _simple_: B, or _compound_: B
+     sharp, B double-sharp, B flat or B double-flat, and there is
+     no pitch named "B natural." Example: Pitch B, _not_ "B
+     natural."
+
+     NOTE:--L.R.L. thinks that B natural should be the name when
+     the notation suggests it.
+
+     5. _Step, Half-step:_ Terms of interval _measurement_. Avoid
+     _tone_, _semi-tone_ or _half-tone_. Major second and minor
+     second are interval _names_. Example: How large are the
+     following intervals? (1) Major second, (2) minor second, (3)
+     augmented prime. Answer: (1) a step, (2) a half-step, (3) a
+     half-step.
+
+     6. _Chromatic:_ A tone of the key which is not a member of its
+     diatonic scale. (N.B.) An accidental (a notation sign) is not
+     a chromatic sign _unless_ it makes a staff-degree represent a
+     chromatic tone.
+
+     7. _Major; Minor:_ Major and Minor keys having the same
+     signature should be called relative major and minor. Major and
+     minor keys having the same tonic, but different signatures,
+     should be called tonic major and minor. Not "parallel" major
+     or minor in either case.
+
+     8. _Staff:_ Five horizontal lines and their spaces. Staff
+     _lines_ are named (numbered) upward in order, first to fifth.
+     _Spaces:_ Space below, first-second-third-fourth-space, and
+     space above[44]. (Six in all.) Additional short lines and
+     their short spaces numbered outward both ways from the main
+     staff, viz: line below, second space below. The boundary of
+     the staff is always a space.
+
+     [Footnote 44: NOTE:--Not "space below the staff" or "space
+     above the staff."]
+
+     9. _G Clef, F Clef, C Clef:_ These clefs when placed upon the
+     staff, give its degrees their first, or primary pitch meaning.
+     Each makes the degree it occupies represent a pitch of its
+     respective name. Example: The G clef makes the second line
+     represent the pitch G. Avoid "_fixes G on_." The staff with
+     clef in position represents only pitches having _simple_ or
+     _one-word_ names, A, B, C, etc.
+
+     10. _Sharps, Flats:_ Given a staff with clef in position as in
+     example above, sharps and flats make staff degrees upon which
+     they are placed represent pitches a half-step higher or lower.
+     These pitches have compound or two-word names. Example: The
+     second line stands for the pitch G (simple name). Sharp the
+     second line and it will stand for the pitch G sharp. (Compound
+     name.) The third line stands for the pitch B. (Simple name.)
+     Flat it, and the line will stand for the pitch B flat.
+     (Compound name.) N.B. These signs do not "_raise_" or
+     "_lower_" notes, tones, pitches, letters or staff degrees.
+
+     11. _Double-sharp, Double-flat:_ Given a staff with three or
+     more degrees sharped in the signature, double-sharps are used
+     (subject to the rules governing composition) to make certain
+     of these degrees, already sharped, represent pitches one
+     half-step higher yet. Similarly, when three or more degrees
+     are flatted in the signature, double-flats are used to make
+     certain degrees already flatted, represent pitches one
+     half-step lower yet. Examples: To represent sharp 2 in the key
+     of B major, double-sharp the C degree, or (equally good)
+     double-sharp the third space (G clef). To represent flat 6 in
+     the key of D flat major, double-flat the B degree, or (equally
+     good) double flat the third line (G clef). _Do not say_: "Put
+     a double-sharp on 6" or "put a double-sharp on C," or
+     "_indicate"_ a higher or lower pitch "_on_" a sharped or
+     flatted degree.
+
+     12. _Signature:_ Sharps or flats used as signatures affect the
+     staff degrees they occupy and all octaves of the same.
+     Example: With signature of four sharps, the first one affects
+     the fifth line and the first space; the second, the third
+     space; the third, the space above and the second line; the
+     fourth, the fourth line and the space below. _Do not say_: "F
+     and C are sharped," "ti is sharped," "B is flatted," "fa is
+     flatted." "Sharpened" or "flattened" are undesirable.
+
+     13. _Brace:_ The two or more staffs containing parts to be
+     sounded together; also the vertical line or bracket connecting
+     such staffs. _Not_ "line" or "score." "Staff" is better than
+     "line" for a single staff, and "score" is used meaning the
+     book containing an entire work, as "vocal score," "orchestral
+     score," "full score."
+
+     14. _Notes:_ Notes are characters designed to represent
+     relative duration. When placed on staff-degrees they
+     _indicate_ pitch. (Note the difference between "represent" and
+     "indicate.") "Sing what the note calls for" means, sing a tone
+     of the pitch represented by the staff degree occupied by the
+     note-head. The answer to the question: "What is that note?"
+     would be "half-note," "eighth-note" according to the
+     denomination of the note in question, whether it was on or off
+     the staff.
+
+     15. _Measure-sign:_ 4-4, 2-4, 6-8, are _measure-signs_. Avoid
+     "time signatures," "meter-signatures," "the fraction,"
+     "time-marks." Example: What is the measure-sign? (C) Ans. A
+     broken circle. What is its meaning? Ans. Four-quarter measure.
+     (Not four-four time, four-four rhythm, four-four meter.)
+
+     16. _Note Placing:_ Place a quarter note on the fourth line.
+     Not "put a quarter note on D."
+
+     17. _Beat-Pulse:_ A tone or rest occurs on a certain beat or
+     pulse of a measure. Not on a certain _count_.
+
+     18. _Signature Terminology:_ The right hand sharp in the
+     signature is on the staff degree that represents seven of the
+     major scale. Not "always on 7 or ti."
+
+     19. _Signature Terminology:_ The right hand flat in the
+     signature is on the staff degree that represents four of the
+     major scale. Not "always on fa."
+
+     20. _Rote, Note, Syllable:_ Singing by rote means that the
+     singer sings something learned by ear without regard to notes.
+     Singing by note means that the singer is guided to the correct
+     pitch by visible notes. Singing by syllable means that the
+     singer sings the tones of a song or part to the sol-fa
+     syllables instead of to words, neutral vowels or the hum.
+     "Sing by note" is not correct if the direction means simply to
+     sing the sol-fa syllables, whether in sight reading, rote
+     singing, or memory work. "Sing by syllable" would be correct
+     in each case.
+
+
+     ADOPTIONS OF THE 1911 MEETING AT SAN FRANCISCO
+
+     Arabic numerals, either 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, or 12, placed on the
+     staff directly after the signature and above the third line,
+     show the number of beats in a measure.
+
+     A note, either a quarter or a dotted quarter, placed in
+     parenthesis under the numeral, represents the length of one
+     beat and is called the beat-note.
+
+     The numeral and the beat-note thus grouped constitute the
+     measure-sign.
+
+     Illustrative statements covering proper terminology: the tune
+     "America" is written in three-quarter measure. The chorus:
+     "How lovely are the Messengers" is written in two-dotted
+     quarter measure.
+
+     The above forms of statement were adopted at Denver in 1909,
+     and are recommended for general use when speaking of music
+     written with the conventional measure-signs, etc.
+
+     In place of: "two-two time, three-eight time, four-four time,"
+     say as above: "This piece is written in two-half measure,
+     three-eighth measure, four-quarter measure."
+
+
+     MINOR SCALES
+
+     _Primitive Minor (ascending)_
+
+     The minor scale form having minor sixth and minor seventh
+     above tonic to be called Primitive Minor.
+
+     Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, a; C
+     minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b flat, c. [Transcriber's
+     Note: Supplied b flat missing from original.]
+
+     _Primitive Minor (descending)_
+
+     Same pitches in reverse order.
+
+     _Harmonic Minor (ascending)_
+
+     The minor scale form having minor sixth and major seventh
+     above tonic to be called Harmonic Minor.
+
+     Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g sharp, a;
+     C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b, c.
+
+     _Harmonic Minor (descending_)
+
+     Same pitches in reverse order.
+
+     _Melodic Minor (ascending)_
+
+     The minor scale form having major sixth and major seventh
+     above tonic to be called Melodic Minor.
+
+     Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f sharp, g
+     sharp, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a, b, c.
+
+     _Melodic Minor (descending)_
+
+     Same as the Primitive.
+
+
+     ADOPTIONS OF THE 1912 MEETING AT CHICAGO
+
+     _Pulse and Beat_
+
+     The Committee finds that the words: Pulse and Beat are in
+     general use as synonymous terms, meaning one of the succession
+     of throbs or impulses of which we are conscious when listening
+     to music. Each of these pulses or beats has an exact point of
+     beginning, a duration, and an exact point of ending, the
+     latter coincident with the beginning of the next pulse or
+     beat. When thus used, both words are terms of ear.
+
+     _Beat_
+
+     One of these words, Beat, is also in universal use, meaning
+     one of a series of physical motions by means of which a
+     conductor holds his group of performers to a uniform movement.
+
+     When thus used it becomes a term of eye.
+
+     The conductor's baton, if it is to be authoritative, cannot
+     wander about through the whole duration of the pulse but must
+     move quickly to a point of comparative repose, remaining until
+     just before the arrival of the next pulse when it again makes
+     a rapid swing, finishing coincidently with the initial tone
+     (or silence) of the new pulse.
+
+     Thus it is practically the end of the conductor's beat that
+     marks the beginning of the pulse.
+
+     The Committee is of opinion that Beat might preferably be used
+     as indicating the outward sign.
+
+     _Beat-Note_
+
+     This term "beat-note" is already in use in another important
+     connection (see Terminology Report, 1911) and the Committee
+     recommends that those using the above terms shall say: "This
+     note is an on-the-beat note; this one is an after-the-beat
+     note; this one a before-the-beat note."
+
+
+     DEFINITIONS
+
+     _Matters of Ear_
+
+     Pulse: The unit of movement in music, one of a series of
+     regularly recurring throbs or impulses.
+
+     Measure: A group of pulses.
+
+     Pulse-Group: Two or more tones grouped within the pulse.
+
+     _Matters of Eye_
+
+     Beat: One of a series of conventional movements made by the
+     conductor. This might include any unconventional motion which
+     served to mark the movement of the music, whether made by
+     conductor, performer or auditor.
+
+     Beat-Note: A note of the denomination indicated by the
+     measure-sign as the unit of note-value in a given measure.
+
+     _Example_
+
+     Given the following measure-signs: 2-4, 2-2, 2-8, quarter,
+     half, or eighth notes, respectively, are beat-notes.
+
+     Beat-Group: A group of notes or notes and rests, of smaller
+     denomination than the beat-note which represents a full beat
+     from beginning to end and is equal in value to the beat-note.
+     (A beat-group may begin with a rest.)
+
+     On-the-Beat Note (or rest): Any note (or rest) ranging in
+     value from a full beat down, which calls for musical action
+     (or inaction) synchronously with the conductor's beat.
+
+     After-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates
+     that a tone is to be sounded after the beginning, and before
+     or at the middle of the pulse.
+
+     Before-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates
+     that a tone is to be sounded after the middle of the pulse.
+
+     To illustrate terminology and to differentiate between Pulse
+     and Beat as terms, respectively of ear and eye, the following
+     is submitted:
+
+     Whenever a brief tone involves the musical idea of
+     syncopation, it may be regarded as an after-the-pulse tone and
+     the note that calls for it as an after-the-beat note; when it
+     involves the idea of anticipation or preparation it may be
+     regarded as a before-the-pulse tone, and the note that calls
+     for it, as a before-the-beat note.
+
+     _Measure and Meter_
+
+     "What is the measure-sign?"
+
+     "What is the meter-signature?"
+
+     These two words are used synonymously, and one of them is
+     unnecessary. The Committee recommends that Measure be retained
+     and used. Meter has its use in connection with hymns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The author does not find it possible at present to agree with all the
+recommendations made in the above report, but the summary is printed in
+full for the sake of completeness.
+
+The Music Teacher's National Association has also interested itself
+mildly in the subject of terminology reform, and at its meeting in
+Washington, D.C., in 1908, Professor Waldo S. Pratt gave his address as
+president of the Association on the subject "System and Precision in
+Musical Speech." This address interested the members of the Association
+to such an extent that Professor Pratt was asked to act as a committee
+whose purpose it should be to look into the matter of reforms necessary
+in music terminology and report at a later session. In 1910 Professor
+Pratt read a report in which he advocated the idea of making some
+changes in music nomenclature, but took the ground that the subject is
+too comprehensive to be mastered in the short time that can be given to
+it by a committee, and that it is therefore impossible to recommend
+specific changes. He also took occasion to remark that one difficulty in
+the whole matter of terminology is that many terms and expressions are
+used _colloquially_ and that such use although usually not scientific,
+is often not distinctly harmful and is not of sufficient importance to
+cause undue excitement on the part of reformers. Quoting from the report
+at this point:--"A great deal of confusion is more apparent than real
+between _note_ and _tone_, between _step_ and _degree_, between _key_
+and _tonality_. No practical harm is done by speaking of the _first
+note_ of a piece when really _first tone_ would be more accurate. To
+say that a piece is written _in the key of B[flat]_ is more convenient
+than to say that it is written in the _tonality of which B[flat] is the
+tonic_. The truth is that some of the niceties of expression upon which
+insistence is occasionally laid are merely fussy, not because they have
+not some sort of reason, but because they fail to take into account the
+practical difference between colloquial or off-hand speech and the
+diction of a scientific treatise. This is said without forgetting that
+colloquialism always needs watching and that some people form the habit
+of being careless or positively uncouth as if it were a mark of high
+artistic genius."
+
+Professor Pratt's report is thus seen to be philosophic rather than
+constructive, and terminology reform will undoubtedly make more
+immediate progress through the efforts of the N.E.A. Committee with its
+specific recommendations (even though these are sometimes admittedly
+_fussy_) than through the policy of the M.T.N.A. of waiting for some one
+to get time to take up the subject in a scholarly way. Nevertheless the
+philosophic view is sometimes badly needed, especially when the spirit
+of reform becomes too rabid and attaches too great importance to
+trifles. A judicious intermingling of the two committees in a series of
+joint meetings would undoubtedly result in mutual helpfulness, and
+possibly also in a more tangible and convincing statement of principles
+than has yet been formulated by either.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX E
+
+Sonata Op. 31, No. 3 by Beethoven
+
+Analysis by ARTHUR E. HEACOX,
+Oberlin Conservatory of Music
+
+
+     First Subject 17 measures, E[flat] major, as follows: 8 meas.
+     presentation, one meas. link, 8 meas. repetition oct. higher.
+     Rhythmic elements are A, B, C, all presented in first 8 meas.
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The analysis is presented as notations on the
+musical score of the sonata. Please see the HTML version of this e-text
+to view the score with the notations and to listen to a MIDI version.]
+
+[Illustration: Sonata Op. 31, No. 3]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+eh = a as in face; ah = a as in far; ch = ch as in chair; final eh = e
+as in met.
+
+
+A (_ah_), 95
+
+A battuta (_ah-baht-too'-tah_), 95
+
+A capella (_cah-pel'-lah_), 76
+
+A capriccio (_cah-pritch'-eo_), 54
+
+Accelerando (_aht-cheh-leh-rahn'-do_), 54
+
+Accented tones, 20
+
+Accent marks, 20
+
+Accent in measures, 44
+
+Acciaccatura (_aht-cheea-cah-too'-ra_), 25, 26
+
+Accidentals, 9
+
+Accompagnamento (_ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-to_), 95
+
+Acoustics (_ah-kow'-stics_), def., 131
+  of auditoriums, 133
+
+Adagietto (_ah-dah-jee-et'-to_), 50
+
+Adagio (_ah-dah'-jee-o_), 50
+
+A deux mains (_doo-mahng_), 42
+
+Ad libitum, 54
+
+Affrettando (_ahf-fret-tahn'-do_), 54
+
+Agitato (_ah-jee-tah'-to_), 55
+
+Agrements (_ah-greh-mahng_), 22
+
+A la or alla (_ahl'-lah_), 42
+
+Alla breve (_breh'-veh_), 95
+
+Alla marcia (_mar'-chee-ah_), 95
+
+Allargando (_ahl-lahr-gahn'-do_), 53
+
+Alla zingara (_tseen-gah'-rah_), 95
+
+Allegretto (_ahl-leh-gret'-to_), 51
+
+Allegrissimo, 52
+
+Allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 50
+
+Allegro agitato (_ah-jee-tah'-to_), 52
+
+Allegro appassionata (_-ah'-tah_), 52
+
+Allegro assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52
+
+Allegro commodo (_kom-mo'-do_), 52
+
+Allegro con brio (_bree'-o_), 52
+
+Allegro con fuoco (_foo-o'-ko_), 53
+
+Allegro con moto (_mo'-to_), 53
+
+Allegro con spirito (_spee'-ree-to_), 53
+
+Allegro di bravura (_dee brah-voo'-rah_), 53
+
+Allegro di molto (_mohl'-to_), 53
+
+Allegro furioso (_foo-ree-o'-so_), 53
+
+Allegro giusto (_jew-sto_), 53
+
+Allegro ma grazioso (_mah grah-tsi-o'-so_), 53
+
+Allegro (ma) non tanto (_tahn'-to_), 53
+
+Allegro (ma) non troppo (_trop'-po_), 53
+
+Allegro moderato (_mod-e-rah'-to_), 53
+
+Allegro quasi andante (_quah-see ahn-dahn'-teh_), 53
+
+Allegro vivace (_vee-vah'-cheh_), 53
+
+Allemande (_al-mahnd_), 71
+
+All'unisono (_oo-nee-so'-no_), 95
+
+All'ottava (_ot-tah'-vah_), 15
+
+Alt (_ahlt_), 95
+
+Alto (_ahl-to_), 95
+
+A mezza voce (_met'-zah-vo'-cheh_), 42
+
+Amore (_ah-mo'-reh_), 42, 59
+
+Andante (_ahn-dahn'-teh_), 50
+
+Andante affettuoso (_ahf-fet-too-o'-so_), 52
+
+Andante amabile (_ah-mah'-bee-leh_), 52
+
+Andante cantabile (_cahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 52
+
+Andante con moto (_mo'-to_), 52
+
+Andante grazioso (_grah-tsi-o'-so_), 52
+
+Andante maestoso (_mah-es-to'-so_), 52
+
+Andante (ma) non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 52
+
+Andante pastorale (_pahs-to-rah'-leh_), 52
+
+Andante quasi allegro (_quah-see ahl-leh'-gro_), 52
+
+Andante sostenuto (_sos-teh-noo'-to_), 52
+
+Animando (_ah-nee-mahn'-do_), 55
+
+Animato (_ah-nee-mah'-to_), 55
+
+Animato come sopra (_co-meh so'-prah_), 55
+
+Andantino (_ahn-dahn-tee'-no_), 50
+
+Antecedent, 67
+
+Anthem, 76
+
+Anticipation, 93
+
+Antiphony (_an-tif'-o-ny_), 95
+
+Antithesis (_an-tith'-_), 67
+
+A piacere (_pee-ah-cheh'-reh_), 54
+
+Appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too'-rah_), def., 25
+
+A quatre mains (_kahtr-mahng_), 95
+
+Arabesque, 95
+
+Aria (_ah'-ree-ah_), 79
+
+Arioso (_ah-ree-o'-so_), 95
+
+Arpeggiando (_ar-ped-jee-ahn'-do_), 21
+
+Arpeggiato (_-ah'-to_), 21
+
+Arpeggiento (_-en'-to_), 21
+
+Arpeggio (_ar-ped'-jee-o_), 21
+
+Art-ballad, 80
+
+Assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 42
+
+A tempo, 54
+
+A tempo primo (_pree'-mo_), 54
+
+A tempo rubato (_roo-bah'-to_), 54
+
+Attacca (_aht-tah'-kah_), 95
+
+Attacca subito (_soo'-bee-to_), 95
+
+Attacca subito il seguente (_eel seg-wen'-teh_), 95
+
+Attack, 95
+
+
+Bagpipe, 95
+
+Ballad, 80
+
+Band, 115
+
+Bar, def. and use, 12
+   double, 12
+
+Barcarole (_bar'-cah-rohl_), 95
+
+Baritone, 95
+
+Bass, 95
+
+Bass clarinet, 121
+
+Basso (_bahs'-so_), 95
+
+Bassoon, 121
+
+Bass staff, 6
+
+Bass tuba, 125
+
+Bass viol, 118
+
+Ben (_behn_), 42
+
+Ben marcato (_mahr-kah'-to_), 42
+
+Berceuse (_behr-soos'_), 95
+
+Binary form, 95
+
+Binary measure, 95
+
+Bis (_bees_), 96
+
+Bolero (_bo-leh'-ro_), 71
+
+Bourree (_boo-reh'_), 71
+
+Brace, 96
+
+Brass instruments, 116
+
+Brillante (_breel-ahn'-teh_), 55
+
+Broken chord, 96
+
+Broken octave, 96
+
+
+Cacophony (_kak-of'-o-ny_), 96
+
+Cadence, 89
+
+Cadenza, 96
+
+Calando (_kah-lahn'-do_), 59
+
+Cancel, 3, 8
+
+Cantabile (_kahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 96
+
+Cantando (_kakn-tahn'-do_), 96
+
+Canto (_kahn'-to_), 96
+
+Cantus firmus, 64
+
+Canon, 64
+
+Cantata (_kahn-tah'-tah_), 77
+
+Carol, 96
+
+Catch, 96
+
+C clef 3, 6
+
+Cello (_chel'-lo_), 118
+
+Chaconne (_shah-con'_), 71
+
+Chamber music, 72
+
+Chanterelle (_shong-tah-rel'_), 117
+
+Chinese scale, 27
+
+Choral, 76
+
+Chords def. and lands, 87
+  inversions of, 88
+  common, 87
+  seventh, 89
+  dominant seventh, 92
+
+Chromatic, 96
+
+Chromatic scale, 38
+
+Clarinet, 121
+
+Classes of instruments in orchestra, 115
+
+Clavichord, 96
+
+Clefs, 3, 5
+
+Close position, 94
+
+Coda, 70
+
+Coi (_co'-ee_), 42
+
+Col, 42
+
+Colla, 42
+
+Colla parte (_par'-teh_), 96
+
+Colla voce (_vo'-cheh_), 96
+
+Colle, 42
+
+Collo, 42
+
+Coloratura singing, 79, 96
+
+Coll'ottava (_ot-tah'-vah_), 15
+
+Combination pedals, 115
+
+Come (_koh'-meh_), 42
+
+Come primo (_pree'-mo_), 42
+
+Common chords, 87
+
+Compound measure, 45
+
+Compound duple measure, 45
+
+Con, 42
+
+Con alcuna licenza (_ahl-koo'-nah lee-chen'-tsah_), 59
+
+Con amore (_ah-mo'-reh_), 42, 59
+
+Con anima (_ah'-nee-mah_), 55
+
+Con bravura (_brah-voo'-rah_), 59
+
+Con celerita (_che-leh'-ree-tah_), 59
+
+Concerto (_con-cher'-to_), 72
+
+Concert pitch, 138
+
+Con delicato (_deh-lee-cah'-to_), 59
+
+Con energico (_en-er-jee'-ko_), 59
+
+Con espressione (_es-pres-see-o'-neh_), 59
+
+Con forza (_fort'-za_), 60
+
+Con fuoco (_foo-o'-ko_), 60
+
+Con grand' espressione (_grahnd' es-pres-see-o'-neh_), 60
+
+Con grazia (_grahts-yah_), 60
+
+Con melinconia (or malinconia) (_-leen-ko'-ne-eh_), 60
+
+Con moto, 55
+
+Con passione (_pas-se-o'-neh_), 60
+
+Consequent, 67
+
+Consonance, 96
+
+Con spirito (_spe'-ree-to_), 60
+
+Con tenerezza (_teh-neh-ret'-za_), 60
+
+Continuous form, 80
+
+Contra, 42
+
+Contra bass tuba, 126
+
+Contra octave, 16
+
+Contralto, 96
+
+Con variazione (_vah-ri-ah-tsi-o'-neh_), 96
+
+Cornet, 124
+
+Counterpoint, def., 64, 62, 82
+
+Courante (_koo-rahnt'_), 71
+
+Crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 57
+
+Crescendo al fortissimo, 58
+
+Crescendo ed affrettando (_ahf-fret-tahn'-do_), 58
+
+Crescendo ed animando poco a poco (_ah-ni-mahn'-do_), 58
+
+Crescendo e diminuendo (_eh de-me-noo-en'-do_), 58
+
+Crescendo molto (_mohl'-to_), 58
+
+Crescendo poco a poco, 58
+
+Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine (_seen ahl fee'-neh_), 58
+
+Crescendo poi diminuendo (_po'-ee dee-mee-noo-en'-do_), 58
+
+Crescendo subito (_soo'-bee-to_), 58
+
+Cross-stroke, 1, 2
+
+Csardas (_tsar'-dahs_), 71
+
+
+Da (_dah_), 42
+
+Da capo (_kah'-po_), 13
+
+Dal segno (_sehn'-yo_), 13
+
+Dances, 71
+
+Dash over note, 17, 20
+
+Decrescendo (_deh-kreh-shen'-do_), 58
+
+Decrescendo al pianissimo (_ahl pee-ahn-is'-si-mo_), 58
+
+Degrees of staff, 5
+
+Delicato (_deh-lee-kah'-to_), 60
+
+Descriptive music, 74
+
+Di (_dee_), 42
+
+Diatonic condition, 7
+
+Diatonic scale, 28
+
+Di bravura (_brah-voo'-rah_), 42
+
+Diminuendo (_dee-mee-noo-en'-do_), 58
+
+Di molto (_mohl'-to_), 42
+
+Direct, 96
+
+Dirge, 97
+
+Discord, 97
+
+Dissonance (_dis'_), 97
+
+Divisi (_di-ve'-ze_), 97
+
+Dolce (_dohl'-cheh_), 60
+
+Dolce e cantabile (_eh kahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 60
+
+Dolcissimo (_dohl-chis'-see-mo_), 60
+
+Dolente (_do-len'-teh_), 60
+
+Dominant, 36
+
+Dominant Seventh, 92
+
+Doloroso (_do-lo-ro'-so_), 60
+
+Doppio (_dop'-pee-o_), 42
+
+Doppio movimento (_mo-vi-men'-to_), 55
+
+Dot--where placed, 3
+  uses of, 17
+  with slur or tie, 20
+  with dash, 20
+
+Double bar, 12
+
+Double bass, 118
+
+Double bassoon, 121
+
+Double flat, 3, 7
+
+Double mordent, 23
+
+Double sharp, 3, 7
+
+Doublet, 20
+
+Duet, 97
+
+Duple measure, 46
+
+Dynamics, 56
+
+
+E (_eh_), 42
+
+Ecole (_eh'-kole_), 97
+
+Ed, 42
+
+Eight-foot stop, 114
+
+Elements of music, 82
+
+Embellishments, 22
+
+English names for notes, 11
+
+English horn, 121
+
+Enharmonic, def., 10
+
+Enharmonic scale, 32
+
+Enharmonic tie, 18
+
+Ensemble (_ong-sombl_), 42
+
+Equal temperament, 137
+
+E poi la coda (_eh-po'-ee_), 14
+
+Espressivo (_ehs-pres-see'-vo_), 60
+
+Et, 42
+
+Etto, 42
+
+Etude, 97
+
+Euphony (_yu'-fo-ny_), 97
+
+Even measure, 46
+
+
+Facile (_fah-chee'-leh_), 97
+
+Fanfare (_fahn'-fehr_), 97
+
+Fantasia (_fahn-tah-ze'-ah_), 97
+
+F Clef, 3, 5, 6
+
+Fermata (_fehr-mah'-ta_), 14, 15
+
+Fiasco (_fe-ahs'-ko_), 97
+
+Figured bass, 89
+
+Fine (_fee'-neh_), 13
+
+Five-lined octave, 16
+
+Flat, 3, 7
+
+Flute, 119
+
+Folk-song, 81
+
+Form, def., 62
+  binary, 95
+
+Forte (_for'-teh_), 56
+
+Forte piano (_pee-ah'-no_), 56
+
+Forte possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 43
+
+Fortissimo, 56
+
+Fortissimo possibile (_pos-see-bee-leh_), 56
+
+Fortisissimo, 56
+
+Forzando (_for-tsahn'-do_), 57
+
+Forzato (_for-tsah'-to_), 57
+
+Four-foot stop, 114
+
+Four-lined octave, 16
+
+Free imitation, 64
+
+French horn, 123
+
+French pitch designations, 6
+
+Fugue, 66
+
+Fundamental, 135
+
+
+Gamut (_gam'-ut_), 97
+
+Gavotte (_gah-vot'_), 71
+
+G Clef, 3, 5, 6
+
+General pause, 15
+
+German pitch designation, 6
+
+Gigue (_zheeg_), 71
+
+Giocoso (_jee-o-ko'-so_), 60
+
+Giojoso (_jee-o-yo'-so_), 60
+
+Glee, 81
+
+Glissando (_glis-sahn'-do_), 97
+
+Graces, 22
+
+Grandioso (_grahn-dee-o'-so_), 60
+
+Grand sonata, 74
+
+Grave (_grah'-veh_), 50
+
+Grazioso (_grah-tsi-o'-so_), 60
+
+Great octave, 16
+
+Great staff, 5
+
+Grosse pause (_gros-seh pah-oo'-za_) or (_gros-seh pow-zeh_), 15
+
+Gruppetto (_groo-pet'-to_), 22
+
+
+Habanera (_hah-bah-neh'-rah_), 71
+
+Half-step, 83
+
+Harmonic minor scale, 33
+
+Harmonics, 136
+
+Harmonics on violin, 117
+
+Harmony, 82
+
+Harp, 129
+
+Harpsichord, 97
+
+Head of note, 1
+
+Hold, 15
+
+Homophonic style, 63
+
+Hook, 1
+
+Humoresque (_hoo-mo-resk'_), 97
+
+Hymn to St. John, 37
+
+
+Idyl, 97
+
+Il (_eel_), 42
+
+Il basso (_bahs'-so_), 42
+
+Il piu (_pee'-oo_), 42
+
+Il piu forte possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 42
+
+Imitation, 64
+
+Imperfect trill, 23
+
+In alt (_in ahlt_), 97
+
+In altissimo (_ahl-tis'-si-mo_), 97
+
+Ino (_ee'-no_), 42
+
+Instrumentation, 97
+
+Instruments, classification of, 112
+
+Intensity of tones, 135
+
+Interlude, 97
+
+Intermediate tones, 38
+  see "Chromatic," p. 96
+
+International pitch, 138
+
+Interval, def., 83
+  enharmonic, 10
+  harmonic, 83
+  melodic, 83
+  names of, 83
+
+Inversion, in thematic development, 69
+
+Inversions of chords, 88
+
+Inverted mordent, 23
+
+Inverted turn, 25
+
+Issimo, 42
+
+
+Kettle-drum, 126
+
+Key, def., 28
+  signature, 8
+  enharmonic keys, 10
+  key-tone, 27, 28
+  how different from scale, 28
+
+
+L, 42
+
+La (_lah_), 42
+
+Lacrimando (_lah-kri-mahn'-do_), 60
+
+Lacrimoso (_lah-kri-mo'-so_), 60
+
+Largamente (_lar-gah-men'-teh_), 42
+
+Largando (_lar-gahn'-do_), 53
+
+Larghetto (_lar-get'-to_), 50
+
+Largo, 50
+
+Largo assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52
+
+Largo di molto (_de mohl'-to_), 52
+
+Largo ma non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 52
+
+Largo un poco (_oon po'-co_), 52
+
+Le (_leh_), 42
+
+Leading tone, 33, 36
+
+Legato (_leh-gah'-to_), 18, 60
+
+Leger lines, 5
+
+Leggierissimo (_led-jah-ris'-si-mo_), 60
+
+Leggiero (_led-jee'-ro_), 60
+
+Lentando (_len-tahn'-do_), 52
+
+Lentemente (_len-tah-men'-teh_), 52
+
+Lentissimamente (_-men'-teh_), 52
+
+Lentissamente (_-men'-teh_), 52
+
+Lento, 50
+
+Lento a capriccio (_ah-cah-preet'-chee-o_), 52
+
+Lento assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52
+
+Lento di molto (_de mohl'-to_), 52
+
+Libretto (_lee-bret'-to_), 78
+
+Lied (_leed_), 80
+
+L'istesso tempo (_lis-tes'-so_), 42, 55
+
+Loco, 15, 97
+
+Long appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too'-rah_), 25
+
+Lower tetrachord, 29
+
+Lunga pausa (_loong-ah pow'-zeh_) or (_loon-gah pah-oo'-za_), 15
+
+Lunga trillo, 97
+
+Lusingando (_loos-in-gahn'-do_), 60
+
+Lyric, 98
+
+
+Madrigal (_mad'-ri-gal_), 81
+
+Maesta (_mah'-es-tah_), 60
+
+Maestoso (_mah-es-to'-so_), 60
+
+Maggiore (_mahd-jo'-reh_), 98
+
+Main droite (_mahng droa_), 20
+
+Main gauche (_mahng gowsh_), 20
+
+Major key, 8
+
+Major scale, def., 29
+  positions, 30
+  origin of name, 33
+
+Mancando (_mahn-kahn'-do_), 59
+
+Mano destra (_mah'-no dehs'-trah_), 20
+
+Mano sinistra (_si-nees'-trah_), 20
+
+Marcato il canto (_mar-kah'-to eel kahn'-to_), 98
+
+Martellando (_mar-tel-lahn'-do_), 59
+
+Martellato (_mar-tel-lah'-to_), 59
+
+Marziale (_mart-se-ah'-leh_), 59
+
+Mass, 77
+
+Mazurka (_mah-zoor'-ka_), 71
+
+Measure, def., 44
+  how differs from "bar," 12
+  how differs from "rhythm," 44
+  syncopation in, 44
+  simple and compound, 45
+  duple or even, 46
+  triple or perfect, 46
+  quadruple, 46
+  sextuple, 46
+  compound duple, 46
+  signature, 48
+  binary, 95
+
+Mediant, 36
+
+Mellifluous (_mel-lif'-loo-us_), 98
+
+Melodic minor scales, 34
+
+Melody, 82
+
+Melos (_meh'-los_), 98
+
+Meno (_meh'-no_), 42
+
+Meno mosso (_mos'-so_), 53
+
+Mente (_men'-teh_), 42
+
+Menuet (_meh-noo-eh'_), 98
+
+Menuetto (_meh-noo-et'-to_), 98
+
+Messa di voce (_mes'-sa dee vo'-cheh_), 21
+
+Mesto (_mehs'-to_), 60
+
+Metronome, 49
+
+Mezza (_med'-zah_), 42
+
+Mezzo (_med'-zo_), 42
+
+Mezzo forte (_for'-teh_), 42, 56
+
+Mezzo piano (_pe-ah'-no_), 56
+
+Mezzo soprano (_so-prah'-no_), 98
+
+Mezzo voce (_vo'-cheh_), 60
+
+Minor key, 8
+
+Minore (_me-no'-reh_), 98
+
+Minor scale, def., 33
+  positions, 34
+
+Minuet, 71
+
+Misterioso (_mis-teh-ri-o'-so_), 60
+
+Moderato (_mod-e-rah'-to_), 51
+
+Modulation, def., 92
+  enharmonic, 10
+
+Molto (_mohl'-to_), 42
+
+Molto crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 42
+
+Monophonic style, 63, 67
+
+Mordent, 22, 23
+
+Morendo (_mo-ren'-do_), 59
+
+Moriente (_mo-ri-en'-teh_), 59
+
+Motet (_mo-tet'_), 76
+
+Movable C Clef, 6
+
+Mute, 117
+
+
+Natural, 3, 8
+
+Natural condition of staff-degrees, 8
+
+Nel, 42
+
+Nel battere (_baht-teh'-reh_), 42
+
+Nella, 42
+
+Neumae (_neoo'-mee_), 104
+
+Nocturne, 98
+
+Non (_non_), 42
+
+Non tanto (_tahn'-to_), 42
+
+Non tanto allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 53
+
+Non troppo allegro (_trop'-po_), 53
+
+Notation, history of music, 101
+
+Notes, def., 10
+  kinds of, 11
+  English names for, 11
+  dotted, 17
+  staccato, 17
+  irregular note-groups, 19
+  parts of, 1
+  how made, 1
+
+Nuance (_noo-angs_), 98
+
+
+Obbligato (_ob-blee-gah'-to_), 98
+
+Oboe (_o'-bo_), 121
+
+Octave, def., 36
+
+Octaves, names of, 16
+
+Offertory, 98
+
+One-lined octave, 16
+
+Open position, 94
+
+Opera, 78
+
+Opus, 98
+
+Oratorio, 77
+
+Orchestra, 115
+
+Orchestration, 98
+
+Organ, reed, 113
+  pipe, 114
+  point, 98
+
+Original minor scale, 33
+
+Origin of scale, 28
+
+Ossia (_os'-see-ah_), 42, 98
+
+Ossia piu facile (_pe-oo' fah-chee'-leh_), 42
+
+Overtones, 136
+
+Overture, 98
+
+
+Parlando (_par-lahn'-do_), 60
+
+Part song, 81
+
+Pastorale (_pas-to-rah'-leh_), 60
+
+Pedal point, 93
+
+Pentatonic scale, 27
+
+Per (_pehr_), 42
+
+Percussion instruments, 116
+
+Perdendo (_pehr-den'-do_), 59
+
+Perdendosi (_pehr-den-do'-see_), 59
+
+Perfect measure, 46
+
+Perfect trill, 23
+
+Per il violino (_eel ve-o-le'-no_), 42
+
+Period, 67
+
+Pesante (_peh-sahn'-teh_), 55
+
+Peu (_peuh_), 42
+
+Phrase, 67
+
+Phrase mark, 18
+
+Pianissimo (_pee-ahn-is'-si-mo_), 56
+
+Pianissimo possibile (_pos-see'-bee'-leh_), 56
+
+Pianisissimo (_pee-ahn-is-is'-si-mo_), 56
+
+Piano (_pee-ah'-no_), 56
+
+Piano assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 56
+
+Piano, description of, 112
+
+Piccolo (_pik'-ko-lo_), 119
+
+Pipe organ, 114
+
+Pitch, def., 134
+  pitch names, 6
+  standards of, 137
+  concert pitch, 138
+  international pitch, 138
+
+Piu (_pe-oo'_), 42
+
+Piu allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 54
+
+Piu forte (for'-teh), 42
+
+Piu lento, 53
+
+Piu mosso (_mos'-so_), 54
+
+Piu tosto (_tos'-to_), 54
+
+Pizzicato (_pits-e-kah'-to_), 99, 117
+
+Pochetto (_po-ket'-to_), see ino, 42
+
+Poco, 43
+
+Poco a poco animando (_ah-nee-mahn'-do_), 54
+
+Poi (_po' ee_), 42
+
+Polacca (_po-lahk'-kah_), 99
+
+Polka, 69
+
+Polonaise (_pol-o-nez'_), 71, 99
+
+Polyphonic style, 64
+
+Pomposo (_pom-po'-so_), 60
+
+Portamento (_por'-tah-men'-to_), 20
+
+Position, open and close, 94
+
+Possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 43
+
+Postlude, 99
+
+Prall trill, 22
+
+Precipitoso (_preh-che-pi-to'-so_), 60
+
+Prelude, 99
+
+Prestissimo (_pres-tis'-see-mo_), 51
+
+Prestissimo possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 51
+
+Presto, 51
+
+Presto assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 53
+
+Presto (ma) non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 53
+
+Priere (_pre-ehr'_), 99
+
+Primary forms, 68
+
+Primitive minor scale, 33
+
+Program music, 74
+
+Pure music, 74
+
+Pure scale, 40
+
+
+Quadruple measure, 46
+
+Quality, 136
+
+Quartet, 72
+
+Quasi (_quah'-see_), 43
+
+Quintole (_kwin'-to-leh_), 99
+
+Quintolet, 20
+
+Quintuplet, 20, 99
+
+
+Raised sixth, 34
+
+Rallentando (_rahl-len-tahn'-do_), 53
+
+Rapidamente (_rah-pid-a-men'-teh_), 55
+
+Rate of speed, of sound, 132
+
+Recitative (_res-i-tah-teev'_), 78
+
+Recitativo (_reh-chee-ta-tee'-vo_), 60
+
+Reed organ, 113
+
+Relative minor, 8, 35
+
+Religioso (_reh-lee-jo'-so_), 99
+
+Repetition and contrast, 62, 70
+
+Requiem (_re'-kwi-em_), 99
+
+Rests, def., 10
+  rules for making, 2
+  kinds of, 11
+  peculiar use of, 11
+  several measures of, 14
+
+Retardation, 93
+
+Rhapsody, 99
+
+Rhythm, def., 82
+  element of music, 82
+  how differs from "measure," 44
+  correct use of word, 48
+
+Rhythmic augmentation, 69
+
+Rhythmic diminution, 69
+
+Rhythmic figures, 44
+
+Ribattuta (_re-baht-too'-tah_), 99
+
+Rigaudon (_rig'-o-don_), 71
+
+Rinforzando (_rin-for-tsahn'-do_), 57
+
+Rinforzato (_rin-for-tsah'-to_), 57
+
+Risoluto (_ree-so-loo'-to_), 60
+
+Ritardando (_ree-tar-dahn'-do_), 53
+
+Ritenente (_ree-ten-en'-teh_), 53
+
+Ritenuto (_ree-ten-oo'-to_), 53
+
+Ritornelle (_ree-tor-nell'_), 99
+
+Ritornello (_ree-tor-nel'-lo_), 99
+
+Rondo, 70, 71
+
+Rules:
+  For writing music, 1, 2
+  For turning stems, 1, 2
+  For altered staff degrees, 10
+  For embellishments, 22-26
+  For repeats, 13, 14
+  For writing chromatic scale, 38
+
+
+Sans (_sahng_), 43
+
+Sans pedales (_peh-da-leh_), 43
+
+Sarabande (_sar-ah-bahn'-deh_), 71
+
+Sarrusophone (_sar-reoos-o-fohn'_), 123
+
+Saxhorn, p. 125 (footnote)
+
+Saxophone, 121
+
+Scales, def., 27
+  origin, 28
+  how different from keys, 28
+  positions of:
+    major, 30
+    minor, 34
+    chromatic, 38
+  tones of, called, 5, 36, 37
+  Chinese, 27
+  Scotch, 27
+
+Scherzando (_skehr-tsahn'-do_), 60
+
+Scherzo (_skehr'-tso_), 71, 72
+
+Scherzoso (_skehr-tzo'-so_), 60
+
+School-round, 66
+
+Schottische (_shot'-tish_), 99
+
+Score, 99
+
+Scotch scale, 27
+
+Sec (_sek_), 99
+
+Secco (_sek'-ko_), 99
+
+Section, 67
+
+Segue (_sehg'-weh_), 14
+
+Semplice (_sem-plee'-cheh_), 60
+
+Sempre (_sem'-preh_), 43
+
+Sempre forte (_for'-teh_), 43
+
+Sempre lento malinconico assai (_mah-leen-ko'-ni-ko ahs-sah'-ee_), 55
+
+Sempre marcatissimo (_mar-kah-tis'-si-mo_), 60
+
+Sentimento (_sen-tee-men'-to_), 60
+
+Senza (_sen-tza_), 42
+
+Senza accompagnamento (_ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-toh_), 42
+
+Senza repetizione (_reh-peh-titz-e-o'-neh_), 14, 99
+
+Senza replica (_reh'-ple-kah_), 99
+
+Septimole, 20
+
+Septolet, 20
+
+Sequence, 91
+
+Serenade, 99
+
+Serenata (_seh-re-nah'-tah_), 99
+
+Seventh chord, 89
+
+Sextet, 99
+
+Sextolet, 20
+
+Sextuple measure, 46
+
+Sextuplet, 20, 100
+
+Sforzando (_sfortz-ahn'-do_), 57
+
+Sforzato (_sfortz-ah'-to_), 57
+
+Shake, 22
+
+Sharp, 3, 7
+
+Short appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too-rah_), 25
+
+Simile (_see'-mee-leh_), 14, 100
+
+Similiter (_see-mil'-i-ter_), 100
+
+Simple measure, 45
+
+Simple tone, 137
+
+Sin (_seen_), 43
+
+Sin al fine (_ahl-fee'-neh_), 14
+
+Sino (_see'-no_), 43
+
+Sixteen-foot stop, 114
+
+Sixty-four-foot stop, 114
+
+Slentando (_slen-tahn'-do_), 53
+
+Slur, 18
+
+Small octave, 16
+
+Smorzando (_smor-tzahn'-do_), 59
+
+Solenne (_so-len'-neh_), 59
+
+Solfege (_sul-fezh'_), 100
+
+Solfeggio (_sol-fed'-jo_), 100
+
+Solmization, 100
+
+Solo, 43
+
+Sonata (_so-nah'-tah_), 71
+
+Sonata allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 73
+
+Sonata form, 73
+
+Sonatina (_so-na-tee'-nah_), 74
+
+Song form, 68
+
+Sopra (_so'-prah_), 100
+
+Soprano (_so-prah'-no_), 100
+
+Sordino (_sor-dee'-no_), 117
+
+Sostenuto (_sos-teh-noo'-to_), 100
+
+Sotto (_sot'-to_), 100
+
+Sotto voce (_vo'-cheh_), 59
+
+Sound, App. C, 131
+  Production of, 131
+  Transmission of, 131
+  Rate of travel of, 131
+  Intensification of, 133
+  Reflection of, 133
+  Classification of, 133
+
+Spiritoso (_spee-ree-to'-so_), 60
+
+Staccatissimo (_stahk-kah-tis'-si-mo_), 17
+
+Staccato (_stahk-kah'-to_), 17, 20, 100
+
+Staff, 5
+
+Staff degrees, 5
+
+Standards of pitch, 137
+
+Stems, 1
+
+Step, half and whole, 83
+
+Strepitoso (_streh-pee-to'-so_), 61
+
+Stretto (_stret'-to_), 54
+
+Strict imitation, 64
+
+Stringed instruments, 115
+
+Stringendo (_strin-jen'-do_), 54
+
+Stroking notes, 2
+
+Strophe form (_stro'-feh_), 80
+
+Styles, kinds of, 63
+  how differ from forms, 62
+
+Sub, 43
+
+Sub-dominant, 36
+
+Subject, 64
+
+Subito (_soo-bee'-to_), 100
+
+Sub-mediant, 36
+
+Sub-octave, 16
+
+Suite (_sweet_), 70
+
+Super-dominant, 36
+
+Super-tonic, 36
+
+Suspension, 92
+
+Swell-box, 114
+
+Syllables for sight-singing, 37
+
+Symphonic poem, 75
+
+Symphony, def., 73
+
+Syncopation, 44
+
+
+Tail of note, 1
+
+Takt pausa (_tahkt pow'-zeh_ or _pah-oo'-za_), 11
+
+Tanto (_tahn'-to_), 43
+
+Tarantella (_tah-rahn-tel'-lah_), 71
+
+Tempered scales, 137
+
+Tempo, 48-50
+
+Tempo commodo (_ko-mo'-do_), 55
+
+Tempo di marcia (_de mar'-chee-ah_), 55
+
+Tempo di menuetto (_meh-noo-et'-to_), 55
+
+Tempo di valso (_vahl'-so_), 55
+
+Tempo giusto (_jew-sto_), 54
+
+Tempo ordinario (_or-dee-nah'-ree-o_), 55
+
+Tempo primo (_pree'-mo_), 54
+
+Tempo rubato (_roo-bah'-to_), 54
+
+Tenor, 100
+
+Tenuto (_teh-noo'-to_), 55, 100
+
+Terminology Reforms, App. D., p. 139
+
+Tetrachords in scales, 29
+
+Thematic development, 69
+
+Theme, 69
+
+Theme and variations, 69
+
+Thesis, 67
+
+Thirty-two-foot stop, 114
+
+Thorough-bass, 89
+
+Three-lined octave, 16
+
+Through-composed form, 80
+
+Tie, 18
+
+Timbre (_tambr_), 82
+
+Time, wrong uses of word, 48
+
+Toccata (_tok-kah'-tah_), 100
+
+Tonality scale, 27, 28, 38
+
+Tone, how represented, 10
+  ornamental tone, 22
+  key-tone, 27
+  of resolution, 93
+
+Tone-poem, 75
+
+Tonic, 36
+
+Tonic minor, 36
+
+Tranquillo (_trahn-quil'-lo_), 61
+
+Transposition, 94
+
+Tre (_treh_), 43
+
+Treble staff, 6
+
+Tre corde (_kor'-deh_), 43, 59
+
+Tres (_treh_), 43
+
+Tres lentement (_lahng-te-mahng_), 52
+
+Tres vivement (_ve'-veh-mahng_), 42
+
+Triad, def., 87, 88
+
+Trill, 22
+
+Trio, 72
+
+Triple measure, 46
+
+Triplet, 19, 100
+
+Tristamente (_tris-tah-men'-teh_), 61
+
+Trombone, 125
+
+Troppo (_trop'-po_), 43
+
+Trumpet, 124
+
+Tuba, 125
+
+Turn, 24, 25
+
+Tutte le corde (_toot'-teh leh kor'-deh_), 59
+
+Tutti (_toot'-tee_), 100
+
+Two-foot stop, 114
+
+Two-lined octave, 16
+
+
+Un (_oon_), 43
+
+Una (_oo'-nah_), 43
+
+Una corda, 43, 59
+
+Uno (_oo'-no_), 43
+
+Un peu (_oon peuh_), 43
+
+Un peu crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 43
+
+Un poco animate (_ah-ni-mah-'to_), 54
+
+Untempered scale, 40
+
+Upper partials, 136
+
+Upper tetrachord, 29
+
+
+Veloce (_veh-lo'-cheh_), 55
+
+Viola (_vee-o'-lah_), 117
+
+Violin, 117
+
+Violoncello (_vee-o-lohn-chel'-lo_), 118
+
+Vivo (_vee'-vo_), 51
+
+Vivace (_vee-vah'-cheh_), 51
+
+Vivacissimo (_vee-vah-chis'-see-mo_), 51
+
+Vocal music, 76
+
+Volante (_vo-lahn'-teh_), 55
+
+
+Waltz, 68
+
+Whole-step, 83
+
+Whole-step scale, 28, 40
+
+Wood-wind instruments, 115
+
+
+
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