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diff --git a/19499.txt b/19499.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..191839b --- /dev/null +++ b/19499.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8076 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Music Notation and Terminology, by Karl W. +Gehrkens + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Music Notation and Terminology + + +Author: Karl W. Gehrkens + + + +Release Date: October 8, 2006 [eBook #19499] +[Most recently updated: February 14, 2011] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY*** + + +E-text prepared by David Newman, Linda Cantoni, and the Project Gutenberg +Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/). Thanks to +Alex Guzman for the realization of the figured bass in Figure 67, and to +Bunji Hisamori and the Classical Midi Connection +(http://www.classicalmidiconnection.com) for the MIDI sequence of the +Beethoven Sonata Op. 31, No. 3. + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file + which includes the original illustrations and also audio + files to which the reader can listen. + See 19499-h.htm or 19499-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/9/19499/19499-h/19499-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/9/19499/19499-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's note: + + In this e-text, a superscript is indicated by a carat (^) + and a subscript by a single underscore (_). + Italics are indicated by two underscores, e.g. _larghetto_. + The Czech r (with its diacritical) is represented by [vr], + e.g. Dvo[vr]ak.] + + + + + +MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY + +by + +KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M. + +Associate Professor of School Music +Oberlin Conservatory of Music + + + + + + + +[Illustration: [publisher logo]] + + + +The A. S. Barnes Company +New York 1914 +Copyright, 1914, by +The A. S. Barnes Company + + + + +PREFACE + + +The study of _music notation and terminology_ by classes in +conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools +is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such +courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which +might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the +really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in +music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the +present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more +systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more +_intelligent_ class of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to +establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after +having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a +concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most +of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of +which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps +knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly +and economically to others. + +To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the +author has been for several years gathering material from all available +sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in +related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only +some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but +will also enable him to see more clearly _why_ certain terms have the +meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the +derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their +definition. + +The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of +terms has of course been influenced largely by the author's own +individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that +important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For +this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would +probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would +satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms. + +In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to +use such words as _note_, _tone_, et cetera with at least a fair degree +of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author on this point may be +criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his +opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be +profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been +inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large +extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is +well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of +edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually +begin to come, the _need_ of reform must be felt by a fairly large +number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few +musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the +changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful +thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points +at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought +to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and +that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree. + +It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the +teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms +studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter +purpose a pronouncing index has been appended. + +It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have +been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear +and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt +or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an +almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove's +Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the +arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H. +Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox, +Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice, +Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of +the Music Teachers' National Association who have offered valuable +advice along certain specific lines. + +K.W.G. + +OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC, _June, 1913_ + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER I.--Some Principles of Correct Notation 1 + 1. Note. + 2, 3. Rules for turning stems. + 4. Use of cross-stroke. + 5. Rest. + 6. G Clef. + 7. F Clef and C Clef. + 8. Sharp and double-sharp. + 9. Flat, double-flat and natural. + 10. Tie. + 11. Dot after a note. + +CHAPTER II.--Symbols of Music Defined 5 + 12. Staff and Great Staff. + 13. Leger Lines. + 14. Staff degrees. + 15. Clef. + 16. Treble and bass Clefs. + 17. Movable C Clef. + 18. Sharp. + 19. Flat. + 20. Double-sharp and double-flat. + +CHAPTER III.--Symbols of Music Defined (_continued_) 8 + 21. Natural + 22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key. + 24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar. + 26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees. + 27. Enharmonic. + 28. Notes; pitch and length of tones. + 29. Rests. + 30. Lists of notes and rests. + 31. English names for. + 32. Less common forms. + 33. Whole rest, peculiar use of. + 34. Bar. + 35. Double-bar. + +CHAPTER IV.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc. 13 + 36-40. Signs for repetition. + 41. Continuation. + 42. Rest. + 43. Pause. + 44. Hold. + 45-47. Alteration of Pitch. + 48. Octave names. + +CHAPTER V.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (_continued_) 17 + 49-51. Dots after notes. + 52. Dots over or under notes. + 53. Dash over note. + 54. Tie. + 55. Slur. + 56. Slur or tie with dots. + 57. Dash over note. + 58. Dash and dot over note. + 59. Accent marks. + 60. m.d., m.g., etc. + 61. Arpeggio. + 62. Messa di voce. + 63. Violin bow signs. + +CHAPTER VI.--Embellishments 22 + 64. Definition and kinds. + 65. Trill. + 66-68. Mordent. + 69-72. Turn. + 73, 74. Appoggiatura. + 75. Acciaccatura. + +CHAPTER VII.--Scales 27 + 76. Definition, and old forms. + 77. Origin. + 78. Key. + 79. Three general classes. + 80. Diatonic, defined. + 81. Major diatonic. + 82. Tetrachords. + 83. The fifteen positions. + +CHAPTER VIII.--Scales (_continued_) 33 + 84. Minor diatonic. + 85. Original form. + 86. Harmonic minor. + 87. Melodic minor. + 88. Eleven positions. + 89. Relative minor. + 90. Tonic minor. + 91. Diatonic scale names. + 92. Syllable-names. + 93. Chromatic scale. + 94. Nine positions. + 95. Whole-step scale. + +CHAPTER IX.--Auxiliary Words and Endings 42 + +CHAPTER X.--Measure 44 + 97. Definition.--Two essential characteristics. + Rhythm vers measure. + 98. Syncopation. + 99. Simple and compound measures. + 100. Commonest varieties. + 101. Other varieties. + 102. Rare varieties. + 103. The signs, C and [cut-time symbol]. + +CHAPTER XI.--Tempo 48 + 104. Misuses of the word "time." + 105-107. How to correct these: by substituting "rhythm," "measure," + and "tempo." + 108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo. + 109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms. + +CHAPTER XII.--Tempo (_continued_) 52 + 110-119. Tempo-terms. + +CHAPTER XIII.--Dynamics 56 + 120-131. Terms relating to dynamics. + +CHAPTER XIV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles 62 + 132. Definition of form. + 133. Basis of form. + 134. Difference between form and style. + 135. Introductory. + 136. Two styles. + 137. Monophonic music. + 138. Polyphonic music. + 139. Counterpoint. + 140. Imitation. + 141. Canon. + 142. School round. + 143. Fugue. + +CHAPTER XV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (_continued_) 67 + 144. Phrase-section. + 145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent. + 146. Primary forms. + 147. Theme. + 148. Thematic development. + 149. Rondo. + 150. Suite. + 151. Dances in suite. + 152. Scherzo. + 153. Sonata. + 154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music. + 155. Concerto. + 156. Symphony. + 157. Sonata-form. + 158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata. + 159. Program music. + 160. Symphonic or tone poem. + +CHAPTER XVI.--Terms Relating to Vocal Music 76 + 161. Anthem. + 162. A capella. + 163. Motet. + 164. Choral. + 165. Mass. + 166. Cantata. + 167. Oratorio. + 168. Opera. + 169. Libretto. + 170. Recitative. + 171. Aria. + 172. Lied. + 173. Ballad. + 174. Folk-song. + 175. Madrigal. + 176. Glee. + 177. Part-song. + +CHAPTER XVII.--Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals 82 + 178. The four elements of music. + 179. Rhythm. + 180. Melody. + 181. Harmony. + 182. Timbre. + 183. Interval--harmonic and melodic. + 184. Number name and specific name. + 185. Prime. + 186. Second. + 187. Third. + 188. Fourth. + 189. Fifth. + 190. Sixth. + 191. Seventh. + 192. Octave. + 193. Ninth. + 194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals. + 195. Inverted intervals. + +CHAPTER XVIII.--Chords, Cadences, etc. 87 + 196. Chord. Triad. Root. + 197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads. + 198. The Common chords. + 199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion. + 200. Figured bass. + 201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord. + 202. Cadence. + 203. Authentic cadence. + 204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic. + 205. Plagal cadence. + 206. Half-cadence. + 207. Deceptive cadence. + 208. Sequence. + 209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh. + 210. Suspension. + 211. Retardation. + 212. Anticipation. + 213. Pedal point. + 214. Close and open position. + 215. Transposition. + +CHAPTER XIX.--Miscellaneous Terms 95 + +CHAPTER XX.--Miscellaneous Terms (_continued_) 98 + +APPENDIX A.--The History of Music Notation 101 + +APPENDIX B.--Musical Instruments 112 + 1. Two classes. + 2. Piano. + 3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe. + 5. Instruments used for ensemble playing. + 6. Band. + 7. Orchestra. + 8. The stringed instruments. + 9. Wood-wind. + 10. Brass. + 11. Percussion. + 12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra. + 13. Books recommended. + 14. Violin. + 15. Viola. + 16. Violoncello. + 17. Double-bass. + 18. Flute. + 19. Piccolo. + 20. Oboe family. + 21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone. + 22. French horn. + 23. Trumpet. + 24. Cornet. + 25. Trombone. + 26. Tuba. + 27. Kettle-drum. + 28. Harp. + +APPENDIX C.--Acoustics 131 + 1. Definition. + 2. Sound, production of. + 3. Sound, transmission of. + 4. Rate of travel. + 5. Intensification of. + 6. Classification of. + 7. Tones, properties of. + 8. Pitch. + 9. Intensity. + 10. Quality. + 11. Overtones. + 12. Equal temperament. + 13. Standards of pitch. + +APPENDIX D.--Terminology Reform 139 + +APPENDIX E.--Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3 149 + +PRONOUNCING INDEX 159 + + + + +CHAPTER I + +SOME PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT NOTATION + + +1. The _note_ (from _nota_--Latin--a mark or sign) consists of either +one, two, or three parts, ([Illustration]) these being referred to +respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called _tail_ or +cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned +up, but on the left side when turned down.[1] [Illustration] The hook is +always on the right side.[2] [Illustration] + +[Footnote 1: It should be noted at the outset that this statement +regarding the down-turned stem on the left side of the note-head, and +also a number of similar principles here cited, refer more specifically +to music as it appears on the printed page. In the case of hand-copied +music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note, thus +[note symbol]. This is done because of greater facility in writing, and +for the same reason other slight modifications of the notation here +recommended may sometimes be encountered. In dealing with children it is +best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according +to which _printed_ music is notated, in order to avoid those +non-satisfying and often embarrassing explanations of differences which +will otherwise be unavoidable.] + +[Footnote 2: An exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of +unequal value stroked together, when the hook appears on the left side, +thus [Illustration].] + + In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with + a heavy pressure on the pen point, but in writing at the board + they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an + inch long, turned on its side. + +2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following +_rules for turning stems_ apply: (1) If the note-head is _below_ the +third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is _above_ the +third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is _on_ the +third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the +symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The +following examples will illustrate these points. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper +part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that +the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano +and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by _one_ +performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices +have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in +common as in Fig. 3. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written +in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by +_one cross-stroke_. In such a case all the stems must of course be +turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of +the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus _stroked_ may be of +the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to +each note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.) + +5. _Rests_, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by +using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. 1.) The +double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third space +unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff +they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may +be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on +the spaces. The hook of the eighth rest is usually placed on the +_third_ space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied. + +6. The _G clef_ should be begun at the second line rather than below the +staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it +most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by +dividing it into two parts, thus, [Illustration]. The descending stroke +crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular +part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces. + +7. The _F clef_ is made either thus, [bass clef symbol], or thus, [old +bass clef symbol], the dots being placed one on either side of the +fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef +marks. The C _clef_ has also two forms, [C clef symbol] and [tenor clef +symbol]. + +8. The _sharp_ is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy +slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right, +[sharp]. The sharp should never be made thus, [Illustration]. + +The _double sharp_ is made either thus [double-sharp symbol] or [old +double-sharp symbol], the first form being at present the more common. + +9. The _flat_ is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the +curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The _double flat_ +consists of two flats,[3] [flat][flat]. The _natural_ or _cancel_ is +made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus [Illustration]. + +[Footnote 3: It is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat +suggested by Mattheson (who also suggested the St. Andrew's cross +([symbol]) for the double-sharp) may some time be readopted. This figure +was the Greek letter B, made thus, [Greek: b], and its use would make +our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present.] + +10. The _tie_ usually connects the _heads_ of notes, thus [tie symbol]. + +11. The _dot after a note_ always appears on a space, whether the +note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot +after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the space _above_ +that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below +it if the following note is lower. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5.] + + _Note._--Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a + theory, and in order to form the habit of writing correctly, + _drill_ is necessary. This may perhaps be best secured by + asking students to write (at the board or on ruled paper) from + verbal dictation, thus: Teacher says, + + "Key of B[flat], three-quarter measure: First measure, DO a + quarter note, RE a quarter, and MI a quarter. Second measure, + SOL a quarter, LA a quarter, and SOL a quarter. Third measure, + LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth measure, + high DO a dotted half." Pupils respond by writing the exercise + dictated, after which mistakes in the turning of stems, etc., + are corrected. The _pitch names_ may be dictated instead of + the syllables if desired, and still further practice may be + provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other + keys. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED + + +12. A _staff_ is a collection of parallel lines, together with the +spaces belonging to them. The modern staff has five lines and six +spaces, these being ordinarily referred to as first line, second line, +third line, fourth line, and fifth line (beginning with the lowest); and +space below (_i.e._, space below the first line), first space, second +space, third space, fourth space, and space above. + +The definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of +the portions of the "great staff," the latter term being often applied +to the combination of treble and bass staffs (with one leger line +between) so commonly used in piano music, etc. + +13. The _extent of the staff_ may be increased either above or below by +the addition of short lines called _leger lines_,[4] and notes may be +written on either these lines or on the spaces above and below them. + +[Footnote 4: The word _leger_ is derived from the French word _LEGER_, +meaning light, and this use of the word refers to the fact that the +leger lines, being added by hand, are lighter--_i.e._, less solid in +color--than the printed lines of the staff itself.] + +14. The lines and spaces constituting the staff (including leger lines +if any) are often referred to as _staff degrees_, _i.e._, each separate +line and space is considered to be "a degree of the staff." The tones of +a scale are also sometimes referred to as "degrees of the scale." + +15. A _clef_[5] is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches +are to be represented by its lines and spaces. Thus, _e.g._, the G clef +shows us not only that the second line of the staff represents G, but +that the first line represents E, the first space F, etc. The F clef +similarly shows us that the fifth line of the bass staff represents the +first A below middle C, the fourth line the first F below middle C, etc. + +[Footnote 5: The word _clef_ is derived from _CLAVIS_--a key--the +reference being to the fact that the clef unlocks or makes clear the +meaning of the staff, as a key to a puzzle enables us to solve the +puzzle.] + +The student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of +the letters G and F, which (among others) were used to designate the +pitches represented by certain lines when staff notation was first +inaugurated. For a fuller discussion of this matter see Appendix A, p. +101. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Appendix I" in original.] + +16. When the G clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the +_treble staff_, and when the F clef is used, as the _bass staff_. Such +expressions as "singing from the treble clef," or "singing in the treble +clef," and "singing in the bass clef" are still frequently heard, but +are preferably replaced by "singing from the treble staff," and "singing +from the bass staff." Fig. 6 shows the permanent names of lines and +spaces when the G and F clefs are used.[6] + +[Footnote 6: The Germans use the same pitch designations as we do with +two exceptions, viz., our B is called by them H, and our B[flat] is +called B. The scale of C therefore reads: C, D, E, F, G, A, H, C; the +scale of F reads F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F. The signatures are in all cases +written exactly as we write them. + +In France and Italy where the "fixed DO" system is in vogue, pitches are +usually referred to by the syllable names; _e.g._, C is referred to as +DO (or UT), D as RE, etc.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.] + +17. _The movable C clef_ [C clef symbol] or [tenor clef symbol], +formerly in very common use, is now utilized for only two purposes, +viz., (1) in music written for certain orchestral instruments (cello, +viola, etc.) of extended range, in order to avoid having to use too many +leger lines; and (2) for indicating the tenor part in vocal music. This +latter usage seems also to be disappearing however, and the tenor part +is commonly written on the treble staff, it being understood that the +tones are to be sung an octave lower than the notes would indicate. + +The C clef as used in its various positions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and +9. It will be noted that in each case the line on which the clef is +placed represents "middle C." + +[Illustration: Fig. 7. Soprano clef.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 8. Alto clef.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9. Tenor clef.] + +18. A _sharp_ is a character which causes the degree of the staff with +which it is associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it +otherwise would. + + Thus in Fig. 10 (_a_) the fifth line and first space represent + the pitch F, but in Fig. 10 (_b_) these same staff degrees + represent an entirely different tone--F[sharp]. The student + should note that the sharp does not then _raise_ anything; it + merely causes a staff degree to represent a higher tone than + it otherwise would. There is just as much difference between F + and F[sharp] as between B and C, and yet one would never think + of referring to C as "B raised"! + +[Illustration: Fig. 10.] + +19. A _flat_ is a character that causes the degree of the staff with +which it is associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it +otherwise would. (See note under Sec. 18 and apply the same discussion +here.) + +20. A _double-sharp_ causes the staff degree on which it is placed to +represent a pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp. +Similarly, a double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed +to represent a pitch one whole-step lower than it would without any +flat. + + Double-sharps and double-flats are generally used on staff + degrees that have already been sharped or flatted, therefore + their practical effect is to cause staff degrees to represent + pitches respectively a half-step higher and a half-step lower + than would be represented by those same degrees in their + diatonic condition. Thus in Fig. 10 (_b_) the first space in + its diatonic condition[7] represents F-sharp, and the + double-sharp on this degree would cause it to represent a + pitch one-half step higher than F-sharp, _i.e._, + F-double-sharp. + +[Footnote 7: The expression "diatonic condition" as here used refers to +the staff after the signature has been placed upon it, in other words +after the staff has been prepared to represent the pitches of the +diatonic scale.] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED (_Continued_) + + +21. The _natural_[8] (sometimes called _cancel_) annuls the effect of +previous sharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the +measure in which it occurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the +combination of a natural with a sharp, or a natural with a flat is often +found: in this case only one sharp or flat is annulled. (Sometimes also +the single sharp or flat will be found by itself, cancelling the +double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used when a +composition changes key, as in Fig. 11, where a change from E to G is +shown. + +[Footnote 8: It has already been noted (p. 6, Note) that in the German +scale our b-flat is called b, and our b is called H. From this +difference in terminology has grown up the custom of using the H (now +made [natural]) to show that _any_ staff-degree is in _natural_ +condition, _i.e._, not sharped or flatted.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.] + +22. The group of sharps or flats (or absence of them) at the beginning +of a staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is +written. They are called collectively the _key-signature_. + +23. The same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys, the +major key, or its relative minor, hence in order to determine in what +key a melody is one must note whether the tones are grouped about the +major tonic DO or the minor tonic LA. In a harmonized composition it is +almost always possible to determine the key by referring to the last +bass note; if the final chord is clearly the DO chord the composition is +in the major key, but if this final chord is clearly the LA chord then +it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the minor key. +Thus if a final chord appears as that in Fig. 12 the composition is +clearly in G major, while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is just as +surely in E minor. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.] + +24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps and double-flats, occurring +in the course of the composition (_i.e._, after the key signature) are +called _accidentals_, whether they actually cause a staff degree to +represent a different pitch as in Fig. 14 or simply make clear a +notation about which there might otherwise be some doubt as in Fig. 15, +measure two. The effect of such accidentals terminates at the bar. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.] + +25. In the case of a _tie across a bar_ an accidental remains in force +until the combined value of the tied notes expires. In Fig. 16 first +measure, third beat, an accidental sharp makes the third space represent +the pitch C sharp. By virtue of the tie across the bar the third space +continues to represent C sharp thru the first beat of the second +measure, but for the remainder of the measure the third space will +represent C unless the sharp is repeated as in Fig. 17. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.] + +26. The following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches +different from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the +beginner in the study of music notation. These rules are quoted from +"The Worcester Musical Manual," by Charles I. Rice. + + 1. To sharp a natural degree, use a sharp. Fig. 18. + 2. To sharp a sharped degree, use a double sharp. Fig. 19. + 3. To sharp a flatted degree, use a natural. Fig. 20. + 4. To flat a natural degree, use a flat. Fig. 21. + 5. To flat a flatted degree, use a double flat. Fig. 22. + 6. To flat a sharped degree, use a natural. Fig. 23. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 22.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 23.] + +27. When two different notations represent the same pitch, the word +_enharmonic_ is applied. Thus we may say that F sharp and G flat (on +keyboard instruments at least) are enharmonically the same. + +This word _enharmonic_ is used in such expressions as enharmonic change, +enharmonic keys, enharmonic interval, enharmonic modulation, enharmonic +relation, etc., and in all such combinations it has the same meaning, +viz.--a change in notation but no change in the pitch represented. + +28. A _note_ is a character expressing relative duration, which when +placed on a staff indicates that a certain tone is to be sounded for a +certain relative length of time. The pitch of the tone to be sounded is +shown by the position of the note on the staff, while the length of time +it is to be prolonged is shown by the shape of the note. Thus _e.g._, a +half-note on the second line of the treble staff indicates that a +specific pitch (g') is to be played or sung for a period of time twice +as long as would be indicated by a quarter-note in the same composition. + +29. A _rest_ is a character which indicates a rhythmic silence of a +certain relative length. + +30. The _notes and rests in common use_ are as follows: + +[symbol] Whole-note. An open note-head without stem. +[symbol] Half-note. An open note-head with stem. +[symbol] Quarter-note. A closed note-head with stem. +[symbol] Eighth-note. A closed note-head with stem and one hook. +[symbol] Sixteenth-note. A closed note-head with stem and two hooks. +[symbol] Thirty-second-note. A closed note-head with stem and three hooks. +[symbol] Whole-rest. +[symbol] Half-rest. +[symbol] Quarter-rest. +[symbol] Eighth-rest. +[symbol] Sixteenth-rest. +[symbol] Thirty-second-rest. + +31. The _English names_ for these notes are: + +Whole-note--semi-breve. +Half-note--minim. +Quarter-note--crotchet. +Eighth-note--quaver. +Sixteenth-note--semi-quaver. +Thirty-second-note--demi-semi-quaver. + +The corresponding rests are referred to by the same system of +nomenclature: _e.g._, _semi-breve rest_, etc. + +32. _Sixty-fourth_ and _one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes_ are +occasionally found, but are not in common use. The _double-whole-note_ +(_breve_), made [breve symbol] or [old breve symbol], is still used, +especially in English music, which frequently employs the half-note as +the beat-unit. Thus in four-half measure the breve would be necessary to +indicate a tone having four beats. + +33. The _whole-rest_ has a peculiarity of usage not common to any of the +other duration symbols, viz., that it is often employed as a +_measure-rest_, filling an entire measure of beats, no matter what the +measure-signature may be. Thus, not only in four-quarter-measure, but in +two-quarter, three-quarter, six-eighth, and other varieties, the +whole-rest fills the entire measure, having a value sometimes greater, +sometimes less than the corresponding whole-note. Because of this +peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed _Takt-pausa_ +(measure-rest) by the Germans. + +34. A _bar_ is a vertical line across the staff, dividing it into +measures. The word _bar_ is often used synonymously with _measure_ by +orchestral conductors and others; thus, "begin at the fourteenth bar +after J." This use of the word, although popular, is incorrect. + +35. A _double-bar_ consists of two vertical lines across the staff, at +least one of the two being a heavy line. The double bar marks the end of +a division, movement, or entire composition. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, ETC. + + +36. A _double bar_ (or single heavy bar) with either two or four dots +indicates that a section is to be repeated. If the repeat marks occur at +only one point the entire preceding part is to be repeated, but if the +marks occur twice (the first time at the right of the bar but the second +time at the left), only the section thus enclosed by the marks is to be +repeated. + +[Illustration] + +37. Sometimes a different cadence (or ending) is to be used for the +repetition, and this is indicated as in Fig. 24. + +[Illustration: Fig. 24.] + +38. The Italian word _bis_ is occasionally used to indicate that a +certain passage or section is to be repeated. This use is becoming +obsolete. + +39. The words _da capo_ (_D.C._) mean literally "from the head," _i.e._, +repeat from the beginning. The words _dal segno_ (_D.S._) indicate a +repetition from the sign ([segno symbol] or [segno symbol]) instead of +from the beginning. + +In the case of both _D.C._ and _D.S._ the word _fine_ (meaning literally +_the end_) is ordinarily used to designate the point at which the +repeated section is to terminate. The fermata ([fermata symbol]) was +formerly in common use for this same purpose, but is seldom so employed +at present. + + _D.C._ (_sin_[9]) _al fine_ means--repeat from the beginning + to the word "fine." + + [Footnote 9: The word _sin_ is a contraction of the Italian + word _sino_, meaning "as far as" or "until"; in the term given + above (Sec. 39) it is really superfluous as the word _al_ + includes in itself both preposition and article, meaning "to + the."] + + _D.C. al_ [fermata symbol] means--repeat to the fermata (or + hold). + + _D.C. senza repetizione_, or _D.C. ma senza repetizione_, + [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "repetitione"] both + mean--repeat from the beginning, but without observing other + repeat marks during the repetition. + + _D.C. e poi la coda_ means--repeat the first section only to + the mark [coda symbol], then skip to the coda. (See p. 74, + Sec. 157, for discussion of _coda_). + +40. In certain cases where the repetition of characteristic figures can +be indicated without causing confusion, it is the practice of composers +(especially in orchestral music) to make use of certain _signs of +repetition_. Some of the commonest of these abbreviations are shown in +the following examples. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 26.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 27.] + +In Fig. 28 the repetition of an entire measure is called for. + +[Illustration: Fig. 28.] + +41. The word _simile_ [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "similie"] +(sometimes _segue_) indicates that a certain effect previously begun is +to be continued, as _e.g._, staccato playing, pedalling, style of bowing +in violin music, etc. The word _segue_ is also occasionally used to show +that an accompaniment figure (especially in orchestral music) is to be +continued. + +42. _When some part is to rest for two or more measures_ several methods +of notation are possible. A rest of two measures is usually indicated +thus [Illustration]. Three measures thus [Illustration]. Four measures +thus [Illustration]. Rests of more than four measures are usually +indicated in one of the following ways: [Illustration]. Sometimes the +number of measures is written directly on the staff, thus; +[Illustration]. + +43. The letters G.P. (general pause, or grosse pause), the words _lunga +pausa_, or simply the word _lunga_, are sometimes written over a rest to +show that there is to be a prolonged pause or rest in all parts. Such +expressions are found only in ensemble music, _i.e._, music in which +several performers are engaged at the same time. + +44. The _fermata_ or _hold_ [fermata symbol] over a note or chord +indicates that the tone is to be prolonged, the duration of the +prolongation depending upon the character of the music and the taste of +the performer or conductor. It has already been noted that the hold over +a bar was formerly used to designate the end of the composition, as the +word _fine_ is employed at present, but this usage has practically +disappeared and the hold over the bar now usually indicates a short rest +between two sections of a composition. + +45. The sign _8va......_ (an abbreviation of _all'ottava_, +[Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "al ottava" in original.] literally +at the octave) above the staff, indicates that all tones are to be +sounded an octave higher than the notes would indicate. When found below +the staff the same sign serves to indicate that the tones are to be +sounded an octave lower. The term _8va bassa_ has also this latter +signification. + +46. Sometimes the word _loco_ (in place) is used to show that the part +is no longer to be sounded an octave higher (or lower), but this is more +often indicated by the termination of the dotted (or wavy) line. + +47. The sign _Col 8_ (_coll'ottava_--with the octave) shows that the +tones an octave higher or lower are to be sounded _with_ the tones +indicated by the printed notes. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error +"col ottava" in original.] + +48. For the sake of definiteness in referring to pitches, a particular +name is applied to each octave, and all pitches in the octave are +referred to by means of a uniform nomenclature. The following figure +will make this system clear: + +[Illustration: Fig. 29.] + +Thus _e.g._, "great G" (written simply G), is the G represented by the +first line of the bass staff. Small A (written a), is represented by the +fifth line of the bass staff. Two-lined G, (written [2-lined g symbol]), +is represented by the space above the fifth line, treble staff. +Three-lined C, (written [3-lined c symbol]), is represented by the +second added line above the treble staff, etc. The _one-lined octave_ +may be described as the octave from _middle C_ to the B represented by +the third line of the treble staff, and any tone within that octave is +referred to as "one-lined." Thus--_one-lined_ D, _one-lined_ G, etc. + + In scientific works on acoustics, etc., the pitches in the sub + octave (or sub-contra octave as it is often called) are + referred to as C_2, D_2, E_2, etc.; those in the contra octave + as C_1, D_1, etc.; in the great octave, as c^1, d^1, etc.; in + the small octave as c^2, d^2, etc. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, ETC., (_Continued_) + + +49. _A dot after a note_ shows that the value of the note is to be half +again as great as it would be without the dot, _i.e._, the value is to +be three-halves that of the original note. + +[Illustration] + +50. _When two dots follow the note_ the second dot adds half as much as +the first dot has added, _i.e._, the entire value is seven-fourths that +of the original note. + +[Illustration] + +51. _When three dots follow the note_ the third dot adds one-half the +value added by the second, _i.e._, the entire value of the triple-dotted +note is fifteen-eighths that of the original note. + +[Illustration] + +52. _A dot over or under a note_ is called the _staccato mark_ and +indicates that the tone is to be sounded and then instantly released. +[Illustration] In music for organ and for some other instruments the +staccato note is sometimes interpreted differently, this depending on +the character of the instrument. + + On stringed instruments of the violin family the staccato + effect is usually secured by a long, rapid stroke of the bow + for each tone; in the case of harp and drum the hand is + quickly brought in contact with the vibrating body, thus + stopping the tone instantly. On the organ the tone is often + prolonged to one-half the value of the printed note before the + keys are released. + +53. _The wedge-shaped dash over the note_ (staccatissimo) was formerly +employed to indicate a tone still more detached than that indicated by +the dot, but this sign is really superfluous, and is seldom used at +present. [Illustration] + +54. _A tie_ is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes that call +for the same tone. It indicates that they are to be sounded as one tone +having a duration equal to the combined value of both notes. _E.g._, a +half-note tied to a quarter-note would indicate a tone equal in +duration-length to that shown by a dotted half-note; two half-notes tied +would indicate a tone equal in duration to that shown by a whole-note. +(See examples under Sections 49, 50, and 51). + +Fig. 30 illustrates the more common variety of tie, while Fig. 31 shows +an example of the _enharmonic[10] tie_. + +[Footnote 10: For definition of enharmonic see p. 10, Sec. 27.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 30.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 31.] + +55. The _slur_ is used in so many different ways that it is impossible +to give a general definition. It consists of a curved line, sometimes +very short (in which case it looks like the tie), but sometimes very +long, connecting ten, fifteen, or more notes. Some of the more common +uses of the slur are: + +A. _To indicate legato_ (sustained or connected) _tones_, as contrasted +with staccato (detached) ones. + + In violin music this implies playing all tones thus slurred in + one bow; in music for the voice and for wind instruments it + implies singing or playing them in one breath. + +B. _As a phrase-mark_, in the interpretation of which the first tone of +the phrase is often accented slightly, and the last one shortened in +value. + + This interpretation of the phrase is especially common when + the phrase is short (as in the two-note phrase), and when the + tones constituting the phrase are of short duration, _e.g._, + the phrase given in Fig. 32 would be played approximately as + written in Fig. 33. + +[Illustration: Fig. 32.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 33.] + + But if the notes are of greater value, especially in slow + tempi, the slur merely indicates legato, _i.e._, sustained or + connected rendition. Fig. 34 illustrates such a case. + + [Illustration: Fig. 34.] + + This is a matter of such diverse usage that it is difficult to + generalize regarding it. The tendency seems at present to be + in the direction of using the slur (_in instrumental music_) + as a phrase-mark exclusively, it being understood that unless + there is some direction to the contrary, the tones are to be + performed in a connected manner. + +C. In vocal music, to show that two or more tones are to be sung to one +syllable of text. See Fig. 35. + +[Illustration: Fig. 35. MENDELSSOHN (_S. Paul_) re-mem-bers His +chil-dren.] + + In notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) this same + thing is often indicated by _stroking_ the stems together as + in Fig. 36. This can only be done in cases where the natural + grouping of notes in the measure will not be destroyed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 36. ev-er and ev-er, for ev-er and] + +D. To mark special note-groups (triplets, etc.), in which case the slur +is accompanied by a figure indicating the number of notes in the group. +See Fig. 37 (_a_) + + The most common of these irregular note-groups is the + _triplet_, which consists of three notes to be performed in + the time ordinarily given to two of the same value. Sometimes + the triplet consists of only two notes as in Fig. 37 (_b_). In + such a case the first two of the three notes composing the + triplet are considered to be tied. + + [Illustration: Fig. 37.] + + When the triplet form is perfectly obvious, the Fig. 3 (as + well as the slur) may be omitted. + + Other examples of irregular note-groups, together with the + names commonly applied, follow. + + [Illustration: Doublet. Quintuplet or Quintolet. Sextuplet or + Sextolet. Septolet or Septimole.] + +56. The _combination of slur or tie and dots_ over the notes indicates +that the tones are to be somewhat detached, but not sharply so. +[Illustration] + + This effect is sometimes erroneously termed _portamento_ (lit. + _carrying_), but this term is more properly reserved for an + entirely different effect, _viz._, when a singer, or player on + a stringed instrument, passes from a high tone to a low one + (or vice versa) touching lightly on some or all of the + diatonic tones between the two melody tones. + +57. The horizontal _dash over a note_ [Illustration] indicates that the +tone is to be slightly accented, and sustained. This mark is also +sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the tones are no +longer to be performed in detached fashion, but are to be sustained. +This latter use is especially common in music for stringed instruments. + +58. The combination of _dash and dot over a note_ [Illustration] +indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented and separated from +its neighboring tones. + +59. _Accent marks_ are made in a variety of fashions. The most common +forms follow. [horizontal accent symbol] [vertical accent symbol] _sf_ +_fz_. All indicate that a certain tone or chord is to be differentiated +from its neighboring tones or chords by receiving a certain relative +amount of stress. + +60. In music for keyboard instruments it is sometimes necessary to +indicate that a certain part is to be played by a certain hand. The +abbreviations r.h. (right hand), m.d. (mano destra, It.), and m.d. (main +droite, Fr.), designate that a passage or tone is to be played with the +right hand, while l.h. (left hand), m.s. (mano sinistra, It.), and m.g. +(main gauche, Fr.), show that the left hand is to be employed. + +61. _The wavy line placed vertically beside a chord_ [Illustration] +indicates that the tones are to be sounded consecutively instead of +simultaneously, beginning with the lowest tone, all tones being +sustained until the duration-value of the chord has expired. This is +called _arpeggio playing_. When the wavy line extends through the entire +chord (covering both staffs) as in Fig. 38, all the tones of the chord +are to be played one after another, beginning with the lowest: but if +there is a separate wavy line for each staff as at Fig. 39 then the +lowest tone represented on the upper staff is to be played +simultaneously with the lowest tone represented on the bass staff. + +[Illustration: Fig. 38.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 39.] + + The word arpeggio (plural arpeggi) is a derivation of the + Italian word _arpa_ (meaning harp), and from this word _arpa_ + and its corresponding verb _arpeggiare_ (to play on the harp) + are derived also a number of other terms commonly used in + instrumental music. Among these are--arpeggiamento, + arpeggiando, arpeggiato, etc., all of these terms referring to + a _harp style_ of performance, the tones being sounded one + after another in rapid succession instead of simultaneously as + on the piano. + +62. The sign [crescendo-decrescendo symbol] over a note indicates that +the tone is to be begun softly, gradually increased in power, and as +gradually decreased again, ending as softly as it began. In vocal music +this effect is called _messa di voce_. + +63. In music for stringed instruments of the violin family, the sign +[down-bow symbol] indicates down-bow and the sign [up-bow symbol] +up-bow. In cello music the down-bow sign is sometimes written [cello +down-bow symbol]. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +EMBELLISHMENTS + + +64. _Embellishments (or graces) (Fr. agrements_) are ornamental tones, +either represented in full in the score or indicated by certain signs. +The following are the embellishments most commonly found: Trill (or +shake), mordent, inverted mordent (or prall trill), turn (gruppetto), +inverted turn, appoggiatura and acciaccatura. + +Usage varies greatly in the interpretation of the signs representing +these embellishments and it is impossible to give examples of all the +different forms. The following definitions represent therefore only the +most commonly found examples and the most generally accepted +interpretations. + +65. The _trill (or shake_) consists of the rapid alternation of two +tones to the full value of the printed note. The lower of these two +tones is represented by the printed note, while the upper one is the +next higher tone in the diatonic scale of the key in which the +composition is written. The interval between the two tones may therefore +be either a half-step or a whole-step. + + Whether the trill is to begin with the principal tone + (represented by the printed note) or with the one above is a + matter of some dispute among theorists and performers, but it + may safely be said that the majority of modern writers on the + subject would have it begin on the principal tone rather than + on the tone above. Fig. 40. + + When the principal note is preceded by a small note on the + degree above, it is of course understood that the trill begins + on the tone above. Fig. 41. + +The trill is indicated by the sign [trill symbol]. + +[Illustration: Fig. 40.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 41.] + +The above examples would be termed _perfect trills_ because they close +with a turn. By inference, an _imperfect trill_ is one closing without a +turn. + +66. The _mordent_ [mordent symbol] consists of three tones; first the +one represented by the printed note; second the one next below it in the +diatonic scale; third the one represented by the printed note again. + +[Illustration: Fig. 42.] + +67. The _double (or long) mordent_ has five tones (sometimes seven) +instead of three, the first two of the three tones of the regular +mordent being repeated once or more. (See Fig. 43.) + +In the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as +quickly as possible, the time taken by the embellishment being +subtracted from the value of the principal note as printed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 43.] + +68. The _inverted mordent_ [inverted mordent symbol] (note the absence +of the vertical line) is like the mordent except that the tone below is +replaced by the tone above in each case. This ornament is sometimes +called a "transient shake" because it is really only a part of the more +elaborate grace called "trill." (See Fig. 44.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 44.] + + The confusion at present attending the interpretation of the + last two embellishments described, might be largely obviated + if the suggestion of a recent writer[11] to call the one the + _upward mordent_, and the other the _downward mordent_ were to + be universally adopted. + +[Footnote 11: Elson--Dictionary of Music, article _mordent_.] + +69. The _turn_ consists of four tones; first, the diatonic scale-tone +above the principal tone; second, the principal tone itself; third, the +tone below the principal tone; and fourth, the principal tone again. + +When the sign ([turn symbol] or [fancy turn symbol]) occurs over a note +of small value in rapid tempo (Fig. 45) the turn consists of four tones +of equal value; but if it occurs over a note of greater value, or in a +slow tempo, the tones are usually played quickly (like the mordent), and +the fourth tone is then held until the time-value of the note has +expired. (Fig. 46.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 45.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 46.] + +70. _When the turn-sign is placed a little to the right of the note_ the +principal tone is sounded first and held to almost its full time-value, +then the turn is played just before the next tone of the melody. In this +case the four tones are of equal length as in the first example. (See +Fig. 47.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 47.] + + The student should note the difference between these two + effects; in the case of a turn _over_ the note the turn comes + at the beginning, but in the case of the sign _after_ the note + the turn comes at the very end. But in both cases the time + taken by the embellishment is taken from the time-value of + the principal note. For further details see Grove's Dictionary + of Music and Musicians, Vol. V, p. 184. Also Elson, op. cit. + p. 274. + +71. Sometimes an accidental occurs with the turn, and in this case when +written above the sign it refers to the highest tone of the turn, but +when written below, to the lowest (Fig. 48). + +[Illustration: Fig. 48.] + +72. In the _inverted turn_ the order of tones is reversed, the lowest +one coming first, the principal tone next, the highest tone third, and +the principal tone again, last. + +[Illustration: Fig. 49.] + +73. The _appoggiatura_ (lit. _leaning note_) consists of an ornamental +tone introduced before a tone of a melody, thus delaying the melody tone +until the ornamental tone has been heard. The time taken for this +ornamental tone is taken from that of the melody tone. + + The appoggiatura was formerly classified into _long + appoggiatura_ and _short appoggiatura_, but modern writers + seem to consider the term "short appoggiatura" to be + synonymous with acciaccatura[12], and to avoid confusion the + word _acciaccatura_ will be used in this sense, and defined + under its own heading. + +[Footnote 12: In organ music the acciaccatura is still taken to mean +that the embellishing tone and the melody tone are to be sounded +together, the former being then instantly released, while the latter is +held to its full time-value.] + +74. Three rules for the interpretation of the appoggiatura are commonly +cited, viz.: + + (1) When it is possible to divide the principal tone into + halves, then the appoggiatura receives one-half the value of + the printed note. (Fig. 50.) + + (2) When the principal note is dotted (division into halves + being therefore not possible), the appoggiatura receives + two-thirds of the value. (Fig. 51.) + + (3) When the principal note is tied to a note of smaller + denomination the appoggiatura receives the value of the first + of the two notes. (Fig. 52.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 50.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 51.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 52.] + +75. The _acciaccatura_ (or short appoggiatura) is written like the +appoggiatura except that it has a light stroke across its stem. +[Illustration] It has no definite duration-value, but is sounded as +quickly as possible, taking its time from that of the principal tone. +The appoggiatura is always accented, but the acciaccatura never is, the +stress always falling on the melody tone. (See Grove, op. cit. Vol. I, +p. 96.) + + The use of embellishments is on the wane, and the student of + to-day needs the above information only to aid him in the + interpretation of music written in previous centuries. In the + early days of instrumental music it was necessary to introduce + graces of all sorts because the instruments in use were not + capable of sustaining tone for any length of time; but with + the advent of the modern piano with its comparatively great + sustaining power, and also with the advent in vocal music of a + new style of singing (German Lieder singing as contrasted with + Italian coloratura singing), ornamental tones were used less + and less, and when found now are usually written out in full + in the score instead of being indicated by signs. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +SCALES + + +76. A _scale_ (from _scala_, a Latin word meaning _ladder_; Ger. +_Ton-leiter_) is an ascending or descending series of tones, progressing +according to some definite system, and all bearing (in the case of +tonality scales at least) a very intimate relation to the first +tone--the _key-tone_ or _tonic_. (See p. 28, Sec. 78; also note 1 at +bottom of p. 38.) + + Many different kinds of scales have existed in various musical + eras, the point of resemblance among them all being the fact + that they have all more or less recognized the _octave_ as the + natural limit of the series. The difference among the various + scales has been in the selection of intervals between the + scale-tones, and, consequently, in the number of tones within + the octave. Thus _e.g._, in our major scale the intervals + between the tones are all whole-steps except two (which are + half-steps), and the result is a scale of _eight_ tones + (including in this number both the key-tone and its octave): + but in the so-called _pentatonic_ scale of the Chinese and + other older civilizations we find larger intervals (_e.g._, + the step-and-a-half), and consequently a smaller number of + tones within the octave. Thus in the scale upon which many of + the older Scotch folk songs are based the intervals are + arranged as follows: + + 1 whole 2 whole 3 step-and- 4 whole 5 step-and- 6 + step step a-half step a-half + + The result is a scale of six tones, corresponding + approximately with C--D--E--G--A--C in our modern system. + + The term _pentatonic_ is thus seen to be a misnomer since the + sixth tone is necessary for the completion of the series, just + as the eighth tone is essential in our diatonic scales. + + The following Chinese tune (called "Jasmine") is based on the + pentatonic scale. + + [Illustration] + +77. In studying the theory of the scale the student should bear in mind +the fact that a scale is not an arbitrary series of tones which some one +has invented, and which others are required to make use of. It is rather +the result of accustoming the ear to certain melodic combinations (which +were originally hit upon by accident), and finally analyzing and +systematizing these combinations into a certain definite order or +arrangement. The application of this idea may be verified when it is +recalled that most primitive peoples have invented melodies of some +sort, but that only in modern times, and particularly since the +development of instrumental music, have these melodies been analyzed, +and the scale upon which they have been based, discovered, the inventors +of the melodies being themselves wholly ignorant of the existence of +such scales. + +78. A _key_ is a number of tones grouping themselves naturally (both +melodically and harmonically) about a central tone--the key tone. The +word _tonality_ is often used synonymously with _key_ in this sense. + + The difference between _key_ and _scale_ is therefore this, + that while both _key_ and _scale_ employ the same tone + material, by _key_ we mean the material in general, without + any particular order or arrangement in mind, while by _scale_ + we mean the same tones, but now arranged into a regular + ascending or descending series. It should be noted in this + connection also that not all scales present an equally good + opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality + or key-feeling: neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale + possess the necessary characteristics for being used as + tonality scales in the same sense that our major and minor + scales are so used. + +79. There are _three general classes of scales_ extant at the present +time, viz.: (1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.[13] + +[Footnote 13: If strictly logical terminology is to be insisted upon the +whole-tone scale should be called the "whole-step" scale.] + +80. The word _diatonic_ means "through the tones" (_i.e._, through the +tones of the key), and is applied to both major and minor scales of our +modern tonality system. In general a diatonic scale may be defined as +one which proceeds by half-steps and whole-steps. There is, however, one +exception to this principle, viz., in the progression six to seven in +the harmonic minor scale, which is of course a step-and-a-half. (See p. +33, Sec. 86.) + +81. A _major diatonic scale_ is one in which the intervals between the +tones are arranged as follows: + +1 whole 2 whole 3 half 4 whole 5 whole 6 whole 7 half 8 + step step step step step step step + +In other words, a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals +between three and four, and between seven and eight are half-steps, all +the others being whole-steps. A composition based on this scale is said +to be written in the major mode, or in a major key. The major diatonic +scale may begin on any one of the twelve pitches C, C[sharp] or D[flat], +D, D[sharp] or E[flat], E, F, F[sharp] or G[flat], G, G[sharp] or +A[flat], A, A[sharp] or B[flat], B, but in each case it is the same +scale because the intervals between its tones are the same. We have then +one major scale only, but this scale may be written in many different +positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of +different pitches. + +82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two +identical series of four tones each; _i.e._, the first four tones of the +scale are separated from one another by exactly the same intervals and +these intervals appear in exactly the same order as in the case of the +last four tones of the scale. Fig. 53 will make this clear. The first +four tones of any diatonic scale (major or minor) are often referred to +as the _lower tetrachord_[14] and the upper four tones as the _upper +tetrachord_. + +[Footnote 14: The word _tetrachord_ means literally "four strings" and +refers to the primitive instrument, the four strings of which were so +tuned that the lowest and the highest tones produced were a perfect +fourth apart. With the Greeks the tetrachord was the unit of analysis as +the octave is with us to-day, and all Greek scales are capable of +division into two tetrachords, the arrangement of the intervals between +the tones in each tetrachord differentiating one scale from another, but +the tetrachords themselves always consisting of groups of four tones, +the highest being a perfect fourth above the lowest.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 53.] + +It is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of any +_sharp_ scale is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of +the next major scale involving sharps, while the lower tetrachord of any +_flat_ scale is used as the upper tetrachord of the next flat scale. See +Figs. 54 and 55. + +[Illustration: Fig. 54.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 55.] + +83. From the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written +in fifteen different positions, as follows: + +[Illustration] + +It will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning +on F[sharp] and G[flat] call for the same keys on the piano, _i.e._, +while the notation is different, the actual tones of the scale are the +same. The scales of C[sharp] and D[flat] likewise employ the same tones. +When two scales thus employ the same tones but differ in notation they +are said to be _enharmonic_, (cf. p. 38, Sec. 93.) + + _Note_.--The student is advised to adopt some uniform method + of writing scales, preferably the one followed in those given + above, the necessary sharps and flats appearing before the + notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the end + as a signature. He is also advised to repeat these scales and + signatures over and over until absolute familiarity is + attained. _E.g._, E--F[sharp]--G[sharp]--A--B--C[sharp]--D[sharp]--E; + signature, four sharps, F, C, G, and D. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +SCALES (_Continued_) + + +84. The _minor diatonic scale_ is used in several slightly different +forms, but the characteristic interval between the first and third tones +(which differentiates it from the major scale) remains the same in every +case. This interval between the first and third tones consists of four +half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale +and this difference in size has given rise to the designation _major_ +for the scale having the larger third, and _minor_ for the scale having +the smaller one. + +85. _The original (or primitive) form_ of the minor scale has its tones +arranged as follows. + +1 whole 2 half 3 whole 4 whole 5 half 6 whole 7 whole 8 + step step step step step step step + +As its name implies, this is the oldest of the three forms (being +derived from the old Greek Aeolian scale), but because of the absence of +a "leading tone" it is suitable for the simplest one-part music only, +and is therefore little used at present. + +86. _The harmonic minor scale_ is like the primitive form except that it +substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the +older (_i.e._, the primitive) form. This change was made because the +development of writing music in several parts (particularly _harmonic_ +part-writing) made necessary a "leading tone," _i.e._, a tone with a +strong tendency to move on up to the key-tone as a closing point. In +order to secure a tone with such a strongly upward tendency the +interval between _seven_ and _eight_ had to be reduced in size to a +half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of +the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and +seventh tones of the scale. + +1 whole 2 half 3 whole 4 whole 5 half 6 step and 7 half 8 + step step step step step a half step + +87. _The melodic minor scale_ substitutes a tone one half-step higher +than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change +is made in the ascending scale only, the descending scale being like the +primitive form. The higher sixth (commonly referred to as the "raised +sixth") was used to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a +step-and-a-half[15] (augmented second), while the return to the +primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too +much like the tonic major scale. + +[Footnote 15: The step-and-a-half (augmented second) is "unmelodic" +because it is the same size as a _minor third_ and the mind finds it +difficult to take in as a _second_ (notes representing it being on +adjacent staff-degrees) an interval of the same size as a third.] + +1 whole 2 half 3 whole 4 whole 5 whole 6 whole 7 half 8 + step step step step step step step + + 7 whole 6 half 5 whole 4 whole 3 half 2 whole 1 + step step step step step step + +This form is used only to a very limited extent, and then principally in +vocal music, the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of +the augmented second. + +88. The minor scale in its various positions (up to five sharps and five +flats) and in all three forms follows: a composition based on any one of +these forms (or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to +be _in the minor mode_. It will be noted that the first four tones are +alike in all three forms; _i.e._, the lower tetrachord in the minor +scale is invariable no matter, what may happen to the upper tetrachord. +The sign + marks the step-and-a-half. + +[Illustration] + + _Note._--The student is advised to recite the _harmonic form_ + of the minor scale as was suggested in the case of the major + scale, noting that the "raised seventh" does not affect the + key-signature. _E.g._,--E--F[sharp]--G--A--B--C--D[sharp]--E; + signature, one sharp, F. + +89. A minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to +be its _relative minor_. _E.g._,--e is the relative minor of G, c of +E[flat], d of F, etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor +key or scale, while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale +unless accompanied by the word _minor_. Relative keys are therefore +defined as those having the same signature. G and e are relative keys, +as are also A and f[sharp], etc. + +90. A minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is +referred to as its _tonic minor_. Thus, _e.g._, c with three flats in +its signature is the tonic minor of C with all degrees in natural +condition; e with one sharp is the tonic minor of E with four sharps, +etc. Tonic keys are therefore those having the same key-tone. + +91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major and minor) are +often referred to by specific names, as follows: + + 1. _Tonic_--the tone. (This refers to the fact that the tonic + is the principal tone, or generating tone of the key, _i.e._, + it is _the_ tone.) + + 2. _Super-tonic_--above the tone. + + 3. _Mediant_--midway between tonic and dominant. + + 4. _Sub-dominant_--the under dominant. (This name does not + refer to the position of the tone under the dominant but to + the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant + tone--the under dominant--just as the fifth above is the upper + dominant). + + 5. _Dominant_--the governing tone. (From the Latin word + _dominus_ meaning _master_.) + + 6. _Super-dominant_--above the dominant. Or + _Sub-mediant_--midway between tonic and sub-dominant. + + 7. _Leading tone_--the tone which demands resolution to the + tonic (one-half step above it). + + 8. _Octave_--the eighth tone. + +92. The syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales +in teaching sight-singing are as follows:[16] + +[Footnote 16: These syllables are said to have been derived originally +from the initial syllables of the "Hymn to Saint John," the music of +which was a typical Gregorian chant. The application of these syllables +to the scale tones will be made clear by reference to this hymn as given +below. It will be observed that this hymn provided syllables only for +the six tones of the _hexachord_ then recognized; when the octave scale +was adopted (early in the sixteenth century) the initial letters of the +last line (s and i) were combined into a syllable for the seventh tone. + +[Illustration: _Ut_ que-ant lax-is _Re_-so-na-re fi-bris _Mi_-ra +ges-to-rum _Fa_-mu-li tu-o-rum _Sol_-ve pol-lu-ti _La_-bi-i re-a-tum +Sanc-te Jo-han-nes.]] + +Major--DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI, DO. + +Minor[17]--original--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA. + harmonic--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SI, LA. + melodic--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI, SI, LA, + SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA. + +[Footnote 17: A considerable number of teachers (particularly those who +did not learn to sing by syllable in childhood) object to calling the +tonic of the minor scale _la_, insisting that both major and minor tonic +should be called _do_. According to this plan the syllables used in +singing the harmonic minor scale would be: DO, RE, ME, FA, SOL, LE, TI, +DO. + +There is no particular basis for this theory, for although all scales +must of course begin with the key-tone or tonic, this tonic may be +referred to by any syllable which will serve as a basis for an +association process enabling one to feel the force of the tone as a +closing point--a _home tone_. Thus in the Dorian mode the tonic would be +RE, in the Phrygian, MI, etc.] + + It is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and + pronunciation that have occurred (and are still occurring) in + these syllables. The first one (ut) was changed to _DO_ as + early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of + producing a good singing tone on _ut_. For the same reason and + also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the + same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fa system (invented in + England about 1812 and systematized about 1850) changed SI to + TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by + teachers of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate + tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables (DOH, LAH, + etc.), has not, however, been favorably received in this + country and the tendency seems to be toward still further + simplification rather than toward elaboration. It is probable + that further changes in both spelling and pronunciation will + be made in the near future, one such change that seems + especially desirable being some other syllable than RE for the + second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable + may be reserved for "flat-two," thus providing a uniform + vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending + chromatic scale, as is already the case in the ascending form. + +93. The _chromatic scale_[18] is one which proceeds always by +half-steps. Its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what +tone it begins. Since, however, we have (from the standpoint of the +piano keyboard) five pairs of tones[19] which are enharmonically the +same, it may readily be seen that the chromatic scale might be notated +in all sorts of fashions, and this is in fact the real status of the +matter, there being no one method uniformly agreed upon by composers. + +[Footnote 18: The student should differentiate between the so-called +"tonality" scales like the major and minor, the tones of which are +actually used as a basis for "key-feeling" with the familiar experience +of coming home to the tonic after a melodic or harmonic excursion, and +on the other hand the purely artificial and mechanical construction of +the chromatic scale.] + +[Footnote 19: Many other enharmonic notations are possible, altho the +"five pairs of tones" above referred to are the most common. Thus +E[sharp] and F are enharmonically the same, as are also C[flat] and B, +C[sharp] and B[double-sharp], etc.] + + Parry (Grove's Dictionary, article _chromatic_) recommends + writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in + chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage + occurs. Thus, taking C as a type, "the first accidental will + be D[flat], as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic; + the next will be E[flat], the minor third of the key; the next + F[sharp], the major third of the super-tonic--all of which can + occur without causing modulation--and the remaining two will + be A[flat] and B[flat], the minor sixth and seventh of the + key." According to this plan the chromatic scale beginning + with C would be spelled--C, D[flat], D, E[flat], E, F, + F[sharp], G, A[flat], A, B[flat], B, C--the form being the + same both ascending and descending. This is of course written + exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of + such a form is its definiteness. + +94. For _sight-singing purposes_ the chromatic scale[20] is usually +written by representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps, +(in some cases naturals and double-sharps), and the intermediate tones +in descending by flats (sometimes naturals and double-flats). The +chromatic scale in nine different positions, written from this +standpoint, follows, and the syllables most commonly applied in +sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales the student +of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common practice of +modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys, the intermediate tones +[sharp]4 and [flat]7 are quite universally used in both ascending and +descending melody passages. In other words the scales that follow would +more nearly represent actual usage if in each case [sharp]4 (FI) were +substituted for [flat]5 (SE) in the descending scale; and if [flat]7 +(TE) were substituted for [sharp]6 (LI) in the ascending form. + +[Footnote 20: The word _chromatic_ means literally _colored_ and was +first applied to the intermediate tones because by using them the singer +could get smoother and more diversely-shaded progressions, _i.e._, could +get more _color_ than by using only the diatonic tones. Composers were +not long discovering the peculiar value of these additional tones and +soon found that these same tones were exceedingly valuable also in +modulating, hence the two uses of intermediate tones at the present +time--first, to embellish a melody; second, to modulate to another key.] + +[Illustration] + + _Note._--In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing + standpoint the student is urged to adopt a three-step process; + first, writing the major diatonic scale both ascending and + descending; second, marking the half-steps; third, inserting + accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the + above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been + represented by black note-heads so as to differentiate them + from the notes representing diatonic scale tones. + +95. The _whole-step scale_ (the third type mentioned in Sec. 79) is, as +its name implies, a scale in which the intervals between the tones +consist in every instance of whole-steps. This reduces the number of +tones in the scale to seven. Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D, E, +F[sharp] or G[flat], A[flat], B[flat], C. This scale has been used +somewhat extensively by the ultramodern French school of composition +represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any +progress toward universal adoption. The remarks of a recent English +writer[21] on this subject may be interesting to the student who is +puzzled by the apparent present-day tendencies of French music. He says: + + "The student of some interesting modern developments will also + speedily discover that the adoption of the so-called + whole-tone scale as a basis of music is, except upon a keyed + instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament, + unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument + can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave + which is in tune with the starting note, unless he + deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters + it while playing it. The obvious result of the application of + the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would + be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the + pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of + tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the + pure scale would be distorted and destroyed, unless string + players were to face the practically impossible drudgery of + studying both the equal temperament and the pure scale from + the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's + notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the + scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads + founded upon ignorance of it. It is a curious commentary upon + this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third act of + _Tristan_ (bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone + scale and drew his pen through it, as was to be expected from + a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the + pure scale inbred in him." + +[Footnote 21: Stanford--Musical Composition (1911) p. 17.] + +There may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether +Mr. Stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the +difference between "tempered" and "pure" scales,[22] but even so, there +is a far more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never +become popular as the major and minor scales now are, viz., the fact +that it offers no possibility of _inculcating tonality feeling_, which +has always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music. Tonality +scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of contraction and +relaxation--an active tone (or chord) followed by a passive one, but no +such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it seems suitable +therefore only for that class of music whose outlines are _purposely +intended to be_ vague and indefinite--the impressionistic style of music +writing. + +[Footnote 22: Recent tests in Germany seem to prove conclusively that +the _tempered_ scale is the scale ordinarily employed by both vocalists +and players on stringed instruments, and that the ideal of and agitation +for a _pure_ (_i.e._, _untempered_) scale in vocal and in string music +is somewhat of a myth.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +AUXILIARY WORDS AND ENDINGS + + +96. Being a list of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and +endings, often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical +effects. + +_A_--preposition--variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards. + _A cappella_--in church style. + _A capriccio_--at the fancy of the performer. + _A deux mains_--for two hands. + _A mezza voce_--with half voice. + +_A la_, or _alla_--in the manner of. _Alla marcia_--in the style of a +march. + +_Assai_--very, or very much. _Allegro assai_--very fast. + +_Ben_--well. _Ben marcato_--well marked. + +_Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collo_--with, or with the. + _Con amore_--with tenderness. + _Colla voce_--with the voice. + +_Come_--as, like. _Come primo_--as at first. + +_Contra_--against. In compound words means "an octave below." + +_Da_--from. _Da Capo_--from the head. + +_Di_--by, with, of, for. _Di bravura_--with daring. + +_Di molto_--exceedingly--very much. _Allegro di molto_--exceedingly +rapid. + +_Doppio_--double. _Doppio movimento_--double movement. + +_E, ed, et_--and. _Cresc. et accel._--louder and faster. + +_Ensemble_--together, the opposite of solo. + +_Il, La, l', le_--the. _Il basso_--the bass. _L'istesso tempo_--the same +speed. + +_Il piu_--the most. _Il piu forte possible_--as loudly as possible. + +_Issimo_--Italian superlative ending. _Forte_--_fortissimo_. + +_Ino, etto_--Italian diminutive endings. _Andante_--_andantino_. +_Poco_--_pochetto_. + +_Meno_--less. _Meno forte_--less loud. + +_Mente_--the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb. +_Largo largamente_. + +_Mezzo_ or _mezza_--half, or medium. _Mezzo forte_--medium loud. + +_Molto_--much, or very much. _Molto cresc._--very much louder. + +_Nel, nella, etc._--in the, or at the. _Nel battere_--at the down beat. + +_Non_--not. _Non tanto_--not too much. + +_Ossia_--or else. _Ossia piu facile_--or else more easily. + +_Per_--for. _Per il violino_--for the violin. + +_Peu_--little. _Un peu cresc._--a little increase in tone. + +_Piu_--more. _Piu forte_--more loudly. + +_Poco_--little. _Poco a poco_--little by little. + +_Poi_--then. _E poi la coda_--and then the coda. + +_Possibile_--possible. _Forte possibile_--as loudly as possible. +[Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "possible" for Italian +"possibile".] + +_Quasi_--in the manner of. _Allegro quasi andante_--a fairly rapid +movement, yet in the style of an andante; almost as slow as an andante. + +_Sans_--without. _Sans pedales_--without pedals. + +_Sempre_--always, or continually. _Sempre forte_--a long passage to be +played forte throughout its entirety. + +_Senza_--without. _Senza accompagnamento_--without accompaniment. + +_Sino, sin_--as far as. See p. 14, note. + +_Solo_--alone. Opposite of ensemble. + +_Sub_--under or lower. _Sub-dominant_--the under dominant. + +_Tanto_--same as _troppo_, q.v. + +_Tre_--three. _Tre corde_--three strings. + +_Tres_--very. _Tres vivement_--very lively. + +_Troppo_--too much. _Non tanto allegro_, or _non troppo allegro_--not +too fast. + +_Una, un, uno_--one, or a. _Una corda_--one string. _Un peu_--a little. + +A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student +greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping +to look up each individual one. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +MEASURE + + +97. From the standpoint of the eye, a _measure_ is that portion of the +staff found between two bars, (in certain cases this space may be less +than a measure, as _e.g._, at the beginning and end of a movement); but +from the standpoint of the ear a single, isolated measure is not +possible, and the term must therefore be defined in the plural form. + +_Measures_ are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each +group having at least one accented and one non-accented beat. The +strongest accent falls normally on the first beat in the measure. + +Two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical +measure: + +(1) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always +actually sounded, one or more of these beats being stronger than the +rest; + +(2) Certain rhythmic figures ([Illustration], etc.) which form the +actual musical content of these groups. + + The student will note the essential difference between rhythm + and measure. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a + series of beats (or pulses), while measure is the grouping of + these beats according to some specified system. In listening + to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel the _rhythm_ + equally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats + into--_one_, two | _one_, two |--etc., while B feels the + groups as--_one_, two, _three_, four | _one_, two, _three_, + four |--etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing, + inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain + extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have + adopted for practical purposes. + +98. In _syncopation_ the normal system of accenting is temporarily +suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part +of the measure. Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary +interruption of a normal series of accents, _i.e._, accenting a beat +that is usually not accented. Thus _e.g._, in Fig. 56, measure _one_ has +the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure, +(strong accent on one, secondary accent on three); but measure _three_ +has only one accent, and it falls on the second beat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 56.] + +99. Measures are usually classified as _simple_ and _compound_. A +_simple measure_ is one which has but a single accent, _i.e._, the +measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups. There are two +main classes of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat +measure. A _compound measure_ is (as its name implies) one made up by +combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single +measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups. The principal +compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as +compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and +twelve-beat measures are also classified as compound measures. + + An English writer[23] classifies measures as duple, triple, or + quadruple, specifying that a simple measure is one in which + each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided + into halves ([Illustration] etc.) and that a compound measure + is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note, + whose value can be divided into three parts, ([Illustration]). + There is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as + to the meaning of the words _simple_ and _compound_ when + applied in this connection, the principal question at issue + being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety, or + whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures, + either by placing two of these in a group or by the + elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats, + as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way + out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true--but + in different compositions. That is, it is frequently + impossible to tell whether a composition that is being + listened to is in two-beat, or in four-beat measure; and yet + it _is_ sometimes possible so to discriminate. Since, however, + one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between + two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to + leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat + measure as a compound variety. + +[Footnote 23: Pearse--Rudiments of Musical Knowledge, p. 37.] + +100. The _commonest varieties of measure_ are: + + 1. _Duple_ (sometimes called even measure, or even time), in + which there are two beats, the first one being accented. + Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,[24] + two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively. + + [Footnote 24: For explanation of terminology, see p. 48, Sec. + 106.] + + 2. _Triple_, (the old perfect measure), in which there are + three beats, the first one being accented, the second and + third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2, three-eighth, + three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively. + + 3. _Quadruple_, in which there are four beats, the first and + third being accented (primary accent on _one_, secondary + accent on _three_), the second and fourth unaccented. (See + note above, under Sec. 99.) + + 4. _Sextuple_, in which there are six beats, the first and + fourth being accented, the others not. In rapid tempi this is + always taken as compound duple measure, a dotted quarter note + having a beat. It will be noted that the two measures + [Illustration] are identical in effect with [Illustration]. + +101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but +these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures +respectively, being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is +thought of as a triplet. [Illustration] is identical in effect with +[Illustration]. + +102. _Quintuple_ (five-beat) and _septuple_ (seven-beat) measures are +occasionally met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic. +The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of +two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition), +while the seven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three, or +of three and four. + +103. The sign [common-time symbol] is usually understood to mean +four-quarter measure, and the sign [cut-time symbol], two-half measure, +but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes used to +indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the sign +[cut-time symbol] always indicates that a half-note has a beat. [Double +cut-time symbol] may occasionally be found indicating four-half measure +but this is rare. + + The student will note that the sign [common-time symbol] is + not a _letter_ C, but an incomplete circle, differentiating + two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect) + measure. See Appendix A, p. 106. [Transcriber's Note: page + number missing in original.] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +TEMPO + + +104. The word _time_ in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused, +having been used to indicate: + + (1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong." + + (2) Variety of measure-signature; as "two-four time." + + (3) Rate of speed; as "the time was too slow." + +To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and +inexact use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certain +_changes in terminology_ as noted in Sections 105, 106, and 107. Such +changes may cause some confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if +our musical terminology is to be at all exact. + +105. The _first of the changes_ mentioned in the above paragraph is to +substitute the word _rhythm_ for the word _time_ when correcting +mistakes involving misplaced accent, etc. _E.g._, "Your _rhythm_ in the +third measure of the lower score was wrong," instead of "Your +_time_--was wrong." + +106. The _second change_ mentioned would eliminate such blind and +misleading expressions as "two-four time," "three-four time," "four-four +time," "six-eight time," etc., and substitute therefor such +self-explanatory designations as "two-quarter measure," "three-quarter +measure," "four-quarter measure," "six-eighth measure," etc. _E.g._, +"The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is in +_four-quarter measure_." + +107. The _third change_ referred to above would substitute the word +_tempo_ (plural--_tempi_) for the word _time_ in all allusions to rate +of speed. _E.g._, "The scherzo was played in very rapid _tempo_." + + The word _tempo_ has been used in this connection so long by + professional musicians that there can be no possible objection + to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there + is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in + all countries where modern music (_i.e._, civilized music) is + performed, and just here is found the principal reason for the + popularity of the Italian language in musical terminology. + Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried + to break down this popularity by using their own respective + vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications, but in + spite of these attempts the Italian language is still quite + universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so, for if + we are to have a _music notation_ that is universal, so that + an American is able to play music written by a Frenchman or a + German, or a Russian, then we ought also to have a certain + number of expressions referring to tempo, etc., which will be + understood by all, _i.e._, a music terminology that is + universal. The Italian language was the first in the field, is + the most universally known in this particular at the present + time, and is entirely adequate. It should therefore be + retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto. + +108. There are several _ways of finding the correct tempo_ of a +composition: + + 1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of + many compositions. Thus _e.g._, the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's + Metronome 92) means that if the metronome (either Maelzel's or + some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at + the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they + will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at + which the beats (or pulses) should follow one another. This is + undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in + spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes[25] and of the + mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving + metronomic indications. + + [Footnote 25: To test the accuracy of a metronome, set the + weight at 60 and see if it beats seconds. If it gives more + than 62 or 63 or less than 57 or 58 clicks per minute it will + not be of much service in giving correct tempi and should be + taken to a jeweller to be regulated.] + + 2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is + to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that + "feels right" for that particular piece of music. This is + perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is + open only to the musician of long experience, sure judgment, + and sound scholarship. + + 3. A third method of finding tempi is through the + interpretation of certain words used quite universally by + composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the + general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method + is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same + word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of + speed can be indicated, and in the last analysis the conductor + or performer must fall back on the second method cited + above--_i.e._, individual judgment. + +109. In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions +relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful +in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer's mind as he +conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of +the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is +absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in +groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows: + + 1. _Grave_ (lit. weighty, serious), _larghissimo_, + _adagissimo_, and _lentissimo_--indicating the very slowest + tempo used in rendering music. + + 2. _Largo_,[26] _adagio_,[27] and _lento_--indicating quite a + slow tempo. + + [Footnote 26: Largo, larghetto, etc., are derivatives of the + Latin word _largus_, meaning large, broad.] + + [Footnote 27: Adagio means literally at ease.] + + 3. _Larghetto_ (_i.e._, _a little largo_) and _adagietto_ (_a + little adagio_)--a slow tempo, but not quite so slow as + _largo_, etc. + + 4. _Andante_ (going, or walking, as contrasted with running) + and _andantino_--indicating a moderately slow tempo. + + _Andantino_ is now quite universally taken slightly faster + than _andante_, in spite of the fact that if _andante_ means + "going," and if "_ino_" is the diminutive ending, then + _andantino_ means "going less," _i.e._, more slowly! + + 5. _Moderato_--a moderate tempo. + + 6. _Allegro_ and _allegretto_[28]--a moderately quick tempo, + _allegretto_ being usually interpreted as meaning a tempo + somewhat slower than _allegro_. + + [Footnote 28: There has been some difference of opinion as to + which of these two terms indicates the more rapid tempo: an + analysis tells us that if _allegro_ means quick, and if _etto_ + is the diminutive ending, then _allegretto_ means a little + quick--_i.e._, slower than _allegro_. These two terms are, + however, so closely allied in meaning that a dispute over the + matter is a mere waste of breath.] + + The word _allegro_ means literally happy, joyous, and this + literal meaning is still _sometimes_ applicable, but in the + majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed. + + 7. _Vivo_, _vivace_, (lit. lively)--a tempo between _allegro_ + and _presto_. + + 8. _Presto_, _prestissimo_, _vivacissimo_, and _prestissimo + possibile_--the most rapid tempo possible. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +TEMPO (_Continued_) + + +110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined in Sec. 109 with one +another and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with +their approximate meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression +not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms +defined in paragraph 109 and recalling the use of certain auxiliary +terms quoted in Chapter IX. + + _Largo assai_--very slow. + + _Largo di molto_--very slow. + + _Largo ma non troppo_--slow, but not too slow. + + _Largo un poco_--slow, but not so slow as _largo_. (_Cf. + larghetto_.) + + _Lentemente_--slowly. + + _Lentando_--with increasing slowness. + + _Tres lentement_--very slowly. + + _Lentissamente_--very slowly. + + _Lentissamamente_--very slowly. + + _Lento assai_--very slowly. + + _Lento a capriccio_--slowly but capriciously. + + _Lento di molto_--very slowly. + + _Andante affettuoso_--moderately slow, and with tenderness and + pathos. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "affetuoso" in + original.] + + _Andante amabile_--moderately slow, and lovingly. + + _Andante cantabile_--moderately slow, and in singing style. + + _Andante grazioso_--moderately slow, and gracefully. + + _Andante maestoso_--moderately slow, and majestically. + + _Andante con moto_--slightly faster than _andante_. + + _Andante (ma) non troppo_--not too slowly. + + _Andante pastorale_--moderately slow, and in simple and + unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral). + + _Andante quasi allegro_--almost as rapid in tempo as + _allegro_; (lit. an _andante_ in the style of _allegro_). + + _Andante sostenuto_--moderately slow and sustained. + + _Allegrissimo_--much faster than _allegro_. (The superlative + degree of _allegro_.) + + _Allegro agitato_--a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated + style. + + _Allegro appassionata_--a moderately rapid tempo, and in + passionate style. + + _Allegro assai_ (very _allegro_)--faster than _allegro_. + + _Allegro commodo_--a conveniently rapid tempo. + + _Allegro con brio_--an _allegro_ played in brilliant style. + Faster than _allegro_. + + _Allegro con fuoco_--an _allegro_ played with fire, _i.e._, + with extreme animation. Faster than _allegro_. + + _Allegro con spirito_--an _allegro_ performed with spirit. + + _Allegro con moto_--faster than _allegro_. + + _Allegro di bravura_--an _allegro_ performed in brilliant + style, _i.e._, demanding great skill in execution. + + _Allegro furioso_ (furiously)--quicker than _allegro_; very + brilliant. + + _Allegro giusto_--an _allegro_ movement, but in exact rhythm. + + _Allegro ma grazioso_--an _allegro_ played in graceful style. + + _Allegro (ma) non tanto_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too + rapid. + + _Allegro (ma) non troppo_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too + rapid. + + _Allegro (ma) non presto_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too + rapid. + + _Allegro moderato_--slower than _allegro_. + + _Allegro vivace_--faster than _allegro_. + + _Presto assai_--as rapidly as possible. + + _Presto (ma) non troppo_--a _presto_ movement, but not too + rapid. + +111. There are certain _terms which indicate a modification of the +normal tempo_ of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a) +those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those +which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions +of these two classes are shown below. + +(_a_) Terms indicating a slower tempo. + + 1. Terms indicating a _gradual_ retard. + + _Ritenente_, (_rit._), _ritenuto_ (_rit._), _ritardando_ + (_rit._), _rallentando_ (_rall._), _slentando_. + + 2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely + slower _at once_. + + _Piu lento_ (lit. more slowly), _meno mosso_ (lit. less + movement). + + 3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase + in power. + + _Largando_, _allargando._ These words are both derived from + _largo_, meaning large, broad. + +(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see page 59, +Sec. 127.) + + The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2 + as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each + measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little + slower than the preceding one, while such terms as _piu lento_ + and _meno mosso_ indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly + slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some + composers (_e.g._, Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had + this same distinction in mind between _rallentando_ and + _ritardando_ on the one hand, and _ritenuto_ and _ritenente_ + on the other, considering the former (_rall._ and _rit._) to + indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter + (_ritenuto_ and _ritenente_) to indicate a definitely slower + rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate + between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be + worth while for the student to try to remember the + distinction. + +(_b_) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo. + + 1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration. + + _Accelerando_, _affrettando_ [Transcriber's Note: Corrected + misspelling "affretando" in original] (this term implies some + degree of excitement also), _stringendo_, _poco a poco + animato_. + + 2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely + faster at once. + + _Piu allegro_, _piu tosto_, _piu mosso_, _stretto_, _un poco + animato_. + +112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been +suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some +such expression as _a tempo_ (lit. in time), _a tempo primo_ (lit. in +the first time), _tempo primo_, or _tempo_. + +113. _Tempo rubato_ (or _a tempo rubato_) means literally _in robbed +time_, _i.e._, duration taken from one measure or beat and given to +another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to +any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the +score. + +The terms _ad libitum_, (_ad lib._), _a piacere_, and _a capriccio_, +also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer. +_Ad libitum_ means at liberty; _a piacere_, at pleasure; and _a +capriccio_, at the caprice (of the performer). + +114. The term _tempo giusto_ is the opposite of _tempo rubato_ (and of +the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally _in exact +time_. (_Tempo giusto_ is sometimes translated _quite rapidly_,[29] but +this is very unusual.) + +[Footnote 29: Bussler--Elements of Notation and Harmony, p. 76.] + +115. _L'istesso tempo_ means--at the same rate of speed. _E.g._, when a +measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note +from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried +through the entire movement. + +116. _Tenuto_ (_ten._) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to +its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to +show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used +merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone--_i.e._, to give it its +full value. + +117. _Veloce_ means--swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages +(_e.g._, cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without +much regard for measure rhythm. The words _rapidamente_, _brillante_ and +_volante_ (flying) have the same meaning as _veloce_. + +118. The following _expressions referring to tempo_ are also in common +use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already +defined. + + _Con moto_--with motion; _i.e._, not too slow. + + _Pesante_--slowly, heavily. + + _Doppio movimento_--twice as rapid as before. + + _Tempo ordinario_--in ordinary tempo. + + _Tempo commodo_--in convenient tempo. + + _Sempre lento malinconico assai_--always slowly and in a very + melancholy style. + + _Animando_, _animato_, _con anima_--with animation. + + _Agitato_--agitated. + +119. _Tempo di marcia_ is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783) +as equivalent to _andante_, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives _tempo di +menuetto_ as equivalent to _allegretto_, and _tempo di valso_ as +equivalent to _allegro moderato_ (which he regards as indicating a more +rapid tempo than _allegretto_). + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +DYNAMICS + + +120. The word _dynamics_ (cf. dynamic--the opposite of static) as used +in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power +(_i.e._, the comparative loudness and softness) of tones. + +As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to +_dynamics_ are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to +indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not +possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be. +Thus _dynamics_, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on +the taste of the performer or conductor. + +The following _words referring to dynamics_ are in common use: + + _Pianisissimo_ (_ppp_)--as softly as possible. (It will be + noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative of _piano_.) + + _Pianissimo_ (_pp_)--very softly. (The superlative of + _piano_.) + + _Piano_ (_p_)--softly. + + _Mezzo piano_ (_mp_)--medium softly. + + _Mezzo forte_ (_mf_)--medium loudly. + + _Forte_ (_f_)--loudly (lit. strong). + + _Fortissimo_ (_ff_)--very loudly. (The superlative of + _forte_.) + + _Fortisissimo_ (_fff_)--as loudly as possible. + + The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both + _piano_ and _forte_ seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative + degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even + five _p_'s or _f_'s is not desirable. + +121. The terms defined in Sec. 120 are often combined with others, as +_e.g._, + + _Pianissimo possibile_--as softly as possible. + + _Piano assai_--very softly. + + _Fortissimo possibile_--as loudly as possible. + + _Forte piano_ (_fp_)--loud, followed at once by soft. + +As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other +expressions relating to _dynamics_ may easily be arrived at by recalling +the list of auxiliary terms quoted under Sec. 96. + +122. The terms _sforzando_, _forzando_, _sforzato_ and _forzato_ all +indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are +abbreviated as follows:--_sf_,_fz_, and _sfz_, the abbreviation being +placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The +signs [vertical accent symbol] and [horizontal accent symbol] are also +commonly used to indicate such an accent. + + In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in + mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an + absolute meaning: the mark _sf_ occurring in the midst of a + _piano_ passage will indicate a much milder form of accent + than would the same mark occurring in the midst of a _forte_ + passage. + +123. The words _rinforzando_ and _rinforzato_ (abb.--_rinf._ and _rfz._) +mean literally _reinforced_, and are used to indicate a sudden increase +in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of +applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of _sforzando_, +etc. + +124. _Crescendo_ (abb.--_cresc._ or [crescendo symbol]) means a gradual +increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not mean _loud_, +nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some +auxiliary term such as _subito_, or _molto_. + +Broadly speaking there are _two varieties of crescendo_: (1) that in +which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that +in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the +preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving +forth a tone which can be varied _after it begins_. Thus _e.g._, the +human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain +wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and +gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has +been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box, +kettle drum, etc., the power of the tone cannot be varied after the +tone has once been sounded, and a _crescendo_ effect is therefore +possible only in a _passage_, in rendering which each succeeding tone is +struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety +of _crescendo_ offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed +most strikingly, as _e.g._, when a long passage begins very softly and +increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the +instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an +effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements +of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony. + + The difference between _sforzando_, _rinforzando_, and + _crescendo_ should now be noted: _sforzando_ indicates that a + single tone or chord is to be louder; _rinforzando_, that an + entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone; + but _crescendo_ indicates that there is to be a gradual + increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during + the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage. + +125. Certain _combinations of the word crescendo_ with other words are +so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are: + + _Crescendo al fortissimo_--keep on gradually increasing in + power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been + reached. + + _Crescendo subito_--increase in power suddenly (or rapidly). + + _Crescendo poco a poco_--increase in power very, very + gradually. + + _Crescendo poi diminuendo_--first increase, then diminish the + tone. + + _Crescendo e diminuendo_--same as _cresc. poi dim._ + + _Crescendo molto_--increase in power very greatly. + + _Crescendo ed animando poco a poco_--growing gradually louder + in tone and quicker in _tempo_. + + _Crescendo ed affrettando_--gradually louder and faster. + [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "affretando" in + original.] + + _Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine_--crescendo gradually even + up to the very end. + +126. _Decrescendo_ (_decresc._ or [decrescendo symbol]) means a gradual +diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite of _crescendo_. The word +_diminuendo_ is synonymous with _decrescendo_. + +_Decrescendo_ (or _diminuendo_) _al pianissimo_ means--decrease +gradually in power until the _pianissimo_ (or very soft) point is +reached. + +127. A number of _terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo_ +are in use. The most common of these are:--_mancando_, _moriente_,[30] +_morendo_, _perdendo_ (from _perdere_--to lose), _perdendosi_, +_calando_, and _smorzando_.[31] Such expressions are usually +translated--"gradually dying away." + +[Footnote 30: Both _moriente_ and _morendo_ mean literally--_dying_.] + +[Footnote 31: From _smorzare_ (It.)--to extinguish.] + +128. In piano music the abbreviation _Ped._ indicates that the damper +pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the sign [damper +release symbol] shows that it is to be released. In many modern editions +this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately +indicated by the sign [damper symbol]. + + The term _senza sordini_ is also occasionally found in old + editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed, + while _con sordini_ shows that it is to be released. These + expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed + instruments, in which the term _con sordini_ means that the + mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be + affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both + power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does + not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed + instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes + occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even + though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier + sonatas. + +129. The words _una corda_ (lit.--one string) indicate that the "soft +pedal" (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the words _tre +corde_ (lit. three strings) or _tutte le corde_ (all the strings) show +that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the +fact that on grand pianos the "soft pedal" when depressed moves the +hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they +strike only two (in the older pianos only one, hence _una corda_), all +three strings (_tre corde_) being struck again after the release of the +pedal. + +130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject +of dynamics are: + + _Con alcuna licenza_--with some degree of license. + + _Con amore_--with tenderness. + + _Con bravura_--with boldness. + + _Con celerita_--with rapidity. + + _Con delicato_--with delicacy. + + _Con energico_--with energy. + + _Con espressione_--with expression. + + _Con forza_--with force. + + _Con fuoco_--with fire and passion. + + _Con grand' espressione_--with great expression. + + _Con grazia_--with grace. + + _Con melinconia_--with melancholy. [Transcriber's Note: + archaic form of "malinconia".] + + _Con passione_--with passion. + + _Con spirito_--with spirit. + + _Con tenerezza_--with tenderness. + + _Delicato_--delicately. + + _Dolce_--sweetly, gently. + + _Dolcissimo_--most sweetly. + + _Dolce e cantabile_--gently and with singing tone. + + _Dolente_ } + _Doloroso_ } plaintively or sorrowfully. + + _Espressivo_--expressively. + + _Grandioso_--grandly, pompously. + + _Grazioso_--gracefully. + + _Giocoso_--humorously, (cf. jocose). + + _Giojoso_--joyfully, (cf. joyous). + + _Lacrimando_, _lacrimoso_--sorrowfully. + + _Legato_--smoothly. + + _Leggiero_--lightly. + + _Leggierissimo_--most lightly; almost a staccato. + + _Lusingando_--caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly. + + _Maesta_, _maestoso_--majestically. + + _Martellando_, _martellato_--strongly accented, + (lit.--hammered). + + _Marziale_--martial--war-like. + + _Mesto_--pensively. + + _Mezzo voce_--with half voice. + + _Misterioso_--mysteriously. + + _Parlando_--well accented or enunciated; applied to melody + playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.) + + _Pastorale_--in simple and unaffected style, (lit.--pastoral, + rural). + + _Pomposo_--pompously. + + _Precipitoso_--precipitously. + + _Recitativo_--well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in + instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the + accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, see p. + 78.) + + _Risoluto_--firmly, resolutely. + + _Scherzando_, _scherzoso_, etc.--jokingly. These terms are + derived from the word _scherzo_ meaning _a musical joke_. + + _Semplice_--simply. + + _Sempre marcatissimo_--always well marked, _i.e._, strongly + accented. + + _Sentimento_--with sentiment. + + _Solenne_--solemn. + + _Sotto voce_--in subdued voice. + + _Spiritoso_--with spirit. + + _Strepitoso_--precipitously. + + _Tranquillo_--tranquilly. + + _Tristamente_--sadly. + +131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem +to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thus +_e.g._, _crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando_, +is seen to mean merely--"increase gradually to _forte_ and accelerate a +very little bit." A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly +in the interpretation of such expressions. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES + + +132. A _form_ in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of +a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is +easily recognized by the ear. Thus _e.g._, although every fugue is +different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement +of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the +_fugue form_ has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is +hearing whenever a fugue is played. The word _form_ is therefore seen to +be somewhat synonymous with the word _plan_ as used in architecture; it +is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the +canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc. + + Speaking broadly we may say that _form_ in any art consists in + the placing together of certain parts in such relations of + proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music + this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect, + as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the + work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one + whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer. + +133. The primal _basis of form_ is the repetition of some characteristic +effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these +repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the +same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is +accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by +introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key. + +134. The student should note at the outset of this topic the _difference +in meaning between_ the terms _form_ and _style_: A _form_ is a plan +for building a certain definite kind of composition, but a _style_ is +merely a manner of writing. Thus _e.g._, the _fugue_ is a +_form_--_i.e._, it is a plan, which although capable of variation in +details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; but +_counterpoint_ is merely a _style_ or manner of writing (just as Gothic +architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of +several _forms_. + +135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to +explain in simple language certain terms relating to _forms_ and +_styles_ which are in common use; in many cases the definition is too +meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that +the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually +be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The +article "Form" and the separate articles under each term here defined, +as found in Grove's Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples +of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette--"The +Appreciation of Music," Supplementary Volume.) + +136. In a very general way there may be said to be _two styles of +musical composition_, the monophonic (or homophonic)--the +one-voiced--and the polyphonic--the many voiced. The polyphonic[32] +style antedates the monophonic historically. + +[Footnote 32: Polyphonic music flourished from 1000 A.D. to about 1750 +A.D., the culmination of the polyphonic period being reached in the +music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, +and the later writers have used the monophonic style more than the +polyphonic, although a combination of the two is often found, as _e.g._, +in the later works of Beethoven.] + +137. In _monophonic music_ there is one voice which has a pronounced +melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a +harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the +ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three +other voices forming a "four-part harmony." The sonata, symphony, opera, +modern piano piece, etc., are also largely _monophonic_, though +polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found. + +138. In _polyphonic music_ each voice is to a certain extent melodically +interesting, and the "harmony" is the result of combining several +melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating +a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint, +canon, round, fugue, etc., are all _polyphonic_ in style. The word +_contrapuntal_ is often used synonymously with _polyphonic_. + + (Sections 139 to 143 relate especially to terms describing + polyphonic music.) + +139. _Counterpoint_ is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies +to a given melody, the latter being known as the "cantus firmus," or +subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as "the art of combining +melodies." + + The word _counterpoint_ comes from the three words "_punctus + contra punctum_," meaning "point against point." The word + point as here used refers to the _punctus_--one of the neumae + of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate + predecessors of modern notes. + + Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in + contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part + "inventions" by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental + counterpoint, while such choruses as those in "The Messiah" by + Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint. + +140. _Imitation_ is the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme +previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the +term _strict imitation_ is applied, but if only approximate, then the +term _free imitation_ is used in referring to it. The repetition need +not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be _strict_; on +the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a +fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in +which the _third_ part comes in an octave _lower_ than the first part. + +141. A _canon_ is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict +imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another +part has played or sung. The term "canonic style" is sometimes applied +to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part +canon is given in Fig. 57. + +[Illustration: CANON IN THREE VOICES, IN THE UNISON AND OCTAVE + +Fig. 57. MOZART] + + The word _canon_ means _law_, and was applied to this + particular form of composition because the rules relating to + its composition were invariable. It is because of this + non-flexibility that the _canon_ is so little used as a form + at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of + writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as + to give him room for the exercise of his own particular + individuality of conception, and this the _canon_ does not do. + For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have + successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the + present time composers have as it were created their own + forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that + no one but the composer himself could recognize the form _as_ + a form because it had not been adopted to a great enough + extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal. + The result is that in much present-day music it is very + difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar + design, and the impression made by such music is in + consequence much less definite than that made by music of the + classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state + of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is + necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of + structure to make the art work capable of standing as a + universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression + of some particular composer or of some period of composition. + +142. The common _school round_ is an example of canon, each voice +repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice +is going on with its melody. The _round_ is therefore defined as a +variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the +subject. + +143. The _fugue_ (Latin, _fuga_ = flight) is a form of contrapuntal +composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key, +_i.e._, a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called "the +answer") may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called +"the question"), but is usually not so. + + The _fugue_ differs from the canon also in that the subject is + given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the + canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going + on. The _fugue_ is not nearly so strict in form as the canon + and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing + musical ideas. A canon may be perfect in _form_ and yet be + very poor music; this same statement might of course be made + about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES (_Continued_) + + + (Sections 144 to 160 relate particularly to terms used in + descriptions of _monophonic_ music[33].) + +[Footnote 33: There is a very pronounced disagreement among theorists as +to what terms are to be used in referring to certain forms and parts of +forms and it seems impossible to make a compromise that will satisfy +even a reasonable number. In order to make the material in this chapter +consistent with itself therefore it has been thought best by the author +to follow the terminology of some single recognized work on form, and +the general plan of monophonic form here given is therefore that of the +volume called _Musical Form_, by Bussler-Cornell.] + +144. A _phrase_ is a short musical thought (at least two measures in +length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The +typical _phrase_ is four measures long. The two-measure _phrase_ is +often called _section_. The word _phrase_ as used in music terminology +corresponds with the same word as used in language study. + +145. A _period_ is a little piece of music typically eight measures +long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined +divisions of a larger form. The _period_ (when complete in itself) is +the smallest monophonic form. + +The essential characteristic of the _regular period_ is the fact that it +usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called _antecedent_ and +_consequent_ or _thesis_ and _antithesis_), the first phrase giving rise +to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key, +deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of +completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close. + + The second half of the period is sometimes a literal + repetition of the first half, in all respects except the + cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one + of the elements--rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs. + 58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost + invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes) + the more obvious the form of the period, while the more + complex the music, the less regular the period. + +[Illustration: Fig. 58. MOZART] + +[Illustration: Fig. 59. SCHUBERT] + +146. The _primary forms_ are built up by combining two or more periods. + +The _small two-part primary form_ (often called _song-form_ or +_Lied-form_) consists of two periods so placed that the second +constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of +this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the +first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity. +The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven) +quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are +"Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes," and "The Last Rose of Summer." + +[Illustration: BEETHOVEN] + +The _small three-part primary form_ is like the two-part primary form +except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated +between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure +phrase. + +The _large two- and three-part primary forms_ usually have +sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise +similar in construction. + + These various _primary forms_ are used in constructing many + varieties of compositions, among them the _theme and + variations_, the _polka_, the _waltz_, the _march_, etc., as + well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets, + etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be + regular here because the form of vocal music is largely + dependent upon the structure of the text. + +147. A _theme_ is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue, +as the basis of the development section in "sonata form," etc. Sometimes +it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are +made, as _e.g._, in the familiar _theme and variations_. + +148. _Thematic development_ consists in taking a short theme (or several +short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and +contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality +changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a +composition. Fig. 60 _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, and _f_ show how the theme +given in Fig. 60 (_a_) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are +hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied +without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic +development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, No. 3, as +analyzed in Appendix E. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Sec. 3" in +original.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 60.] + + For further illustrations of development in the case of this + same theme, see--Christiani--The Principles of Expression in + Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing + themes have been adapted. + +149. A _rondo_ is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in +which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same +form (_i.e._, not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme +being separated by contrasting material. + +The _rondo_ is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been +used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic +construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in +dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first +subject again; (6) second subject, in _tonic key_; (7) coda (or ending). + +The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and +contrast (mentioned in Sec. 134) as here worked out, as the rondo was +the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily +solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is +readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of +all--the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of +sonatas or sonatinas. + +150. A _suite_ is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in +nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an +introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to +secure contrast of movement--a quick dance being usually followed by a +slower one. + + The suite is interesting to students of the development of + music as being the first form _in several movements_ to be + generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity + from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the + eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata, + whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be. + +The _suite_ was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord, +clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvo[vr]ak, Lachner, +Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also. + +151. Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following: + + _Allemande_--duple or quadruple measure. + + _Bolero_--triple measure. + + _Bouree_--duple or quadruple measure. + + _Chaconne_--triple measure. + + _Courante_--a very old dance in triple measure. + + _Csardas_--Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure. + + _Gavotte_--quadruple measure. + + _Gigue_ (or _jig_)--duple measure. + + _Habanera_--Spanish dance in triple measure. + + _Minuet_--slow dance in triple measure. + + _Mazurka_--Polish dance in triple measure. + + _Polonaise_--Polish dance in triple measure. + + _Rigaudon_--lively dance in duple or triple measure. + + _Sarabande_--triple measure. + + _Tarantella_--swift Italian dance in sextuple measure. + +The _allemande_ is especially interesting to students of music form +because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the +sonata-allegro (_i.e._, the first movement of the sonata). The +_sarabande_ and _courante_ are likewise interesting as the prototypes of +the second movement, and the _bouree_, _minuet_, etc., for their +connection with the third movement. + +152. The _scherzo_ (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental +composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the +sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an +independent piece. + +153. A _sonata_ is an instrumental composition of three or more +movements (usually four), the first and last of which are almost always +in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity +of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a +broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its +name from the fact that its first movement is cast in _sonata-form_. +(See Sec. 157 for description of sonata-form.) + +When the _sonata_ has four movements, these are usually arranged as +follows: + + 1. A quick movement (_allegro_, _presto_, etc.), often + preceded by a slower introduction. + + 2. A slow movement (_largo_, _andante_, _adagio_, etc.). + + 3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case + the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is + played. + + 4. A quick movement--the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes + another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations. + +These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of +contrasting rhythms. + +154. A _trio_ is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin, +and cello), while a _quartet_ is a sonata for four instruments, the most +common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins, +viola, and violoncello. + +The term _chamber music_ is often applied to instrumental music for +trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are +suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall. + + The words _trio_ and _quartet_ are also applied to vocal works + for three and four voices respectively, these having no + relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The word + _trio_ is also applied to the middle section of minuets, + scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage + of writing this part for three instruments only. + +155. A _concerto_ is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral +accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt +it to a composition in which there must necessarily be opportunity for +a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements +in the _concerto_. + + The great majority of _concertos_ are for piano and orchestra, + but examples of concertos for violin, cello, flute, oboe, and + other solo instruments (all with orchestral accompaniment) + have also been written. A few modern composers have applied + the term _concerto_ to certain large organ works (with no + orchestral accompaniment, the composition being written for + just the one instrument), but this use of the word is so + contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly + justifiable. + + When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra), + this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that + there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should + be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been + arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ). + +156. A _symphony_ is a sonata for full orchestra. In general its +construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of +much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal +and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the +highest type of instrumental music ever evolved. + + The _symphony_ was accepted as a standard form in the time of + Haydn (1732-1809) and was developed enormously by Haydn + himself, Mozart (1756-1791), and Beethoven (1770-1827), + reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous "Nine + Symphonies" of the last-named composer. Later symphony writers + whose works are at present being performed include Schumann, + Tschaikowsky, and Dvo[vr]ak. + +The word _symphony_ was formerly used synonymously with _ritornelle_, +both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of +vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared. + +157. _Sonata-form_ (sometimes called _sonata-allegro_) is a plan for the +construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies, +etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third +division being a more or less literal repetition of the first. + + These _three parts of sonata-form_ with their usual + subdivisions are: + + I. EXPOSITION + + (1) Principal theme (or first subject). + + (2) Link-episode (or modulation group). + + (3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly + related key. + + (4) Closing group. + + (5) Coda. + + II. DEVELOPMENT SECTION + + Treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost + infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of + thematic development. (See Sec. 148). + + III. RECAPITULATION (OR REPRISE) + + Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in the + _exposition_, but differing from this first section in one + essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary + theme in a _related_ key, the entire recapitulation is in the + _principal_ key. This third section is always followed by a + coda (which may either be very short or quite extended), + bringing the whole movement to a more definite close. + + The second part of _sonata-form_ (the development section) is + sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three + divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an + opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and + inventive skill. It is principally because of this development + section that the sonata is so far superior as a _form_ to its + predecessors. For an analyzed example of _sonata-form_, see + Appendix E. The student is advised to take other sonatas and + go through the first movements with a view to finding at least + the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the + form will of course be so irregular that all the parts + indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of + the scheme will always be present. + +158. A _sonatina_, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs +from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development, +the second section being of slight importance as compared with the +corresponding section of a sonata. + +A _grand sonata_ is like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually +large dimensions. + +159. _Program music_ is instrumental music which is supposed to convey +to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in +him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the +composer's mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general +idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a +poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer, +but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except +the title of the composition. + + _Program music_ represents a mean between _pure music_ (cf. + the piano sonata or the string quartet) on the one hand, and + _descriptive music_ (in which actual imitations of bird-calls, + whistles, the blowing of the wind, the galloping of horses, + the rolling of thunder, etc., occur), on the other. Most + program music is written for the orchestra, examples being + Liszt's "The Preludes," Strauss' "Till Eulenspiegel," etc. + +160. A _symphonic poem_ (or _tone poem_) is an orchestral composition of +large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying +the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often +characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also +examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the +entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it +occurs to the particular moods expressed by the _program_ at those +points. + + The _symphonic poem_ was invented by Liszt (1811-1886) and has + since been used extensively by Strauss, Saint-Saens and + others. It came into existence as a part of the general + movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata + successively to go out of fashion, viz., the tendency to + invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way, + but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in + his own individual way. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +TERMS RELATING TO VOCAL MUSIC + + +161. An _anthem_ is a sacred choral composition, usually based on +Biblical or liturgical[34] words. It may or may not have an instrumental +accompaniment, and is usually written in four parts, but may have five, +six, eight, or more. + +[Footnote 34: A _liturgy_ is a prescribed form or method of conducting a +religious service, and the parts sung in such a service (as _e.g._, the +holy communion, baptism, etc.), are referred to as the _musical_ +liturgy.] + + The word _anthem_ is derived from _antifona_ (or _antiphona_), + meaning a psalm or hymn sung responsively, _i.e._, + _antiphonally_, by two choirs, or by choir and congregation. + +A _full anthem_ is one containing no solo parts; a _solo anthem_ is one +in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus, while a _verse +anthem_ is one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for +concerted solo voices (_i.e._, trios, quartets, etc.). + +162. _A capella_ (sometimes spelled _cappella_) or _alla capella music_ +is part-singing (either sacred or secular) without accompaniment. + + This term means literally "in chapel style," and refers to the + fact that in the early days of the church all singing was + unaccompanied. + +163. _A motet_ is a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style. It +has no solo parts, thus corresponding to the madrigal (q.v.) in secular +music. The motet is intended for _a capella_ performance, but is often +given with organ accompaniment. + +164. A _choral_ is a hymn-tune of the German Protestant Church. It is +usually harmonized in four voices. The _choral_ (sometimes spelled +_chorale_) is described as having "a plain melody, a strong harmony, and +a stately rhythm." It differs from the ordinary English and American +hymn-tune in being usually sung at a much slower tempo, and in having a +pause at the end of each line of text. + +165. The _mass_ is the liturgy for the celebration of the Lord's Supper +in the service of the Roman Catholic Church. As used in the terminology +of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when +a composer writes a musical _mass_, and which form the basis of the +celebration of the Communion.[35] These six hymns are as follows: + +[Footnote 35: It should be understood that this statement refers to the +service called "the high mass" only, there being no music at all in +connection with the so-called "low mass."] + + _Kyrie._ + + _Gloria_ (including the _Gratias agimus_, _Qui tollis_, + _Quoniam_, _Cum Sancto Spirito_). + + _Credo_ (including the _Et Incarnatus_, _Crucifixus_, and _Et + Resurrexit_). + + _Sanctus_ (including the _Hosanna_). + + _Benedictus._ + + _Agnus Dei_ (including the _Dona nobis_). + + The _requiem mass_ is the "mass for the dead" and differs + considerably from the ordinary mass. Both regular and requiem + _masses_ have been written by many of the great composers + (Bach, Beethoven, Verdi, Gounod), and in many cases these + _masses_ are so complex that they are not practicable for the + actual service of the Church, and are therefore performed only + by large choral societies, as concert works. + +166. A _cantata_ is a vocal composition for chorus and soloists, the +text being either sacred or secular. The accompaniment may be written +for piano, organ, or orchestra. + + When sacred in character the _cantata_ differs from the + oratorio in being shorter and less dramatic, in not usually + having definite characters, and in being written for church + use, while the oratorio is intended for concert performance. + + When secular in subject the _cantata_ differs from the opera + in not usually having definite characters, and in being always + rendered without scenery or action. + + Examples of the _sacred cantata_ are: Stainer's "The + Crucifixion," Clough-Leighter's "The Righteous Branch," and + Gaul's "The Holy City." Examples of the _secular cantata_ are: + Bruch's "Armenius," Coleridge-Taylor's "Hiawatha." + +167. An _oratorio_ is a composition on a large scale for chorus, +soloists, and orchestra, the text usually dealing with some religious +subject. The _oratorio_, as noted above, is not intended for the church +service, but is written for concert performance. + +168. An _opera_ is a composition for vocal soloists, chorus, and +orchestra, with characters, action, scenery, and dramatic movement. It +is a drama set to music. + + _Grand opera_ is opera with a serious plot, in which + everything is sung, there being no spoken dialog at all. + + _Opera comique_ is a species of opera in which part of the + dialog is spoken and part sung. _Opera comique_ is not + synonymous with _comic opera_, for the plot of opera comique + is as often serious as not. In fact the entire distinction + between the terms _grand opera_ and _opera comique_ is being + broken down, the latter term referring merely to operas first + given at the Opera Comique in Paris, and the former term to + those given at the Grand Opera House in the same city. + + A _comic opera_ is a humorous opera, the plot providing many + amusing situations and the whole ending happily. It + corresponds with the _comedy_ in literature. + + A _light opera_ is one with an exceedingly trivial plot, in + which songs, dances, and pretty scenery contribute to the + amusement of the audience. The music is lively, but usually as + trivial as the plot. + + The term _music drama_ was used by Wagner in referring to his + own _operas_, and is also sometimes applied to other modern + _operas_ in which the dramatic element is supposed to + predominate over the musical. + +169. A _libretto_ (lit.--little book) is the word-text of an opera, +oratorio, cantata, or some other similar work. + +170. _Recitative_ is a style of vocal solo common to operas, oratorios, +and cantatas, especially those written some time ago. Its main +characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance, both +rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by +musical considerations. + + _Recitative_ undoubtedly originated in the intoning of the + priest in the ritualistic service of the Church, but when + applied to the opera it became an important means of securing + dramatic effects, especially in situations in which the action + of the play moved along rapidly. _Recitative_ is thus seen to + be a species of musical declamation. + + In the early examples of _recitative_ there was scarcely any + accompaniment, often only one instrument (like the cello) + being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody: when full + chords were played they were not written out in the score, but + were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain + signs and figures. (See "thorough-bass," p. 85, Sec. 200.) + + But about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly + different style of _recitative_ was invented, and in this type + the orchestra was employed much more freely in the + accompaniment, especially in the parts between the phrases of + the text, but to some extent also to support the voice while + singing. This new style was called _recitativo stromento_ + (_i.e._, accompanied recitative), while the original type was + called _recitativo secco_ (_i.e._, dry recitative). + + During the last century the style of _recitative_ has been + still further developed by Gluck and Wagner, both of whom used + the orchestra as an independent entity, with interesting + melodies, harmonies and rhythms all its own, while the vocal + part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment. But even in + this latest phase of _recitative_, it is the word-text that + decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part. + Fig. 61 shows an example of _dry recitative_, taken from "The + Messiah." + + [Illustration: ALTO VOICE. Be-hold! a vir-gin shall con-ceive, + and bear a son, and shall call his name Em-man-u-el; God with + us.] + +171. _Aria_ is likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas, etc., but +its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the +recitative. In the _aria_ the word-text is usually entirely subordinate +to the melody, and the latter is often very ornate, containing trills, +runs, etc. + +The rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as +"coloratura singing," but it should be noted that not all _arias_ are +coloratura in style. + + The familiar solos from The Messiah--"Rejoice Greatly," and + "The trumpet shall sound" are good examples of the aria style. + +172. A _lied_ (Ger. = song) is a vocal solo in which the text, the +melody, and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the +effect of the whole. + + Strictly speaking the word _lied_ means "a poem to be sung," + and this meaning will explain at once the difference between + the _lied_ on the one hand, and the Italian recitative and + aria on the other, for in the _lied_ the text is of great + importance, but the music is also interesting, while in the + recitative the text was important but the music very slight, + and in the aria the text was usually inconsequential while the + music held the center of interest. + +The most pronounced characteristic of the _lied_ is the fact that it +usually portrays a single mood, sentiment, or picture, thus differing +from the ballad, which is narrative in style. It will be noted that this +"single mood, or sentiment, or picture" was originally conceived by the +poet who wrote the word-text, and that the composer in writing music to +this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet, and has +then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more +vivid that thought. This intensification of the poet's thought comes as +often through the rhythm, harmony, and dynamics of the accompaniment as +through the expressiveness of the voice part. + + The style of song-writing in which each verse is sung to the + same tune is called the "strophe form," while that in which + each verse has a different melody is often referred to as the + "continuous" or "through-composed" form (Ger. + durch-componiert). + +173. A _ballad_ was originally a short, simple song, the words being in +narrative style, _i.e._, the word-text telling a story. In the earlier +_ballads_ each verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune +(strophe form), but in the _art-ballad_ as developed by Loewe and others +the continuous style of composition is employed, this giving the +composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the +events described by the poem. These later _ballads_ are in consequence +neither "short" nor "simple" but compare in structure with the lied +itself. + +174. A _folk-song_ is a short song sung by and usually originating among +the common people. Its dominant characteristic is usually _simplicity_, +this applying to word-text, melody, and accompaniment (if there is one). +The text of the _folk-song_ is usually based on some event connected +with ordinary life, but there are also many examples in which historical +and legendary happenings are dealt with. Auld Lang Syne, and Comin' thru +the Rye, are examples of _folk-songs_. + + There has been some difference of opinion as to whether a + song, the composer of which is known, can ever constitute a + real _folk-song_: recent writers seem to be taking the + sensible view of the matter, viz.: that if a song has the + characteristics of a folk- rather than an art-song, and if it + remains popular for some time among the common people, then it + is just as much a _folk-song_ whether the composer happens to + be known or not. + +175. A _madrigal_ is a secular vocal composition having from three to +eight parts. It is in contrapuntal style, like the motet, and is usually +sung a capella. + +176. A _glee_ is a vocal composition in three or more parts, being +usually more simple in style than the madrigal, and sometimes having +more than one movement. The _glee_ may be either gay or sad in mood, and +seems to be a composition peculiar to the English people. + +177. A _part-song_ is a composition for two or more voices, (usually +four) to be sung a capella. It is written in monophonic rather than in +polyphonic style, thus differing from the madrigal and glee. Morley's +"Now is the Month of Maying" is an example of the _part-song_, as is +also Sullivan's "O Hush Thee, My Baby." The term _part-song_ is often +loosely applied to glees, madrigals, etc. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +RHYTHM, MELODY, HARMONY AND INTERVALS + + +178. The _four elements_ commonly attributed to music (in the order of +their development) are: Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, and Timbre (or +tone-color). + +179. _Rhythm_ is the regular recurrence of accent. In music it is more +specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and +non-accented beats (or pulses)--according to some specified +measure-system. Since rhythm implies continuity, there must usually be +at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm +possible. (See p. 44, Sec. 97.) + +180. A _melody_ is a succession of single tones of various pitches so +arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified, coherent, and +pleasing to the ear. + + The soprano part of hymn-tunes and other simple harmonized + compositions is often referred to as "the melody." + +181. _Harmony_ is the science of chord construction and combination. + + The term _harmony_ refers to tones sounding simultaneously, + _i.e._, to _chords_, as differentiated from tones sounding + consecutively, as in melody. The word _harmony_ may therefore + be applied to any group of tones of different pitches sounded + as a chord, although specifically we usually refer to a + _succession_ of such chords when we speak of "harmony." It is + possible to use the same combination of tones in either melody + or harmony; in fact these two elements as applied to modern + music have developed together and the style of present-day + melody is directly based upon the development that has + recently taken place in harmonic construction. + + _Harmony_ (as contrasted with _counterpoint_) first began to + be an important factor in music about 1600 A.D., _i.e._, at + the time when opera and oratorio came into existence, when + form was established, and when our modern major and minor + scales were adopted. Before this practically all music was + composed on a contrapuntal basis. + +182. _Timbre_ is that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to +distinguish a tone produced by one instrument (or voice) from a tone +produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument. + + The word _timbre_ is synonymous with the terms _quality of + tone_, and _tone quality_ (Ger.--Klang-farbe), the excuse for + using it being that it expresses adequately in one word an + idea that in our language takes at least two: this excuse + would disappear (and incidentally a much-mispronounced word + would be eliminated) if the single word _quality_ were to be + adopted as the equivalent of _timbre_. Thus, _e.g._, the + soprano voice singing c' has a _quality_ different from the + contralto voice singing the same tone. + + (The remainder of this chapter and all of Chapter XVIII deal + with terms commonly encountered in the study of _harmony_. + Courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales, + but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively + treated, this chapter will omit it, and will begin with the + next topic in harmony study, viz.--the interval.) + +183. An _interval_ is the relation of two tones with regard to pitch. If +the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is an _harmonic +interval_, but if sounded consecutively the result is a _melodic +interval_. Fig. 62 represents the pitches f' and a' as a harmonic +interval, while Fig. 63 represents the same pitches arranged as a +melodic interval. + +[Illustration: Fig. 62.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 63.] + +184. In classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in +mind: + + (1) The _number name_ of the interval (third, fifth, sixth, + etc.), is derived from the order of letters as found in the + diatonic scale. Thus the interval C--E is a _third_ because E + is the third tone from C (counting C as one) in the diatonic + scale. C--G is a _fifth_ because G is the fifth tone above C + in the diatonic scale. + + It should be noted however that the same _number-names_ apply + even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified + by sharps, flats, etc. Thus _e.g._, C--G[sharp] is still a + _fifth_, as are also C[sharp]--G[flat] and C[flat]--G[sharp]. + + (2) In determining the _specific_ name of any interval + (_perfect_ fifth, _major_ third, etc.), the half-step and + whole-step (often referred to respectively as _minor second_, + and _major second_) are used as units of measurement. + + The _half-step_ is usually defined as "the smallest usable + interval between two tones." Thus, C--C[sharp] is a + _half-step_, as are also B--C, F--G[flat], etc. + + A _whole-step_ consists of two half-steps. C--D is a + _whole-step_, as are also B[flat]--C, E--F[sharp], + F[sharp]--G[sharp], G[flat]--A[flat], etc. + + The expressions _half-step_ and _whole-step_ are much to be + preferred to _half-tone_ and _whole-tone_, as being more clear + and definite. Thus _e.g._, the sentence "The two tones are a + _half-step_ apart" is much better than "The two tones are a + _half-tone_ apart." + +185. A _prime_ is the relation between two tones whose pitches are +properly represented by the same degree of the staff. + + A _perfect prime_ is one whose tones have the same pitch. + Middle C sounded by piano and violin at the same time would + offer an example. + + An _augmented prime_ is one whose second tone is one half-step + higher than the first. Ex. C--C[sharp]. + +186. A _second_ is the relation between two tones whose pitches are +properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff. (The first line +and first space are adjacent degrees, as are also the third line and +fourth space.) + + A _minor second_ is one comprising one half-step. Ex. B--C. + + A _major second_ is one comprising two half-steps. Ex. + B--C[sharp]. + + An _augmented second_ is one comprising three half-steps. Ex. + F--G[sharp]. + +187. A _third_ is an interval comprising two seconds. + + A _diminished third_ has two minor seconds (_i.e._, two + half-steps). C--E[double-flat]. + + A _minor third_ has one minor and one major second (_i.e._, + three half-steps). C--E[flat]. + + A _major third_ has two major seconds (_i.e._, four + half-steps). C--E. + +188. _A fourth_ is an interval comprising three seconds. + + A _diminished fourth_ has two minor and one major second. + C[sharp]--F. + + A _perfect fourth_ has one minor and two major seconds. C--F. + + An _augmented fourth_ (tritone) has three major seconds. + C--F[sharp]. + +189. A _fifth_ is an interval comprising four seconds. + + A _diminished fifth_ has two minor and two major seconds. + C--G[flat]. + + A _perfect fifth_ has one minor and three major seconds. C--G. + + An _augmented fifth_ has four major seconds. C--G[sharp]. + +190. A _sixth_ is an interval comprising five seconds. + + A _minor sixth_ has two minor and three major seconds. + C--A[flat]. + + A _major sixth_ has one minor and four major seconds. C--A. + + An _augmented sixth_ has five major seconds. C--A[sharp]. + +191. A _seventh_ is an interval comprising six seconds. + + A _diminished seventh_ has three minor and three major + seconds. C--B[double-flat]. + + A _minor seventh_ has two minor and four major seconds. + C--B[flat]. + + A _major seventh_ has one minor and five major seconds. C--B. + +192. An _octave_ is an interval comprising seven seconds. + + A _diminished octave_ has three minor and four major seconds. + C--C[flat]. + + _A perfect octave_ has two minor and five major seconds. C--C. + + An _augmented octave_ has one minor and six major seconds. + C--C[sharp]. + +193. A _ninth_ is usually treated as a second, a _tenth_ as a third, +etc. The interval of two octaves is often referred to as a _fifteenth_. + +194. If the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between +each tone and the key-tone noted, it will be observed that the intervals +are all either major or perfect. See Fig. 64. + +[Illustration: Fig. 64.] + +In this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller +than _major_ is always _minor_, while that next smaller than _perfect_ +or _minor_ is always _diminished_: but that the interval next larger +than both _major_ and _perfect_ is _augmented_. + +195. An interval is said to be _inverted_ when the tone originally the +upper becomes the lower. Thus C--E, a major third, inverted becomes +E--C, a minor sixth. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +CHORDS, CADENCES, ETC. + + +196. A _chord_ is a combination of several tones sounding together and +bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is the +_triad_, which consists of a fundamental tone called the _root_, with +the third and fifth above it. C--E--G is a triad, as are also D--F--A, +F--A--C, and G--B--D. + +197. Triads are classified as _major_, _minor_, _diminished_, or +_augmented_. + + A _major triad_ has a major third and a perfect fifth, _i.e._, + it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex. + C--E--G. + + A _minor triad_ has a minor third and a perfect fifth, _i.e._, + it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex. + C--E[flat]--G. + + A _diminished triad_ has a minor third and a diminished fifth, + _i.e._, it is a minor third with another minor third on top of + it. Ex. C--E[flat]--G[flat]. + + An _augmented triad_ has a major third and an augmented fifth, + _i.e._, it is a major third with another major third on top of + it. Ex. C--E--G[sharp]. + +198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V, +are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the +_common chords_. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to +show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral +(with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of +the scale. Thus _e.g._, the large I shows that the triad on the first +tone (in major) is a _major triad_, the small II shows that the triad +on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this +clear. + +[Illustration: Fig. 65.] + +The triads in the minor scale are as follows: + +[Illustration] + +199. A triad is said to be _in fundamental position_ when its root is +the lowest tone. It is said to be in the _first inversion_ when the +_third_ is the lowest tone, and in the _second inversion_ when the fifth +is the lowest tone. Thus _e.g._, in Fig. 66 the same chord (C--E--G) is +arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position, +at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion. + +[Illustration: Fig. 66.] + +200. When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to +show what chord is to be played or written. Thus, _e.g._, the figure 6 +over a bass note means that the note given is the _third_ of a chord, +the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note: _i.e._, the +chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the +figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is the _fifth_ of the chord, +the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the +note given; _i.e._, the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion. + +The use of these and other similar figures and signs is called _figured +bass_ (or _thorough bass_) _notation_. An example of a _figured bass_ is +given in Fig. 67. + +[Illustration: Fig. 67.] + + _Thorough bass notation_ was formerly used extensively in + writing accompaniments to vocal works, the accompanist having + to interpret the notes and signs given, and then to make up an + interesting accompaniment as he went along. Much of Handel's + music was written in this way, but in modern editions of these + works the chords have been printed in full and the signs + omitted. + +201. A _seventh chord_ consists of a fundamental tone with its third, +fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. A _ninth chord_ +consists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth. + +202. A _cadence_ is the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers +to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords. + + The word _cadence_ is derived from _cadere_, a Latin word + meaning to _fall_, the reference being to the falling of the + voice (_i.e._, the dropping to the normal pitch) at the close + of a sentence. + +203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on +I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V--I +is called the _authentic cadence_. + +204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is +that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is the +_root_ of that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the +cadence is called _perfect_[36] _authentic_, and when the third or +fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is called +_imperfect authentic_. Fig. 68 shows the chord G--B--D cadencing to +C--E--G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called a _perfect +authentic cadence_, but the last two (c) and (d) are _imperfect +authentic_. + +[Footnote 36: Many theorists (including Durand in his monumental +"Treatise on Harmony") consider the V--I cadence to be the only one +which may legitimately be called _perfect_, but the majority of writers +seem to take the view that either authentic or plagal cadence may be +either perfect or imperfect, depending upon the soprano tone, as noted +above.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 68.] + +205. A _plagal cadence_ is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by +the sub-dominant chord (IV--I). The _plagal cadence_ (sometimes called +the _church cadence_, or _amen cadence_), like the authentic, is +described as being _perfect_ when the soprano of the tonic chord is the +root of that chord, and _imperfect_ when the soprano of the final chord +is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F--A--C +cadencing to C--E--G in three ways. The first one (a) is called a +_perfect plagal cadence_, the last two are _imperfect plagal_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 69.] + +206. A _half-cadence_ occurs when the dominant chord is used as the +final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord. +This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is +not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in +the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of the _half-cadence_ at the close +of such a phrase. + +[Illustration: Fig. 70. BACH] + +207. A _deceptive cadence_ is the progression of the dominant chord to +some other chord than the tonic, the word _deceptive_ implying that the +ear expects to hear V resolve to I and is deceived when it does not do +so. The most common form of _deceptive cadence_ is that in which V (or +V^7) resolves to VI. It is used to give variety, but as in the case of +the half-cadence, is not available at the end of a composition. Fig. 71 +gives an example. + +[Illustration: Fig. 71. WM. MATHER] + +208. A _sequence_ is a succession of similar harmonic progressions, +these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part. +See Fig. 72. + +[Illustration: Fig. 72.] + +The word _sequence_ is also applied to a succession of similar melodic +progressions, as in Fig. 73. + +[Illustration: Fig. 73.] + +209. _Modulation_ is a change of key without any break in the continuity +of chords or melody tones. _Harmonic modulations_ are usually effected +through the medium of a chord, some or all of whose tones are common to +both keys. Examples of both _harmonic_ and _melodic modulations_ are +shown in Figs. 74 and 75. + +[Illustration: Fig. 74.] + +The chord most frequently used in modulating is the _dominant seventh_, +_i.e._, a seventh chord (see Sec. 201) on the dominant tone of the key. +In the key of C this chord is G--B--D--F; in the key of D it is +A--C[sharp]--E--G; in the key of A[flat] it is E[flat]--G--B[flat]--D[flat], +etc. + +[Illustration: Fig. 75.] + +210. A _suspension_ is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree +higher than the regular chord-tone, this temporary tone being later +replaced by the regular chord-tone. See Fig. 76 (_a_). + +[Illustration: Fig. 76.] + +211. A _retardation_ is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree +lower than the regular tone, this tone (as in the case of the +suspension) being later replaced by the regular chord tone. See Fig. 77 +(_a_). + +[Illustration: Fig. 77.] + +The "regular chord tone" to which both suspension and retardation +resolve is called the _tone of resolution_. + +212. The _anticipation_ is a chord-tone introduced just before the rest +of the chord to which it belongs is sounded. See Fig. 78 (_a_). + +[Illustration: Fig. 78.] + +213. A _pedal point_ (or _organ point_) is a tone sustained through a +succession of harmonic progressions, to the chords of some of which it +usually belongs. The term _pedal point_ originated in organ playing, +(where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are +playing a succession of harmonies), but as now used it may be applied to +any kind of music. The dominant and tonic are the tones most often used +in this way. See Fig. 79. + +[Illustration: Fig. 79. SCHUMANN] + +214. When the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written +close together (the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an +octave apart), the term _close position_ is applied. But when the upper +voices are not written close together, the term _open position_ is +applied. + +215. By _transposition_ is meant playing, singing, or writing a piece of +music in some other key than the original. Thus _e.g._, if a song +written in the key of G is too high in range for a soloist, the +accompanist sometimes _transposes_ it to a lower key (as F or E), thus +causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when +the same song was played in the original key. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +MISCELLANEOUS TERMS + + +_A battuta_--with the beat; in strict rhythm. [Transcriber's Note: +Corrected error "battua" in original.] + +_A quatre mains_--for four hands. + +_Accompagnamento_--the accompaniment. + +_All'unisono_--in unison. + +_Alla breve_--2/2 measure. + + The term _alla breve_ is also sometimes used as a tempo + indication, to show a rate of speed so great that a half-note + has a beat, _i.e._, only two beats in a measure--hence twice as + fast as before. + +_Alla capella_--usually the same as a capella (see p. 76, Sec. 162) but +sometimes _used_ in the same sense as _alla breve_. + +_Alla marcia_--in march style. + +_Alla zingara_--in gypsy style. + +_Alt_--see _in alt_. + +_Alto_--the lowest female voice. Range approximately g-e''. + + The word _alto_ is derived from the Latin word _altus_, meaning + _high_, the term being formerly applied to the highest male + voice, which originally sang (and still does so in many male + choirs) the alto part. + +_Animato come sopra_--in animated style as above. + +_Antiphony_ (_antiphonal_)--the responsive singing of two choirs, +usually one at either end of the church, or at either side of the +chancel. + +_Arabesque_--an instrumental composition in light, somewhat fantastic +style. + + The term _arabesque_ is derived from the word _Arabian_, and + was originally applied to a style of decoration. + +_Arioso_--in the style of an air or song, _i.e._, a flowing, vocal +style. + +_Attacca_--attack the next division without any pause. + +_Attacca subito_--same as _attacca_. + +_Attacca subito il seguente_--attack at once that which follows. +[Transcriber's Note: In last 3 entries, corrected misspelling "attaca" +in original.] + +_Attack_--the promptness or firmness with which a phrase is begun. + +_Bagpipe_--A Scotch instrument on which the tone is produced by a +combination of bellows and reeds. Its characteristic effect is the +continuous sounding of a low tone (sometimes several tones) while the +melody is being played on the higher reeds. + +_Barcarole_ (or _barcarolle_)--a boat song. Also applied to a vocal or +instrumental composition in the style of the gondolier's boat song. + +_Baritone_ (or _barytone_)--the male voice having a range between that +of the tenor and that of the bass. Approximate range G-g'. + +_Bass_--the lowest male voice. Approximate range E-e'. + +_Basso_--same as _bass_. + +_Berceuse_--a cradle song. + +_Binary form_--a form in two parts. + +_Binary measure_--a measure having two beats. + +_Bis_--twice. Used to indicate a repetition. (Rare.) + +_Brace_--the sign used to join several staffs, showing that all tones +represented on these staffs are to be performed together. The term is +often used also in referring to the music written on staffs so joined; +as--"Begin with the upper _brace_." + +_Broken chord_--a chord whose tones are not all sounded simultaneously, +as _e.g._, in an accompaniment group. + +_Broken octave_--an octave whose tones are sounded one at a time instead +of simultaneously. + +_Cacophony_--harsh, discordant, unpleasant, especially _incorrect_ +combinations of tones. The opposite of _euphony_. + +_Cadenza_--A brilliant passage, usually in an instrumental composition, +introduced just before the close of a movement. The _cadenza_ was +formerly improvised by the performer, (thus giving an opportunity of +displaying his technical skill), but since Beethoven, composers have +usually written their own _cadenzas_. + +_Cantabile_--in a singing style. + +_Cantando_--same as _cantabile_. + +_Canto_--the highest voice part; _i.e._, the soprano part. + + Note the derivation of _canto_, _cantabile_, etc., from the + Latin word _cantus_, meaning a _song_. + +_Carol_--a hymn of joyful praise, usually sung in connection with Easter +or Christmas festivities. The word _carol_ meant originally _a dance_, +hence the _happy_ character of songs of this type. + +_Catch_--a round set to humorous words. + +_Chromatic_ (noun)--a term somewhat loosely applied to any tone not +belonging to the key as indicated by the signature. Many teachers are +replacing the word _chromatic_ in this sense with the term _intermediate +tone_, this term being applicable whether the foreign tone is actually +used for ornamental purposes as a _chromatic_, or to effect a +modulation. Thus _e.g._, "F[sharp] is the _intermediate tone_ between F +and G in the key of C." + +_Clavichord_--an instrument with keys, resembling the square piano in +appearance. The tone was produced by forcing wedge-shaped pieces of +metal against the strings, thus setting them in vibration. The +_clavichord_ was one of the immediate predecessors of the piano, much of +the music written by Bach being composed for it, although this music is +now played on the modern piano. + +_Colla voce_--with the voice: _i.e._, play the accompaniment according +to the soloist's performance rather than strictly according to the +rhythm indicated in the score. + +_Colla parte_--same as _colla voce_. + +_Coloratura_--florid passages in singing. Also applied to the style of +singing employed in rendering such passages. (See p. 76, Sec. 171.) + +_Consonance_--A combination of tones agreeable to the ear and requiring +no resolution to other tone-combinations in order to give the effect of +finality. The major triad C--E--G is an example of a consonant chord. + +_Contralto_--same as _alto_. + +_Con variazioni_--with variations. + +_Direct_--a sign ([direct symbol]) placed at the end of the last staff +on a page, to indicate what the first note on the next page is going to +be. This sign is now practically obsolete. + +_Dirge_--a funeral chant. The dirge is named from the first word of a +chant used in the "office for the dead," which begins--_Dirige Domine, +Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam_ (Direct, O Lord, My God, my way +in Thy sight). + +_Discord_--an ugly, unharmonious combination of tones. + +_Dissonance_--a harmonic combination of tones giving rise to the feeling +of incompleteness or unrest, and therefore requiring resolution to some +other combination which has an agreeable or final feeling. (cf. +consonance.) The diminished triad C--E[flat]--G[flat] is an example of a +dissonant chord. + +_Divisi_--divided. An indication showing that the first violins, or the +sopranos, or any other body of performers ordinarily sounding in unison +are now to divide into two or more parts. + +_Duet_--a composition for two performers. (From the It. word +_due_--two.) + +_Ecole_--a school or style of composition or performance. + +_Etude_--a study. Also an instrumental composition in the style of a +study, but intended for artistic performance. + +_Euphony_--agreeable tone combinations; the opposite of cacophony. (From +the Greek word meaning _well-sounding_.) + +_Facile_--easy. + +_Fanfare_--a trumpet call. + +_Fantasia_--An instrumental composition not based on any regular form. + +_Fiasco_--a complete failure or breakdown. + + This use of the word _fiasco_ (which means in Italian a flask, + or bottle) is said to have reference to the bursting of a + bottle, the complete ruin of the bottle being compared with + the complete failure of a performance. + +_Gamut_--all the tones of a scale. + +_Glissando_--playing a scale on the keyboard by drawing the finger along +over the keys, thus depressing them in very rapid succession. The word +is derived from the French word _glisser_--to glide. + +_Harpsichord_--one of the immediate predecessors of the piano. + +_Humoresque_--a capricious, fantastic composition. (Cf. _fantasia_.) + +_Idyl_--a short, romantic piece of music in simple and unaffected style. + +_In alt_--pitches in the first octave above the treble staff. Thus +_e.g._, "C in alt" is the C represented by the second added line above +the treble staff. + +_In altissimo_--pitches in the octave above the _alt_ octave. + +_Instrumentation_--see _orchestration_. + +_Interlude_--a short movement between two larger movements. + +_Loco_--place; _i.e._, play as written. (See p. 15, Sec. 46.) + +_Lunga trillo_--a long trill. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +MISCELLANEOUS TERMS (_Continued_) + + +_Lyric_--a short, song-like poem of simple character. Also applied to +instrumental pieces of like character. + +_Maggiore_--major. + +_Marcato il canto_--the melody well marked; _i.e._, subdue the +accompaniment so that the melody may stand out strongly. + +_Melos_--melody. This word _melos_ is also applied to the peculiar style +of vocal solo found in Wagner's music dramas. See _recitative_ (p. 75, +Sec. 170). + +_Mellifluous_--pleasing; pleasant sounding. + +_Menuetto, menuet_--same as _minuet_. (See p. 68, Sec. 151.) + +_Mezzo soprano_--a woman's voice of soprano quality, but of somewhat +lower compass than the soprano voice. Range approximately b to g''. + +_Minore_--minor. + +_Nocturne_ (sometimes spelled _nocturn_, _notturna_, _nokturne_, +etc.)--a night piece; a quiet, melodious, somewhat sentimental +composition, usually for piano solo. + +_Nuance_--delicate shading; subtle variations in tempo and dynamics +which make the rendition of music more expressive. + +_Obbligato_ (sometimes incorrectly spelled _obligato_)--an accessory +melody accompanying harmonized music, (usually vocal music). + + The word _obbligato_ (It. _bound_, or _obliged_) refers to the + fact that this is usually a melody of independent value, so + important that it cannot be omitted in a complete performance. + +_Offertory_ (sometimes spelled _offertoire_, or _offertorium_)--a piece +of music played or sung during the taking up of the offering in the +church service. The word is often applied by composers to any short, +simple piece of music (usually for organ) that is suitable for the above +purpose. + +_Opus_--work; used by composers to designate the order in which their +compositions were written, as _e.g._, Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 1. + +_Orchestration_--the art of writing for the orchestra, this implying an +intimate knowledge of the range, quality, and possibilities of all the +orchestral instruments. + +_Ossia_--or else; used most often to call the attention of the performer +to a simpler passage that may be substituted for the original one by a +player whose skill is not equal to the task he is attempting to perform. + +_Overture_--(from _overt_--open)--an instrumental prelude to an opera or +oratorio. The older _overtures_ were independent compositions and bore +no particular relation to the work which was to follow, but in modern +music (cf. Wagner, Strauss, etc.), the _overture_ introduces the +principal themes that are to occur in the work itself, and the +introduction thus becomes an integral part of the work as a whole. The +word _overture_ is sometimes applied to independent orchestral +compositions that have no connection with vocal works, as the _Hebrides +Overture_ by Mendelssohn. + +_Pizzicato_--plucked. A term found in music for stringed instruments, +and indicating that for the moment the bow is not to be used, the tone +being secured by _plucking_ the string. + +_Polacca_--a Polish dance in three-quarter measure. + +_Polonaise_--same as _polacca_. + +_Postlude_--(lit. after-play)--an organ composition to be played at the +close of a church service. + +_Prelude_--(lit. before-play)--an instrumental composition to be played +at the beginning of a church service, or before some larger work (opera, +etc.). The term is also applied to independent piano compositions of +somewhat indefinite form. (Cf. _preludes_ by Chopin, Rachmaninoff, etc.) + +_Priere_--a prayer; a term often applied (especially by French +composers) to a quiet, devotional composition for organ. + +_Quintole, quintuplet_--a group of five notes to be performed in the +time ordinarily given to four notes of the same value. There is only one +accent in the group, this occurring of course on the first of the five +tones. + +_Religioso, religiosamente_--in a devotional style. + +_Requiem_--the mass for the dead in the Roman Catholic service. It is so +called from its first word _requiem_ which means _rest_. (See p. 77, +Sec. 165.) + +_Rhapsody_--an irregular instrumental composition of the nature of an +improvisation. A term first applied by Liszt to a series of piano pieces +based on gypsy themes. + +_Ribattuta_--a device in instrumental music whereby a two-note phrase is +gradually accelerated, even to the extent of becoming a trill. (See +Appendix E, p. 150, for an example.) [Transcriber's Note: Corrected +misspelling "Ribbatua" in original.] + +_Ritornello, ritornelle_--a short instrumental prelude, interlude, or +postlude, in a vocal composition, as _e.g._, in an operatic aria or +chorus. + +_Schottische_--a dance in two-quarter measure, something like the +_polka_. + +_Sec, secco_--dry, unornamented: applied to a style of opera recitative +(see p. 75, Sec. 170), and also to some particular chord in an +instrumental composition which is to be sounded and almost instantly +dropped. + +_Score_--a term used in two senses: + + 1. To designate some particular point to which teacher or + conductor wishes to call attention; as _e.g._, "Begin with the + _lower score_, third measure." The word _brace_ is also + frequently used in this sense. + + 2. To refer to all the parts of a composition that are to be + performed simultaneously, when they have been assembled on a + single page for use by a chorus or orchestral conductor. The + term _vocal score_ usually means all chorus parts together + with an accompaniment arranged for piano or organ, while the + terms _full score_ and _orchestral score_ refer to a complete + assemblage of _all parts_, each being printed on a separate + staff, but all staffs being braced and barred together. + +_Senza replica, senza repetizione_--without repetition; a term used in +connection with such indications as _D.C._, _D.S._, etc., which often +call for the repetition of some large division of a composition, the +term _senza replica_ indicating that the smaller repeats included within +the larger division are not to be observed the second time. +[Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "senza repetitione" in +original.] + +_Serenade, serenata_--an evening song. + +_Sextet_--a composition for six voices or instruments. + +_Sextuplet_--a group of six notes to be performed in the time ordinarily +given to four of the same value. The sextuplet differs from a pair of +_triplets_ in having but one accent. + +_Simile, similiter_--the same; indicating that the same general effect +is to be continued. + +_Solfeggio, solfege_--a vocal exercise sung either on simple vowels or +on arbitrary syllables containing these simple vowel sounds. Its purpose +is to develop tone quality and flexibility. These terms are also often +applied to classes in sight-singing which use the sol-fa syllables. + +_Sopra_--above. + +_Soprano_--the highest female voice. Range approximately b--c'''. + +_Sostenuto_--sustained or connected; the opposite of _staccato_. + +_Sotto_--under. _E.g._, _sotto voce_--under the voice, _i.e._, with +subdued tone. + +_Solmization_--sight-singing by syllable. + +_Staccato_--detached; the opposite of _legato_. + +_Subito_--suddenly. + +_Tenor_--the highest male voice. Range approximately d--c''. + +_Tenuto_--(from _teneo_, to hold)--a direction signifying that the tones +are to be prolonged to the full value indicated by the notes. + +_Toccata_--a brilliant composition for piano or organ, usually +characterized by much rapid staccato playing. + +_Triplet_--a group of three tones, to be performed in the time +ordinarily given to two of the same value. The first tone of the triplet +is always slightly accented. + +_Tutti_--(derived from _totus_, _toti_, Latin--all)--a direction +signifying that all performers are to take part. Also used occasionally +to refer to a passage where all performers do take part. + + + + +APPENDIX A + +THE HISTORY OF MUSIC NOTATION + + +Many conflicting statements have been made regarding the history and +development of music writing, and the student who is seeking light on +this subject is often at a loss to determine what actually did happen in +the rise of our modern system of writing music. We have one writer for +example asserting that staff notation was begun by drawing a single red +line across the page, this line representing the pitch _f_ (fourth line, +bass staff), the _neumae_ (the predecessors of our modern _notes_) +standing either for this pitch _f_, or for a higher or lower pitch, +according to their position _on_ the line, or _above_ or _below_ it. +"Another line," continues this writer, "this time of yellow color, was +soon added above the red one, and this line was to represent c' (middle +C). Soon the colors of these lines were omitted and the _letters_ F and +C were placed at the beginning of each of them. From this arose our F +and C clefs, which preceded the G clef by some centuries."[37] + +[Footnote 37: Elson--Music Dictionary, article, "Notation."] + +Another writer[38] gives a somewhat different explanation, stating that +the staff system with the use of clefs came about through writing a +letter (C or F) in the margin of the manuscript and drawing a line from +this letter to the neume which was to represent the tone for which this +particular letter stood. + +[Footnote 38: Goddard--The Rise of Music, p. 177.] + +A third writer[39] asserts that because the alphabetical notation was +not suitable for recording melodies because of its inconvenience in +sight-singing "points were placed at definite distances above the words +and above and below one another." "In this system ... everything +depended on the accuracy with which the points were interspersed, and +the scribes, as a guide to the eye, began to scratch a straight line +across the page to indicate the position of one particular scale degree +from which all the others could be shown by the relative distances of +their points. But this was not found sufficiently definite and the +scratched line was therefore colored red and a second line was added, +colored yellow, indicating the interval of a fifth above the first." + +[Footnote 39: Williams in Grove's Dictionary, article, "Notation."] + +It will be noted that all three writers agree that a certain thing +happened, but as in the case of the four Gospels in the New Testament, +not all the writers agree on details and it is difficult to determine +which account is most nearly accurate in detail as well as in general +statement. Communication was much slower a thousand years ago than now +and ideas about new methods of doing things did not spread rapidly, +consequently it is entirely possible that various men or groups of men +in various places worked out a system of notation differing somewhat in +details of origin and development but alike in final result. The point +is that the development of musical knowledge (rise of part-writing, +increased interest in instrumental music, etc.), demanded a more exact +system of notation than had previously existed, just as the development +of science in the nineteenth century necessitated a more accurate +scientific nomenclature, and in both cases the need gave rise to the +result as we have it to-day. + +Out of the chaos of conflicting statements regarding the development of +music notation, the student may glean an outline-knowledge of three +fairly distinct periods or stages, each of these stages being intimately +bound up with the development of _music_ itself in that period. These +three stages are: + + (1) The Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet + for representing fixed pitches. + + (2) The period of the neumae. + + (3) The period of staff notation. + +Of the Greek system little is known beyond the fact that the letters of +the alphabet were used to represent pitches. This method was probably +accurate enough, but it was cumbersome, and did not afford any means of +writing "measured music" nor did it give the eye any opportunity of +grasping the general outline of the melody in its progression upward and +downward, as staff notation does. The Greek system seems to have been +abandoned at some time preceding the fifth century. At any rate it was +about this time that certain _accent marks_ began to be written above +the text of the Latin hymns of the church, these marks serving to +indicate in a general way the progress of the melody. E.g., an upward +stroke of the pen indicated a rise of the melody, a downward stroke a +fall, etc. In the course of two or three centuries these marks were +added to and modified quite considerably, and the system of notation +which thus grew up was called "neume notation," the word _neume_ +(sometimes spelled _neuma_, or _pneuma_) being of Greek origin and +meaning a _nod_ or _sign_. + +This system of neumes was in some ways a retrogression from the Greek +letter system, for the neumes indicated neither definite pitches nor +definite tone-lengths. But it had this advantage over the Greek system, +that the position of the signs on the page indicated graphically to the +eye the general direction of the melody, as well as giving at least a +hint concerning the relative highness or lowness of each individual tone +(the so-called _diastematic system_), and this was a great aid to the +eye in singing, just as the relative highness and lowness of notes on +the modern staff is of great value in reading music at the present time. +Thus although the neumae did not enable one to sing a new melody at +sight as our modern staff notation does, yet they served very well to +recall to the eye the general outline of a melody previously learned by +ear and therefore enabled the singer (the system was used for vocal +music only) to differentiate between that particular melody and the +dozens of others which he probably knew. Neume notation was used mostly +in connection with the "plain-song melodies" of the Church, and since +the words of these chants were sung as they would be pronounced in +reading, the deficiency of the neume system in not expressing definite +duration values was not felt. But later on with the rise of so-called +"measured music" (cf. invention of opera, development of independent +instrumental music, etc.), this lack was seen to be one of the chief +disadvantages of the system. + +The elements of neume-writing as given by Riemann in his Dictionary of +Music are: + +"(1) The signs for a single note: Virga (Virgula) and Punctus (Punctum). +(2) The sign for a rising interval: Pes (Podatus). (3) The sign for a +falling interval: Clinis (Flexa). (4) Some signs for special manners of +performance: Tremula (Bebung), Quilisma (shake), Plica (turn), etc. The +others were either synonyms of the above-named or combinations of +them...." + +Since music in the middle ages was always copied by hand, it will +readily be understood that these neumae were not uniform either in shape +or size, and that each writer made use of certain peculiarities of +writing, which, although perfectly intelligible to himself, could not +readily be interpreted by others (cf. writing shorthand). Here then we +observe the greatest weakness of the neume system--its lack of +uniformity and its consequent inability accurately to express musical +ideas for universal interpretation. + + Examples of several neumes are given merely in order to give + the beginner a general idea of their appearance. + + Virga [virga symbol] or [virga symbol]. Punctus [punctus + symbol] or [punctus symbol]. Pes [pes symbol] or [pes symbol]. + Clinis [clinis symbol] or [clinis symbol]. + +As music grew more and more complex, and especially as writing in +several parts came into use (cf. rise of organum, descant, and +counterpoint), it became increasingly difficult to express musical ideas +on the basis of the old notation, and numerous attempts were made to +invent a more accurate and usable system. Among these one of the most +interesting was that in which the words of the text were written in the +spaces between long, parallel lines, placing the initial letters of the +words _tone_ and _semi-tone_ at the beginning of the line to indicate +the scale interval. An example will make this clear. + +[Illustration] + +This indicated the precise melodic interval but did not give any idea of +the rhythm, and the natural accents of the text were the only guide the +singer had in this direction, as was the case in neume-notation and in +early staff-notation also. Various other attempts to invent a more +definite notation were made, but all were sporadic, and it was not until +the idea of using the lines (later lines and spaces) to represent +definite pitches, and writing notes of various shapes (derived from the +neumae) to indicate relative duration-values--it was only when this +combination of two elements was devised that any one system began to be +universally used. + +Just how the transition from _neume_ to _staff_ notation was made no one +knows: it was not done in a day nor in a year but was the result of a +gradual process of evolution and improvement. Nor is it probable that +any one man deserves the entire credit for the invention of staff +notation, although this feat is commonly attributed to an Italian monk +named Guido d'Arezzo (approximate dates 995-1050). To this same monk we +are indebted, however, for the invention of the syllables (UT, RE, MI, +etc.) which (in a somewhat modified form) are so widely used for +sight-singing purposes. (For a more detailed account of the transition +to staff notation, see Grove, op. cit. article _notation_.) It will now +be readily seen that our modern notation is the result of a combination +of two preceding methods (the Greek letters, and the neumes) together +with a new element--the staff, emphasizing the idea that _higher tones_ +are written _higher_ on the staff than lower ones. The development of +the neumes into notes of various shapes indicating relative time values +and the division of the staff into measures with a definite measure +signature at the beginning are natural developments of the earlier +primitive idea. In the system of "musica mensurabilis" or _measured +music_ which was inaugurated a little later, the _virga_ (which had +meanwhile developed into a square-headed neume) was adopted as the +_longa_ or long note, and the punctus in two of its forms as _breve_ and +_semi-breve_ (short and half-short). The longa is now extinct, but the +modern form of the breve is still used as the double-whole-note, and the +semi-breve is our modern whole-note. + +Red-colored notes were sometimes used to indicate changes in value and +before long outline notes (called _empty notes_) came into use, these +being easier to make than the solid ones. The transition from square- +and diamond-shaped notes to round and oval ones also came about because +of the greater facility with which the latter could be written, and for +the same reason notes of small denomination were later "tied together" +or _stroked_. This latter usage began about 1700 A.D. + +It is interesting to find that when "measured music" was finally +inaugurated there were at first but two measure-signatures, viz.--the +circle, standing for three-beat measure (the so-called _perfect +measure_) and the semi-circle (or broken circle) which indicated +two-beat measure. Occasionally three-beat measure was indicated by three +vertical strokes at the beginning of the melody, while two-beat measure +was shown by two such strokes. Upon the basis of these two varieties of +measure, primitive in conception though they may have been, has been +built nevertheless the whole system now employed, and in the last +analysis all forms of measure now in use will be found to be of either +the two-beat or the three-beat variety. The circle has disappeared +entirely as a measure-sign, but the broken circle still survives, and +from it are derived the familiar signs [common-time symbol] and +[cut-time symbol], which are sometimes erroneously referred to as being +the initial letter of our word _common_ (as used in the expression +"common time"). The transition from the older style of measure-signature +to the present one seems to have occurred during the century following +the invention of opera, _i.e._, from about 1600 to about 1700 A.D. + +The rest came into use very soon after "measured music" began to be +composed and we soon find rests corresponding with the various +denominations of notes in use, viz.: + +[Illustration] + +The terms applied to these rests vary in different authorities, but it +will be noted that the _pausa_, _semi-pausa_, and _suspirum_ correspond +respectively to the double-whole-rest, whole-rest, and half-rest in use +at present. + +The bar and double bar may be developments of the _maxima rest_ (as some +writers suggest) but are probably also derived from the practice of +drawing a line vertically through the various parts of a score to show +which notes belonged together, thus facilitating score reading. The bar +may occasionally be found as early as 1500, but was not employed +universally until 1650 or later. + +The number of lines used in the staff has varied greatly since the time +of Guido, there having been all the way from four to fifteen at various +times and in various places, (_four_ being the standard number for a +long time). These lines (when there were quite a number in the staff) +were often divided into _groups of four_ by _red_ lines, which were not +themselves used for notes. These red lines were gradually omitted and +the staff divided into sections by a space, as in modern usage. The +number of lines in each section was changed to five (in some cases six) +for the sake of having a larger available range in each section. + +The clefs at the beginning of the staffs are of course simply altered +forms of the letters F, C, and G, which were written at first by Guido +and others to make the old neume notation more definite. + +The staccato sign seems not to have appeared until about the time of +Bach, the legato sign being also invented at about the same time. The +fermata was first used in imitative part-writing to show where each part +was to stop, but with the development of harmonic writing the present +practice was inaugurated. Leger lines came into use in the seventeenth +century. + +Sharps and flats were invented because composers found it necessary to +use other tones than those that could be represented by the staff +degrees in their natural condition. The history of their origin and +development is somewhat complicated and cannot be given here, but it +should be noted once more that it was the need of expressing more than +could be expressed by the older symbols that called forth the newer and +more comprehensive method. The use of sharps and flats in key signatures +grew up early in the seventeenth century. In the earlier signatures it +was customary to duplicate sharps or flats on staff degrees having the +same pitch-name, thus: [Illustration] [Illustration]. (The use of the G +clef as here shown did not of course exist at that time.) + +The double-sharp and double-flat became necessary when "equal +temperament" (making possible the use of the complete cycle of keys) was +adopted. This was in the time of Bach (1685-1750). + +Signs of expression (relating to tempo and dynamics) date back at least +as far as the year 1000 A.D., but the modern terms used for this purpose +did not appear until some years after the invention of opera, the date +given by C.F.A. Williams in Grove's Dictionary being 1638. These words +and signs of expression were at first used only in connection with +instrumental music, but were gradually applied to vocal music also. + +Other systems of notation have been invented from time to time in the +course of the last two or three centuries, but in most cases they have +died with their inventors, and in no case has any such system been +accepted with anything even approaching unanimity. The tonic-sol-fa +system[40] is used quite extensively in England for vocal music, but +has gained little ground anywhere else and the chances are that the +present system of notation, with possibly slight additions and +modifications, will remain the standard notation for some time to come +in spite of the attacks that are periodically made upon it on the ground +of cumbersomeness, difficulty in teaching children, etc. The main +characteristics of staff notation may be summed up as follows: + +[Footnote 40: The _tonic-sol-fa system_ represents an attempt to invent +a simpler notation to be used by beginners, (especially in the lower +grades of the public schools) and by singers in choral societies who +have never learned to interpret staff notation and who therefore find +some simpler scheme of notation necessary if they are to read music at +all. + +In this system the syllables _do_, _re_, _mi_, etc., (in phonetic +spelling) are used, the tone being arrived at in each case, first by +means of a firmly established sense of tonality, and second by +associating each diatonic tone with some universally felt emotional +feeling: thus _do_ is referred to as the _strong_ tone, _mi_ as the +_calm_ one, and _la_ as the _sad_ tone, great emphasis being placed upon +_do_ as the center of the major tonality, and upon _la_ as the center of +the minor. The system is thus seen to have one advantage over staff +notation, viz.: that in presenting it _the teacher is compelled to begin +with a presentation of actual tones_, while in many cases the teacher of +staff notation begins by presenting facts regarding the staff and other +symbols before the pupil knows anything about tone and rhythm as such. + +The symbol for each diatonic tone is the initial letter of the syllable +(_i.e._, d for _do_, r for _re_, etc.), the key being indicated by a +letter at the beginning of the composition. The duration-value of tones +is indicated by a system of bars, dots, and spaces, the bar being used +to indicate the strongest pulse of each measure (as in staff notation) +the beats being shown by the mark: a dash indicating the continuation of +the same tone through another beat. If a beat has two tones this is +indicated by writing the two initial letters representing them with a . +between them. A modulation is indicated by giving the new key letter and +by printing the syllable-initials from the standpoint of both the old +and the new _do_-position. The figure ' above and to the right of the +letter indicates the tone in the octave above, while the same figure +below and to the right indicates the octave below. A blank space +indicates a rest. The tune of My Country, 'Tis of Thee, as printed in +tonic sol-fa notation below will make these points clear. + +Key F + +|d :d :r |t_1 :-.d :r |m :m :f |m :-.r :d |r :d :t_1 |d :-- :-- | +|s :s :s |s :-.f :m |f :f :f |f :-.m :r |m :f.m :r.d |m :-.f :s | +|l.f:m :r |d :-- :-- | + +The advantages of the system are (1) the strong sense of key-feeling +aroused and the ease with which modulations are felt; and (2) the fact +that it is necessary to learn to sing in but one key, thus making +sight-singing a much simpler matter, and transposition the easiest +process imaginable. But these are advantages from the standpoint of the +vocalist (producing but one tone at a time) only, and do not apply to +instrumental music. The scheme will therefore probably be always +restricted to vocal music and will hardly come into very extensive use +even in this field, for the teacher of music is finding it perfectly +possible to improve methods of presentation to such an extent that +learning to sing from the staff becomes a very simple matter even to the +young child. And even though this were not true, the tonic-sol-fa will +always be hampered by the fact that since all letters are printed in a +straight horizontal line the ear does not have the assistance of the eye +in appreciating the rise and fall of melody, as is the case in staff +notation.] + + 1. Pitches represented by lines and spaces of a staff, the + higher the line, the higher the pitch represented, signs + called clefs at the beginning of each staff making clear the + pitch names of the lines and spaces. + + 2. Duration values shown by _shapes_ of notes. + + 3. Accents shown by position of notes on the staff with regard + to bars, _i.e._, the strongest accent always falls just after + the bar, and the beat relatively least accented is found just + before the bar. + + 4. Extent and description of beat-groups shown by + measure-signs. + + 5. Key shown by key signature placed at the beginning of each + staff. + + 6. Rate of speed, dynamic changes, etc., shown by certain + Italian words (_allegro_, _andante_, etc.), whose meaning is + as universally understood as staff notation itself. + + + + +APPENDIX B + +MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS + + +1. Broadly speaking, musical instruments may be divided into two +classes, viz.: (1) those that have a keyboard and are therefore capable +of sounding several tones simultaneously; (2) those that (as a rule) +sound only one tone at a time, as the violin and trumpet. The piano is +of course the most familiar example of the first class, and a brief +description is therefore given. + + The _piano_ was invented about two hundred years ago by + Cristofori (1651-1731), an Italian. It was an enormous + improvement over the types of keyboard instrument that were in + use at that time (clavichord, harpsichord, spinet, virginal) + and has resulted in an entirely different style of + composition. See note on embellishments, p. 26. + +2. The most characteristic things about the _piano_ as contrasted with +its immediate predecessors are: (1) that on it the loudness and softness +of the tone can be regulated by the force with which the keys are struck +(hence the name _pianoforte_ meaning literally the _soft-loud_); (2) the +fact that the piano is capable of sustaining tone to a much greater +extent than its predecessors. In other words the tone continues sounding +for some little time after the key is struck, while on the earlier +instruments it stopped almost instantly after being sounded. + +The essentials of the piano mechanism are: + + 1. Felt hammers controlled by keys, each hammer striking two + or three strings (which are tuned in unison) and immediately + rebounding from these strings, allowing them to vibrate as + long as the key is held down. The mechanism that allows the + hammers to rebound from the strings and fall into position for + another blow is called the _escapement_. + + 2. A damper (made of softer felt) pressing against each string + and preventing it from vibrating until it is wanted. + + 3. A keyboard action that controls both hammers and dampers, + causing the damper to leave the string at the same instant + that the hammer strikes it. + + 4. A pedal (damper pedal) controlling all of the dampers, so + that at any moment all the strings may be released so as to be + free to vibrate. + +Other interesting details are: + + 1. The strings are stretched over a thin sheet of wood called + the sound-board. This aids greatly in intensifying the tone. + + 2. The soft pedal (the one at the left) in an _upright piano_ + causes the hammers to move up nearer the strings, and the + shorter swing thus afforded causes a less violent blow and + consequently a softer tone. In the _grand piano_ this same + pedal shifts the mechanism to one side so that the hammers + strike only one or two of the strings, this resulting in a + softer tone of somewhat modified quality. + +These details regarding the mechanism of the piano can easily be +verified by removing the front of any ordinary upright piano and +observing what takes place when the keys are struck or the pedals +depressed. + +3. There are two familiar types of _organ_ in use at the present time, +(1) the reed organ, (2) the pipe-organ. + +The _reed organ_ is very simple in construction, the tone being produced +by the vibration of metal reeds (fixed in little cells), through which +air is forced (or sucked) from the bellows, the latter being usually +worked by the feet of the player. More power may be secured either by +drawing additional stops, thus throwing on more sets of reeds, or by +opening the knee swells which either throw on more reeds (sometimes +octave couplers) or else open a _swell box_ in which some of the reeds +are enclosed, the tone being louder when the box is open than when +closed. More tone may also be secured by pumping harder. + +4. The essential characteristic of the _pipe-organ_ is a number of sets +or registers of pipes called _stops_, each set being capable (usually) +of sounding the entire chromatic scale through a range of five or six +octaves. Thus for example when the stop _melodia_ is drawn (by pulling +out a stop-knob or tilting a tablet), one set of pipes only, sounds when +the keyboard is played on: but if the stop _flute_ is drawn with +_melodia_, two pipes speak every time a key is depressed. Thus if an +organ has forty _speaking stops_, all running through the entire +keyboard, then each time one key is depressed forty pipes will speak, +and if a chord of five tones is played, two hundred pipes will speak. +The object of having so many pipes is not merely to make possible a very +powerful tone, but, rather, to give greater variety of tone-color. + +The pipe-organ usually has a pedal keyboard on which the feet of the +performer play a bass part, this part often sounding an octave (or more) +lower than the notes indicate. + +An _eight-foot stop_ on the organ produces tones of the same pitches as +the piano when corresponding keys are struck: A _four-foot stop_ sounds +tones an octave higher and a _two-foot stop_ tones two octaves higher. A +_sixteen-foot stop_ sounds tones an octave lower than the piano, and a +_thirty-two foot_ stop, tones two octaves lower, while some organs have +also a _sixty-four foot_ stop which sounds three octaves lower. This +gives the organ an exceedingly wide range, its compass being greater +than that of any other single instrument, and comparable in both range +of pitches and variety of color only with the modern orchestra. + +Modern pipe-organs always have a number of _combination pedals_ or +_pistons_ (usually both), by means of which the organist is enabled to +throw on a number of stops with one movement. The selection and use of +suitable stops, couplers, combinations, etc., is called _registration_. + +5. The instruments mentioned at the beginning of this appendix as +belonging to the second class are more familiar in connection with +ensemble playing, being commonly associated with either band or +orchestra. + +6. A _band_ is a company of musicians all of whom play upon either wind +or percussion instruments, the main body of tone being produced by the +brass and wood-wind divisions. + + Sousa's band is usually made up in somewhat the following + manner: 4 flutes and piccolos, 12 B[flat] clarinets, 1 E[flat] + clarinet, 1 alto clarinet, 1 bass clarinet, 2 oboes, 2 + bassoons, 2 sarrusophones, 4 saxophones, 4 cornets, 2 + trumpets, 1 soprano saxhorn (fluegelhorn), 4 French horns, 4 + trombones, 2 contra-bass tubas, 4 tubas, 1 snare drum, 1 bass + drum, 2 kettle drums, cymbals, triangle, bells, castanets, + xylophone, etc. + +7. An _orchestra_ is a company of musicians performing upon stringed +instruments as well as upon wind and percussion. It is differentiated +from the band by the fact that the main body of tone is produced by the +strings. + +There are _four classes of instruments_ in the orchestra, viz., +_strings_, _wood-wind_, _brass_ (_wind_) and _percussion_. In addition +to these four classes, there is the _harp_, which although a stringed +instrument, does not belong in the same group as the other strings +because the manner of producing the tone is altogether different. + +8. In the first group (the _strings_) are found the first and second +violins, viola, violoncello (usually spelled _cello_), and double-bass. +The first and second violins are identical in every way (but play +different parts), while the other members of the family merely represent +larger examples of the same type of instrument. + +9. In the second group (the _wood-wind_) are found the flute, piccolo, +oboe, bassoon, English horn, double-bassoon, clarinet, and bass +clarinet. The English horn, double-bassoon, bass clarinet, and piccolo +are not called for in the older compositions, hence are not always +present in the orchestra. + +10. In the third group (the _brass choir_) are found the French horn, +(usually referred to as _the horn_), trumpet (sometimes replaced by the +cornet) trombone, and tuba. + +11. The fourth group (_percussion_) consists of kettle drums, bass drum, +cymbals, snare drum, triangle, bells, etc. + +12. In an orchestra of about 100 players the proportion of instruments +is as about as follows, although it varies somewhat according to the +taste of the conductor, the style of composition to be performed, etc.: + +18 first violins, 16 second violins, 14 violas, 12 cellos, 10 basses, 1 +harp, 3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 3 oboes, 1 English horn, 3 clarinets, 1 bass +clarinet, 3 bassoons, 1 contra (or double) bassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, +3 trombones, 1 tuba, 3 kettle drums, 1 bass drum, 1 snare drum, 1 each +of triangle, cymbals, bells, and other instruments of percussion, +several of which are often manipulated by one performer. + +13. The cuts and brief descriptions here added will give at least a +rudimentary idea of the appearance and possibilities of the instruments +most commonly used in bands and orchestras. For fuller descriptions and +particulars regarding range, quality, etc., the student is referred to +Mason's "The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do," Lavignac's "Music +and Musicians," and to the various articles which describe each +instrument under its own name in Grove's Dictionary or in any good +encyclopaedia. For still fuller details some work on orchestration will +have to be consulted. + +14. The _violin_ has four strings, tuned thus [Illustration: g d' a' +e''], these making available a range of about three and one-half octaves +(g--c''''). This range[41] may be extended upward somewhat further by +means of _harmonics_, these being produced by lightly touching the +string at certain points (while the bow is moving across it) instead of +holding it down against the finger-board. The highest string of the +_violin_ (viola and cello also) is often called the _chanterelle_ +because it is most often used for playing the melody. The _violin_ +ordinarily produces but one tone at a time, but by _stopping_ two +strings simultaneously and so drawing the bow as to set both in +vibration, two tones may be produced at the same time, while three and +four tones can be sounded _almost_ simultaneously. + +[Footnote 41: The ranges noted in connection with these descriptions of +instruments are ordinarily the _practical orchestral or band_ ranges +rather than those which are possible in solo performance.] + +[Illustration: VIOLIN. Length, 23-1/2 inches. Length of bow, 29-1/2 +inches.] + +The _mute_ (or _sordino_) is a small clamp made of metal, wood, or +ivory, which when clipped to the top of the bridge causes the vibrations +to be transmitted less freely to the body of the violin, giving rise to +a tone modified in quality, and decreased in power. + +For certain special effects the player is directed to pluck the string +(_pizzicato_), this method of playing giving rise to a dry, detached +tone instead of the smooth, flowing one that is so characteristic of the +_violin_ as commonly played. + +_Violins_ in the orchestra are divided into firsts and seconds, the +_first violins_ being always seated at the left of the audience and the +_seconds_ at the right. + +[Illustration: VIOLA. Length, 26 in. Length of bow, 28.] + +15. The _viola_ has four strings, also tuned in fifths, thus +[Illustration: c g d' a']. The _viola_ looks exactly like the violin at +a little distance, and is really only a larger sized violin, having a +range a fifth lower. Its tone is not so incisive as that of the violin, +being rather heavier--"more gloomy," as it is often described. The +_viola_ is not so useful as the violin as a solo instrument because it +is not capable of producing so many varieties of color, nevertheless it +is invaluable for certain effects. In orchestral music it is of course +one of the most valuable instruments for filling in the harmony. The +_viola_ players are usually seated behind the second violin players in +the orchestra. + +[Illustration: VIOLONCELLO. Length, 3 ft. 10 in. Length of bow, 28 in.] + +16. The _violoncello_ or _cello_ (sometimes called _bass viol_) has four +strings, tuned thus: [Illustration: C G d a]. Its range is about three +and one-half octaves (from C to e'' or f''), but in solo work this range +is sometimes extended much higher. The _cello_ is much more universally +used as a solo instrument than the viola and its tone is capable of a +much greater degree of variation. In the orchestra it plays the bass of +the string quartet (reinforced by the double-bass), but is also often +used for solo passages. _Con sordino_ and _pizzicato_ passages occur as +often for the _cello_ as for the violin. + +17. The _double bass_ differs from the other members of the string +family in that it is tuned in _fourths_ instead of in _fifths_. Its four +strings are tuned as follows [Illustration: EE AA D G] the entire range +of the instrument being from EE to a. In music written for double-bass +the notes are always printed an octave higher than the tones are to +sound: that is, when the bass-player sees the note [Illustration: c] he +plays [Illustration: C] this being done to avoid leger lines. The tone +of the _bass_ is much heavier and the instrument itself is much more +clumsy to handle than the other members of the group, hence it is almost +never used as a solo instrument but it is invaluable for reinforcing the +bass part in orchestral music. The mute is rarely used on the +_double-bass_, but the _pizzicato_ effect is very common and the bass +pizzicato tone is much fuller and richer than that of any other stringed +instrument. + +[Illustration: DOUBLE-BASS. Length, 6 ft. 6 in. Length of bow, 23-1/2 +in.] + +18. The _flute_ has a range of three octaves. [Illustration: c' c''''] +It is used in both solo and orchestral playing as well as in bands. The +flute was formerly always made of wood, but is at present often made of +metal. + +19. The _piccolo_ is a flute playing an octave higher than the one +described above. The notes are printed as for the flute, but the player +understands that the tone is to sound an octave higher. The _piccolo_ is +used widely in band music and quite often in orchestral music also, but +since the tone is so brilliant and penetrating and is incapable of any +great variation, it is not suitable for solo performance. + +[Illustration: OBOE. (hautboy.) Length, 24-1/2 in. Range b e'''. + +CONTRA BASSOON. (Double bassoon.) Length 6 ft. Range about an octave +lower than bassoon, but not all tones in this range are practicable. + +ENGLISH HORN. (Cor. Anglais.) Length, 2 ft. 11-1/2 in. Range e a''. + +PICCOLO. Length, 13 in. (Note that this is approximately half the length +of the flute.) + +FLUTE. Length, 26-1/2 in. + +BASSOON. (fagotto.) Length, 4 ft. 3-1/2 in. Range BB-flat b-flat'.] + +20. The next four instruments to be described (_oboe_, _bassoon_, +_English horn_, and _contra bassoon_) are often referred to as the _oboe +family_ since the principle of tone production and general manipulation +is the same in all four. The tone in these instruments is produced by +the vibration of two very thin pieces of cane, which are called together +a _double-reed_. + +The _oboe_ is especially valuable in the orchestra as a solo instrument, +and its thin, nasal tones are suggestive of rustic, pastoral simplicity, +both _oboe_ and _English horn_ being often used by orchestral composers +in passages intended to express the idea of rural out-of-door life. The +_English horn_ is also often used in passages where the idea of +melancholy and suffering is to be conveyed to the audience. In a +military band the oboe corresponds to the first violin of the orchestra. + +The _bassoon_ and _contra-bassoon_ are used mostly to provide a bass +part for the harmony of the wood-wind group, but they are also sometimes +employed (especially the _bassoon_) to depict comic or grotesque +effects. + +[Illustration: BASS CLARINET. Length, 3 ft. 3 in. Range D to b-flat'] + +[Illustration: CLARINET. Length 28 in.] + +21. The next two types of instruments to be described (_clarinet_ and +_saxophone_) are alike in that the tone is produced by the vibration of +a _single_ strip of cane (called _single reed_) which is held against +the lower lip of the player. The _clarinet_ and _bass clarinet_ are made +of wood and are used in both bands and orchestras, but the _saxophone_ +is usually made of metal, and, the tone being more strident and +penetrating, the instrument is ordinarily used only in combination with +other wind instruments, _i.e._, in bands. + +Since the fingering of the _clarinet_ is excessively difficult the +performer can play in only certain keys on the same instrument, hence to +play in different keys _clarinets_ in several keys must be provided, +there being usually three in all. The music is written as though it were +to be played in the key of C, but the tones produced are actually in +other keys. For this reason the _clarinet_ is called a _transposing +instrument_. The range of the _clarinet_ is the greatest possessed by +any of the wind instruments, that of the clarinet in C being from +[Illustration: e] to [Illustration: g''']. + +[Illustration: SAXOPHONES. + +SOPRANO. ALTO. Length, 15-3/4 in. + +TENOR. Length, 2 ft. 7-1/2 in. + +BASS. Length, 3 ft. 9 in. + +Combined range AA to g-flat'''] + +[Illustration: SARRUSOPHONE.] + +The _sarrusophone_ is an instrument with a double-reed. It is made of +brass and exists in several sizes, the only one ever used in the +orchestra being the double-bass _sarrusophone_, which has approximately +the same range as the double-bassoon and is sometimes (but rarely) made +use of in the orchestra instead of the latter instrument. The tone of +the _sarrusophone_ is something like that of the bassoon. + +[Illustration: FRENCH HORN. Length, 22-3/4 in.] + +22. The _French horn_ (often called _valve horn_ or simply _horn_) +really consists of a long tube (about 16 feet) which is bent into +circular form for convenience in handling. Its range is from +[Illustration: BB] to [Illustration: f'']. In the orchestra _French +horns_ are used in pairs, two of the players taking the higher tones, +and two the lower. The tone is intensely mellow but incapable of any +extensive variation, but in spite of this lack of variety the tone +itself is so wonderfully beautiful that the instrument is one of the +most useful in the orchestra both in solo passages and to fill in the +harmony. The _horn_ (as well as the trumpet and trombone) differs from +most of the wood-wind instruments in that its mouthpiece contains no +reed, the lips of the player constituting the vibrating body as they are +stretched across the mouthpiece and air is forced against them. The +_horn_ is used in bands as well as in orchestras. + +[Illustration: TRUMPET. Length, 22-1/2 in.] + +23. The range of the _trumpet_ is [Illustration: g b''], the typical +tone being brilliant and ringing. It is used in both band and orchestra, +playing the highest parts assigned to the brass choir. The _trumpet_ is +often replaced in both band and orchestra by its less refined cousin the +_cornet_ because of the ease with which the latter can be played as +compared with the trumpet, and the larger number of players that are +available in consequence of this ease of execution. + +24. The _cornet_ looks something like the trumpet, but is not so slim +and graceful in appearance. Its tube is only four and one-half feet +long, as compared with a length of about eight feet in the trumpet, and +sixteen feet in the French horn. + +The range of the _cornet_ in B[flat] is from [Illustration: e] to +[Illustration: b-flat'']. The tone is somewhat commonplace as compared +with the trumpet, but because of its great agility in the rendition of +trills, repeated tones, etc., it is universally used in all sorts of +combinations, even (as noted above) taking the place of the trumpet in +many small orchestras. + +[Illustration: CORNET. Length, 13-3/4 in.] + +[Illustration: SLIDE TROMBONE. Length, 3 ft. 9 in. Range of tenor +trombone (the size ordinarily used) E to b-flat'] + +25. The pitch sounded by the _trombone_ is altered by lengthening or +shortening the tube of which the instrument is constructed, this being +possible because the lower part slides into the upper and can be pulled +out to increase the total length of the tube through which the air +passes. There are usually three _trombones_ in the orchestra, each +playing a separate part, and the combination of this trio (with the +_tuba_ reinforcing the bass part) is majestic and thrilling, being +powerful enough to dominate the entire orchestra in _Fortissimo_ +passages. But the _trombones_ are useful in soft passages also, and +their tone when playing pianissimo is rich, serene, and sonorous. + +26. The _bass tuba_ is a member of the saxhorn family[42] and supplies +the lowest part of the brass choir, as the double-bass does in the +string choir. It is used in both orchestra and band, being often +supported in the larger bands by a still lower-toned member of the same +family--the _contra-bass tuba_. The range of the _tuba_ is from +[Illustration: GG] to [Illustration: g']. + +[Footnote 42: The _saxhorn_ was invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a +Frenchman. The _saxophone_ is the invention of the same man.] + +[Illustration: BASS TUBA. Length, 3 ft. 3 in.] + +[Illustration: BASS DRUM. Diameter about 2-1/2 ft.] + +[Illustration: CYMBALS. Diameter, 13-1/4 in.] + +27. The _kettle-drum_ is the most important member of the percussion +family and is always used either in pairs or in threes. The size of +these instruments varies somewhat with the make, but when two drums are +used the diameter is approximately that given under the illustration. +The range of a pair of _drums_ is _one octave_ [Illustration: F f] and +when but two drums are used the larger one takes the tones from F to +about C of this range, and the smaller takes those from about B[flat] +to F. The most common usage is to tune one drum to the _tonic_, and the +other to _the dominant_ of the key in which the composition is written. +The pitch of the _kettle-drum_ can be varied by increasing or lessening +the tension of the head by means of thumb-screws which act on a metal +ring. + +[Illustration: KETTLE-DRUMS. Diameter of Head, 24-1/2 in. and 27-1/2 +in.] + +The other important members of the percussion family are shown on this +and the following page, their use being so obvious as to require no +detailed explanation. + +[Illustration: TAMBOURINE. Diameter, 10 to 12 in.] + +[Illustration: BELLS. (Fr. carillon; Ger. Glockenspiel.)] + +[Illustration: SIDE DRUM. Diameter, about 15-1/2 in.] + +[Illustration: TRIANGLE. Height, about 8 in.] + +28. The _harp_ is one of the oldest of instruments (dating back over +6000 years), but it is only in comparatively recent years that it has +been used in the symphony orchestra. Its range is from [Illustration: +CC-flat] to [Illustration: f-flat''']. + +[Illustration: HARP. Height, 5 ft. 8 in.] + +The modern _double-action harp_ has forty-six strings, which are tuned +in half-steps and whole-steps so as to sound the scale of C[flat] major. +It has a series of seven pedals around its base, each pedal having two +_notches_ below it, into either of which the pedal may be lowered and +held fast. The first pedal shortens the F[flat] string so that it now +sounds F, (giving the key of G[flat]); the second one shortens the +C[flat] string so that it sounds C (giving the key of D[flat]); the +third pedal shortens the G[flat] string so that it sounds G (giving the +key of A[flat]); the fourth changes D[flat] to D (giving the key of +E[flat]), and so on until, when all the pedals are fixed in their first +notches, the scale of C is sounded instead of C[flat] as was the case +before any of the pedals were depressed. But if the first pedal is now +pushed down into the second notch the original F[flat] string is still +further shortened and now sounds the pitch F[sharp] (giving us the key +of G), and if all the other pedals are likewise successively lowered to +the second notch we get in turn all the _sharp keys_--D, A, E, B, +F[sharp] and C[sharp], the last-named key being obtained as the result +of having all the pedals fixed in their second notches, thus making all +the tones of the original C[flat] scale a whole-step higher so that they +now sound the C[sharp] scale. + +Chords of not more than four tones for each hand may be played +simultaneously on the harp, but arpeggio and scale passages are the +rule, and are more successful than simultaneous chords. The notation of +harp music is essentially like that of piano music. + + + + +APPENDIX C + +ACOUSTICS + + + NOTE:--It is usually taken for granted that the student of + music is familiar with the significance of such terms as + _over-tone_, _equal temperament_, etc., and with principles + such as that relating to the relation between vibration rates + and pitches: the writer has in his own experience found, + however, that most students are not at all familiar with such + data, and this appendix is therefore added in the hope that a + few facts at least regarding the laws of sound may be brought + to the attention of some who would otherwise remain in entire + ignorance of the subject. + +1. _Acoustics_ is the science which deals with sound and the laws of its +production and transmission. Since all sound is caused by vibration, +_acoustics_ may be defined as the science which treats of the phenomena +of sound-producing vibration. + +2. All sound (as stated above) is produced by vibration of some sort: +strike a tuning-fork against the top of a table and _see_ the vibrations +which cause the tone, or, if the fork is a small one and the vibrations +cannot be seen, hold it against the edge of a sheet of paper and hear +the blows it strikes; or, watch one of the lowest strings of the piano +after striking the key a sharp blow; or, look closely at the heavier +strings of the violin (or better still, the cello) and watch them +oscillate rapidly to and fro as the bow moves across them. + +The vibrating body may be a string, a thin piece of wood, a piece of +metal, a membrane (cf. drum), the lips (cf. playing the cornet), the +vocal cords, etc. Often it is a column of air whose vibrations give rise +to the tone, the reed or other medium merely serving to set the air in +vibration. + +3. Sound is _transmitted_ through the air in somewhat this fashion: the +vibrating body (a string for example) strikes the air-particles in its +immediate vicinity, and they, being in contact with other such +air-particles, strike these others, the latter in turn striking yet +others, and so on, both a forward and backward movement being set up +(oscillation). These particles lie so close together that no movement at +all can be detected, and it is only when the disturbance finally reaches +the air-particles that are in contact with the ear-drum that any effect +is evident. + +This phenomenon of sound-transmission may perhaps be made more clear by +the old illustration of a series of eight billiard balls in a row on a +table: if the first ball is tapped lightly, striking gently against ball +number 2, the latter (as well as numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) will not +apparently move at all, but ball number 8 at the other end will roll +away. The air-particles act upon each other in much this same fashion, +the difference being that when they are set in motion by a vibrating +body a complete vibration backward and forward causes a similar +_backward and forward_ movement of the particles (oscillation) instead +of simply a _forward jerk_ as in the case of the billiard balls. + +Another way of describing the same process is this: the vibration of +some body produces waves in the air (cf. waves in the ocean, which carry +water forward but do not themselves move on continuously), these waves +spread out spherically (i.e. in all directions) and finally reach the +ear, where they set the ear-drum in vibration, thus sending certain +sound-stimuli to the nerves of hearing in the inner ear, and thus to the +brain. + +An important thing to be noted in connection with sound-transmission is +that sound will not travel in a vacuum: some kind of a medium is +essential for its transmission. This medium may be air, water, a bar of +iron or steel, the earth, etc. + +4. The _rate_ at which sound travels through the air is about 1100 feet +per second, the rapidity varying somewhat with fluctuations in +temperature and humidity. In water the rate is much higher than in air +(about four times as great) while the velocity of sound through other +mediums (as _e.g._, steel) is sometimes as much as sixteen times as +great as through air. + +5. Sound, like light, may be _intensified_ by a suitable reflecting +surface directly back of the vibrating body (cf. sounding board); it may +also be reflected by some surface at a distance from its source in such +a way that at a certain point (the focus) the sound may be very clearly +heard, but at other places, even those _nearer_ the source of sound, it +can scarcely be heard at all. If there is such a surface in an +auditorium (as often occurs) there will be a certain point where +everything can be heard very easily, but in the rest of the room it may +be very difficult to understand what is being said or sung. + +_Echoes_ are caused by sound-reflection, the distance of the reflecting +surface from the vibrating body determining the number of syllables that +will be echoed. + +The _acoustics_ of an auditorium (_i.e._, its hearing properties) depend +upon the position and nature of the reflecting surfaces and also upon +the length of time a sound persists after the vibrating body has +stopped. If it persists longer than 2-1/4 or 2-1/3 seconds the room will +not be suitable for musical performances because of the mixture of +persisting tones with following ones, this causing a blurred effect +somewhat like that obtained by playing a series of unrelated chords on +the piano while the damper-pedal is held down. The duration of the +reverberation depends upon the size and height of the room, material of +floor and walls, furniture, size of audience, etc. + +6. Sound may be classified roughly into _tones_ and _noises_ although +the line of cleavage is not always sharply drawn. If I throw stones at +the side of a barn, sounds are produced, but they are caused by +irregular vibrations of an irregularly constructed surface and are +referred to as _noise_. But if I tap the head of a kettle-drum, a +regular series of vibrations is set up and the resulting sound is +referred to as _tone_. In general the material of music consists of +tones, but for special effects certain noises are also utilized (cf. +castanets, etc.). + +7. Musical tones have three properties, viz.: + + 1. Pitch. + + 2. Intensity. + + 3. Quality (timbre). + +By _pitch_ is meant the highness or lowness of tone. It depends upon +rate of vibration. If a body vibrates only 8 or 10 times per second no +tone is heard at all: but if it vibrates regularly at the rate of 16 or +18 per second a tone of very low pitch is heard. If it vibrates at the +rate of 24 the pitch is higher, at 30 higher still, at 200 yet higher, +and when a rate of about 38,000 per second has been reached the pitch is +so high that most ears cannot perceive it at all. The highest tone that +can ordinarily be heard is the E[flat] four octaves higher than the +highest E[flat] of the piano. The entire range of sound humanly audible +is therefore about eleven octaves (rates 16-38,000), but only about +_eight_ of these octaves are utilized for musical purposes. The tones of +the piano (with a range of 7-1/3 octaves) are produced by vibration +rates approximately between 27 and 4224. In the orchestra the range is +slightly more extended, the rates being from 33 to 4752. + +Certain interesting facts regarding the relation between vibration-rates +and pitches have been worked out: it has been discovered for instance +that if the number of vibrations is doubled, the pitch of the resulting +tone is an octave higher; _i.e._, if a string vibrating at the rate of +261 per second gives rise to the pitch c', then a string one-half as +long and vibrating twice as rapidly (522) will give rise to the pitch +c'', _i.e._, an octave higher than c'. In the same way it has been found +that if the rate is multiplied by 5/4 the pitch of the tone will be a +_major third_ higher; if multiplied by 3/2, a _perfect fifth_ higher, +etc. These laws are often stated thus: the ratio of the octave to the +fundamental is as two is to one; that of the major third as five is to +four; that of the perfect fifth as three is to two, and so on through +the entire series of pitches embraced within the octave, the _ratio_ +being of course the same for all octaves. + +9. The _intensity_ (loudness or softness) of tones depends upon the +amplitude (width) of the vibrations, a louder tone being the result of +vibrations of greater amplitude, and vice versa. This may be verified by +plucking a long string (on cello or double-bass) and noting that when +plucked gently vibrations of small amplitude are set up, while a +vigorous pluck results in much wider vibrations, and, consequently, in a +louder tone. It should be noted that the _pitch_ of the tone is not +affected by the change in amplitude of vibration. + +The intensity of tones varies with the medium conveying them, being +usually louder at night because the air is then more elastic. Tone +intensity is also affected by _sympathetic vibrations_ set up in other +bodies. If two strings of the same length are stretched side by side and +one set in vibration so as to produce tone the other will soon begin to +vibrate also and the combined tone will be louder than if only one +string produced it. This phenomenon is the basis of what is known as +resonance (cf. body of violin, resonance cavities of nose and mouth, +sounding board of piano, etc.). + +10. _Quality_ depends upon the shape (or form) of the vibrations which +give rise to the tone. A series of simple vibrations will cause a simple +(or colorless) tone, while complex vibrations (giving rise to overtones +of various kinds and in a variety of proportions) cause more +individualistic peculiarities of quality. Quality is affected also by +the shape and size of the resonance body. (Cf. last part of sec. 9 +above.) + +11. Practically every musical tone really consists of a combination of +several tones sounding simultaneously, the combined effect upon the ear +giving the impression of a single tone. The most important tone of the +series is the _fundamental_, which dominates the combination and gives +the pitch, but this fundamental is practically always combined with a +greater or less number of faint and elusive attending tones called +_overtones_ or _harmonics_. The first of these overtones is the octave +above the fundamental; the second is the fifth above this octave; the +third, two octaves above the fundamental, and so on through the series +as shown in the figure below. The presence of these _overtones_ is +accounted for by the fact that the string (or other vibrating body) does +not merely vibrate in its entirety but has in addition to the principal +oscillation a number of sectional movements also. Thus it is easily +proved that a string vibrates in halves, thirds, etc., in addition to +the principal vibration of the entire string, and it is the vibration of +these halves, thirds, etc., which gives rise to the _harmonics_, or +_upper partials_ as they are often called. The figure shows _Great C_ +and its first eight overtones. A similar series might be worked out from +any other fundamental. + +[Illustration: (NOTE:--The B[flat] in this series is approximate only.)] + +It will be recalled that in the section (10) dealing with _quality_ the +statement was made that _quality_ depends upon the shape of the +vibrations; it should now be noted that it is the form of these +vibrations that determines the nature and proportion of the overtones +and hence the quality. Thus _e.g._, a tone that has too large a +proportion of the fourth upper partial (_i.e._, the _third_ of the +chord) will be _reedy_ and somewhat unpleasant. This is the case with +many voices that are referred to as _nasal_. Too great a proportion of +overtones is what causes certain pianos to sound "tin-panny." The tone +produced by a good tuning-fork is almost entirely free from overtones: +it has therefore no distinctive quality and is said to be a _simple_ +tone. The characteristic tone of the oboe on the other hand has many +overtones and is therefore highly individualistic: this enables us to +recognize the tone of the instrument even though we cannot see the +player. Such a tone is said to be _complex_. + +12. The mathematical ratio referred to on page 134, if strictly carried +out in tuning a keyboard instrument would cause the half-steps to vary +slightly in size, and playing in certain keys (especially those having a +number of sharps or flats in the signature) would therefore sound out of +tune. There would be many other disadvantages in such a system, notably +the inability to modulate freely to other keys, and since modulation is +one of the predominant and most striking characteristics of modern +music, this would constitute a serious barrier to advances in +composition. To obviate these disadvantages a system of _equal +temperament_ was invented and has been in universal use since the time +of Bach (1685-1750) who was the first prominent composer to use it +extensively. _Equal temperament_ means simply dividing the octave into +twelve equal parts, thus causing all scales (as played on keyboard +instruments at least) to sound exactly alike. + + To show the practicability of equal temperament Bach wrote a + series of 48 _preludes and fugues_, two in each major and two + in each minor key. He called the collection "The Well-tempered + Clavichord." + +13. Various _standards of pitch_ have existed at different times in the +last two centuries, and even now there is no absolute uniformity +although conditions are much better than they were even twenty-five +years ago. Scientists use what is known as the "scientific standard" +(sometimes called the "philosophic standard"), viz., 256 double +vibrations for "middle C." This pitch is not in actual use for musical +purposes, but is retained for theoretical purposes because of its +convenience of computation (being a power of 2). In 1885 a conference of +musicians at Vienna ratified the pitch giving Middle C 261 vibrations, +this having been adopted by the French as their official pitch some 26 +years before. In 1891 a convention of piano manufacturers at +Philadelphia adopted this same pitch for the United States, and it has +been in practically universal use ever since. This pitch (giving Middle +C 261 vibrations) is known as "International Pitch." + +_Concert pitch_ is slightly higher than _International_, the difference +between the two varying somewhat, but being almost always less than +one-half step. This higher pitch is still often used by bands and +sometimes by orchestras to give greater brilliancy to the wind +instruments. + + REFERENCES + + Lavignac--Music and Musicians, pp. 1-66. + + Broadhouse--The Student's Helmholz. + + Helmholtz--Sensations of Tone. + + Hamilton--Sound and its Relation to Music. + + NOTE:--For a simple and illuminating treatment of the subject + from the standpoint of the music student, the books by + Lavignac and Hamilton are especially recommended. + + + + +APPENDIX D + +TERMINOLOGY REFORM + + +A recent writer[43] on _vocal terminology_ makes the following statement +as an introduction to certain remarks advocating a more definite use of +terms relating to tone production by the human voice:--"The correct use +of words is the most potent factor in the development of the thinker." +If this statement has any basis of fact whatsoever to support it then it +must be evident to the merest novice in musical work that the popular +use of many common terms by musicians is keeping a good many people from +clear and logical thought in a field that needs accurate thinkers very +badly! However this may be, it must be patent to all that our present +terminology is in many respects neither correct nor logical, and the +movement inaugurated by the Music Section of the National Education +Association some years ago to secure greater uniformity in the use and +definition of certain expressions should therefore not only command the +respect and commendation, but the active support of all progressive +teachers of music. + +[Footnote 43: Floyd S. Muckey--"Vocal Terminology," _The Musician_, May, +1912, p. 337.] + +Let it be noted at the outset that such reforms as are advocated by the +committee will never come into general use while the rank and file of +teachers throughout the country merely _approve_ the reports so +carefully compiled and submitted each year: these reforms will become +effective only as individual teachers make up their minds that the end +to be attained is worth the trouble of being careful to use only +correct terminology every day for a month, or three months, or a +year--whatever length of time may be necessary in order to get the new +habits fixed in mind and muscle. + +The Terminology Committee was appointed by the Department of Music of +the N.E.A. in 1906 and made its first report at Los Angeles in 1907. +Since then the indefatigable chairman of the committee (Mr. Chas. I. +Rice, of Worcester, Mass.) has contributed generously of both time and +strength, and has by his annual reports to the Department set many of us +to thinking along certain new lines, and has caused some of us at any +rate to adopt in our own teaching certain changes of terminology which +have enabled us to make our work more effective. + +In his first report Mr. Rice says: + +"Any one who has observed the teaching of school music in any +considerable number of places in this country cannot fail to have +remarked the great diversity of statement employed by different teachers +regarding the facts which we are engaged in teaching, and the equal +diversity of terminology used in teaching the symbols by which musicians +seek to record these facts. To the teacher of exact sciences our +picturesque use of the same term to describe two or more entirely +different things never ceases to be a marvel.... Thoughtful men and +women will become impressed with the untruthfulness of certain +statements and little by little change their practice. Others will +follow, influenced by example. The revolutionists will deride us for not +moving faster while the conservatives will be suspicious of any change." + +At this meeting in Los Angeles a list of thirteen points was recommended +by the committee and adopted by the Music Department. These points are +given in the N.E.A. Volume of Proceedings for 1907, p. 875. + +Since 1907 the committee (consisting of Chas. I. Rice, P.C. Hayden, W.B. +Kinnear, Leo R. Lewis, and Constance Barlow-Smith) have each year +selected a number of topics for discussion, and have submitted valuable +reports recommending the adoption of certain reforms. Some of the points +recommended have usually been rejected by the Department, but many of +them have been adopted and the reports of the committee have set many +teachers thinking and have made us all more careful in the use and +definition of common terms. A complete list of all points adopted by the +Department since 1907 has been made by Mr. Rice for _School Music_, and +this list is here reprinted from the January, 1913, number of that +magazine. + + TERMINOLOGY ADOPTIONS, 1907-1910 + + 1. _Tone:_ Specific name for a musical sound of definite + pitch. Use neither _sound_, a general term, nor _note_, a term + of notation. + + 2. _Interval:_ The pitch relation between _two_ tones. Not + properly applicable to a single tone or scale degree. Example: + "Sing the fifth tone of the scale." Not "sing the fifth + interval of the scale." + + 3. _Key:_ Tones in relation to a tonic. Example: In the key of + G. _Not_ in the scale of G. Scales, major and minor are + composed of a definite selection from the many tones of the + key, and all scales extend through at least one octave of + pitch. The chromatic scale utilizes all the tones of a key + within the octave. + + 4. _Natural:_ Not a suitable compound to use in naming + pitches. Pitch names are either _simple_: B, or _compound_: B + sharp, B double-sharp, B flat or B double-flat, and there is + no pitch named "B natural." Example: Pitch B, _not_ "B + natural." + + NOTE:--L.R.L. thinks that B natural should be the name when + the notation suggests it. + + 5. _Step, Half-step:_ Terms of interval _measurement_. Avoid + _tone_, _semi-tone_ or _half-tone_. Major second and minor + second are interval _names_. Example: How large are the + following intervals? (1) Major second, (2) minor second, (3) + augmented prime. Answer: (1) a step, (2) a half-step, (3) a + half-step. + + 6. _Chromatic:_ A tone of the key which is not a member of its + diatonic scale. (N.B.) An accidental (a notation sign) is not + a chromatic sign _unless_ it makes a staff-degree represent a + chromatic tone. + + 7. _Major; Minor:_ Major and Minor keys having the same + signature should be called relative major and minor. Major and + minor keys having the same tonic, but different signatures, + should be called tonic major and minor. Not "parallel" major + or minor in either case. + + 8. _Staff:_ Five horizontal lines and their spaces. Staff + _lines_ are named (numbered) upward in order, first to fifth. + _Spaces:_ Space below, first-second-third-fourth-space, and + space above[44]. (Six in all.) Additional short lines and + their short spaces numbered outward both ways from the main + staff, viz: line below, second space below. The boundary of + the staff is always a space. + + [Footnote 44: NOTE:--Not "space below the staff" or "space + above the staff."] + + 9. _G Clef, F Clef, C Clef:_ These clefs when placed upon the + staff, give its degrees their first, or primary pitch meaning. + Each makes the degree it occupies represent a pitch of its + respective name. Example: The G clef makes the second line + represent the pitch G. Avoid "_fixes G on_." The staff with + clef in position represents only pitches having _simple_ or + _one-word_ names, A, B, C, etc. + + 10. _Sharps, Flats:_ Given a staff with clef in position as in + example above, sharps and flats make staff degrees upon which + they are placed represent pitches a half-step higher or lower. + These pitches have compound or two-word names. Example: The + second line stands for the pitch G (simple name). Sharp the + second line and it will stand for the pitch G sharp. (Compound + name.) The third line stands for the pitch B. (Simple name.) + Flat it, and the line will stand for the pitch B flat. + (Compound name.) N.B. These signs do not "_raise_" or + "_lower_" notes, tones, pitches, letters or staff degrees. + + 11. _Double-sharp, Double-flat:_ Given a staff with three or + more degrees sharped in the signature, double-sharps are used + (subject to the rules governing composition) to make certain + of these degrees, already sharped, represent pitches one + half-step higher yet. Similarly, when three or more degrees + are flatted in the signature, double-flats are used to make + certain degrees already flatted, represent pitches one + half-step lower yet. Examples: To represent sharp 2 in the key + of B major, double-sharp the C degree, or (equally good) + double-sharp the third space (G clef). To represent flat 6 in + the key of D flat major, double-flat the B degree, or (equally + good) double flat the third line (G clef). _Do not say_: "Put + a double-sharp on 6" or "put a double-sharp on C," or + "_indicate"_ a higher or lower pitch "_on_" a sharped or + flatted degree. + + 12. _Signature:_ Sharps or flats used as signatures affect the + staff degrees they occupy and all octaves of the same. + Example: With signature of four sharps, the first one affects + the fifth line and the first space; the second, the third + space; the third, the space above and the second line; the + fourth, the fourth line and the space below. _Do not say_: "F + and C are sharped," "ti is sharped," "B is flatted," "fa is + flatted." "Sharpened" or "flattened" are undesirable. + + 13. _Brace:_ The two or more staffs containing parts to be + sounded together; also the vertical line or bracket connecting + such staffs. _Not_ "line" or "score." "Staff" is better than + "line" for a single staff, and "score" is used meaning the + book containing an entire work, as "vocal score," "orchestral + score," "full score." + + 14. _Notes:_ Notes are characters designed to represent + relative duration. When placed on staff-degrees they + _indicate_ pitch. (Note the difference between "represent" and + "indicate.") "Sing what the note calls for" means, sing a tone + of the pitch represented by the staff degree occupied by the + note-head. The answer to the question: "What is that note?" + would be "half-note," "eighth-note" according to the + denomination of the note in question, whether it was on or off + the staff. + + 15. _Measure-sign:_ 4-4, 2-4, 6-8, are _measure-signs_. Avoid + "time signatures," "meter-signatures," "the fraction," + "time-marks." Example: What is the measure-sign? (C) Ans. A + broken circle. What is its meaning? Ans. Four-quarter measure. + (Not four-four time, four-four rhythm, four-four meter.) + + 16. _Note Placing:_ Place a quarter note on the fourth line. + Not "put a quarter note on D." + + 17. _Beat-Pulse:_ A tone or rest occurs on a certain beat or + pulse of a measure. Not on a certain _count_. + + 18. _Signature Terminology:_ The right hand sharp in the + signature is on the staff degree that represents seven of the + major scale. Not "always on 7 or ti." + + 19. _Signature Terminology:_ The right hand flat in the + signature is on the staff degree that represents four of the + major scale. Not "always on fa." + + 20. _Rote, Note, Syllable:_ Singing by rote means that the + singer sings something learned by ear without regard to notes. + Singing by note means that the singer is guided to the correct + pitch by visible notes. Singing by syllable means that the + singer sings the tones of a song or part to the sol-fa + syllables instead of to words, neutral vowels or the hum. + "Sing by note" is not correct if the direction means simply to + sing the sol-fa syllables, whether in sight reading, rote + singing, or memory work. "Sing by syllable" would be correct + in each case. + + + ADOPTIONS OF THE 1911 MEETING AT SAN FRANCISCO + + Arabic numerals, either 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, or 12, placed on the + staff directly after the signature and above the third line, + show the number of beats in a measure. + + A note, either a quarter or a dotted quarter, placed in + parenthesis under the numeral, represents the length of one + beat and is called the beat-note. + + The numeral and the beat-note thus grouped constitute the + measure-sign. + + Illustrative statements covering proper terminology: the tune + "America" is written in three-quarter measure. The chorus: + "How lovely are the Messengers" is written in two-dotted + quarter measure. + + The above forms of statement were adopted at Denver in 1909, + and are recommended for general use when speaking of music + written with the conventional measure-signs, etc. + + In place of: "two-two time, three-eight time, four-four time," + say as above: "This piece is written in two-half measure, + three-eighth measure, four-quarter measure." + + + MINOR SCALES + + _Primitive Minor (ascending)_ + + The minor scale form having minor sixth and minor seventh + above tonic to be called Primitive Minor. + + Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, a; C + minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b flat, c. [Transcriber's + Note: Supplied b flat missing from original.] + + _Primitive Minor (descending)_ + + Same pitches in reverse order. + + _Harmonic Minor (ascending)_ + + The minor scale form having minor sixth and major seventh + above tonic to be called Harmonic Minor. + + Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g sharp, a; + C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b, c. + + _Harmonic Minor (descending_) + + Same pitches in reverse order. + + _Melodic Minor (ascending)_ + + The minor scale form having major sixth and major seventh + above tonic to be called Melodic Minor. + + Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f sharp, g + sharp, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a, b, c. + + _Melodic Minor (descending)_ + + Same as the Primitive. + + + ADOPTIONS OF THE 1912 MEETING AT CHICAGO + + _Pulse and Beat_ + + The Committee finds that the words: Pulse and Beat are in + general use as synonymous terms, meaning one of the succession + of throbs or impulses of which we are conscious when listening + to music. Each of these pulses or beats has an exact point of + beginning, a duration, and an exact point of ending, the + latter coincident with the beginning of the next pulse or + beat. When thus used, both words are terms of ear. + + _Beat_ + + One of these words, Beat, is also in universal use, meaning + one of a series of physical motions by means of which a + conductor holds his group of performers to a uniform movement. + + When thus used it becomes a term of eye. + + The conductor's baton, if it is to be authoritative, cannot + wander about through the whole duration of the pulse but must + move quickly to a point of comparative repose, remaining until + just before the arrival of the next pulse when it again makes + a rapid swing, finishing coincidently with the initial tone + (or silence) of the new pulse. + + Thus it is practically the end of the conductor's beat that + marks the beginning of the pulse. + + The Committee is of opinion that Beat might preferably be used + as indicating the outward sign. + + _Beat-Note_ + + This term "beat-note" is already in use in another important + connection (see Terminology Report, 1911) and the Committee + recommends that those using the above terms shall say: "This + note is an on-the-beat note; this one is an after-the-beat + note; this one a before-the-beat note." + + + DEFINITIONS + + _Matters of Ear_ + + Pulse: The unit of movement in music, one of a series of + regularly recurring throbs or impulses. + + Measure: A group of pulses. + + Pulse-Group: Two or more tones grouped within the pulse. + + _Matters of Eye_ + + Beat: One of a series of conventional movements made by the + conductor. This might include any unconventional motion which + served to mark the movement of the music, whether made by + conductor, performer or auditor. + + Beat-Note: A note of the denomination indicated by the + measure-sign as the unit of note-value in a given measure. + + _Example_ + + Given the following measure-signs: 2-4, 2-2, 2-8, quarter, + half, or eighth notes, respectively, are beat-notes. + + Beat-Group: A group of notes or notes and rests, of smaller + denomination than the beat-note which represents a full beat + from beginning to end and is equal in value to the beat-note. + (A beat-group may begin with a rest.) + + On-the-Beat Note (or rest): Any note (or rest) ranging in + value from a full beat down, which calls for musical action + (or inaction) synchronously with the conductor's beat. + + After-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates + that a tone is to be sounded after the beginning, and before + or at the middle of the pulse. + + Before-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates + that a tone is to be sounded after the middle of the pulse. + + To illustrate terminology and to differentiate between Pulse + and Beat as terms, respectively of ear and eye, the following + is submitted: + + Whenever a brief tone involves the musical idea of + syncopation, it may be regarded as an after-the-pulse tone and + the note that calls for it as an after-the-beat note; when it + involves the idea of anticipation or preparation it may be + regarded as a before-the-pulse tone, and the note that calls + for it, as a before-the-beat note. + + _Measure and Meter_ + + "What is the measure-sign?" + + "What is the meter-signature?" + + These two words are used synonymously, and one of them is + unnecessary. The Committee recommends that Measure be retained + and used. Meter has its use in connection with hymns. + + * * * * * + +The author does not find it possible at present to agree with all the +recommendations made in the above report, but the summary is printed in +full for the sake of completeness. + +The Music Teacher's National Association has also interested itself +mildly in the subject of terminology reform, and at its meeting in +Washington, D.C., in 1908, Professor Waldo S. Pratt gave his address as +president of the Association on the subject "System and Precision in +Musical Speech." This address interested the members of the Association +to such an extent that Professor Pratt was asked to act as a committee +whose purpose it should be to look into the matter of reforms necessary +in music terminology and report at a later session. In 1910 Professor +Pratt read a report in which he advocated the idea of making some +changes in music nomenclature, but took the ground that the subject is +too comprehensive to be mastered in the short time that can be given to +it by a committee, and that it is therefore impossible to recommend +specific changes. He also took occasion to remark that one difficulty in +the whole matter of terminology is that many terms and expressions are +used _colloquially_ and that such use although usually not scientific, +is often not distinctly harmful and is not of sufficient importance to +cause undue excitement on the part of reformers. Quoting from the report +at this point:--"A great deal of confusion is more apparent than real +between _note_ and _tone_, between _step_ and _degree_, between _key_ +and _tonality_. No practical harm is done by speaking of the _first +note_ of a piece when really _first tone_ would be more accurate. To +say that a piece is written _in the key of B[flat]_ is more convenient +than to say that it is written in the _tonality of which B[flat] is the +tonic_. The truth is that some of the niceties of expression upon which +insistence is occasionally laid are merely fussy, not because they have +not some sort of reason, but because they fail to take into account the +practical difference between colloquial or off-hand speech and the +diction of a scientific treatise. This is said without forgetting that +colloquialism always needs watching and that some people form the habit +of being careless or positively uncouth as if it were a mark of high +artistic genius." + +Professor Pratt's report is thus seen to be philosophic rather than +constructive, and terminology reform will undoubtedly make more +immediate progress through the efforts of the N.E.A. Committee with its +specific recommendations (even though these are sometimes admittedly +_fussy_) than through the policy of the M.T.N.A. of waiting for some one +to get time to take up the subject in a scholarly way. Nevertheless the +philosophic view is sometimes badly needed, especially when the spirit +of reform becomes too rabid and attaches too great importance to +trifles. A judicious intermingling of the two committees in a series of +joint meetings would undoubtedly result in mutual helpfulness, and +possibly also in a more tangible and convincing statement of principles +than has yet been formulated by either. + + + + +APPENDIX E + +Sonata Op. 31, No. 3 by Beethoven + +Analysis by ARTHUR E. HEACOX, +Oberlin Conservatory of Music + + + First Subject 17 measures, E[flat] major, as follows: 8 meas. + presentation, one meas. link, 8 meas. repetition oct. higher. + Rhythmic elements are A, B, C, all presented in first 8 meas. + +[Transcriber's Note: The analysis is presented as notations on the +musical score of the sonata. Please see the HTML version of this e-text +to view the score with the notations and to listen to a MIDI version.] + +[Illustration: Sonata Op. 31, No. 3] + + + + +INDEX + + +eh = a as in face; ah = a as in far; ch = ch as in chair; final eh = e +as in met. + + +A (_ah_), 95 + +A battuta (_ah-baht-too'-tah_), 95 + +A capella (_cah-pel'-lah_), 76 + +A capriccio (_cah-pritch'-eo_), 54 + +Accelerando (_aht-cheh-leh-rahn'-do_), 54 + +Accented tones, 20 + +Accent marks, 20 + +Accent in measures, 44 + +Acciaccatura (_aht-cheea-cah-too'-ra_), 25, 26 + +Accidentals, 9 + +Accompagnamento (_ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-to_), 95 + +Acoustics (_ah-kow'-stics_), def., 131 + of auditoriums, 133 + +Adagietto (_ah-dah-jee-et'-to_), 50 + +Adagio (_ah-dah'-jee-o_), 50 + +A deux mains (_doo-mahng_), 42 + +Ad libitum, 54 + +Affrettando (_ahf-fret-tahn'-do_), 54 + +Agitato (_ah-jee-tah'-to_), 55 + +Agrements (_ah-greh-mahng_), 22 + +A la or alla (_ahl'-lah_), 42 + +Alla breve (_breh'-veh_), 95 + +Alla marcia (_mar'-chee-ah_), 95 + +Allargando (_ahl-lahr-gahn'-do_), 53 + +Alla zingara (_tseen-gah'-rah_), 95 + +Allegretto (_ahl-leh-gret'-to_), 51 + +Allegrissimo, 52 + +Allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 50 + +Allegro agitato (_ah-jee-tah'-to_), 52 + +Allegro appassionata (_-ah'-tah_), 52 + +Allegro assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52 + +Allegro commodo (_kom-mo'-do_), 52 + +Allegro con brio (_bree'-o_), 52 + +Allegro con fuoco (_foo-o'-ko_), 53 + +Allegro con moto (_mo'-to_), 53 + +Allegro con spirito (_spee'-ree-to_), 53 + +Allegro di bravura (_dee brah-voo'-rah_), 53 + +Allegro di molto (_mohl'-to_), 53 + +Allegro furioso (_foo-ree-o'-so_), 53 + +Allegro giusto (_jew-sto_), 53 + +Allegro ma grazioso (_mah grah-tsi-o'-so_), 53 + +Allegro (ma) non tanto (_tahn'-to_), 53 + +Allegro (ma) non troppo (_trop'-po_), 53 + +Allegro moderato (_mod-e-rah'-to_), 53 + +Allegro quasi andante (_quah-see ahn-dahn'-teh_), 53 + +Allegro vivace (_vee-vah'-cheh_), 53 + +Allemande (_al-mahnd_), 71 + +All'unisono (_oo-nee-so'-no_), 95 + +All'ottava (_ot-tah'-vah_), 15 + +Alt (_ahlt_), 95 + +Alto (_ahl-to_), 95 + +A mezza voce (_met'-zah-vo'-cheh_), 42 + +Amore (_ah-mo'-reh_), 42, 59 + +Andante (_ahn-dahn'-teh_), 50 + +Andante affettuoso (_ahf-fet-too-o'-so_), 52 + +Andante amabile (_ah-mah'-bee-leh_), 52 + +Andante cantabile (_cahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 52 + +Andante con moto (_mo'-to_), 52 + +Andante grazioso (_grah-tsi-o'-so_), 52 + +Andante maestoso (_mah-es-to'-so_), 52 + +Andante (ma) non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 52 + +Andante pastorale (_pahs-to-rah'-leh_), 52 + +Andante quasi allegro (_quah-see ahl-leh'-gro_), 52 + +Andante sostenuto (_sos-teh-noo'-to_), 52 + +Animando (_ah-nee-mahn'-do_), 55 + +Animato (_ah-nee-mah'-to_), 55 + +Animato come sopra (_co-meh so'-prah_), 55 + +Andantino (_ahn-dahn-tee'-no_), 50 + +Antecedent, 67 + +Anthem, 76 + +Anticipation, 93 + +Antiphony (_an-tif'-o-ny_), 95 + +Antithesis (_an-tith'-_), 67 + +A piacere (_pee-ah-cheh'-reh_), 54 + +Appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too'-rah_), def., 25 + +A quatre mains (_kahtr-mahng_), 95 + +Arabesque, 95 + +Aria (_ah'-ree-ah_), 79 + +Arioso (_ah-ree-o'-so_), 95 + +Arpeggiando (_ar-ped-jee-ahn'-do_), 21 + +Arpeggiato (_-ah'-to_), 21 + +Arpeggiento (_-en'-to_), 21 + +Arpeggio (_ar-ped'-jee-o_), 21 + +Art-ballad, 80 + +Assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 42 + +A tempo, 54 + +A tempo primo (_pree'-mo_), 54 + +A tempo rubato (_roo-bah'-to_), 54 + +Attacca (_aht-tah'-kah_), 95 + +Attacca subito (_soo'-bee-to_), 95 + +Attacca subito il seguente (_eel seg-wen'-teh_), 95 + +Attack, 95 + + +Bagpipe, 95 + +Ballad, 80 + +Band, 115 + +Bar, def. and use, 12 + double, 12 + +Barcarole (_bar'-cah-rohl_), 95 + +Baritone, 95 + +Bass, 95 + +Bass clarinet, 121 + +Basso (_bahs'-so_), 95 + +Bassoon, 121 + +Bass staff, 6 + +Bass tuba, 125 + +Bass viol, 118 + +Ben (_behn_), 42 + +Ben marcato (_mahr-kah'-to_), 42 + +Berceuse (_behr-soos'_), 95 + +Binary form, 95 + +Binary measure, 95 + +Bis (_bees_), 96 + +Bolero (_bo-leh'-ro_), 71 + +Bourree (_boo-reh'_), 71 + +Brace, 96 + +Brass instruments, 116 + +Brillante (_breel-ahn'-teh_), 55 + +Broken chord, 96 + +Broken octave, 96 + + +Cacophony (_kak-of'-o-ny_), 96 + +Cadence, 89 + +Cadenza, 96 + +Calando (_kah-lahn'-do_), 59 + +Cancel, 3, 8 + +Cantabile (_kahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 96 + +Cantando (_kakn-tahn'-do_), 96 + +Canto (_kahn'-to_), 96 + +Cantus firmus, 64 + +Canon, 64 + +Cantata (_kahn-tah'-tah_), 77 + +Carol, 96 + +Catch, 96 + +C clef 3, 6 + +Cello (_chel'-lo_), 118 + +Chaconne (_shah-con'_), 71 + +Chamber music, 72 + +Chanterelle (_shong-tah-rel'_), 117 + +Chinese scale, 27 + +Choral, 76 + +Chords def. and lands, 87 + inversions of, 88 + common, 87 + seventh, 89 + dominant seventh, 92 + +Chromatic, 96 + +Chromatic scale, 38 + +Clarinet, 121 + +Classes of instruments in orchestra, 115 + +Clavichord, 96 + +Clefs, 3, 5 + +Close position, 94 + +Coda, 70 + +Coi (_co'-ee_), 42 + +Col, 42 + +Colla, 42 + +Colla parte (_par'-teh_), 96 + +Colla voce (_vo'-cheh_), 96 + +Colle, 42 + +Collo, 42 + +Coloratura singing, 79, 96 + +Coll'ottava (_ot-tah'-vah_), 15 + +Combination pedals, 115 + +Come (_koh'-meh_), 42 + +Come primo (_pree'-mo_), 42 + +Common chords, 87 + +Compound measure, 45 + +Compound duple measure, 45 + +Con, 42 + +Con alcuna licenza (_ahl-koo'-nah lee-chen'-tsah_), 59 + +Con amore (_ah-mo'-reh_), 42, 59 + +Con anima (_ah'-nee-mah_), 55 + +Con bravura (_brah-voo'-rah_), 59 + +Con celerita (_che-leh'-ree-tah_), 59 + +Concerto (_con-cher'-to_), 72 + +Concert pitch, 138 + +Con delicato (_deh-lee-cah'-to_), 59 + +Con energico (_en-er-jee'-ko_), 59 + +Con espressione (_es-pres-see-o'-neh_), 59 + +Con forza (_fort'-za_), 60 + +Con fuoco (_foo-o'-ko_), 60 + +Con grand' espressione (_grahnd' es-pres-see-o'-neh_), 60 + +Con grazia (_grahts-yah_), 60 + +Con melinconia (or malinconia) (_-leen-ko'-ne-eh_), 60 + +Con moto, 55 + +Con passione (_pas-se-o'-neh_), 60 + +Consequent, 67 + +Consonance, 96 + +Con spirito (_spe'-ree-to_), 60 + +Con tenerezza (_teh-neh-ret'-za_), 60 + +Continuous form, 80 + +Contra, 42 + +Contra bass tuba, 126 + +Contra octave, 16 + +Contralto, 96 + +Con variazione (_vah-ri-ah-tsi-o'-neh_), 96 + +Cornet, 124 + +Counterpoint, def., 64, 62, 82 + +Courante (_koo-rahnt'_), 71 + +Crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 57 + +Crescendo al fortissimo, 58 + +Crescendo ed affrettando (_ahf-fret-tahn'-do_), 58 + +Crescendo ed animando poco a poco (_ah-ni-mahn'-do_), 58 + +Crescendo e diminuendo (_eh de-me-noo-en'-do_), 58 + +Crescendo molto (_mohl'-to_), 58 + +Crescendo poco a poco, 58 + +Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine (_seen ahl fee'-neh_), 58 + +Crescendo poi diminuendo (_po'-ee dee-mee-noo-en'-do_), 58 + +Crescendo subito (_soo'-bee-to_), 58 + +Cross-stroke, 1, 2 + +Csardas (_tsar'-dahs_), 71 + + +Da (_dah_), 42 + +Da capo (_kah'-po_), 13 + +Dal segno (_sehn'-yo_), 13 + +Dances, 71 + +Dash over note, 17, 20 + +Decrescendo (_deh-kreh-shen'-do_), 58 + +Decrescendo al pianissimo (_ahl pee-ahn-is'-si-mo_), 58 + +Degrees of staff, 5 + +Delicato (_deh-lee-kah'-to_), 60 + +Descriptive music, 74 + +Di (_dee_), 42 + +Diatonic condition, 7 + +Diatonic scale, 28 + +Di bravura (_brah-voo'-rah_), 42 + +Diminuendo (_dee-mee-noo-en'-do_), 58 + +Di molto (_mohl'-to_), 42 + +Direct, 96 + +Dirge, 97 + +Discord, 97 + +Dissonance (_dis'_), 97 + +Divisi (_di-ve'-ze_), 97 + +Dolce (_dohl'-cheh_), 60 + +Dolce e cantabile (_eh kahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 60 + +Dolcissimo (_dohl-chis'-see-mo_), 60 + +Dolente (_do-len'-teh_), 60 + +Dominant, 36 + +Dominant Seventh, 92 + +Doloroso (_do-lo-ro'-so_), 60 + +Doppio (_dop'-pee-o_), 42 + +Doppio movimento (_mo-vi-men'-to_), 55 + +Dot--where placed, 3 + uses of, 17 + with slur or tie, 20 + with dash, 20 + +Double bar, 12 + +Double bass, 118 + +Double bassoon, 121 + +Double flat, 3, 7 + +Double mordent, 23 + +Double sharp, 3, 7 + +Doublet, 20 + +Duet, 97 + +Duple measure, 46 + +Dynamics, 56 + + +E (_eh_), 42 + +Ecole (_eh'-kole_), 97 + +Ed, 42 + +Eight-foot stop, 114 + +Elements of music, 82 + +Embellishments, 22 + +English names for notes, 11 + +English horn, 121 + +Enharmonic, def., 10 + +Enharmonic scale, 32 + +Enharmonic tie, 18 + +Ensemble (_ong-sombl_), 42 + +Equal temperament, 137 + +E poi la coda (_eh-po'-ee_), 14 + +Espressivo (_ehs-pres-see'-vo_), 60 + +Et, 42 + +Etto, 42 + +Etude, 97 + +Euphony (_yu'-fo-ny_), 97 + +Even measure, 46 + + +Facile (_fah-chee'-leh_), 97 + +Fanfare (_fahn'-fehr_), 97 + +Fantasia (_fahn-tah-ze'-ah_), 97 + +F Clef, 3, 5, 6 + +Fermata (_fehr-mah'-ta_), 14, 15 + +Fiasco (_fe-ahs'-ko_), 97 + +Figured bass, 89 + +Fine (_fee'-neh_), 13 + +Five-lined octave, 16 + +Flat, 3, 7 + +Flute, 119 + +Folk-song, 81 + +Form, def., 62 + binary, 95 + +Forte (_for'-teh_), 56 + +Forte piano (_pee-ah'-no_), 56 + +Forte possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 43 + +Fortissimo, 56 + +Fortissimo possibile (_pos-see-bee-leh_), 56 + +Fortisissimo, 56 + +Forzando (_for-tsahn'-do_), 57 + +Forzato (_for-tsah'-to_), 57 + +Four-foot stop, 114 + +Four-lined octave, 16 + +Free imitation, 64 + +French horn, 123 + +French pitch designations, 6 + +Fugue, 66 + +Fundamental, 135 + + +Gamut (_gam'-ut_), 97 + +Gavotte (_gah-vot'_), 71 + +G Clef, 3, 5, 6 + +General pause, 15 + +German pitch designation, 6 + +Gigue (_zheeg_), 71 + +Giocoso (_jee-o-ko'-so_), 60 + +Giojoso (_jee-o-yo'-so_), 60 + +Glee, 81 + +Glissando (_glis-sahn'-do_), 97 + +Graces, 22 + +Grandioso (_grahn-dee-o'-so_), 60 + +Grand sonata, 74 + +Grave (_grah'-veh_), 50 + +Grazioso (_grah-tsi-o'-so_), 60 + +Great octave, 16 + +Great staff, 5 + +Grosse pause (_gros-seh pah-oo'-za_) or (_gros-seh pow-zeh_), 15 + +Gruppetto (_groo-pet'-to_), 22 + + +Habanera (_hah-bah-neh'-rah_), 71 + +Half-step, 83 + +Harmonic minor scale, 33 + +Harmonics, 136 + +Harmonics on violin, 117 + +Harmony, 82 + +Harp, 129 + +Harpsichord, 97 + +Head of note, 1 + +Hold, 15 + +Homophonic style, 63 + +Hook, 1 + +Humoresque (_hoo-mo-resk'_), 97 + +Hymn to St. John, 37 + + +Idyl, 97 + +Il (_eel_), 42 + +Il basso (_bahs'-so_), 42 + +Il piu (_pee'-oo_), 42 + +Il piu forte possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 42 + +Imitation, 64 + +Imperfect trill, 23 + +In alt (_in ahlt_), 97 + +In altissimo (_ahl-tis'-si-mo_), 97 + +Ino (_ee'-no_), 42 + +Instrumentation, 97 + +Instruments, classification of, 112 + +Intensity of tones, 135 + +Interlude, 97 + +Intermediate tones, 38 + see "Chromatic," p. 96 + +International pitch, 138 + +Interval, def., 83 + enharmonic, 10 + harmonic, 83 + melodic, 83 + names of, 83 + +Inversion, in thematic development, 69 + +Inversions of chords, 88 + +Inverted mordent, 23 + +Inverted turn, 25 + +Issimo, 42 + + +Kettle-drum, 126 + +Key, def., 28 + signature, 8 + enharmonic keys, 10 + key-tone, 27, 28 + how different from scale, 28 + + +L, 42 + +La (_lah_), 42 + +Lacrimando (_lah-kri-mahn'-do_), 60 + +Lacrimoso (_lah-kri-mo'-so_), 60 + +Largamente (_lar-gah-men'-teh_), 42 + +Largando (_lar-gahn'-do_), 53 + +Larghetto (_lar-get'-to_), 50 + +Largo, 50 + +Largo assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52 + +Largo di molto (_de mohl'-to_), 52 + +Largo ma non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 52 + +Largo un poco (_oon po'-co_), 52 + +Le (_leh_), 42 + +Leading tone, 33, 36 + +Legato (_leh-gah'-to_), 18, 60 + +Leger lines, 5 + +Leggierissimo (_led-jah-ris'-si-mo_), 60 + +Leggiero (_led-jee'-ro_), 60 + +Lentando (_len-tahn'-do_), 52 + +Lentemente (_len-tah-men'-teh_), 52 + +Lentissimamente (_-men'-teh_), 52 + +Lentissamente (_-men'-teh_), 52 + +Lento, 50 + +Lento a capriccio (_ah-cah-preet'-chee-o_), 52 + +Lento assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52 + +Lento di molto (_de mohl'-to_), 52 + +Libretto (_lee-bret'-to_), 78 + +Lied (_leed_), 80 + +L'istesso tempo (_lis-tes'-so_), 42, 55 + +Loco, 15, 97 + +Long appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too'-rah_), 25 + +Lower tetrachord, 29 + +Lunga pausa (_loong-ah pow'-zeh_) or (_loon-gah pah-oo'-za_), 15 + +Lunga trillo, 97 + +Lusingando (_loos-in-gahn'-do_), 60 + +Lyric, 98 + + +Madrigal (_mad'-ri-gal_), 81 + +Maesta (_mah'-es-tah_), 60 + +Maestoso (_mah-es-to'-so_), 60 + +Maggiore (_mahd-jo'-reh_), 98 + +Main droite (_mahng droa_), 20 + +Main gauche (_mahng gowsh_), 20 + +Major key, 8 + +Major scale, def., 29 + positions, 30 + origin of name, 33 + +Mancando (_mahn-kahn'-do_), 59 + +Mano destra (_mah'-no dehs'-trah_), 20 + +Mano sinistra (_si-nees'-trah_), 20 + +Marcato il canto (_mar-kah'-to eel kahn'-to_), 98 + +Martellando (_mar-tel-lahn'-do_), 59 + +Martellato (_mar-tel-lah'-to_), 59 + +Marziale (_mart-se-ah'-leh_), 59 + +Mass, 77 + +Mazurka (_mah-zoor'-ka_), 71 + +Measure, def., 44 + how differs from "bar," 12 + how differs from "rhythm," 44 + syncopation in, 44 + simple and compound, 45 + duple or even, 46 + triple or perfect, 46 + quadruple, 46 + sextuple, 46 + compound duple, 46 + signature, 48 + binary, 95 + +Mediant, 36 + +Mellifluous (_mel-lif'-loo-us_), 98 + +Melodic minor scales, 34 + +Melody, 82 + +Melos (_meh'-los_), 98 + +Meno (_meh'-no_), 42 + +Meno mosso (_mos'-so_), 53 + +Mente (_men'-teh_), 42 + +Menuet (_meh-noo-eh'_), 98 + +Menuetto (_meh-noo-et'-to_), 98 + +Messa di voce (_mes'-sa dee vo'-cheh_), 21 + +Mesto (_mehs'-to_), 60 + +Metronome, 49 + +Mezza (_med'-zah_), 42 + +Mezzo (_med'-zo_), 42 + +Mezzo forte (_for'-teh_), 42, 56 + +Mezzo piano (_pe-ah'-no_), 56 + +Mezzo soprano (_so-prah'-no_), 98 + +Mezzo voce (_vo'-cheh_), 60 + +Minor key, 8 + +Minore (_me-no'-reh_), 98 + +Minor scale, def., 33 + positions, 34 + +Minuet, 71 + +Misterioso (_mis-teh-ri-o'-so_), 60 + +Moderato (_mod-e-rah'-to_), 51 + +Modulation, def., 92 + enharmonic, 10 + +Molto (_mohl'-to_), 42 + +Molto crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 42 + +Monophonic style, 63, 67 + +Mordent, 22, 23 + +Morendo (_mo-ren'-do_), 59 + +Moriente (_mo-ri-en'-teh_), 59 + +Motet (_mo-tet'_), 76 + +Movable C Clef, 6 + +Mute, 117 + + +Natural, 3, 8 + +Natural condition of staff-degrees, 8 + +Nel, 42 + +Nel battere (_baht-teh'-reh_), 42 + +Nella, 42 + +Neumae (_neoo'-mee_), 104 + +Nocturne, 98 + +Non (_non_), 42 + +Non tanto (_tahn'-to_), 42 + +Non tanto allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 53 + +Non troppo allegro (_trop'-po_), 53 + +Notation, history of music, 101 + +Notes, def., 10 + kinds of, 11 + English names for, 11 + dotted, 17 + staccato, 17 + irregular note-groups, 19 + parts of, 1 + how made, 1 + +Nuance (_noo-angs_), 98 + + +Obbligato (_ob-blee-gah'-to_), 98 + +Oboe (_o'-bo_), 121 + +Octave, def., 36 + +Octaves, names of, 16 + +Offertory, 98 + +One-lined octave, 16 + +Open position, 94 + +Opera, 78 + +Opus, 98 + +Oratorio, 77 + +Orchestra, 115 + +Orchestration, 98 + +Organ, reed, 113 + pipe, 114 + point, 98 + +Original minor scale, 33 + +Origin of scale, 28 + +Ossia (_os'-see-ah_), 42, 98 + +Ossia piu facile (_pe-oo' fah-chee'-leh_), 42 + +Overtones, 136 + +Overture, 98 + + +Parlando (_par-lahn'-do_), 60 + +Part song, 81 + +Pastorale (_pas-to-rah'-leh_), 60 + +Pedal point, 93 + +Pentatonic scale, 27 + +Per (_pehr_), 42 + +Percussion instruments, 116 + +Perdendo (_pehr-den'-do_), 59 + +Perdendosi (_pehr-den-do'-see_), 59 + +Perfect measure, 46 + +Perfect trill, 23 + +Per il violino (_eel ve-o-le'-no_), 42 + +Period, 67 + +Pesante (_peh-sahn'-teh_), 55 + +Peu (_peuh_), 42 + +Phrase, 67 + +Phrase mark, 18 + +Pianissimo (_pee-ahn-is'-si-mo_), 56 + +Pianissimo possibile (_pos-see'-bee'-leh_), 56 + +Pianisissimo (_pee-ahn-is-is'-si-mo_), 56 + +Piano (_pee-ah'-no_), 56 + +Piano assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 56 + +Piano, description of, 112 + +Piccolo (_pik'-ko-lo_), 119 + +Pipe organ, 114 + +Pitch, def., 134 + pitch names, 6 + standards of, 137 + concert pitch, 138 + international pitch, 138 + +Piu (_pe-oo'_), 42 + +Piu allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 54 + +Piu forte (for'-teh), 42 + +Piu lento, 53 + +Piu mosso (_mos'-so_), 54 + +Piu tosto (_tos'-to_), 54 + +Pizzicato (_pits-e-kah'-to_), 99, 117 + +Pochetto (_po-ket'-to_), see ino, 42 + +Poco, 43 + +Poco a poco animando (_ah-nee-mahn'-do_), 54 + +Poi (_po' ee_), 42 + +Polacca (_po-lahk'-kah_), 99 + +Polka, 69 + +Polonaise (_pol-o-nez'_), 71, 99 + +Polyphonic style, 64 + +Pomposo (_pom-po'-so_), 60 + +Portamento (_por'-tah-men'-to_), 20 + +Position, open and close, 94 + +Possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 43 + +Postlude, 99 + +Prall trill, 22 + +Precipitoso (_preh-che-pi-to'-so_), 60 + +Prelude, 99 + +Prestissimo (_pres-tis'-see-mo_), 51 + +Prestissimo possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 51 + +Presto, 51 + +Presto assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 53 + +Presto (ma) non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 53 + +Priere (_pre-ehr'_), 99 + +Primary forms, 68 + +Primitive minor scale, 33 + +Program music, 74 + +Pure music, 74 + +Pure scale, 40 + + +Quadruple measure, 46 + +Quality, 136 + +Quartet, 72 + +Quasi (_quah'-see_), 43 + +Quintole (_kwin'-to-leh_), 99 + +Quintolet, 20 + +Quintuplet, 20, 99 + + +Raised sixth, 34 + +Rallentando (_rahl-len-tahn'-do_), 53 + +Rapidamente (_rah-pid-a-men'-teh_), 55 + +Rate of speed, of sound, 132 + +Recitative (_res-i-tah-teev'_), 78 + +Recitativo (_reh-chee-ta-tee'-vo_), 60 + +Reed organ, 113 + +Relative minor, 8, 35 + +Religioso (_reh-lee-jo'-so_), 99 + +Repetition and contrast, 62, 70 + +Requiem (_re'-kwi-em_), 99 + +Rests, def., 10 + rules for making, 2 + kinds of, 11 + peculiar use of, 11 + several measures of, 14 + +Retardation, 93 + +Rhapsody, 99 + +Rhythm, def., 82 + element of music, 82 + how differs from "measure," 44 + correct use of word, 48 + +Rhythmic augmentation, 69 + +Rhythmic diminution, 69 + +Rhythmic figures, 44 + +Ribattuta (_re-baht-too'-tah_), 99 + +Rigaudon (_rig'-o-don_), 71 + +Rinforzando (_rin-for-tsahn'-do_), 57 + +Rinforzato (_rin-for-tsah'-to_), 57 + +Risoluto (_ree-so-loo'-to_), 60 + +Ritardando (_ree-tar-dahn'-do_), 53 + +Ritenente (_ree-ten-en'-teh_), 53 + +Ritenuto (_ree-ten-oo'-to_), 53 + +Ritornelle (_ree-tor-nell'_), 99 + +Ritornello (_ree-tor-nel'-lo_), 99 + +Rondo, 70, 71 + +Rules: + For writing music, 1, 2 + For turning stems, 1, 2 + For altered staff degrees, 10 + For embellishments, 22-26 + For repeats, 13, 14 + For writing chromatic scale, 38 + + +Sans (_sahng_), 43 + +Sans pedales (_peh-da-leh_), 43 + +Sarabande (_sar-ah-bahn'-deh_), 71 + +Sarrusophone (_sar-reoos-o-fohn'_), 123 + +Saxhorn, p. 125 (footnote) + +Saxophone, 121 + +Scales, def., 27 + origin, 28 + how different from keys, 28 + positions of: + major, 30 + minor, 34 + chromatic, 38 + tones of, called, 5, 36, 37 + Chinese, 27 + Scotch, 27 + +Scherzando (_skehr-tsahn'-do_), 60 + +Scherzo (_skehr'-tso_), 71, 72 + +Scherzoso (_skehr-tzo'-so_), 60 + +School-round, 66 + +Schottische (_shot'-tish_), 99 + +Score, 99 + +Scotch scale, 27 + +Sec (_sek_), 99 + +Secco (_sek'-ko_), 99 + +Section, 67 + +Segue (_sehg'-weh_), 14 + +Semplice (_sem-plee'-cheh_), 60 + +Sempre (_sem'-preh_), 43 + +Sempre forte (_for'-teh_), 43 + +Sempre lento malinconico assai (_mah-leen-ko'-ni-ko ahs-sah'-ee_), 55 + +Sempre marcatissimo (_mar-kah-tis'-si-mo_), 60 + +Sentimento (_sen-tee-men'-to_), 60 + +Senza (_sen-tza_), 42 + +Senza accompagnamento (_ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-toh_), 42 + +Senza repetizione (_reh-peh-titz-e-o'-neh_), 14, 99 + +Senza replica (_reh'-ple-kah_), 99 + +Septimole, 20 + +Septolet, 20 + +Sequence, 91 + +Serenade, 99 + +Serenata (_seh-re-nah'-tah_), 99 + +Seventh chord, 89 + +Sextet, 99 + +Sextolet, 20 + +Sextuple measure, 46 + +Sextuplet, 20, 100 + +Sforzando (_sfortz-ahn'-do_), 57 + +Sforzato (_sfortz-ah'-to_), 57 + +Shake, 22 + +Sharp, 3, 7 + +Short appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too-rah_), 25 + +Simile (_see'-mee-leh_), 14, 100 + +Similiter (_see-mil'-i-ter_), 100 + +Simple measure, 45 + +Simple tone, 137 + +Sin (_seen_), 43 + +Sin al fine (_ahl-fee'-neh_), 14 + +Sino (_see'-no_), 43 + +Sixteen-foot stop, 114 + +Sixty-four-foot stop, 114 + +Slentando (_slen-tahn'-do_), 53 + +Slur, 18 + +Small octave, 16 + +Smorzando (_smor-tzahn'-do_), 59 + +Solenne (_so-len'-neh_), 59 + +Solfege (_sul-fezh'_), 100 + +Solfeggio (_sol-fed'-jo_), 100 + +Solmization, 100 + +Solo, 43 + +Sonata (_so-nah'-tah_), 71 + +Sonata allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 73 + +Sonata form, 73 + +Sonatina (_so-na-tee'-nah_), 74 + +Song form, 68 + +Sopra (_so'-prah_), 100 + +Soprano (_so-prah'-no_), 100 + +Sordino (_sor-dee'-no_), 117 + +Sostenuto (_sos-teh-noo'-to_), 100 + +Sotto (_sot'-to_), 100 + +Sotto voce (_vo'-cheh_), 59 + +Sound, App. C, 131 + Production of, 131 + Transmission of, 131 + Rate of travel of, 131 + Intensification of, 133 + Reflection of, 133 + Classification of, 133 + +Spiritoso (_spee-ree-to'-so_), 60 + +Staccatissimo (_stahk-kah-tis'-si-mo_), 17 + +Staccato (_stahk-kah'-to_), 17, 20, 100 + +Staff, 5 + +Staff degrees, 5 + +Standards of pitch, 137 + +Stems, 1 + +Step, half and whole, 83 + +Strepitoso (_streh-pee-to'-so_), 61 + +Stretto (_stret'-to_), 54 + +Strict imitation, 64 + +Stringed instruments, 115 + +Stringendo (_strin-jen'-do_), 54 + +Stroking notes, 2 + +Strophe form (_stro'-feh_), 80 + +Styles, kinds of, 63 + how differ from forms, 62 + +Sub, 43 + +Sub-dominant, 36 + +Subject, 64 + +Subito (_soo-bee'-to_), 100 + +Sub-mediant, 36 + +Sub-octave, 16 + +Suite (_sweet_), 70 + +Super-dominant, 36 + +Super-tonic, 36 + +Suspension, 92 + +Swell-box, 114 + +Syllables for sight-singing, 37 + +Symphonic poem, 75 + +Symphony, def., 73 + +Syncopation, 44 + + +Tail of note, 1 + +Takt pausa (_tahkt pow'-zeh_ or _pah-oo'-za_), 11 + +Tanto (_tahn'-to_), 43 + +Tarantella (_tah-rahn-tel'-lah_), 71 + +Tempered scales, 137 + +Tempo, 48-50 + +Tempo commodo (_ko-mo'-do_), 55 + +Tempo di marcia (_de mar'-chee-ah_), 55 + +Tempo di menuetto (_meh-noo-et'-to_), 55 + +Tempo di valso (_vahl'-so_), 55 + +Tempo giusto (_jew-sto_), 54 + +Tempo ordinario (_or-dee-nah'-ree-o_), 55 + +Tempo primo (_pree'-mo_), 54 + +Tempo rubato (_roo-bah'-to_), 54 + +Tenor, 100 + +Tenuto (_teh-noo'-to_), 55, 100 + +Terminology Reforms, App. D., p. 139 + +Tetrachords in scales, 29 + +Thematic development, 69 + +Theme, 69 + +Theme and variations, 69 + +Thesis, 67 + +Thirty-two-foot stop, 114 + +Thorough-bass, 89 + +Three-lined octave, 16 + +Through-composed form, 80 + +Tie, 18 + +Timbre (_tambr_), 82 + +Time, wrong uses of word, 48 + +Toccata (_tok-kah'-tah_), 100 + +Tonality scale, 27, 28, 38 + +Tone, how represented, 10 + ornamental tone, 22 + key-tone, 27 + of resolution, 93 + +Tone-poem, 75 + +Tonic, 36 + +Tonic minor, 36 + +Tranquillo (_trahn-quil'-lo_), 61 + +Transposition, 94 + +Tre (_treh_), 43 + +Treble staff, 6 + +Tre corde (_kor'-deh_), 43, 59 + +Tres (_treh_), 43 + +Tres lentement (_lahng-te-mahng_), 52 + +Tres vivement (_ve'-veh-mahng_), 42 + +Triad, def., 87, 88 + +Trill, 22 + +Trio, 72 + +Triple measure, 46 + +Triplet, 19, 100 + +Tristamente (_tris-tah-men'-teh_), 61 + +Trombone, 125 + +Troppo (_trop'-po_), 43 + +Trumpet, 124 + +Tuba, 125 + +Turn, 24, 25 + +Tutte le corde (_toot'-teh leh kor'-deh_), 59 + +Tutti (_toot'-tee_), 100 + +Two-foot stop, 114 + +Two-lined octave, 16 + + +Un (_oon_), 43 + +Una (_oo'-nah_), 43 + +Una corda, 43, 59 + +Uno (_oo'-no_), 43 + +Un peu (_oon peuh_), 43 + +Un peu crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 43 + +Un poco animate (_ah-ni-mah-'to_), 54 + +Untempered scale, 40 + +Upper partials, 136 + +Upper tetrachord, 29 + + +Veloce (_veh-lo'-cheh_), 55 + +Viola (_vee-o'-lah_), 117 + +Violin, 117 + +Violoncello (_vee-o-lohn-chel'-lo_), 118 + +Vivo (_vee'-vo_), 51 + +Vivace (_vee-vah'-cheh_), 51 + +Vivacissimo (_vee-vah-chis'-see-mo_), 51 + +Vocal music, 76 + +Volante (_vo-lahn'-teh_), 55 + + +Waltz, 68 + +Whole-step, 83 + +Whole-step scale, 28, 40 + +Wood-wind instruments, 115 + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY*** + + +******* This file should be named 19499.txt or 19499.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/9/19499 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without 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